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{ "paragraph": [ "Mary\n", "Mary may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (name), a female given name\n", "Section::::People.\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (slave) (died 1838), an American teenage slave executed for murder\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (conjoined twin) (2000-2000), pseudonym of Rosie Attard, subject of a 2001 legal case\n", "Section::::People.:Religious contexts.\n", "BULLET::::- New Testament people named Mary is an overview article linking to many of those below\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, mother of Jesus, also called the Blessed Virgin Mary, among other titles, styles, and honorifics\n", "BULLET::::- Mary Magdalene, devoted follower of Jesus\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Bethany, follower of Jesus, considered by Western medieval tradition to be the same person as Mary Magdalene\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (mother of James the Less)\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Clopas, follower of Jesus\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, mother of John Mark\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Egypt, patron saint of penitents\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Rome, a New Testament woman\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, mother of Zechariah and sister of Moses and Aaron; mostly known by the Hebrew name: Miriam\n", "BULLET::::- Mary the Jewess one of the reputed founders of alchemy, referred to by Zosimus.\n", "BULLET::::- Mary 2.0, movement of roman-catholic women\n", "BULLET::::- Maryam (sura) \"Mary\", 19th sura (chapter) of the Qur'an\n", "Section::::People.:Royalty.\n", "BULLET::::- Mary I of England (1516–1558), aka \"Bloody Mary\", Queen of England and Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- Mary II of England (1662–1694), Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Modena (1658–1718), Queen Consort of King James II of England and VII of Scotland\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Teck (1867–1953), Queen Consort of George V of the United Kingdom\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587), mother of James I of England\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Guise (1515–1560), Queen Consort of James V of Scotland and mother of Mary, Queen of Scots\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark (born 1972), wife of Crown Prince Frederik\n", "BULLET::::- Mary I of Portugal, daughter of King Joseph I of Portugal\n", "BULLET::::- Mary II of Portugal, daughter of the future King Pedro IV\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, Countess of Blois (1200–1241), daughter of Walter of Avesnes and Margaret of Blois\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Guelders (c. 1434–1463), daughter of Arnold, Duke of Guelders\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Hungary, daughter of Louis I the Great of Hungary\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Burgundy (1457–1482), daughter of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy\n", "BULLET::::- Mary of Woodstock (1278–1332), daughter of Edward I of England\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "BULLET::::- Mary Province, in southeast Turkmenistan\n", "BULLET::::- Mary District, in Mary Province\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, Turkmenistan, capital city of the province, located in Mary District\n", "BULLET::::- Islas Marías (Mary Islands), Mexico\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, Saône-et-Loire, France\n", "BULLET::::- Mary River (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Mary's Point, New Brunswick, Canada\n", "Section::::Books.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Nabokov novel), by Vladimir Nabokov\n", "BULLET::::- \"\", a 1788 novel by Mary Wollstonecraft\n", "Section::::Film and television.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (1931 film), a 1931 Alfred Hitchcock film\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (1978 TV series), a variety follow-up to \" The Mary Tyler Moore Show\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (1985 TV series), a sitcom follow-up to \" The Mary Tyler Moore Show\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (1994 film), an Australian documentary\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (2005 film), a film directed by Abel Ferrara about an actress playing Mary Magdalene\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "BULLET::::- Mary Mary, contemporary gospel musical duo\n", "Section::::Music.:Albums.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Mary J. Blige album), 1999\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Mary Travers album), 1971\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Sarkodie album), 2015\n", "Section::::Music.:Songs.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", Russian-language art song by Alexander Egorovich Varlamov\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Monique Brumby song), a 1996 song from \"Thylacine\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Sarah Slean song), a track on the 2004 album \"Day One\" by Sarah Slean\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Scissor Sisters song), a 2004 song by American rock band Scissor Sisters\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\" (Supergrass song), a 1999 song by British band Supergrass\n", "BULLET::::- \"Proud Mary\", a 1969 song by John Fogerty, later covered by Ike and Tina Turner\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Kings of Leon on the album \"Come Around Sundown\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by The 4 of Us on the album \"Songs for the Tempted\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Tori Amos on the album \"Tales of a Librarian\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by John Cale from the album \"Shifty Adventures in Nookie Wood\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Oingo Boingo on \"Boingo\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Robert Fripp on \"Exposure\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Sarah McLachlan on the album \"Fumbling Towards Ecstasy\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Buffy Sainte-Marie on \"Illuminations\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Sublime on the album \"Robbin' the Hood\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by The Subways on the album \"Young for Eternity\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Pete Townshend written for the concept album \"Lifehouse\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary\", a song by Dune Rats on \"The Kids Will Know It's Bullshit]\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary Is a Grand Old Name\", a song by George M. Cohan from \"Forty-five Minutes from Broadway\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary (I'm in Love with You)\", a song written by J. Fred Coots and Ozzie Nelson\n", "Section::::Ships and boats.\n", "BULLET::::- HMS \"Queen Mary\", a Royal Navy battlecruiser\n", "BULLET::::- RMS \"Queen Mary\", an ocean liner in service from 1936 to 1967\n", "BULLET::::- RMS \"Queen Mary 2\", an ocean liner that began sailing in 2004\n", "BULLET::::- TS \"Queen Mary\", a steamboat in service from 1933 to 1977\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mary Rose\", a Tudor warship that sank in 1545\n", "BULLET::::- , the proposed naval name and designation for a motorboat the United States Navy planned to take over in 1918 but never actually acquired\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (crater), a lunar impact crater\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (elephant), an elephant from the \"Sparks World Famous Shows\" circus\n", "BULLET::::- Mary Melody, a character from \"Tiny Toon Adventures\"\n", "BULLET::::- Mary (programming language)\n", "BULLET::::- Mary's room, a philosophical thought experiment\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, a character from \"The Ridonculous Race\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The \"Mary Gloster\"\", an 1890s poem by Rudyard Kipling\n", "BULLET::::- Virgin Mary (cocktail)\n", "BULLET::::- Miss Mary (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Mary (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Bloody Mary (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Marius (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Mari (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Marie (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Maria (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Marie Louise (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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Blige album)", "\"Mary\" (Mary Travers album)", "\"Mary\" (Sarkodie album)", "Alexander Egorovich Varlamov", "\"Mary\" (Monique Brumby song)", "\"Mary\" (Sarah Slean song)", "\"Mary\" (Scissor Sisters song)", "\"Mary\" (Supergrass song)", "Proud Mary", "Come Around Sundown", "The 4 of Us", "Tales of a Librarian", "Shifty Adventures in Nookie Wood", "Boingo", "Exposure", "Fumbling Towards Ecstasy", "Illuminations", "Robbin' the Hood", "Young for Eternity", "Lifehouse", "The Kids Will Know It's Bullshit", "Mary Is a Grand Old Name", "Mary (I'm in Love with You)", "HMS \"Queen Mary\"", "RMS \"Queen Mary\"", "RMS \"Queen Mary 2\"", "TS \"Queen Mary\"", "Mary Rose", "Mary (crater)", "Mary (elephant)", "Mary Melody", "Mary (programming language)", "Mary's room", "The Ridonculous Race", "\"The \"Mary Gloster\"\"", "Virgin Mary (cocktail)", "Miss Mary (disambiguation)", "Saint Mary (disambiguation)", "Bloody Mary (disambiguation)", "Marius (disambiguation)", "Mari (disambiguation)", "Marie (disambiguation)", "Maria (disambiguation)", "Marie Louise (disambiguation)" ], "href": [ "Mary%20%28name%29", "Mary%20%28slave%29", "Mary%20%28conjoined%20twin%29", "New%20Testament%20people%20named%20Mary", "Mary%2C%20mother%20of%20Jesus", "Mary%20Magdalene", "Mary%20of%20Bethany", "Mary%20%28mother%20of%20James%20the%20Less%29", "Mary%20of%20Clopas", "Mary%2C%20mother%20of%20John%20Mark", "Mary%20of%20Egypt", "Mary%20of%20Rome", "Miriam", "Mary%20the%20Jewess", "Mary%202.0", "Maryam%20%28sura%29", "Mary%20I%20of%20England", "Mary%20II%20of%20England", "Mary%20of%20Modena", "Mary%20of%20Teck", "Mary%2C%20Queen%20of%20Scots", "Mary%20of%20Guise", "Mary%2C%20Crown%20Princess%20of%20Denmark", "Mary%20I%20of%20Portugal", "Mary%20II%20of%20Portugal", "Mary%2C%20Countess%20of%20Blois", "Mary%20of%20Guelders", "Mary%20of%20Hungary", "Mary%20of%20Burgundy", "Mary%20of%20Woodstock", "Mary%20Province", "Mary%20District", "Mary%2C%20Turkmenistan", "Islas%20Mar%C3%ADas", "Mary%2C%20Sa%C3%B4ne-et-Loire", "Mary%20River%20%28disambiguation%29", "Mary%27s%20Point%2C%20New%20Brunswick", "Mary%20%28Nabokov%20novel%29", "Mary%20%281931%20film%29", "Mary%20%281978%20TV%20series%29", "Mary%20%281985%20TV%20series%29", "Mary%20%281994%20film%29", "Mary%20%282005%20film%29", "Mary%20Mary", "Mary%20%28Mary%20J.%20Blige%20album%29", "Mary%20%28Mary%20Travers%20album%29", "Mary%20%28Sarkodie%20album%29", "Alexander%20Egorovich%20Varlamov", "Mary%20%28Monique%20Brumby%20song%29", "Mary%20%28Sarah%20Slean%20song%29", "Mary%20%28Scissor%20Sisters%20song%29", "Mary%20%28Supergrass%20song%29", "Proud%20Mary", "Come%20Around%20Sundown", "The%204%20of%20Us", "Tales%20of%20a%20Librarian", "Shifty%20Adventures%20in%20Nookie%20Wood", "Boingo%20%28album%29", "Exposure%20%28Robert%20Fripp%20album%29", "Fumbling%20Towards%20Ecstasy", "Illuminations%20%28Buffy%20Sainte-Marie%20album%29", "Robbin%27%20the%20Hood", "Young%20for%20Eternity", "Lifehouse%20%28rock%20opera%29", "The%20Kids%20Will%20Know%20It%27s%20Bullshit", "Mary%20Is%20a%20Grand%20Old%20Name", "Mary%20%28I%27m%20in%20Love%20with%20You%29", "HMS%20Queen%20Mary", "RMS%20Queen%20Mary", "RMS%20Queen%20Mary%202", "TS%20Queen%20Mary", "Mary%20Rose", "Mary%20%28crater%29", "Mary%20%28elephant%29", "Mary%20Melody", "Mary%20%28programming%20language%29", "Mary%27s%20room", "The%20Ridonculous%20Race", "The%20Mary%20Gloster", "Virgin%20Mary%20%28cocktail%29", "Miss%20Mary%20%28disambiguation%29", "Saint%20Mary%20%28disambiguation%29", "Bloody%20Mary%20%28disambiguation%29", "Marius%20%28disambiguation%29", "Mari%20%28disambiguation%29", "Marie%20%28disambiguation%29", "Maria%20%28disambiguation%29", "Marie%20Louise%20%28disambiguation%29" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "Wikimedia disambiguation page", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q227817", "wikidata_label": "Mary", "wikipedia_title": "Mary", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20101, "parentid": 905698985, "revid": 906022677, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-13T02:47:07Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary&oldid=906022677" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Vauchamps\n", "The Battle of Vauchamps (14 February 1814) was the final major engagement of the Six Days Campaign of the War of the Sixth Coalition. It resulted in a part of the Grande Armée under Napoleon I defeating a superior Prussian and Russian force of the Army of Silesia under Field-marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.\n", "At the beginning of 1814, the armies of the French Empire, under the direct command of Emperor Napoleon I, were scrambling to defend Eastern France against the invading Coalition Armies. Despite fighting against vastly superior forces, Napoleon managed to score a few significant victories and, between 10 and 13 February repeatedly beat Blücher's Army of Silesia. On 13 February, reeling from his successive defeats, Blücher looked to disengage from Napoleon and instead manoeuvre with a part of his forces to fall upon the isolated VI Corps of Marshal Auguste de Marmont, who was defending Napoleon's rear. The Prussian commander attacked and pushed back Marmont late on 13 February. Nevertheless, the Emperor had read into his enemy's intentions and directed powerful forces to support Marmont.\n", "On the morning of 14 February, Blücher, commanding a Prussian Corps and elements of two Russian Corps, resumed his attack against Marmont. The latter continued to fall back until he was reinforced. Napoleon arrived on the battlefield with strong combined-arms forces, which allowed the French to launch a determined counterattack and drive back the leading elements of the Army of Silesia. Blücher realized that he was facing the Emperor in person and decided to pull back and avoid another battle against Napoleon. In practice, Blücher's attempt to disengage proved extremely difficult to execute, as the Coalition force was by now in an advanced position, had virtually no cavalry present to cover its retreat and was facing an enemy who was ready to commit its numerous cavalry.\n", "While the actual pitched battle was short, the French infantry, under Marshal Marmont, and most of all the cavalry, under General Emmanuel de Grouchy, launched a relentless pursuit that rode down the enemy. Retreating in slow-moving square formations in broad daylight and along some excellent cavalry terrain, the Coalition forces suffered very heavy losses, with several squares broken by the French cavalry. At nightfall, combat ceased and Blücher opted for an exhausting night march in order to take his remaining forces to safety.\n", "Section::::Context.\n", "On 13 February, having fought three successful actions in three days against the Prussian and Russian army at Champaubert, Montmirail and Château-Thierry, Napoleon was pursuing the defeated enemy. After his consecutive defeats, Field-marshal Blücher decided to disengage from Napoleon and move a significant force against the isolated French Army Corps of Marshal Marmont, at Étoges. Blücher knew that Marmont's Corps was weak and his plan was to destroy it and thus fall upon the rear of Napoleon's main force.\n", "Still in pursuit of the debris of the enemy force, late on 13 February, Napoleon received reports that Marmont's Corps had been attacked and pushed out of his position at Étoges. The Emperor deduced that the enemy force before him would have to be a much reduced one and promptly decided to go to Marmont's aid. The Emperor left Château-Thierry on 14 February, towards 3 o'clock in the morning, leaving a small portion of his forces with Marshal Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise, with orders to continue the pursuit of the enemy. Taking with him the cavalry of the Guard and Grouchy's Cavalry Reserve, Napoleon headed for the village of Vauchamps.\n", "Meanwhile, late on 13 February, having successfully regrouped what forces he could muster at Bergères-lès-Vertus, Blücher had launched an attack against Marmont's single division, pushing him out of Étoges and advancing as planned towards Champaubert and Fromentières, in the rear of Napoleon's force. However, having read Blücher's intentions, Napoleon had given orders for a concentration of French forces in that very sector.\n", "Section::::Opposing forces.\n", "Section::::Opposing forces.:Army of Silesia.\n", "During the battle of Vauchamps on 14 February, Prussian Field-Marshal Blücher, commander of combined Prussian-Russian Army of Silesia could count on 20,000 to 21,500 men, from three Army Corps:\n", "BULLET::::- IInd (Prussian) Corps, commanded by General Friedrich Graf Kleist von Nollendorf:\n", "BULLET::::- 10th brigade under George Dubislaw Ludwig von Pirch\n", "BULLET::::- 11th brigade under Hans Ernst Karl, Graf von Zieten\n", "BULLET::::- 12th brigade under Prince Augustus of Prussia\n", "BULLET::::- Cavalry brigade under von Hacke\n", "BULLET::::- Cavalry brigade under von Röder\n", "BULLET::::- Reserve artillery under Braun.\n", "BULLET::::- IXth (Russian) Corps:\n", "BULLET::::- 9th division under Udom II.\n", "BULLET::::- Xth (Russian) Corps under General Peter Mikhailovich Kaptzevich:\n", "BULLET::::- 8th division under Prince Urusov (or Orosov),\n", "BULLET::::- 22nd division under Turchaninov.\n", "Kleist's II Corps numbered 13,500 men while Kaptzevich's X Corps counted 6,500 soldiers. There were also the 1,500 troops from IX Corps who survived the Battle of Champaubert. These were grouped into three or four temporary battalions and an artillery battery. The rump of IX Corps lost 600 men and all of its guns on the evening of 14 February. The II Corps had eight 6-pound batteries and two 12-pound batteries. Each battery had eight guns or a total of 80 cannons. There was also a howitzer battery of unknown strength. The X Corps had three batteries attached.\n", "Section::::Opposing forces.:Grande Armée.\n", "Napoleon had sent orders for a major concentration of forces, which resulted in a force of some 25,000 men being assembled in this sector. However, of these men, only 19,000 soldiers got to the battlefield in time, with no more than 10,000 men engaged in the actual fighting:\n", "BULLET::::- VI Corps, commanded by Marshal of the Empire Auguste de Marmont:\n", "BULLET::::- 3rd Division under Joseph Lagrange\n", "BULLET::::- 8th Division under Étienne Pierre Sylvestre Ricard\n", "BULLET::::- Reinforcements temporarily attached: 7th division under Jean François Leval\n", "BULLET::::- Cavalry, commanded by General Emmanuel de Grouchy:\n", "BULLET::::- Division Antoine Louis Decrest de Saint-Germain\n", "BULLET::::- Division Jean-Pierre Doumerc\n", "BULLET::::- Division Étienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle\n", "BULLET::::- Guard cavalry, commanded by General Étienne de Nansouty:\n", "BULLET::::- 2nd Division under Charles, comte Lefebvre-Desnouettes,\n", "BULLET::::- 3rd Division under Louis Marie Levesque de Laferrière.\n", "BULLET::::- Guard artillery under Antoine Drouot.\n", "BULLET::::- Guard infantry, under Marshal, Prince of the Moskowa Michel Ney (Reinforcements not engaged):\n", "BULLET::::- 1st (Old Guard) division under Louis Friant,\n", "BULLET::::- 2nd (Young Guard) division under Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial.\n", "Grouchy's I Cavalry Corps and II Cavalry Corps, each of two divisions, numbered a combined 3,600 horsemen. The two Guard cavalry divisions together counted 3,300 troopers. The 1st Old Guard Division had 4,000 men and the 2nd Old Guard Division had 3,000. The 1st Young Guard Division was made up of 4,000 soldiers while the 2nd Young Guard Division had 2,500 troops. Marmont's two divisions could muster only 3,000 men. Jean François Leval's 7th Division comprised 4,500 soldiers. Of these forces, only the cavalry, Marmont's infantry and one battalion of the Old Guard were actually engaged in the fighting. The others were marching along behind.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Having begun to push back the feeble French forces from Marmont's VI's Corps the day before, Blücher occupied Champaubert early on 14 February, sending his vanguard forward, as far as the village of Fromentières and then Vauchamps. Marmont, commanding only the Lagrange division and 800 men from the Ricard division, had cautiously pulled his men back towards Montmirail, where he began to receive reinforcements. Towards 9 o'clock in the morning, Blücher set Zieten's brigade and some cavalry in motion from Vauchamps towards Montmirail. To their surprise, Marmont's men didn't give ground this time and vigorously counterattacked, pushing Zieten's advance guard back into the village of Vauchamps. The accompanying Prussian cavalry was dispersed by a violent French cannonade. With now both brigades of Ricard's division available, Marmont launched these men against the Prussian position at Vauchamps, with the 1st brigade on his right, advancing under the cover of the Beaumont forest, south of the Montmirail-Vauchamps road and the 2nd brigade on his left, north of the road, advancing frontally towards the position. Marmont also had with him his own escort cavalry squadron and four \"élite\" Imperial Guard duty squadrons from the Emperor's own escort, under general Lion. Marmont's leftmost brigade entered Vauchamps, but, with the village heavily invested with Zieten's Prussian defenders, the Frenchmen were soon repulsed, with the Prussians in pursuit. Marshal Marmont then launched his five squadrons to the rescue and the cavalry promptly forced the Prussians back to the village, with one of their battalions taken prisoner, after taking refuge in an isolated farm.\n", "Zieten then decided to pull back his forces towards the village of Fromentières. There, Zieten was joined by Generals Kleist and Kapsevitch, who, having heard the sound of the guns, had begun to move their respective Army Corps in that direction, coming from Champaubert. The French also moved forward, with Marmont's two divisions (Lagrange and Ricard) in pursuit of Zieten, along the road to Fromentières. Marmont was now supported on his left by General Grouchy, who had just arrived on the field of battle with the divisions of Saint-Germain and Doumerc, moving past the village of Janvilliers, in order to cut off Zieten's retreat. Further French reinforcements were now available, this time on Marmont's right: the division of Leval, who had been steadily moving up the valley of the Petit Morin river, in a bid to outflank the Prussians. With the French Imperial Guard artillery now also deployed and firing at them, Zieten's Prussians drew back in good order, and formed in squares to fend off Grouchy's cavalry. Towards 2 o'clock in the afternoon, after assessing the situation, Blücher realised that he was facing Napoleon himself and thus decided to immediately withdraw. He ordered all of his forces to retreat through Champaubert and directed a part of his artillery to safety, towards Étoges.\n", "Section::::Pursuit.\n", "With the Coalition forces now in full retreat, Marmont received orders to aggressively pursue the enemy, knowing that he could count on his two infantry divisions, plus that of Leval, as well as on the support of General Drouot's Guard artillery, on Nansouty's Guard cavalry on his right and on Grouchy's two cavalry divisions on his left. Following Marmont at a short distance were further reinforcements, two Guard infantry divisions (Friant and Curial) under the command of Marshal Ney and with them was Napoleon himself. Napoleon was followed by an additional \"Young Guard\" division, under General Meunier, which the Emperor had taken with him when he left Château-Thierry early that morning.\n", "The French cavalry had been hindered in its movements by the broken terrain and thus far unable to really bother Zieten's infantry squares. Consequently, Blücher was able to lead an exemplary retreat up to Fromentières and Janvilliers. However, once past these villages, the terrain became flat and even, proper for cavalry action, and now, with the increasingly aggressive action of the enemy cavalry against his flank and rear, Zieten and his brigade became increasingly isolated. Grouchy, with the divisions of Doumerc and Saint-Germain was now boldly menacing Zieten's right, while on his left, the Prussian general saw Nansouty's Guard cavalry (Laferrière-Levesque's division, plus the four service squadrons, under Lefebvre-Desnouettes). Zieten's brigade was finally cut off from the rest of the army and charged violently by Grouchy's cuirassiers, who broke the infantry squares and took no less than 2,000 prisoners, with the rest of the brigade routed.\n", "Abandoning his position at Fromentières, where Marmont's infantry had just begun to irrupt, Blücher ordered the continuation of the retreat towards Champaubert and Étoges, with Kleist's Corps on the left, south of the road and Kaptzevitch's Corps on the right, north of the road. Again taking advantage from the flat terrain, Grouchy was able to advance rapidly and fall onto the rear of the Coalition infantry squares, which were now slowly withdrawing in echelon and efficiently using the terrain to take shelter from the artillery bombardment. With night approaching and their retreat towards Étoges now barred by enemy cavalry, the Prussian squares began to lose cohesion. Spotting this weakness, Grouchy, who had been reinforced by Bordesoulle's division, energetically launched his three divisions against the Coalition squares, dispersing a number of them, with these men fleeing in disorder to take refuge in the Étoges forest. The old Blücher, who had been bravely exposing himself to great danger in order to boost the morale his men, was almost taken prisoner, together with his Chief of Staff, Gneisenau, Generals Kleist, Kapsevitch and Prince Augustus of Prussia.\n", "Only just escaping capture, Blücher crossed the forest of Vertus and took up positions at Étoges with Prince Urusov's division, which had been left there in reserve. Russian General Udom, with 1,800 men and 15 cannon, was instructed to cover the position, by occupying the park at Étoges. Udom's men were exhausted after the long retreat and fighting and, seeing that night had fallen, thought themselves in safety. However, Doumerc's cuirassiers, formed unseen in the night, surprised these men and a single charge was enough to send the panicked men fleeing. Prince Urusov, 600 men and eight artillery pieces were captured during this action, with the French sailors' regiment from Lagrange's division subsequently entering the village of Étoges. Blücher abandoned this position too and made a hasty retreat towards Vertus and Bergères. He then opted for a speedy night march and the next day he managed to bring his remaining men to Châlons, where he was joined by Yorck's and Sacken's corps.\n", "Section::::Result.\n", "The battle was actually no more than a very long cavalry pursuit and was a very costly defeat for Blücher's \"Army of Silesia\", which lost as much as 10,000 men, during this day. French author Jean-Pierre Mir states that the Prussian Corps of Kleist had 3,500 men out of action (killed, wounded and missing), as well as 2,000 prisoners. According to this author, the Russian Corps had around 3,500 men, killed, wounded or missing and also lost 15 cannons and 10 flags. Historian Alain Pigeard places overall losses of the Army of Silesia throughout this day between 9,000 and 10,000 men but the detail of these losses seems to suggest lighter casualties. Pigeard speaks of only 1,250 men killed, wounded or missing and 2,000 prisoners for the Prussians, and of 2,000 men lost for the Russians. Since Pigeard asserts that these casualties occurred during the pursuit, it is possible that these figures do not take into account the casualties incurred during the initial actions of this battle (one battalion of Zieten's brigade captured, plus the 2,000 prisoners taken during Grouchy's and Nansouty's joint action against Zieten). According to Pigeard, the French registered very light casualties of around 600 men.\n", "Military Historian Jacques Garnier, analysing the battle in Jean Tulard's \"Dictionnaire Napoléon\", notes that only the muddy, sodden ground, hampering an efficient deployment of the French artillery and infantry, prevented a much more emphatic victory. He also notes that after Vauchamps, Napoleon was able to safely turn south and fall upon the \"Army of Bohemia\", commanded by Prince of Schwarzenberg.\n" ] }

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92, 63, 63, 57, 75, 56, 75, 46, 62, 87, 61, 59, 40, 63, 25, 67, 66, 65, 27, 48, 26, 75, 55, 75, 25, 46, 439, 121, 211, 230, 269, 306, 370, 777, 1212, 1277, 79, 124, 464, 545, 557, 597, 738, 801, 1305, 227, 258, 302, 488, 515, 676, 669, 741, 852, 464, 748, 1115, 1175, 824, 943, 975, 988, 124, 71, 362, 401 ], "text": [ "Six Days Campaign", "War of the Sixth Coalition", "Grande Armée", "Napoleon I", "Prussia", "Russia", "Silesia", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "VI Corps", "Marshal", "Auguste de Marmont", "pitched battle", "Emmanuel de Grouchy", "Champaubert", "Montmirail", "Château-Thierry", "Marshal", "Marmont", "Étoges", "Château-Thierry", "Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise", "cavalry of the Guard", "Grouchy", "Vauchamps", "Bergères-lès-Vertus", "Champaubert", "Fromentières", "Prussia", "Blücher", "Silesia", "Friedrich Graf Kleist von Nollendorf", "George Dubislaw Ludwig von Pirch", "Hans Ernst Karl, Graf von Zieten", "Prince Augustus of Prussia", "Peter Mikhailovich Kaptzevich", "Marshal of the Empire", "Auguste de Marmont", "Joseph Lagrange", "Étienne Pierre Sylvestre Ricard", "Jean François Leval", "Emmanuel de Grouchy", "Antoine Louis Decrest de Saint-Germain", "Jean-Pierre Doumerc", "Étienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle", "Guard cavalry", "Étienne de Nansouty", "Charles, comte Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "Louis Marie Levesque de Laferrière", "Guard artillery", "Antoine Drouot", "Guard infantry", "Michel Ney", "Louis Friant", "Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial", "I Cavalry Corps", "II Cavalry Corps", "Jean François Leval", "Champaubert", "Fromentières", "Vauchamps", "Lagrange", "Ricard", "Montmirail", "cannonade", "Imperial Guard", "Lion", "Fromentières", "Kleist", "Grouchy", "Saint-Germain", "Doumerc", "Janvilliers", "Leval", "Petit Morin", "Étoges", "Drouot", "Nansouty", "Grouchy", "Ney", "Napoleon", "Château-Thierry", "Laferrière-Levesque", "Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "cuirassier", "echelon", "Bordesoulle", "Gneisenau", "Prince Augustus of Prussia", "Vertus", "Châlons", "Yorck's", "Sacken's", "Silesia", "Jean Tulard", "Bohemia", "Prince of Schwarzenberg" ], "href": [ "Six%20Days%20Campaign", "War%20of%20the%20Sixth%20Coalition", "Grande%20Arm%C3%A9e", "Napoleon%20I", "Kingdom%20of%20Prussia", "Russian%20Empire", "Silesia", "Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher", "VI%20Corps%20%28Grande%20Arm%C3%A9e%29", "Marshal%20of%20the%20Empire", "Auguste%20de%20Marmont", "pitched%20battle", "Emmanuel%20de%20Grouchy", "Battle%20of%20Champaubert", "Battle%20of%20Montmirail", "Battle%20of%20Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry%20%281814%29", "Marshal%20of%20the%20Empire", "Auguste%20de%20Marmont", "%C3%89toges", "Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry", "%C3%89douard%20Mortier%2C%20duc%20de%20Tr%C3%A9vise", "Imperial%20Guard%20%28Napoleon%20I%29%23Cavalry%20regiments", "Emmanuel%20de%20Grouchy", "Vauchamps%2C%20Marne", "Berg%C3%A8res-l%C3%A8s-Vertus", "Champaubert", "Fromenti%C3%A8res%2C%20Marne", "Prussia", "Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher", "Silesia", "Friedrich%20Graf%20Kleist%20von%20Nollendorf", "George%20Dubislaw%20Ludwig%20von%20Pirch", "Hans%20Ernst%20Karl%2C%20Graf%20von%20Zieten", "Prince%20Augustus%20of%20Prussia", "Peter%20Mikhailovich%20Kaptzevich", "Marshal%20of%20the%20Empire", "Auguste%20de%20Marmont", "Joseph%20Lagrange%20%28soldier%29", "%C3%89tienne%20Pierre%20Sylvestre%20Ricard", "Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Leval", "Emmanuel%20de%20Grouchy", "Antoine%20Louis%20Decrest%20de%20Saint-Germain", "Jean-Pierre%20Doumerc", "%C3%89tienne%20Tardif%20de%20Pommeroux%20de%20Bordesoulle", "Imperial%20Guard%20%28Napoleon%20I%29%23Cavalry%20regiments", "Etienne%20de%20Nansouty", "Charles%2C%20comte%20Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "Louis%20Marie%20Levesque%20de%20Laferri%C3%A8re", "Imperial%20Guard%20%28Napoleon%20I%29%23Artillery%20of%20the%20Guard", "Antoine%20Drouot", "Imperial%20Guard%20%28Napoleon%20I%29%23Foot%20regiments", "Michel%20Ney", "Louis%20Friant", "Philibert%20Jean-Baptiste%20Curial", "I%20Cavalry%20Corps%20%28Grande%20Arm%C3%A9e%29", "II%20Cavalry%20Corps%20%28Grande%20Arm%C3%A9e%29", "Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Leval", "Champaubert", "Fromenti%C3%A8res%2C%20Marne", "Vauchamps%2C%20Marne", "Joseph%20Lagrange%20%28soldier%29", "Joseph-Barth%C3%A9lemy%20de%20Ricard", "Montmirail%2C%20Marne", "cannonade", "Imperial%20Guard%23Cavalry%20regiments", "Jean%20Dieudonn%C3%A9%20Lion", "Fromenti%C3%A8res%2C%20Marne", "Friedrich%20Graf%20Kleist%20von%20Nollendorf", "Emmanuel%20de%20Grouchy", "Antoine%20Louis%20Decrest%20de%20Saint-Germain", "Jean-Pierre%20Doumerc", "Janvilliers", "Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Leval", "Petit%20Morin", "%C3%89toges", "Antoine%20Drouot", "Etienne%20de%20Nansouty", "Emmanuel%20de%20Grouchy", "Michel%20Ney", "Napoleon", "Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry", "Louis%20Marie%20Levesque%20de%20Laferri%C3%A8re", "Charles%2C%20comte%20Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "cuirassier", "Echelon%20formation", "%C3%89tienne%20Tardif%20de%20Pommeroux%20de%20Bordesoulle", "August%20Neidhardt%20von%20Gneisenau", "Prince%20Augustus%20of%20Prussia", "Vertus", "Ch%C3%A2lons-en-Champagne", "Ludwig%20Yorck%20von%20Wartenburg", "Fabian%20Gottlieb%20von%20Osten-Sacken", "Silesia", "Jean%20Tulard", "Bohemia", "Karl%20Philipp%2C%20Prince%20of%20Schwarzenberg" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", 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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1192053", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Vauchamps", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Vauchamps", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157760, "parentid": 883869515, "revid": 900294230, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-04T17:56:10Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vauchamps&oldid=900294230" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Hybrid vehicle\n", "A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion engine to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor, e.g. in diesel-electric trains using diesel engines to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor, and submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.\n", "The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different motors work better at different speeds; the electric motor is more efficient at producing torque, or turning power, and the combustion engine is better for maintaining high speed (better than typical electric motor). Switching from one to the other at the proper time while speeding up yields a win-win in terms of energy efficiency, as such that translates into greater fuel efficiency, for example.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles.\n", "Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid, powered by an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principle.\n", "BULLET::::- In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor torques are mechanically coupled at the pedal or one of the wheels, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a transmission element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type.\n", "BULLET::::- In a series hybrid bicycle (SHB) (a kind of chainless bicycle) the user pedals a generator, charging a battery or feeding the motor, which delivers all of the torque required. They are commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing.\n", "The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a \"Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb\" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188). Until 2005 they built several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles. In 1999 Harald Kutzke described an \"active bicycle\": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.\n", "BULLET::::- A series hybrid electric-petroleum bicycle (SHEPB) is powered by pedals, batteries, a petrol generator, or plug-in charger - providing flexibility and range enhancements over electric-only bicycles.\n", "A SHEPB prototype made by David Kitson in Australia in 2014 used a lightweight brushless DC electric motor from an aerial drone and small hand-tool sized internal combustion engine, and a 3D printed drive system and lightweight housing, altogether weighing less than 4.5 kg. Active cooling keeps plastic parts from softening. The prototype uses a regular electric bicycle charge port.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.\n", "Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. A diesel/turbine engine drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electric/hydraulic motor(s) - strictly an electric/hydraulic transmission (not a hybrid), unless it can accept power from outside. With large vehicles conversion losses decrease, and the advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements become more prominent, especially when powering multiple drives — e.g. driven wheels or propellers. Until recently most heavy vehicles had little secondary energy storage, e.g. batteries/hydraulic accumulators — excepting non-nuclear submarines, one of the oldest production hybrids, running on diesels while surfaced and batteries when submerged. Both series and parallel setups were used in WW2 submarines.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.:Rail transport.\n", "Europebr\n", "The new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France is diesel/electric motors, using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems. It was tested in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse and Wyoming company.\n", "Chinabr\n", "The First Hybrid Evaluating locomotive was designed by rail research center MATRAI in 1999 and built in 2000. It was a G12 locomotive upgraded with batteries, a 200 kW diesel generator and 4 AC motors.\n", "Japanbr\n", "Japan's first hybrid train with significant energy storage is the KiHa E200, with roof-mounted lithium ion batteries.\n", "Indiabr\n", "Indian railway launched one of its kind CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015. The train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation technology.The first of these train is set to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak route. CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. Already many transport vehicles such as auto-rickshaws and buses run on CNG fuel.\n", "North Americabr\n", "In the US, General Electric made a locomotive with sodium - nickel chloride (Na-NiCl) battery storage. They expect ≥10% fuel economy.\n", "Variant diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies, with lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 hp electric motors, and a new clean burning ~160 hp diesel generator. No fuel is wasted for idling — ~60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if regenerative braking is used; but in principle it is easily utilized.\n", "Since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's weight is a negligible penalty. The diesel generator and batteries are normally built on an existing \"retired\" \"yard\" locomotive's frame. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Fuel savings of 40–60% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over a \"typical\" older switching/yard engine. The advantages hybrid cars have for frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use. \"Green Goat\" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Railroad among others.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.:Cranes.\n", "Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50–70% are predicted by Railpower engineers. First systems are expected to be operational in 2007.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.:Road transport, commercial vehicles.\n", "Hybrid systems are coming into use for trucks, buses and other heavy highway vehicles. Small fleet sizes and installation costs are compensated by fuel savings. With advances such as higher capacity, lowered battery cost etc. Toyota, Ford, GM and others are introducing hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be competitive. FedEx and others are investing in hybrid delivery vehicles — particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first. FedEx is trialling two delivery trucks with Wrightspeed electric motors and diesel generators; the retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves in a few years. The diesel engines run at a constant RPM for peak efficiency.\n", "In 1978 students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle to a petro-hydraulic hybrid with off-the shelf components. A car rated at 32 mpg was returning 75 mpg with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine, and reached 70 mph.\n", "In the 1990s, engineers at EPA’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory developed a petro-hydraulic powertrain for a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the cost. Under EPA testing, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 mpg (7.4 L/100 km) City, and 22 mpg (11 L/100 km) highway. UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.:Military off-road vehicles.\n", "Since 1985, the US military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees and have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature, near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.:Ships.\n", "Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface.\n", "Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.\n", "Section::::Vehicle type.:Heavy vehicle.:Aircraft.\n", "The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries.\n", "The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of , the airplane will be able to cruise at about on power from the fuel cell.\n", "Hybrid FanWings have been designed. A FanWing is created by two engines with the capability to autorotate and landing like a helicopter.\n", "Section::::Engine type.\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles.\n", "When the term \"hybrid vehicle\" is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such vehicles as the Saturn Vue, Toyota Prius, Toyota Yaris, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h and 450h, Hyundai Ioniq and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (using a variety of fuels, generally gasoline or Diesel engines) and electric motors to power the vehicle. The energy is stored in the fuel of the internal combustion engine and an electric battery set. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.\n", "William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid 1889. There is no evidence that his hybrid boat met with any success, but he built a prototype hybrid tram and sold a small hybrid locomotive.\n", "In 1899, Henri Pieper developed the world's first petro-electric hybrid automobile. In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche developed a series-hybrid using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with an internal combustion generator set providing the electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two speed records.\n", "While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75 mpg with plans still sold to this original design, and the \"Mother Earth News\" modified version on their website.\n", "The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV).\n", "Some battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can be recharged while the user drives. Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation.\n", "Developing a BEV infrastructure would provide the advantage of virtually unrestricted highway range. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, BEV technology could reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately, private use of the existing electrical system is almost universally prohibited. Besides, the technology for such electrical infrastructure is largely outdated and, outside some cities, not widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs could perhaps be funded by toll revenue or by dedicated transportation taxes.\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Hybrid fuel (dual mode).\n", "In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types (\"fuels\") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:\n", "BULLET::::- Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on-board diesel engine and overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although , no such design seems to have been announced.\n", "BULLET::::- Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically gasoline and ethanol, methanol, or biobutanol.\n", "BULLET::::- Bi-fuel vehicle: Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example, some Chevrolet Silverado 2500 HDs can effortlessly switch between petroleum and natural gas, offering a range of over 1000 km (650 miles). While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel, and flexibility where LPG or CNG infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing at a fast pace, and already has 2600 CNG stations in place. With a growing fueling station infrastructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles could be seen in the near future. Rising gas prices may also push consumers to purchase these vehicles. When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price per MMBTU of gasoline is $28.00, compared to natural gas's $4.00 per MMBTU. On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline. All of these factors are making CNG-Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attractive.\n", "BULLET::::- Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.\n", "BULLET::::- Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included (see Motorized bicycle).\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Fluid power hybrid.\n", "Hydraulic hybrid and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic (liquid) or pneumatic (compressed air) drive units. In most cases the engine is detached from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the energy accumulator. The transmission is seamless. Regenerative braking can be used to recover some of the supplied drive energy back into the accumulator.\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Fluid power hybrid.:Petro-air hybrid.\n", "A French company, MDI, has designed and has running models of a petro-air hybrid engine car. The system does not use air motors to drive the vehicle, being directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinders. A key aspect of the hybrid engine is the \"active chamber\", which is a compartment heating air via fuel doubling the energy output. Tata Motors of India assessed the design phase towards full production for the Indian market and moved into \"completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific vehicle and stationary applications\".\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Fluid power hybrid.:Petro-hydraulic hybrid.\n", "Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in trains and heavy vehicles for decades. The auto industry recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it now shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles.\n", "In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the system is more efficient than electric battery charged hybrids using the current electric battery technology, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing. The charging engine needs only to be sized for average usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in low energy demanding vehicle operation. The charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests undertaken by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned City, and highway. UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.\n", "Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been known for decades, and used in trains and very large construction vehicles, high costs of the equipment precluded the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern sense an experiment proved the viability of small petro-hydraulic hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf components. A car rated at was returning with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine. The experimental car reached .\n", "In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPA’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the base cost of the vehicle.\n", "The petro-hydraulic hybrid system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling than petro-electric hybrids and is also cheaper to build. The accumulator vessel size dictates total energy storage capacity and may require more space than an electric battery set. Any vehicle space consumed by a larger size of accumulator vessel may be offset by the need for a smaller sized charging engine, in HP and physical size.\n", "Research is underway in large corporations and small companies. Focus has now switched to smaller vehicles. The system components were expensive which precluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power driving motors were not efficient enough at part load. A British company (Artemis Intelligent Power) made a breakthrough introducing an electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Digital Displacement® motor/pump. The pump is highly efficient at all speed ranges and loads, giving feasibility to small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids. The company converted a BMW car as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i, gave double the mpg in city driving compared to the standard car. This test was using the standard 3,000 cc engine, with a smaller engine the figures would have been more impressive. The design of petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized accumulators allows downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the accumulator. A smaller more efficient constant speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a larger accumulator.\n", "Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic mechanicals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic setups. One research project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. One design has claimed to return 130 mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminates the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, drive shafts and U joints, reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no friction brakes are used in industrial vehicles. The aim is 170 mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator which will produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.\n", "In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large passenger cars. In 2012 an existing production minvan was adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain for assessment.\n", "PSA Peugeot Citroën exhibited an experimental \"Hybrid Air\" engine at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic drive which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Mileage was estimated to be about on the Euro test cycle if installed in a Citroën C3 type of body. PSA Although the car was ready for production and was proven and feasible delivering the claimed results, Peugeot Citroën were unable to attract a major manufacturer to share the high development costs and are shelving the project until a partnership can be arranged.\n", "Section::::Engine type.:Electric-human power hybrid vehicle.\n", "Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These include such vehicles as the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skateboards.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.:Parallel hybrid.\n", "In a parallel hybrid vehicle an electric motor and an internal combustion engine are coupled such that they can power the vehicle either individually or together. Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed.\n", "The first mass production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st generation Honda Insight.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.:Mild parallel hybrid.\n", "These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide auto-stop/start features and to provide extra power assist during the acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).\n", "On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight 2nd generation, Honda CR-Z, Honda Accord Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7 Series hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids, Suzuki S-Cross, Suzuki Wagon R and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.:Power-split or series-parallel hybrid.\n", "In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: a traction electric motor and an internal combustion engine. The power from these two motors can be shared to drive the wheels via a power split device, which is a simple planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 100% for the combustion engine to 100% for the traction electric motor, or anything in between, such as 40% for the electric motor and 60% for the combustion engine. The combustion engine can act as a generator charging the batteries.\n", "Modern versions such as the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive have a second electric motor/generator connected to the planetary gear. In cooperation with the traction motor/generator and the power-split device this provides a continuously variable transmission.\n", "On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine. When maximum power is required, for example to overtake, the traction electric motor is used to assist. This increases the available power for a short period, giving the effect of having a larger engine than actually installed. In most applications, the combustion engine is switched off when the car is slow or stationary thereby reducing curbside emissions.\n", "Passenger car installations include Toyota Prius, Ford Escape and Fusion, as well as Lexus RX400h, RX450h, GS450h, LS600h, and CT200h.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.:Series hybrid.\n", "A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle is driven by an electric motor, functioning as an electric vehicle while the battery pack energy supply is sufficient, with an engine tuned for running as a generator when the battery pack is insufficient. There is typically no mechanical connection between the engine and the wheels, and the primary purpose of the range extender is to charge the battery. Series-hybrids have also been referred to as extended range electric vehicle, range-extended electric vehicle, or electric vehicle-extended range (EREV/REEV/EVER).\n", "The BMW i3 with Range Extender is a production series-hybrid. It operates as an electric vehicle until the battery charge is low, and then activates an engine-powered generator to maintain power, and is also available without the range extender. The Fisker Karma was the first series-hybrid production vehicle.\n", "When describing cars, the battery of a series-hybrid is usually charged by being plugged in - but a series-hybrid may also allow for a battery to only act as a buffer (and for regeneration purposes), and for the electric motor's power to be supplied constantly by a supporting engine. Series arrangements have been common in diesel-electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand Porsche effectively invented this arrangement in speed-record-setting racing cars in the early 20th century, such as the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid. Porsche named his arrangement \"System Mixt\" and it was a wheel hub motor design, where each of the two front wheels was powered by a separate motor. This arrangement was sometimes referred to as an \"electric transmission\", as the electric generator and driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the internal combustion engine was running.\n", "In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan. GM introduced the Chevy Volt series plug-in hybrid in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of , though this car also has a mechanical connection between the engine and drivetrain. Supercapacitors combined with a lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arrangement.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.:Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV).\n", "Another subtype of hybrid vehicles is the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). The plug-in hybrid is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage capacity, usually through a lithium-ion battery, which allows the vehicle to drive on all-electric mode a distance that depends on the battery size and its mechanical layout (series or parallel). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine.\n", "This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding – or at least minimizing – the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.\n", "For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.\n", "Section::::Hybrid vehicle power train configurations.:Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians.\n", "A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined hybrid electric vehicle accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically significant difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving straight.\n", "Several automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs) travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric mode.\n", "Vehicles in the market with such safety devices include the Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga Hybrid/Infiniti M35, Hyundai ix35 FCEV, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, 2012 Honda Fit EV, the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2012 Lexus CT200h, and all Prius family cars recently introduced, including the standard 2012 model year Prius, the Toyota Prius v, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid.\n", "Section::::Environmental issues.\n", "Section::::Environmental issues.:Fuel consumption and emissions reductions.\n", "The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:\n", "BULLET::::1. Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller engine size more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses and lower weight.\n", "BULLET::::2. Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the city driving cycle.\n", "BULLET::::3. Recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator;\n", "Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid vehicles include:\n", "BULLET::::1. Using Atkinson cycle engines instead of Otto cycle engines for improved fuel economy.\n", "BULLET::::2. Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods.\n", "BULLET::::3. Improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve vehicle handling at the same time.\n", "BULLET::::4. Using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power source.\n", "BULLET::::5. Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts.\n", "These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.\n", "Section::::Environmental issues.:Hybrid vehicle emissions.\n", "Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of . The three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions.\n", "Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half.\n", "More fossil fuel is needed to build hybrid vehicles than conventional cars but reduced emissions when running the vehicle more than outweigh this.\n", "Section::::Environmental issues.:Environmental impact of hybrid car battery.\n", "Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two mentioned above.\n", "The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type currently used in hybrids—are much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one source. Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult. In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats. The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode.\n", "The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without memory effect.\n", "The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel–metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle.\n", "Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO emissions helping to prevent global warming.\n", "Section::::Environmental issues.:Charging.\n", "There are two different levels of charging. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a 120 V/15 A single-phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 V or 240 V (at up to 80 A, 19.2 kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for home or public units, although vehicles such as the Tesla have the power electronics on board and need only the outlet. The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V. Recharging with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. Three important factors—distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge \n", "In order for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must perform the action of braking in order to generate some electricity. The electricity then gets discharged most effectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline.\n", "In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can run on solely electricity for 70–130 miles (110–210 km) on a single charge. Hybrid battery capacity currently ranges from 4.4 kWh to 85 kWh on a fully electric car. On a hybrid car, the battery packs currently range from 0.6 kWh to 2.4 kWh representing a large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars.\n", "Section::::Environmental issues.:Raw materials increasing costs.\n", "There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars. For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems. Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors.\n", "Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China, and many analysts believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012. In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an unknown amount of supply.\n", "A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as well as Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development; however, the barriers to entry are high and require years to go online.\n", "Section::::How hybrid-electric vehicles work.\n", "Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantage of gasoline \"engines\" and electric \"motors\". The key areas for efficiency or performance gains are regenerative braking, dual power sources, and less idling.\n", "BULLET::::- Regenerate Braking. The drivetrain can be used to convert kinetic energy (from the moving car) into stored electrical energy (batteries). The same electric motor that powers the drivetrain is used to resist the motion of the drivetrain. This applied resistance from the electric motor causes the wheel to slow down and simultaneously recharge the batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- Dual Power. Power can come from either the engine, motor or both depending on driving circumstances. Additional power to assist the engine in accelerating or climbing might be provided by the electric motor. Or more commonly, a smaller electric motor provides all of the power for low-speed driving conditions and is augmented by the engine at higher speeds.\n", "BULLET::::- Automatic Start/Shutoff. It automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down. This automation is much simpler with an electric motor. Also see dual power above.\n", "Section::::Alternative green vehicles.\n", "Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e. biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.\n", "Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially built guideways.\n", "Section::::Peugeot/Citroën Hybrid Vehicle.\n", "Peugeot and Citroën have announced that they too are building a car that uses compressed air as an energy source. However, the car they are designing uses a hybrid system which also uses a gasoline engine (which is used for propelling the car over 70 km/h, or when the compressed air tank has been depleted.\n", "Section::::Marketing.\n", "Automakers spend around $US8 million in marketing Hybrid vehicles each year. With combined effort from many car companies, the Hybrid industry has sold millions of Hybrids. Hybrid car companies like Toyota, Honda, Ford and BMW have pulled together to create a movement of Hybrid vehicle sales pushed by Washington lobbyist to lower the worlds emissions and become less reliant on our petroleum consumption. In 2005, sales went beyond 200,000 Hybrids, but in retrospect that only reduced the global use for gasoline consumption by 200,000 gallons per day — a tiny fraction of the 360 million gallons used per day. According to Bradley Berman author of Driving Change—One Hybrid at a time, \"Cold economics shows that in real dollars, except for a brief spike in the 1970s, gas prices have remained remarkably steady and cheap. Fuel continues to represent a small part of the overall cost of owning and operating a personal vehicle\". Other marketing tactics include greenwashing which is the \"unjustified appropriation of environmental virtue.\" Temma Ehrenfeld explained in an article by Newsweek. Hybrids may be more efficient than many other gasoline motors as far as gasoline consumption is concerned but as far as being green and good for the environment is completely inaccurate. Hybrid car companies have a long time to go if they expect to really go green. According to Harvard business professor Theodore Levitt states \"managing products\" and \"meeting customers' needs\", \"you must adapt to consumer expectations and anticipation of future desires.\" This means people buy what they want, if they want a fuel efficient car they buy a Hybrid without thinking about the actual efficiency of the product. This \"Green Myopia\" as Ottman calls it, fails because marketers focus on the greenness of the product and not on the actual effectiveness. Researchers and analysts say people are drawn to the new technology, as well as the convenience of fewer fill ups. Secondly, people find it rewarding to own the better, newer, flashier, and so called greener car. In the beginning of the Hybrid movement car companies reached out to the young people, by using top celebrities, astronauts, and popular TV shows to market Hybrids. This made the new technology of Hybrids a status to obtain for many people and a must to be cool or even the practical choice for the time. With the many benefits and status of owning a Hybrid it is easy to think it's the right thing to do, but in fact may not be as green as it appears.\n", "In 2019 the term \"Self-Charging Hybrid\" became popular in advertising, though cars referred to by this name do not offer any different functionality than a standard hybrid vehicle provides. The only self-charging effect is in energy recovery via regenerative braking, which is also true of plug-in hybrids, fuel cell electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles.\n", "Section::::Adoption rate.\n", "While the adoption rate for hybrids in the US is small today (2.2% of new car sales in 2011), this compares with a 17.1% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011, and it has the potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and incremental costs decline due to learning and scale benefits. However, forecasts vary widely. For instance, Bob Lutz, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids \"will never comprise more than 10% of the US auto market.\" Other sources also expect hybrid penetration rates in the US will remain under 10% for many years.\n", "More optimistic views as of 2006 include predictions that hybrids would dominate new car sales in the US and elsewhere over the next 10 to 20 years. Another approach, taken by Saurin Shah, examines the penetration rates (or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge how quickly the vehicle stock could be hybridized and/or electrified in the United States. The analogs are (1) the electric motors in US factories in the early 20th century, (2) diesel electric locomotives on US railways in the 1920–1945 period, (3) a range of new automotive features/technologies introduced in the US over the past fifty years, and 4) e-bike purchases in China over the past few years. These analogs collectively suggest it would take at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the US passenger vehicle stock.\n", "Section::::European Union 2020 Regulation Standards.\n", "The European Parliament, Council and European Commission has reached an agreement which is aimed at reducing the average CO2 passenger car emissions to 95 g/km by 2020, according to a European Commission press release.\n", "According to the release, the key details of the agreement are as follows:\n", "Emissions target: The agreement will reduce average CO2 emissions from new cars to 95 g/km from 2020, as proposed by the Commission. This is a 40% reduction from the mandatory 2015 target of 130 g/km. The target is an average for each manufacturer's new car fleet; it allows OEMs to build some vehicles that emit less than the average and some that emit more.\n", "2025 target: The Commission is required to propose a further emissions reduction target by end-2015 to take effect in 2025. This target will be in line with the EU's long-term climate goals.\n", "Super credits for low-emission vehicles: The Regulation will give manufacturers additional incentives to produce cars with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km or less (which will be electric or plug-in hybrid cars). Each of these vehicles will be counted as two vehicles in 2020, 1.67 in 2021, 1.33 in 2022 and then as one vehicle from 2023 onwards. These super credits will help manufacturers further reduce the average emissions of their new car fleet. However, to prevent the scheme from undermining the environmental integrity of the legislation, there will be a 2.5 g/km cap per manufacturer on the contribution that super credits can make to their target in any year.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Alternative propulsion\n", "BULLET::::- Bivalent (engine)\n", "BULLET::::- Diesel-electric\n", "BULLET::::- Efficient energy use\n", "BULLET::::- Electric vehicle\n", "BULLET::::- Global Hybrid Cooperation\n", "BULLET::::- Global warming\n", "BULLET::::- Human-electric hybrid vehicle\n", "BULLET::::- Hybrid electric vehicle\n", "BULLET::::- Hybrid locomotive\n", "BULLET::::- Hybrid vehicle drivetrain\n", "BULLET::::- List of hybrid vehicles\n", "BULLET::::- Multifuel stove\n", "BULLET::::- Plug-in hybrid\n", "BULLET::::- PNGV\n", "BULLET::::- Solid oxide fuel cell\n", "BULLET::::- Triple-hybrid\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Hybrid Taxi Pilot Program\n", "BULLET::::- Scuderi Group to Present Preliminary Results on Air-Hybrid Study and Update on Scuderi Engine Prototype Testing at Washington Auto Show\n", "BULLET::::- The Future of Flight (Obese Pelicans to Shape-Shifting Switchblades)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "vehicle whose powertrain uses many power sources", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q193075", "wikidata_label": "hybrid vehicle", "wikipedia_title": "Hybrid vehicle", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Hybrid car" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Trebbia (1799)\n", "The Battle of Trebbia or the Napoleonic Battle of the Trebbia (17–20 June 1799) was fought near the Trebbia River in northern Italy between the joint Russian and Habsburg Austrian army under Alexander Suvorov and the Republican French army of Jacques MacDonald. Though the opposing armies were approximately equal in numbers, the Austro-Russians severely defeated the French, sustaining about 6,000 casualties while inflicting losses of 12,000 to 16,500 on their enemies. The War of the Second Coalition engagement occurred west of Piacenza, a city located southeast of Milan.\n", "In the spring of 1799 the Austrian and Russian armies ousted the French from much of northern Italy after the battles of Magnano and Cassano and they placed the key fortress of Mantua under siege. Assembling the French occupation forces of southern and central Italy into an army, MacDonald moved north to challenge his enemies. Rather than playing safe by moving along the west coast road, MacDonald boldly chose to move east of the Apennine Mountains, hoping to be supported by Jean Victor Marie Moreau's French army. After brushing aside a much smaller Austrian force at Modena, MacDonald's army swept west along the south bank of the Po River. Suvorov swiftly concentrated his Russians and the allied Austrians of Michael von Melas to block the French move.\n", "On 17 July, the leading French divisions bumped into a holding force led by Peter Karl Ott von Bátorkéz along the Tidone River. Ott was rapidly reinforced by the bulk of the Austro-Russian army and the French pulled back to the Trebbia. Suvorov attacked on the 18th but the outnumbered French managed to hold off the Allied drive. On 19 June MacDonald's entire army was concentrated and he ordered an attack which was poorly coordinated and repulsed at all points. Realizing that assistance from Moreau was not forthcoming, that night MacDonald ordered the beaten French army to slip away to the south and west. On the 20th the Allies overran a French demi brigade acting as rear guard. Instead of bringing a powerful reinforcement to the hard-pressed French in northwest Italy, only the crippled remains of MacDonald's army arrived.\n", "Due to participation of some 3,000 soldiers of the Polish Legions, the Battle of Trebbia is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription \"TREBBIA 17 - 19 VI 1799\".\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Background.:Coalition successes.\n", "The War of the Second Coalition in northern Italian began with the inconclusive Battle of Verona on 26 March 1799 between the Habsburg Austrian army of Paul Kray and the Republican French \"Army of Italy\" under Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer. The subsequent Battle of Magnano on 5 April was a clear-cut victory by Kray over the French, with the Austrians sustaining 6,000 casualties while inflicting losses of 8,000 men and 18 guns on their foes. The defeat was a crushing blow to French morale and prompted Schérer to plead with the French Directory to be relieved of command. Finding his strong position behind the Mincio River outflanked on the north by 12,000 Austrians, Schérer left 12,000 troops to hold the key fortress of Mantua, directed 1,600 more to defend Peschiera del Garda and retreated to the west on 12 April. Two days later, Alexander Suvorov arrived at Vicenza with a Imperial Russian army and assumed command of the combined Austro-Russian forces.\n", "On 27 April, the Coalition allies led by Suvorov were victorious over Jean Victor Marie Moreau's French army at the Battle of Cassano along the Adda River. The next day at Verderio, Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier's division was surrounded and in the fighting that followed the French lost 252 men killed before the 2,700 survivors gave up. The defeats caused Moreau to fall back, leaving 2,400 men to hold the Milan citadel. On 6 May the garrison of Peschiera capitulated to Kray while on 11 May Pizzighettone and 1,500 French soldiers surrendered to Konrad Valentin von Kaim. On 12 May, Suvorov's subordinate Andrei Grigorevich Rosenberg suffered a minor setback in the Battle of Bassignana. Ferrara, Ravenna and Milan all capitulated to Austrian besieging forces on 24 May.\n", "Meanwhile, 30,000 Allies under Suvorov moved up the north bank of the Po River toward Turin. On the morning of 26 May, Josef Philipp Vukassovich's advance guard seized Turin with its arsenal and over 300 cannons plus large stocks of ammunition. Pascal Antoine Fiorella and his 3,400-man French garrison withdrew to the citadel where they were besieged. Early June found the Allied main body of 47,087 troops under Suvorov, Rosenberg and Michael von Melas camped near Turin. Karl Joseph Hadik von Futak with 9,900 Austrians watched the Swiss mountain passes. Kray's 19,760-man corps was engaged in the Siege of Mantua, covered by 6,122 Austrians under Johann von Klenau at Ferrera. Finally, Suvorov summoned the 19,458-strong corps of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde from Switzerland to Milan where they arrived on 5 June. To face this array, Moreau counted about 25,000 soldiers in the divisions of Paul Grenier, Claude Victor-Perrin, Pierre Garnier de Laboissière at Genoa, Paul Louis Gaultier de Kervéguen at Florence and Joseph Hélie Désiré Perruquet de Montrichard at Bologna. But the Allies were aware that Jacques MacDonald had a strong French occupation force in southern and central Italy.\n", "Section::::Background.:MacDonald's offensive.\n", "On 14 April 1799, the French Directory ordered MacDonald to help the French forces in northern Italy. Accordingly, he assembled the \"Army of Naples\" and moved north, leaving southern Italy in the hands of local forces. MacDonald reached Rome on 16 May and Florence ten days later. From there, the safest course was to use the west coast road to reach Genoa, keeping the Apennine Mountains between him and the Allies. However, MacDonald believed that the coast road was unusable for his artillery beyond Lerici and feared that Austrian columns might interfere with the operation. But perhaps the real reason was that MacDonald wished to make a theatrical entrance to the campaign by smashing his way through the Coalition allies. In order to accomplish this, he asked Moreau to march north and east to meet him near Piacenza, an impractical move that would place the \"Army of Italy\" in the midst of its enemies. After his passage across the Apennines, MacDonald hoped to crush some of the Austrian covering forces. As it moved north, the \"Army of Naples\" absorbed the divisions of Victor, Montrichard and Gaultier, bringing its total field force to 36,728 soldiers.\n", "On 9 June Suvorov received news from Peter Karl Ott von Bátorkéz that Victor and Montrichard reinforced MacDonald and that the French captured Pontremoli. Ott commanded 5,000 soldiers that belonged to Bellegarde's corps, but were acting independently near Parma. Immediately, Suvorov ordered Ott to conduct a staged withdrawal to Stradella, but to hold that position at all hazards. The Russian commander quickly made up his mind to move east to confront MacDonald. With the exception of Kaim's division, the Austro-Russian army marched to Asti, reaching there on 11 June. The Allied troops reached the Bormida River near the French-held fortress of Alessandria on 13 June. That day, Suvorov got definite news of MacDonald's offensive. Meanwhile, a French squadron put in at Genoa on 2 June to drop off French reinforcements. Intelligence indicated that Moreau was about to descend from the mountains. Suvorov ordered Bellegarde's corps to march on Alessandria to keep an eye on Moreau while the rest of his army concentrated against MacDonald.\n", "The \"Army of Naples\" negotiated the Apennine Mountains in four major columns. The divisions of Montrichard and Jean-Baptiste Dominique Rusca formed the eastern-most column, moving from Florence to Bologna. Next to the west were the divisions of Jean-Baptiste Olivier and François Watrin, accompanied by MacDonald and advancing from Pistoia on Modena. Farther west was Jean Henri Dombrowski's division descending the Secchia River valley. The western-most column was made up of Victor's division marching from Borgo Val di Taro down the Taro River toward Parma. Because MacDonald's offensive across the Apennines was so unlikely, it took the Austrian covering forces by surprise. These were Klenau's command southwest of Ferrara, now reduced to 3,500 men, Prince Friedrich Franz Xaver of Hohenzollern-Hechingen at Modena with 4,800 troops and Ott west of Fornovo di Taro. MacDonald planned to destroy Hohenzollern's division by pinning it with his own column while enveloping it with Dombrowski's division from the west and Rusca's division from the east. Klenau deduced the French strategy and shifted northeast behind the Panaro River to block Rusca. MacDonald lost touch with Dombrowski's command. Nevertheless, MacDonald fell on the Austrians at Modena with two divisions. On 12 June in the Battle of Modena, the French inflicted losses of 750 killed and wounded on their enemies while capturing 1,650 men, eight guns and three colors. French casualties were 400 killed and wounded and 200 captured. During the pursuit, MacDonald was set upon by a troop of French Royalist cavalry and suffered saber cuts on the head and arm before his own soldiers could finish off their enemies.\n", "Since the fortress of Alessandria commanded the only crossing of the Bormida, the Austro-Russian main body waited on a pontoon train which finally arrived on 15 June. At 5:00 pm the span was in place and Suvorov's army crossed and marched all night to reach Castelnuovo Scrivia on the morning of the 16th. After only three hours of rest, the soldiers continued the forced march during the day to their bivouac between Casteggio and Casatisma. In a period of 24 hours the Allied army covered . To provide security for his right flank, Suvorov detached Mikhail Mikhailovich Veletsky with one battalion of the \"Jung-Baden\" Musketeer Regiment, 50 Cossacks and 80 dragoons from the \"Karaczay\" Regiment. Allowing for the possibility of defeat, the Russian army commander ordered the Po to be bridged at Mezzana Corti for the main army and Valenza for Bellegarde's corps. By this time, Bellegarde and 14,500 troops arrived to maintain the siege of Alessandria and contain Moreau. To keep MacDonald from raising the siege of Mantua, Kray manned the north bank of the Po with several thousand troops.\n", "On 16 June at 10:00 am, MacDonald's vanguard arrived near Piacenza and began pressing Ott's command. Suvorov reiterated his orders for Ott to make a fighting retreat to the Stradella defile. By this time Austrian military engineer Albert Johann de Best got the Piacenza citadel into a defensible state after eight days of work; two or three companies of the \"Fröhlich\" Regiment were assigned to garrison it. Victor's division led the French attack on Ott as Rusca's soldiers edged toward the south as if to flank the Austrians out of position. That night, Suvorov's chief of staff Johann Gabriel Chasteler de Courcelles rushed toward Ott's position with 100 dragoons of the \"Karaczay\" Regiment plus a half-battery of horse artillery. Following behind was an improvised force including the \"Wouwermanns\" Grenadier Battalion, three battalions of the \"Fröhlich\" Regiment, the remainder of the \"Karaczay\" Regiment and one and one-half batteries of horse artillery. If Ott could hold out along the Tidone River, it would allow ample space for the Austro-Russian army to deploy between the Po and the mountain spurs to the south. If Ott were forced back into the narrow Stradella position, it would be difficult for the Allies to form a line of battle and might even cause a rout.\n", "Section::::Forces.\n", "Section::::Forces.:Allied Army.\n", "The Austro-Russian army commanded by Field Marshal Suvorov was organized into three columns on 18 June. General Rosenberg led the mostly Russian First and Second Columns while General der Kavallerie Melas directed the mostly Austrian Third Column. The Austrian forces numbered 9,851 foot and 4,586 horse while the Russians counted 16,219 infantry and 2,000 Cossacks. These numbers amounted to 32,656 and did not include artillerymen. The figures in brackets represent Austrian casualties. The First Column on the right was headed by an Advance Guard under Major General Pyotr Bagration which included the \"Dendrygin\", \"Kalemin\", \"Lomonosov\" and \"Sanaev\" Combined Grenadier Battalions, two battalions of the \"Bagration\" Jäger Regiment, \"Grekov\" and \"Posdeev\" Cossack Regiments and six squadrons of the Austrian \"Karaczay\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 4 [62]. Lieutenant General Yakov Ivanovich Povalo-Schveikovsky led an infantry division consisting of two battalions of the \"Rosenberg\" Grenadier Regiment, one battalion each of the \"Dalheim\" and \"Schveikovsky\" Musketeer Regiments and six squadrons of the Austrian \"Lobkowitz\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 10 [107].\n", "Rosenberg personally accompanied the Second Column in the center. The division commander was Lieutenant General Förster and his infantry was made up of two battalions each of the \"Miloradovich\" and \"Tyrtov\" Musketeer Regiments and one battalion each of the \"Baranovsky\", \"Förster\" and \"Jung-Baden\" Musketeer Regiments. The cavalry contingent was formed from the \"Molchanov\" Cossack Regiment and six squadrons of the Austrian \"Levenehr\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 14 [76].\n", "The Third Column under General der Kavallerie Melas was made up of a division under Feldmarschall-Leutnant Ott and a reserve under Feldmarschall-Leutnant Michael von Fröhlich with attached artillery [64]. Ott's division included four battalions of the \"Nádasdy\" Nr. 39 [565] and two battalions of the \"Mittrowsky\" Nr. 40 [198] Infantry Regiments, the \"Mihanovich\" Serbian Free Battalion [260], the 6th Battalion of the \"Banater\" Grenz Infantry Regiment [115], six companies of the \"D'Aspre\" Jäger Battalion, the \"Semernikov\" Cossack Regiment and six squadrons of the \"Archduke Joseph\" Hussar Regiment Nr. 2 [152]. Fröhlich's reserve consisted of the \"Morzin\" [29], \"Paar\" [109], \"Pertusi\" [106], \"Schiaffinatti\" [37], \"Weber\" [62] and \"Wouwermanns\" [102] Grenadier Battalions. A second source stated that there were 17,000 Russians and 20,000 Austrians present and added three battalions of the \"Fröhlich\" Nr. 28 Infantry Regiment, six squadrons of the \"Württemberg\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 8 [2] and listed seven rather than six Austrian grenadier battalions. This source also named as brigade commanders, Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein for the grenadiers, Ferdinand Johann von Morzin for the \"Nádasdy\", \"Mittrowsky\" and \"Württemberg\" Regiments and Friedrich Heinrich von Gottesheim for the \"D'Aspre\", \"Mihanovich\", \"Banater\" and \"Archduke Joseph\" units.\n", "Section::::Forces.:French Army.\n", "In MacDonald's \"Army of Naples\" Chef de brigade Victor Léopold Berthier served as chief of staff, Chef de bataillon Jacques Bardenet as chief of artillery and Jean-Louis Dubreton as commissary officer. In the 8 June order of battle that follows, the figures in parentheses are unit strengths. The Advanced Guard was led by General of Brigade Jean-Baptiste Salme and included the 11th Line (1,390), 12th Line (1,250) and 15th Light (1,340) Infantry Demi-Brigades, a detachment of the 25th Chasseurs à Cheval Regiment (85), the 6th Company of the 8th Foot Artillery Regiment (34) and the 3rd Company of the 1st Sapper Battalion (29). The 1st Division was commanded by General of Division Olivier and consisted of the 30th Line (1,508) and 73rd Line (2,009) Infantry Demi-Brigades, 7th Chasseurs à Cheval (321) and 19th Chasseurs à Cheval (314) Regiments and gunners and sappers (311). The 2nd Division was directed by General of Division Rusca and comprised the 17th Light (1,880), 55th Line (886) and 97th Line (1,760) Infantry Demi-Brigades, 16th Dragoon (488) and 19th Dragoon (330) Regiments and artillerists and sappers (116).\n", "The 3rd Division was supervised by General of Division Montrichard and was made up of the 3rd (or 2nd) Line (730), 21st Line (1,000), 68th Line (900) and 5th Light (1,900) Infantry Demi-Brigades, 1st Cavalry (263), 12th Dragoon (400), 11th Hussar (250), Cisalpine Dragoon (100) and Cisalpine Hussar (308) Regiments and gunners and sappers (112). The 4th Division was commanded by General of Division Watrin and consisted of the 62nd Line (3,420) and 78th Light (2,120) Infantry Demi-Brigade, 25th Chasseurs à Cheval Regiment (260) and artillerists (33). The 5th Division was directed by General of Division Dombrowski and comprised the 1st Polish Legion (2,000), 8th Light Infantry Demi-Brigade (893) and Polish Cavalry (500).\n", "The remaining infantry division was led by General of Division Victor and included the 5th Line (1,300), 39th Line (1,225), 92nd Line (1,240), 93rd Line (1,265) and 99th Line (1,320) Infantry Demi-Brigades and 15th Chasseurs à Cheval Regiment (400). There were also 526 men assigned to the artillery park. A second authority placed the 12th Line in Olivier's division rather than Salme's Advanced Guard, specified that the 17th in Rusca's division was Light Infantry, put the 2nd Line instead of the 3rd Line in Montrichard's division and listed different unit totals in some divisions. This second source gave the following division strengths for the end of May: Salme 2,997, Olivier 5,826, Rusca 5,397, Montrichard 5,773, Watrin 4,880, Dombrowski 3,555 and Victor 6,750. This yielded a strength of 30,980 infantry, 3,616 cavalry and 1,088 artillerymen and sappers for a 35,684 grand total. From this, losses from the Battle of Modena and other causes must be deducted.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Tidone River - 17 June.\n", "The Tidone River runs north into the Po west of Piacenza. With steep banks 2 to 3 metres high and a width of about , the stream has some defensive value. Like the Tidone, the bed of the Trebbia is filled with white stones. On 17 June at 8:00 am the French opened their attack against Ott's positions behind the Tidone. On hand were a total of 18,700 soldiers including Salme's Advance Guard. The French divisions were deployed with Victor on the right, Rusca in the center and Dombrowski on the left. Because of the wounds he sustained at Modena, MacDonald was bedridden in the village of Borgo San Antonio to the west of Piacenza. As senior officer Victor should have assumed tactical control of the fight, but he stayed in Piacenza, resulting in poor coordination of the French effort. Nevertheless, the determined initial assault ousted the \"D'Aspre\" Jägers from their west-bank positions in the hamlets of Agazzino, Pontetidone and Veratto di Sopra. As Dombrowski's troops mounted a flank attack to the south, the troops of Victor's division fought their way to the village of Sarmato where they were held up by an Austrian artillery battery and two battalions of the \"Nádasdy\" Regiment. Chasteler was with Ott when the French attack started. He urged Ott to hold as long as possible and went back to find that his task force was hurrying on its way. At 1:00 pm Chasteler's men arrived and were thrown into the fight. Nevertheless, at 3:00 pm the French overran both Sarmato and its defending battery, forcing Ott's troops back to a position in front of Castel San Giovanni.\n", "Soon afterward Melas arrived with three battalions of Austrians foot and some squadrons of the \"Archduke Joseph\" Hussars. Suvorov inspired the Russian columns by suddenly appearing at odd places along the line of march. If inspiration failed, Cossacks were employed to prod stragglers back into line. Chasteler's units hustled off to the south to block a turning movement by Dombrowski's division. The \"Bagration\" Jäger Regiment veered off to the north while the four Russian combined grenadier battalions were committed to battle near Castel San Giovanni. Despite the odds turning against them, the French continued to mount spirited attacks. Gradually the Allies massed in two battle lines in front of Castel San Giovanni. By the end of the day, 30,656 Austrian and Russian troops were present to face the now-outnumbered French. Finally, the Allies recaptured Sarmato and the abandoned Austrian cannons, compelling the French to retreat. The French fell back stubbornly, taking advantage of plentiful cover to repulse Austrian cavalry charges. Salme's Advanced Guard covered the last stages of the withdrawal, forming square at Ca' del Bosco on the northern part of the battlefield. The shooting ended by 9:00 pm. The French suffered losses of about 1,000 killed and wounded plus 1,200 more captured. Allied casualties are not given.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Trebbia River - 18 June.\n", "Unexpectedly confronted by a large Austro-Russian army, MacDonald was in a dilemma. He believed that his 22,000 available soldiers were outnumbered and ought to retreat, but he anticipated that Moreau might soon arrive to pitch into the Allied rear. So he hoped to hold out until his last divisions could arrive on the field. MacDonald was also aware of the presence of a force under Jean François Cornu de La Poype that was in position to threaten the Allied south flank. On the 18th, Veletsky's detached force surprised La Poype's 1,500 French and 2,000 Genoese at Bobbio, sending them fleeing back to Genoa. On morning of 18 June the injured MacDonald inspected his army. He found his men ready to fight and the enemy inactive. Meanwhile, Suvorov and Chasteler planned to throw three columns at the French, with the main strength on the right to break down MacDonald's flank by advancing from the Tidone to the Trebbia and finally all the way to the Nure, the next river to the east. With luck, the French would be driven back against the Po. The First Column on the right was headed by Bagration's Advance Guard followed by Schveikovsky's division. The Second Column in the center was made up of Förster's division. The Third Column included the divisions of Ott and Fröhlich. Ott was ordered to drive straight ahead to the Trebbia supported by his colleague. At some point Fröhlich's grenadiers were supposed to reinforce the right flank in order to give more weight to its attack.\n", "Suvorov's desire to start the attack at 7:00 am proved to be impractical due to the Allied soldiers' exhaustion, so it was put off until 11:00 am. Scouts reported that the French were defending behind the Trebbia with advanced positions near the villages of San Nicolò, Gragnano Trebbiense and Casaliggio, from north to south. Bagration's Advance Guard forded the Tidone and attacked Dombrowski's \"Polish Legion\" south of Casaliggio at 2:00 pm, achieving some surprise. Coming from the south, a Polish battalion threatened the Russian rear, but it was quickly hemmed in by Russian infantry, the Austrian \"Karaczay\" Dragoons and Cossacks and 230 men were forced to lay down their arms. An alert French staff officer, Pierre Edmé Gautherin brought the divisions of Rusca and Victor to the west bank of the Trebbia where they stopped and drove back Bagration's troops. Rosenberg brought Schveikovsky's division into the fight while Suvorov personally rallied the shaken Russian infantry. The Russians presently gained the upper hand and compelled Rusca to pull back to the east bank of the Trebbia, which his men accomplished while maintaining their ranks. The fighting in the center began when the \"Levenehr\" Dragoons and \"Molchanov\" Cossacks clashed with some French horsemen and drove them back. Starting at 5:00 pm, Förster slowly pressed back the right wing of Victor's division. Finally the French evacuated Gragnano and fell back across the Trebbia.\n", "Salme's Advanced Guard, which was posted near Sant' Imento north of the highway, was unchallenged most of the day. At about 2:30 pm, the divisions of Montrichard and Olivier crossed the Trebbia and marched to Salme's support. Seeing these French reinforcements in his front, Melas decided not to release Fröhlich's division. The Third Column commander sent Ott forward at 6:00 pm and the Austrians easily brushed aside Salme's outnumbered unit. Together, Ott and Fröhlich pushed Montrichard and Olivier back beyond the Trebbia by evening. That night in a bizarre operation, Rosenberg took two Russian grenadier battalions across the Trebbia south of Gossolengo. They somehow penetrated the French lines as far as Settima where they routed a French detachment and liberated some prisoners. At 3:00 am, Rosenberg's expedition headed back to the west bank, again without arousing any French sentries. Four squadrons of the \"Karaczay\" Dragoons mounted a similar expedition but were detected and driven off by musketry. Both groups missed the pointless battle that occurred earlier in the evening. Hearing what they believed to be Moreau's artillery, three French battalions mounted an extemporaneous attack at 9:30 pm, surprising an Austrian battalion. Melas called up reinforcements from his own and Förster's divisions while Prince Liechtenstein charged into the fray with the \"Lobkowitz\" Dragoons. The artillery of both sides opened up on the melee, causing many friendly fire casualties. After strenuous efforts, the leaders of both sides managed to wind down the senseless fighting by 11:00 pm.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Trebbia River - 19 June.\n", "Chasteler sent orders for the Allied army to begin the assault at 6:00 am on 19 June. However, the plan was not delivered to Melas until 11:00 am. In the meantime, Melas noticed the presence of strong enemy forces at the north end of the battleline and sent 12 artillery pieces to the west bank of the Trebbia to blast the French positions. Two French battalions crept forward to deal with the threat, but they were discovered and driven off by the murderously effective fire of two masked cannons. Also during the morning, the French set up a battery of 10 to 12 guns and began to hammer Förster's positions. This was apparently to cover a shift to the south by a body of French troops. The delay also affected the Russian forces and Suvorov began issuing orders at 11:00 am. Meanwhile, MacDonald determined to launch an assault, putting his faith in the French soldier's enthusiasm for the attack and his troops' good morale. He still believed his army was outnumbered but he hoped to preempt an Allied assault. In the south Rusca and Victor were directed to attack side-by-side near Casaliggio, supported by an outflanking move by Dombrowski via Rivalta. Montrichard was ordered to cross the Trebbia near Gragnano in the center while Olivier was instructed to crack the Allied line farther north near San Nicolò. On the extreme right flank, Watrin and Salme were told to seize Calendasco and turn the Allied left flank.\n", "Chasteler spotted Dombrowski's outflanking column and directed Bagration's troops against it. Dombrowski's division seized Rivalta and advanced up the Trebbia's west bank as far as the hamlet of Canetto before they ran into the Russians. Accompanied in person by Suvorov, the Russians defeated their mostly Polish opponents with serious losses and forced them to retreat to the east bank. Rusca's initial advance was blunted by the fire of 14 artillery pieces belonging to Schveikovsky's division. Farther north, Victor's division was repulsed by a combination of Schveikovsky's left wing and Förster's division and withdrew to the French-held east bank. But with Bagration's forces pulled to the south by Dombrowski's ill-fated attack, Rusca's men found a gap in the Allied line south of Casaliggio. The French infantry charged across the Trebbia while a horse artillery battery mauled the \"Rosenberg\" Grenadier Regiment. Suvorov appeared on the scene to rally his Russians. Rosenberg swung the left wing of Schveikovsky's division to face the northern edge of Rusca's breakthrough while Bagration hurried north to hit the southern edge. At the same time, Chasteler borrowed four battalions from Förster and brought them to the scene. The combined attack forced Rusca's division to retire to the east bank. The Russians tried to follow up their success but Rusca's men repelled their attacks and the fighting in the south ended around 7:00 pm.\n", "The assault in the center was delayed because of the tardy arrival of Montrichard's division. Its 5th Light Infantry crossed the river and deployed into line but was hit by a devastating volley from an Austrian grenadier battalion. Montrichard's other units advanced in columns which were out of touch with each other. When Fröhlich's grenadiers and Förster's division counterattacked, Montrichard's division dissolved and its soldiers took to their heels. The grenadier battalion was swamped by fleeing Frenchmen, but it managed to keep its cohesion until some Russian infantry cut their way through to the rescue. Olivier's assault was preceded by a lightning cavalry charge around noon that swept the west bank clear of Austrians. The infantry crossed in the cavalry's wake and soon captured San Nicolò and two guns. Hearing cannon fire, Liechtenstein went forward to check on the situation and found a crowd of Austrian troops running away from Olivier's assault. He immediately went back to his command and led two squadrons each of the \"Lobkowitz\" and \"Levenehr\" Dragoons and one squadron of the \"Archduke Joseph\" Hussars against Olivier's south flank. Having disposed of Montrichard's division earlier, the Allies were free to mass against Olivier's division and eventually throw it back to the Trebbia's east bank. The \"Wouwermanns\" Grenadier Battalion recaptured two Austrian 12-pound cannons.\n", "Around the same time that Olivier made his attack, Salme's Advanced Guard and Watrin's division, which had previously been in reserve, crossed the Trebbia on the far right flank. Moving in two bodies, the French force brushed aside the Austrian outpost line. The right thrust reached Ca' Pernici on the Po's south bank while the left thrust carried almost to Calendasco. Here Watrin paused because the noises from Olivier's fight were not encouraging. By this time, Melas had Olivier on the run and wished to attack across the Trebbia. Hearing of the Watrin-Salme incursion, the Austrian general was forced to deal with it first. Melas sent Liechtenstein with a task force composed of one squadron of the \"Lobkowitz\" Dragoons, two squadrons of the \"Archduke Joseph\" Hussars, 200 Cossacks and nine companies of infantry. Meanwhile, an artillery battery detached from the Mantua siege corps under the command of Colonel Kinsky unlimbered on the north bank of the Po. The Austrian guns proceeded to bombard their enemies, encouraging them in their decision to recross the Trebbia though the Austrians made prisoners of 300 French. The firing ended in the northern sector about 9:00 pm. The French maintained a firm grip on the west bank of the Trebbia, but MacDonald's division commanders were not able to give him any estimate of their remaining strength. In a scene of horror, thousands of dead and wounded soldiers littered the bed of the Trebbia while Piacenza's Austrian garrison blindly fired cannons into the night. Realizing that neither Moreau nor La Poype were coming to his assistance, MacDonald issued the orders to retreat at 10:00 pm. As soon as the engineers bridged the Nure River, the artillery and wagon train were sent across, followed by the infantry starting about midnight.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Nure River - 20 June.\n", "Suvorov determined to finish with the French so he ordered a new attack at 4:00 am on 20 June. When the Allied forces reached the west bank they found MacDonald's army gone. The French abandoned 7,183 wounded men in Piacenza which suggested that their losses may have been as high as 12,000 when the killed, transportable wounded and captured were counted. The Russians reported 681 killed and 2,073 wounded for a total of 2,754 while the Austrians admitted losing 254 killed, 1,903 wounded and 500 missing for a total of 2,657. Historian Christopher Duffy rounded these figures up to 6,000 Allied casualties. Digby Smith reported similar Allied losses, though he included three Russian generals wounded. From a total of 33,000 French, he estimated losses as 2,000 killed, 7,500 wounded (most of whom became prisoners) plus 7,000 men, seven guns and eight colors captured. Gunther E. Rothenberg gave Allied losses as 5,000 killed and wounded and 500 captured out of 20,000 Russians and 17,000 Austrians. He stated French losses as 9,500 killed and wounded and 7,000 captured out of 33,000. R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy rounded the losses to 10,000 French and 7,000 Allied, but asserted that 5,000 French became prisoners during the retreat that followed. French General of Division Alexis Aimé Pierre Cambray was mortally wounded during the battle and died 2 July.\n", "The Austrians advanced into Piacenza where they found the wounded generals Olivier, Rusca and Salme along with the other non-transportable French wounded. Melas secured the town with Fröhlich's division while launching Ott in pursuit. However, Ott was held up at the Nure by a full French division. Farther south at San Giorgio Piacentino the \"Karaczay\" Dragoons charged the 17th Light Infantry but were rudely repulsed and the French gunners knocked out two of the Austrian cannons. Bagration's Advance Guard came up and Chasteler deployed it for a full-scale attack on San Giorgio. Intense musketry held off the \"Bagration\" and \"Miller\" Jägers on the flanks but the combined grenadiers won a foothold in the village. Suvorov was forced to commit part of the divisions of Förster and Schveikovsky before the French regiment was overwhelmed. A total of 1,099 French soldiers surrendered along with six guns and three colors.\n", "Section::::Result.\n", "The \"Army of Naples\" withdrew southeast toward Parma where 200 wounded soldiers were abandoned. The Allies pursued the French on 21 June, reaching Firenzuola where they rested the next day. Suvorov determined from captured dispatches that MacDonald's mangled army was no longer a threat to northern Italy and marched the Allied army back west on the 23rd, hoping to catch Moreau between himself and Belegarde. Ott with 7,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 15 guns continued the pursuit. MacDonald ordered Montrichard's division to the east where it was used to form some garrisons which were subsequently captured. One battalion of \"Warasdiner\" Grenz and one squadron of the \"Bussy\" Mounted Jägers tried to block MacDonald's retreat but were crushed on 24 June at Sassuolo south of Modena. By 28 June the \"Army of Naples\" was back at Pistoia where it stayed for several days before marching to the west coast in early July. The still ailing MacDonald was shipped off to France and replaced in command by Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr. The garrisons in south and central Italy were picked off one-by-one by the Allies. Naples surrendered on 15 June, Fort Elmo in Naples harbor on 11 July, Capua on 28 July, Gaeta on 1 August, Rome on 29 September and Ancona on 13 November 1799. Even the French-held fortresses of northern Italy fell rapidly. Turin capitulated on 20 June, Bologna on 3 July, Fort Urbano on 10 July, Alessandria on 22 July and Mantua on 28 July. The next major engagement was the Battle of Novi on 15 August 1799.\n" ] }

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Rothenberg", "Trevor N. Dupuy", "San Giorgio Piacentino", "Firenzuola", "Sassuolo", "Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr", "Capua", "Gaeta", "Ancona", "Battle of Novi" ], "href": [ "Trebbia", "Russian%20Empire", "Habsburg%20Austria", "Alexander%20Suvorov", "First%20French%20Republic", "Jacques%20MacDonald", "War%20of%20the%20Second%20Coalition", "Piacenza", "Milan", "Battle%20of%20Magnano", "Battle%20of%20Cassano%20%281799%29", "Siege%20of%20Mantua%20%281799%29", "Apennine%20Mountains", "Jean%20Victor%20Marie%20Moreau", "Battle%20of%20Modena%20%281799%29", "Po%20%28river%29", "Michael%20von%20Melas", "Peter%20Karl%20Ott%20von%20B%C3%A1tork%C3%A9z", "Tidone", "Polish%20Legions%20%28Napoleonic%20period%29", "Tomb%20of%20the%20Unknown%20Soldier%2C%20Warsaw", "War%20of%20the%20Second%20Coalition", "Battle%20of%20Verona%20%281799%29", "Habsburg%20Austria", "Paul%20Kray", "First%20French%20Republic", "Army%20of%20Italy%20%28France%29", "Barth%C3%A9lemy%20Louis%20Joseph%20Sch%C3%A9rer", "Battle%20of%20Magnano", "French%20Directory", "Mincio", "Mantua", "Peschiera%20del%20Garda", "Alexander%20Suvorov", "Vicenza", "Russian%20Empire", "Jean%20Victor%20Marie%20Moreau", "Battle%20of%20Cassano%20%281799%29", "Adda%20%28river%29", "Verderio", "Jean-Mathieu-Philibert%20S%C3%A9rurier", "Milan", "Pizzighettone", "Konrad%20Valentin%20von%20Kaim", "Andrei%20Grigorevich%20Rosenberg", "Battle%20of%20Bassignana%20%281799%29", "Ferrara", "Ravenna", "Po%20%28river%29", "Turin", "Josef%20Philipp%20Vukassovich", "Pascal%20Antoine%20Fiorella", "Michael%20von%20Melas", "Karl%20Joseph%20Hadik%20von%20Futak", "Siege%20of%20Mantua%20%281799%29", "Johann%20von%20Klenau", "Count%20Heinrich%20von%20Bellegarde", "Paul%20Grenier", "Claude%20Victor-Perrin", "Pierre%20Garnier%20de%20Laboissi%C3%A8re", "Genoa", "Florence", "Joseph%20H%C3%A9lie%20D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9%20Perruquet%20de%20Montrichard", "Bologna", "Jacques%20MacDonald", "Rome", "Apennine%20Mountains", "Lerici", "Piacenza", "Peter%20Karl%20Ott%20von%20B%C3%A1tork%C3%A9z", "Pontremoli", "Parma", "Stradella%2C%20Lombardy", "Asti", "Bormida%20%28river%29", "Alessandria", "Jean-Baptiste%20Dominique%20Rusca", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Watrin", "Pistoia", "Modena", "Jean%20Henri%20Dombrowski", "Secchia", "Borgo%20Val%20di%20Taro", "Taro%20%28river%29", "Prince%20Friedrich%20Franz%20Xaver%20of%20Hohenzollern-Hechingen", "Fornovo%20di%20Taro", "Panaro%20River", "Battle%20of%20Modena%20%281799%29", "Castelnuovo%20Scrivia", "Casteggio", "Casatisma", "Cossacks", "dragoon", "Cava%20Manara", "Valenza", "Piacenza", "chief%20of%20staff", "Johann%20Gabriel%20Chasteler%20de%20Courcelles", "Tidone", "Field%20Marshal", "General%20der%20Kavallerie", "Major%20General", "Pyotr%20Bagration", "Grenadier", "J%C3%A4ger%20%28military%29", "Cossack", "Dragoon", "Lieutenant%20General", "General%20der%20Kavallerie", "Feldmarschall-Leutnant", "Michael%20von%20Fr%C3%B6hlich", "Grenz%20Infantry", "Hussar", "Johann%20I%20Joseph%2C%20Prince%20of%20Liechtenstein", "Ferdinand%20Johann%20von%20Morzin", "Friedrich%20Heinrich%20von%20Gottesheim", "Chef%20de%20brigade", "chief%20of%20staff", "Chef%20de%20bataillon", "Jean-Louis%20Dubreton", "General%20of%20Brigade", "Jean-Baptiste%20Salme", "Chasseurs%20%C3%A0%20Cheval", "General%20of%20Division", "Sarmato", "Castel%20San%20Giovanni", "Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Cornu%20de%20La%20Poype", "Bobbio", "Trebbia", "Nure", "Gragnano%20Trebbiense", "Gossolengo", "friendly%20fire", "Calendasco", "Christopher%20Duffy", "Digby%20Smith", "Gunther%20E.%20Rothenberg", "Trevor%20N.%20Dupuy", "San%20Giorgio%20Piacentino", "Firenzuola", "Sassuolo", "Laurent%20Gouvion%20Saint-Cyr", "Capua", "Gaeta", "Ancona", "Battle%20of%20Novi%20%281799%29" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1088879", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Trebbia", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Trebbia (1799)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mick Doohan\n", "Michael \"Mick\" Sydney Doohan, (born 4 June 1965) is an Australian former Grand Prix motorcycle road racing World Champion, who won five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. Only Giacomo Agostini with eight (seven consecutive) and Valentino Rossi with seven (five consecutive) have won more premier class titles.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Originally from the Gold Coast, near Brisbane, Doohan attended St. Joseph's College, Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. He raced in Australian Superbikes in the late 1980s, and also won both races as Superbike World Championship visited Oran Park in as well as the second leg of the Japanese round held earlier in the year. In a break-out season he also won the final Australian motorcycle Grand Prix to be held in the TT format at Mount Panorama before the race became a round of the World Championship the following year and moved to Phillip Island. He is one of the few 500 cc or MotoGP World Champions to have won a Superbike World Championship race.\n", "He made his Grand Prix debut for Honda on an NSR 500 cc two-stroke motorcycle in 1989. Late in the 1990 season Doohan claimed his first victory at the Hungarian Grand Prix on his way to third in the championship. In 1991, he was paired with his fellow Australian Wayne Gardner on a Honda RVF750 superbike and won the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race. He competed successfully throughout the early 1990s and appeared to be on his way to winning his first world championship when he was seriously injured in a practice crash before the 1992 Dutch TT. He suffered permanent and serious damage to his right leg due to medical complications and, at one stage, faced amputation of the leg. At the time, Doohan was 65 points in the lead of the championship, but could not compete for eight weeks after the crash. After an arduous recovery, he returned to racing for the final two races but could not prevent Yamaha rider Wayne Rainey from winning his third consecutive title (by four points from Doohan). In 1993 he struggled with the healing of his leg and the ability to race the Honda at elite level, stating later that in that year it was all he could do to just keep his ride at Honda. It was also during this time he switched to a left thumb-operated rear brake, as his right foot is no longer able to perform this function.\n", "In 1994 however, he won his first 500 cc World Championship. Thereafter, until 1998, he dominated the class, winning five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. In 1997, his most successful year, Doohan won 12 out of 15 races, finished second in another two, and crashed out of the final race of the season at his home GP while leading by more than six seconds. In June 1996, Doohan was inducted as a Member of the Order of Australia for his contribution to the sport of motor racing.\n", "Despite up to eight rivals on non-factory HRC Honda motorcycles Doohan's margin of superiority over them was such that in many races Doohan would build a comfortable lead and then ride well within his limits to cruise to victory. Although pure riding skill clearly played a large part in his success, the ability of his chief race engineer, Jeremy Burgess, to perfect the suspension and geometry of a racing motorcycle may have given him an advantage over his rivals. Between 1994 and 1998 the bike was said not to have had many changes, with Honda engineers reportedly becoming frustrated at Doohan's reluctance to try innovations such as electronic shifting (it was only when Rossi came to Honda in 2000 that Honda engineers had their head with Rossi willing to try more innovations).\n", "One notable trait of Doohan's post-crash riding style was the use of a thumb-operated rear brake developed during 1993 owing to the reduced range of motion in his ankle. This was operated by a \"nudge\" bar similar to a personal water craft throttle, but mounted on the left handlebar. In 1999 Doohan had another accident, this time in a very wet qualifying session for the Spanish Grand Prix. He again broke his leg in several places and subsequently announced his retirement. Jeremy Burgess, Doohan's chief engineer for his entire career, later became Valentino Rossi's chief engineer. After Doohan retired he went to work as a roving adviser to Honda's Grand Prix race effort. At the conclusion of the 2004 season, Doohan and Honda parted company.\n", "In June 2011, Doohan made an appearance at the Isle of Man TT. Doohan completed a parade lap, and was most enamored by the thrill and spectacle of the Snaefell Mountain Course. He then went on to pay tribute to his former Honda racing teammate, Joey Dunlop.\n", "Section::::Court case.\n", "On 8 August 2006, Doohan appeared in Darwin Magistrates Court to face charges over a weekend fracas at a strip club. He was fined $2,500 after pleading guilty to assaulting a bouncer and failing to leave a licensed premise. No conviction was recorded.\n", "Section::::Marriage.\n", "Doohan married Selina Sines, his partner of eleven years, on Tuesday 21 March 2006, on Hamilton Island; the couple have two children, including racing driver and Red Bull junior Jack Doohan.\n", "Section::::Formula One.\n", "After his success in Grand Prix motorcycle racing he got a chance to test a Formula One race car, the Williams FW19, at Circuit de Catalunya (in Spain) in April 1998. He found the car difficult to drive and crashed against a guard rail.\n", "Section::::Doohan's Motocoaster.\n", "Doohan helped design an Intamin Motorbike Launch Roller Coaster, named Mick Doohan's Motocoaster. The ride is located at Dreamworld on the Gold Coast, Queensland.\n", "Section::::Honours.\n", "Doohan was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1996 and received an Australian Sports Medal in 2000. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2009. The first turn at Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit is named after him.\n", "In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Mick Doohan was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for his role as a \"sports legend\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Daijiro Kato\n", "BULLET::::- Nicky Hayden\n", "BULLET::::- Motorcycle sport\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Age\" article on Doohan\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Australian motorcycle racer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q436025", "wikidata_label": "Michael Doohan", "wikipedia_title": "Mick Doohan", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Michael Sydney Doohan", "Michael \"Mick\" Doohan" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mobile Suit Gundam\n", "In 1981, the series was re-edited for theatrical release and split into three movies. The characters were designed by Yoshikazu Yasuhiko, and Kunio Okawara was responsible for the mechanical designs, including the eponymous giant robot, the RX-78-2 Gundam. The first movie was released on February 22, 1981. Tomino himself also wrote a trilogy of novels that retell the events of the series. Two manga adaptations of the series have also been written by two manga artists.\n", "Despite initial low ratings that caused the series' cancellation, the popularity of \"Gundam\" saw a boost from the introduction of Bandai's Gunpla models in 1980 and from reruns and the theatrical release of the anime, leading to the creation of a prolific and lucrative media and toy franchise. The series is famous for revolutionizing the giant robot genre due to the handling of mobile suits as weapons of war as well as the portrayal of their pilots as ordinary soldiers, as opposed to the previous style of portraying hero pilots and their giant super hero robots.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "Set in a fictional universe in the year 2179 (Universal Century year 0079 according to the Gundam Calendar), the Principality of Zeon has declared independence from the Earth Federation, and subsequently launched a war of independence called the One Year War. The conflict has directly affected every continent on Earth, also nearly every space colony and lunar settlement. Zeon, though smaller, has the tactical upper hand through their use of a new type of humanoid weapons called mobile suits. After half of all humanity perishes in the conflict, the war settled into a bitter stalemate lasting over 8 months.\n", "The story begins with a newly deployed Federation warship, the \"White Base\", arriving at the secret research base located at the Side 7 colony to pick up the Federation's newest weapon. However, they are closely followed by Zeon forces. A Zeon reconnaissance team member disobeys mission orders and attacks the colony, killing most of the Federation crew and civilians in the process. Out of desperation, young Amuro Ray accidentally finds the Federation's new prototype arsenal—the RX-78 Gundam, and manages to beat back Zeon forces. Scrambling everything they can, the \"White Base\" sets out with her newly formed crew of civilian recruits and refugees in her journey to survive.\n", "On their journey, the White Base members often encounter the Zeon Lieutenant Commander Char Aznable. Although Char antagonizes Amuro in battle, he takes advantage of their position as Federation members to have them kill members from Zeon's Zabi family as part of his revenge scheme. Amuro also meets ensign Lalah Sune with whom he falls in love, but accidentally kills when facing Char. When the Federation Forces invade the Fortress of A Baoa Qu to defeat the Zeon forces, Amuro engages on a final one-on-one duel against Char due to both blaming the other for Lalah's death. Having realized he forgot his true enemy, Char stops fighting to kill the last surviving Zabi member, Kycilia Zabi. Amuro then reunites with his comrades as the war reaches its end.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "The \"Mobile Suits\" of the show were inspired by the powered armor from the novel \"Starship Troopers\" from 1959. Mobile suits were conceptualized as human-like robots which would not only appeal to children. Yoshiyuki Tomino's original plot for the anime was considerably much more grim, with Amuro dying halfway through the series, and the crew of the White Base having to ally with Char (who is given a red Gundam), but finally having to battle him after he takes control of the Principality of Zeon. The original concept found expression in a series of novels written by Tomino soon after the show's conclusion, and elements of the storyline weaved themselves into \"Zeta Gundam\" and \"Char's Counterattack\".\n", "In previous series Tomino worked in, villains were alien agents. \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was the first of his work which featured humans as antagonists. The director commented he wanted to tell a story about war. He aimed to expose thoroughly starting with Japanese aggression in Manchuria in 1939. Tomino did not allow for changes to history and wanted to use the story to make viewers confront the tragic realities of war. The director was unwilling to discuss the message of his work, expecting the viewers to reach their own conclusion. Additionally, he commented he \"packed his frustrations\" when making \"Gundam\".\n", "Tomino met mechanical designer Kunio Okawara when he first worked in two television series from Sunrise. Tomino liked Okawara's work and asked him to collaborate with him in his upcoming project. Originally, the anime would be called \"Gunboy\" but it was renamed \"Mobile Suit Gundam\". The \"White Base\", the mothership of the protagonist crew members, is designed with a 3 plane view method by Kunio Okawara, however, it is not specially designed for the anime series Gundam, it was actually a salvaged design from the anime \"Invincible Steel Man Daitarn 3\". The idea of having a space carrier from Tomino is partly inspired by the earlier science fiction anime \"Space Battleship Yamato\", in which he claimed to be a fan of. It was intended to be in a more realistic black color, but was changed to white by the order of Sunrise, similar to the color change of the main mecha Gundam was changed from a grayish white to white, red, blue and yellow. Director Tomino showed great disgust in the color change, also noticing the unrealistic non-aerodynamic design of it after the show was on air, said in an interview that such design would never appear in the real world, since it would be a sitting duck from fighter aircraft. Tomino still held a grudge 10 years after the show aired and stated in an interview in \"Newtype\" 1989 April issue that the imaginary enemies of Gundam are Sunrise, sponsors and television stations.\n", "Tomino compares the machines with religious history in Japan, most notably the worship of Buddha statues located in temples. The relationship between the pilot and the mobile suit has also been compared with the Formula One drivers who rely on machines to achieve a goal. In order to give the mechas fast movements, most of the fights were situated in space where there was no gravity. This led to the creation of space colonies as a common setting. In order to explain how could such a young man as Amuro pilot the Gundam, the team came up with the idea of making him a Newtype.\n", "Section::::Media.\n", "Section::::Media.:Anime.\n", "In February 1980, \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was aired in Italy, the first country to broadcast the show outside Japan. \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was also later aired by the anime satellite television network, Animax, across Japan, with the series continuing to be aired on the network currently, and later its respective networks worldwide, including Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and other regions.\n", "Hoping to capitalize on the success of \"Gundam Wing\" from the previous year, Bandai Entertainment released a heavily edited and English-dubbed version of \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", premiering on Cartoon Network's Toonami weekday afternoon after-school action programming block across the United States on Monday, July 23, 2001. The series did not do as well as \"Wing\" but the ratings were high enough for the whole series to be aired and to spawn an enormous toy line. Due to the September 11th attacks, Cartoon Network, like many other American TV stations, began pulling, and editing, war-themed content and violent programming, resulting in the cancellation of the series. However, the series finale was shown as part of Toonami's \"New Year's Eve-il\" special on December 31, 2001 and the unaired episodes were aired in reruns during 2002.\n", "On Saturday, June 8, 2002, the series was given another chance by Cartoon Network on their late-night Adult Swim block, but it was again pulled before completing its run because of low ratings.\n", "On May 30, 2006, Bandai Entertainment re-released the English dub of the TV series in a 10 volume DVD set. There was no Japanese audio track included, apparently because Yoshiyuki Tomino felt that the original mono mix was in too poor of a condition to use. However, in 2007 the original series was released on DVD in Japan, which sold over 100,000 copies within a month's time from December 21, 2007 to January 21, 2008.\n", "At the 2010 New York Comic Con/New York Anime Festival, Bandai Entertainment announced that they would re-release \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" with both the original Japanese audio and the English dub. Only one episode out of the 43 episode will not be dubbed, at the request of Yoshiyuki Tomino. Bandai released Gundam in two sets in the summer of 2011. The first set was released on September 13, 2011.\n", "Following the closure in 2012 of Bandai Entertainment, the series has been out of print. At their New York Comic-Con 2014 panel, Sunrise announced their plans to re-release all of the Gundam series on home video in North America, starting with the original series. They will be distributed via Right Stuf Inc.. They will release the series on Blu-ray and DVD in October 2015.\n", "On July 25, 2015, UK anime distributor Anime Limited announced they will release Mobile Suit Gundam in cooperation with Sunrise for the first time in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray.\n", "In both American TV showings and on the international DVD and Blu-ray release, episode 15 (\"Cucruz Doan's Island\") was cut out. According to Yoshiyuki Tomino, the removal was made at his request, with the episode becoming a \"lost episode\" of sorts, never being dubbed. The episode remained on the Japanese DVD and Blu-ray releases.\n", "Section::::Media.:Novel.\n", "In 1979, before the end of the anime, Yoshiyuki Tomino himself created the first novelizations of the original Gundam anime series. The novels, issued as a series of three books, allowed him to depict his story in a more sophisticated, adult, and detailed fashion. Along with this adaptation came several major changes to the story. For example, Amuro is already a member of the Federation military at the time of the initial Zeon attack on Side 7, and the main characters in the Federation serve on the \"White Base\"-class ships \"Pegasus\" and \"Pegasus II\" rather than the \"Pegasus\"-class \"White Base\". Additionally, the war continues well into the year UC 0080 in the novels, whereas it concludes at the beginning of that year in the anime series. In the novel Amuro Ray is killed in the final attack against the Zeonic stronghold of A Baoa Qu when his RX-78-3 is pierced through the torso by a Rick Dom's beam bazooka. This occurs as Char's unit attempts to warn him about Gihren's intention to destroy the fortress and take the Federation's offensive fleet along with it. Char and the crew of \"Pegasus II\" (\"White Base\"), along with handpicked men under Kycilia Zabi's command, make a deep penetrating attack against the Side 3 and together kill Gihren Zabi, after which Kycilia is killed by Char. Tomino later lamented that had he known that anime ending would be different and that another series would be made, he would not have killed off Amuro in the novels.\n", "The three novels were translated into English by Frederik Schodt and published by Del Rey Books in September 1990. At the time, there were no officially recognized romanizations of character and mecha names, and a variety of different spellings were being used in the English-language fan community. In the original three novels, therefore, Mr. Schodt wrote the name \"Char\" as \"Sha.\" \"Sha\" is a transliteration of the Japanese pronunciation, although Mr. Tomino later publicly confirmed at Anime Expo New York 2002 that the name was originally based on the French name Charles Aznavour, a popular French-language singer. (The 2004 edition of the English translation revealed that Schodt felt that the \"Char\" rendering \"seemed too close\" to Aznavour's name.) He also rendered \"Zaku\" as \"Zak,\" and (after consulting with Mr. Tomino) \"Jion\" as \"Zeon,\" instead of \"Zion,\" which was in use in some circles. Some North American fans, already attached to particular spellings, took great umbrage at Schodt's renditions, forgetting that in the original Japanese most character and mecha names are written in \"katakana\", and that there were, therefore, no \"official spellings.\" Many years later, when the Gundam series was finally licensed in North America, the rights holders came up with a unified list of \"official spellings\" for English-language material, and some of these spellings include Schodt's renditions, as well as the renditions to which certain North American fans were attached.\n", "In 2004, Frederik Schodt revised his original translation of the books, which had been out of print for nearly a decade. What had been a three volume set in the 1990 Del Rey edition was re-released by Stone Bridge Press as one single volume of 476 pages (with a vastly improved cover design), titled \"Mobile Suit Gundam: Awakening, Escalation, Confrontation\". Since the rights holders in Japan by this time had created a unified (although still evolving) list of romanized character and mecha names, Schodt was able to use it, and Amuro's rival in the novel thus became \"Char\" and not \"Sha\"; the popular Zeon Mobile Suit, similarly, became \"Zaku,\" and not \"Zak\".\n", "Section::::Media.:Compilation movies.\n", "Following the success of the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" TV series, in 1981 Tomino reworked the footage into three separate compilation movies. The first two movies, \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" and \"Mobile Suit Gundam: Soldiers of Sorrow\", were released in 1981. The third movie, \"Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space\", was released in 1982.\n", "Each of the three movies is largely composed of old footage from the TV series, however Tomino felt that some things could be changed for the better. Tomino removed several aspects of the show which he felt were still too super robot-esque for the real robot series he intended \"Gundam\" to be, such as the Gundam Hammer weapon. The G-Armor upgrade parts were also completely removed and replaced in the narrative by the more realistic Core Booster support fighters, and Hayato receives a RX-77 Guncannon at Jaburo to replace the disadvantaged RX-75 Guntank. The third movie also includes a substantial amount of new footage expanding on the battles of Solomon and A Baoa Qu.\n", "The first \"Gundam\" film, upon release on 22 February 1981, drew a large crowd of 15,000 people at its premiere, leading to concerns from police and media that it could lead to social unrest from a riotous crowd. The event is considered a turning point in the history of anime, referred to as \"the day that anime changed\" according to \"Asahi Shinbun\" newspaper. The first film grossed , and \"Gundam II\" grossed . \"Mobile Suit Gundam III: Encounters in Space\" was 1982's fourth highest-grossing Japanese film, with a distribution income of and a total box office gross of . Collectively, the trilogy grossed at the Japanese box office.\n", "In 1998, the three compilation movies were first released directly to VHS subtitled into English as part of Bandai's AnimeVillage releases, which makes them among the first \"Gundam\" works released in English. The movies were released again in North America on May 7, 2002 in DVD format, available separately or in a boxed set. These are also available only with re-done Japanese audio with English subtitles, the DVDs identical to the 20th anniversary release of the movie compilation in Japan. The original Japanese voice cast members rerecorded their lines with the exception of those who were deceased. The 20th anniversary release was digitally remastered and many of the sound effects were replaced, most notably the futuristic gun sounds being replaced by louder machine gun sound effects. Also, the music soundtrack, while not remixed was rearranged and in some cases removed from some scenes. The vocal songs are rearranged also, especially in the closing credits of the second and third movies.\n", "Bandai Visual has announced the re-release of the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" movies on DVD from new HD masters and with the original, theatrical, mono audio mix. This boxed set was released in Japan on December 21, 2007. On May 18, 2010, Bandai Entertainment re-released the 20th anniversary version of the trilogy under their Anime Legends label. As with the TV series, the movies will be re-released in North America under Sunrise themselves with distribution from Right Stuf Inc.\n", "The trilogy of films were distributed on DVD in the United Kingdom by Beez Entertainment in 2005 in Japanese and with a selection of subtitle tracks including English. Anime Ltd. has since acquired the UK license and has released a limited edition Blu-ray box set of the movie trilogy (limited to 500 units) as an exclusive, sold only on their AllTheAnime.com store. It was released on March, 27th 2017, in Japanese with English subtitles only.\n", "Section::::Media.:Manga.\n", "There have been two manga series based on \"Mobile Suit Gundam\". The first one is \"Mobile Suit Gundam 0079\" by Kazuhisa Kondo. It was published in \"Dengeki Comics\" from 1985 to 1986 in a total of twelve \"tankōbon\" volumes. Viz Media later published its first nine volumes between 2000 and 2003. The second manga is \"\" by anime character designer Yoshikazu Yasuhiko. It was published from June 2001 to June 2011 in Kadokawa Shoten's \"Gundam Ace\" magazine and collected in a total of 23 \"tankōbon\" volumes. The series was first released in English by Viz media but was dropped before it was completed; it was then released by Vertical Publishing from March 2013 to December 2015.\n", "Besides adaptations, there is a popular parody yonkoma manga titled \"Mobile Suit Gundam-san\", which was written and drawn by Hideki Ohwada and serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's \"Gundam Ace\" magazine since 2001. This manga was adapted into an anime in 2014. Ohwada also created a spinoff manga, , which follows Yoshiyuki Tomino and the Sunrise staff as they work to make the television series and the compilation movies. This series was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's \"Gundam Ace\" magazine from 2009 to 2011 and compiled in the \"Gundam-san\" tankōbon starting in Volume 5. The manga was also collected in two tankōbon volumes released in January 24, 2014.\n", "Section::::Media.:Video games.\n", "There have been many video games based on or with mobile suits from the original \"Gundam\" series. Of these, the following have been released in North America:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gundam Battle Assault, Gundam Battle Assault 2\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (\"Mobile Suit Gundam: Target in Sight\" in Japan and Australia)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (\"Mobile Suit Gundam: True Odyssey\" in Japan)\n", "BULLET::::- \", , \" (\"Gundam Musou\" in Japan)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (PlayStation 3 only)\n", "Games that have been unreleased in countries outside Japan include:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mobile Suit Gundam (1993 arcade game)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mobile Suit Gundam: Spirits of Zeon ~Dual Stars of Carnage~\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mobile Suit Gundam: Spirit of Zeon ~Memory of Soldier~\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Quiz Mobile Suit Gundam: Monsenshi\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mobile Suit Gundam: Climax UC\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mobile Suit Gundam: The One Year War\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (also referred to as \"Ace Pilot\")\n", "BULLET::::- Gundam Battle (series)\n", "BULLET::::- SD Gundam G-Generation (series)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "\"Gundam\" was not popular when it first aired, and in fact came close to being cancelled. The series was originally set to run for 52 episodes but was cut down to 39 by the show's sponsors, which included Clover (the original toymakers for the series). However, the staff was able to negotiate a one-month extension to end the series with 43 episodes. When Bandai bought the copyrights to build plastic models for the show's mecha, which was a relatively new market compared to the old Chogokin series Clover was making, things changed completely. With the introduction of their line of Gundam models, the popularity of the show began to soar. The models sold very well, the show began to do very well in reruns and its theatrical compilation was a huge success. Audiences were expecting another Super Robot TV show, and instead found \"Gundam\", the first work of anime in an entirely new genre: the Real Robot genre. The Anime ranked #2 on \"Wizard's Anime\" Magazine on their \"Top 50 Anime released in North America\", and is regarded as changing the concept of Japanese robot anime and the turning point of history in Japan.\n", "Despite being released in 1979, the original \"Gundam\" series is still remembered and recognized within the anime fan community. The series revolutionized mecha anime, introducing the new Real Robot genre, and over the years became synonymous with the entire genre for many. As a result, for example, parodies of mecha genre commonly feature homages to \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", thanks to its immediate recognizability.\n", "The series was the first winner of the \"Animage\" Anime Grand Prix prize, in 1979 and the first half of 1980. In the top 100 anime from \"Animage\", \"Gundam\" was twenty-fourth. The magazine \"Wizard\" listed the series as the second best anime of all time. By the end of 2007, each episode of the original TV series averaged a sales figure of 80,928 copies, including all of the different formats it was published in (VHS, LD, DVD, etc.). The first DVD box set sold over 100,000 copies in the first month of release, from December 21, 2007 to January 21, 2008. As part of the 30th Anniversary of the Gundam series, the company officially announced a project on March 11, 2009 called \"Real-G\", a plan to build a 1:1 real size scale Gundam in Japan. It was completed in July 2009 and displayed in a Tokyo park then taken down later. The 18-meter tall statue was reconstructed in Shizuoka Prefecture and was taken down in March 2011. In August 2011 it was dismantled only to reopen in Odaiba, Tokyo on April 19, 2012. It stood Odaiba along with a gift shop called \"Gundam Front Tokyo\" until it was dismantled in March 2016.\n", "Most of the series' critical response has been owed to the setting and characters. John Oppliger observes that the characters of Amuro Ray, to whom the young Japanese of that time could easily relate, and Char Aznable, who was \"simply [...] fascinating\", made a major contribution to the series' popularity. He also concludes that \"in many respects First Gundam stands for the nostalgic identifying values of everything that anime itself represents\". The series has been praised by Anime News Network for the way it portrays war with Amuro facing traumatic moments as a result of killing enemy soldiers in his becoming of a soldier. The series is also notable for having humans from a different race as antagonists rather than evil creatures. However, the animation has been noted to have notoriously aged when compared with series seen in the 2000s.\n", "Mecha anime creator Shoji Kawamori attended Keio University in the same years as \"Macross\" screenwriter Hiroshi Ōnogi and character designer Haruhiko Mikimoto, where they had a \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" fan club called \"Gunsight One\", a name they would use years later as the call sign of the bridge of the SDF-1 spaceship from their first \"Macross\" anime television series. In fact, \"The Super Dimension Fortress Macross\" mecha anime series was inspired by Gundam in several aspects during its early development. Guillermo Del Toro has cited the series as an influence on \"Pacific Rim\".\n", "American musician Richie Kotzen, former guitarist from Poison and Mr. Big, released an album called \"Ai Senshi ZxR\" in 2006 in Japan. The album consisted of covered music from the Gundam series and original songs. American musician Andrew W.K. also released an album called \"Gundam Rock\" on September 9, 2009, in Japan. The album consists of covered music from the Gundam series to celebrate its 30th Anniversary.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Background research.\n", "The background research of \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" is well praised in its field. The positions in which the colonies (sides) are located in orbit are called Lagrangian points, and are real world solutions to the three body problem. The colonies (sides) are based on the O'Neill cylinder design for space habitats. The Gundam franchise was a major contributing factor to the fame of the O'Neil cylinder in Japan.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Gundam-themed rides.\n", "\"Gundam the Ride: A Baoa Qu\" was an amusement park attraction at the Fuji-Q Highland Amusement Park located in Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan. It was a dark ride for the park. Gundam the Ride, which opened to the public on July 20, 2000, was based on \"Mobile Suit Gundam\". Set during the final chaotic Battle of A Baoa Qu, Gundam the Ride places its riders in an Escape Launch Shuttle about to leave the battleship \"Suruga\".\n", "The animation of Gundam the Ride used mostly computer graphics, however, all human characters were hand-drawn cel animation, similar to the style current \"Gundam\" video games are done in. All of the character designs for Gundam the Ride were done by Haruhiko Mikimoto. The ride's characters make a cameo appearance in the video game \"Encounters in Space\" while the player (playing as Amuro Ray in his Gundam) is making his way through the \"Dolos\".\n", "The ride closed on January 8, 2007 and replaced with \"Gundam Crisis Attraction\" The main feature of this attraction is a full size 1:1 Gundam model, lying flat inside the venue. Instead of sitting in a movable cockpit and watching a CG movie, it requires participants to carry handheld devices throughout the attraction to find certain pieces of information, similar to a scavenger hunt, in order to activate the Gundam. The interior of the attraction is a mock-up of a Federation ship, and employees remain in-character inside of the ride.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Bildungsroman\n", "BULLET::::- Gundam\n", "BULLET::::- Gundam model\n", "BULLET::::- Gundam (mobile suit)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Official Website: Anime\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mancala\n", "Mancala is one of the oldest known games to still be widely played today. \"Mancala\" is a generic name for a family of two-player turn-based strategy board games played with small stones, beans, or seeds and rows of holes or pits in the earth, a board or other playing surface. The objective is usually to capture all or some set of the opponent's pieces. Versions of the game date back to the 7th century, and evidence suggests the game existed in ancient Egypt.\n", "Section::::Names and variants.\n", "The name is a classification or type of game, rather than any specific game. Some of the most popular mancala games (with regard to distribution area, the numbers of players and tournaments, and publications) are:\n", "BULLET::::- Ali Guli Mane or Pallanguzhi, played in Southern India.\n", "BULLET::::- It is also called Omanu Guntalu in Telugu, played in rural areas of Telangana, India.\n", "BULLET::::- Bao la Kiswahili – played in most of East Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Comoros, Malawi, as well as some areas of DR Congo and Burundi.\n", "BULLET::::- Gebeta (Tigrigna: ገበጣ) - Ethiopian and Eritrea, especially in Tigrai.\n", "BULLET::::- Kalah – North American variation, the most popular variant in the Western world.\n", "BULLET::::- Oware (\"awalé, awélé\") – Ashanti, but played world-wide with close variants played throughout western Africa and in the Caribbean.\n", "BULLET::::- Ayo or oware - played in West Africa, by the Yorubas in Western Nigeria.\n", "BULLET::::- Toguz korgool or Toguz kumalak – played in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.\n", "A notable subtype of mancala are the Southeast Asian mancalas like the Malaysian \"congkak\", Indonesians \"congklak\" or \"dakon\", and Filipino \"sungka\", among others. They differ from other mancala types in that the player's store is included in the placing of the seeds. The most common type has seven holes for each player, in addition to the player store holes. This version has identical rules throughout its range. But there are also numerous variations with the number of holes and rules by region. Sometimes more than one version can be played in a single locality.\n", "Although more than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, some names denote the same game, while some names are used for more than one game. Almost 200 modern invented versions have also been described.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Evidence of the game was uncovered in Israel in the city of Gedera in an excavated Roman bathhouse where pottery boards and rock cuts were unearthed dating back to between the 2nd and 3rd century AD. Among other early evidence of the game are fragments of a pottery board and several rock cuts found in Aksumite areas in Matara (in Eritrea) and Yeha (in Ethiopia), which are dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century AD; the game may have been mentioned by Giyorgis of Segla in his 14th century Ge'ez text \"Mysteries of Heaven and Earth\", where he refers to a game called qarqis, a term used in Ge'ez to refer to both Gebet'a (mancala) and \"Sant'araz\" (modern \"sent'erazh\", Ethiopian chess). \n", "The similarity of some aspects of the game to agricultural activity and the absence of a need for specialized equipment present the intriguing possibility that it could date to the beginnings of civilization itself; however, there is little verifiable evidence that the game is older than about 1300 years. Some purported evidence comes from the Kurna temple graffiti in Egypt, as reported by Parker in 1909 and Murray in his \"A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess\". However, accurate dating of this graffiti seems to be unavailable, and what designs have been found by modern scholars generally resemble games common to the Roman world, rather than anything like Mancala.\n", "Some historians believe that Mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found in Jordan that dates around 6000 BCE. The game might have been played by ancient Nabataeans and could have been an ancient version of the modern Mancala game.\n", "Although the games existed in pockets in Europe—it is recorded as being played as early as the 17th century by merchants in England—it has never gained much popularity in most regions, except in the Baltic area, where once it was a very popular game (\"Bohnenspiel\"), and Bosnia, where it is called Ban-Ban and still played today. Mancala has also been found in Serbia and in Greece (\"Mandoli\", Cyclades). Two Mancala tables from the early 18th century are to be found in Weikersheim Castle in southern Germany.\n", "The United States has a larger mancala-playing population. A traditional mancala game called Warra was still played in Louisiana in the early 20th century, and a commercial version called Kalah became popular in the 1940s. In Cape Verde, mancala is known as \"ouril\". It is played in the Islands and was brought to the United States by Cape Verdean immigrants. It is played to this day in Cape Verdean communities in New England.\n", "Recent studies of Mancala rules have given insight into the distribution of Mancala. This distribution has been linked to migration routes, which may go back several hundred years. There is evidence that the game was played in Egypt more than one thousand years B.C. It spread from Egypt through other parts of Africa, probably with traders moving up and down the Nile.. Excavations in Lebanon uncovered Phoenician mancala pieces dated from the 6th century B.C. Dated sixth century B.C., the statue was discovered lying on her stomach on a marble floor covering a drainage channel from the Roman period (second century AD). Two rows of five holes etched into the back revealed that \"it was also used to support a board game called Mancala, derived from the Arabic word naqala, meaning literally move,\" said the lead archaeologist, thus referring to the explanations provided by Irving Finkel, an expert on ancient games in the British Museum.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The word \"mancala\" (منقلة) comes from the Arabic word \"naqala\" (نقلة) meaning literally \"to move\". No one game exists with the name \"mancala\"; the name is a classification or type of game. This word is used in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, but is not consistently applied to any one game, and has been used for backgammon in the ancient near east. Mancala is a game that first appeared in Africa, and later, the ancient near east. \n", "Section::::General gameplay.\n", "Most mancala games share a common general game play. Players begin by placing a certain number of seeds, prescribed for the particular game, in each of the pits on the game board. A player may count their stones to plot the game. A turn consists of removing all seeds from a pit, \"sowing\" the seeds (placing one in each of the following pits in sequence) and capturing based on the state of board. The object of the game is to plant the most seeds in the bank. This leads to the English phrase \"count and capture\" sometimes used to describe the gameplay. Although the details differ greatly, this general sequence applies to all games.\n", "If playing in capture mode, once a player ends his/her turn in an empty pit on his/her own side, he/she captures the opponent's pieces directly across. Once captured, the player gets to put the seeds in his/her own bank. After capturing, the opponent forfeits a turn. \n", "Section::::General gameplay.:Equipment.\n", "Equipment is typically a board, constructed of various materials, with a series of holes arranged in rows, usually two or four. The materials include clay and other shape-able materials. Some games are more often played with holes dug in the earth, or carved in stone. The holes may be referred to as \"depressions\", \"pits\", or \"houses\". Sometimes, large holes on the ends of the board, called \"stores\", are used for holding the pieces.\n", "Playing pieces are seeds, beans, stones, cowry shells, half-marbles or other small undifferentiated counters that are placed in and transferred about the holes during play.\n", "Board configurations vary among different games but also within variations of a given game; for example Endodoi is played on boards from 2×6 to 2×10. The largest are Tchouba (Mozambique) with a board of 160 (4×40) holes requiring 320 seeds; and En Gehé (Tanzania), played on longer rows with up to 50 pits (a total of 2×50=100) and using 400 seeds. The most minimalistic variants are Nano-Wari and Micro-Wari, created by the Bulgarian ethnologue Assia Popova. The Nano-Wari board has eight seeds in just two pits; Micro-Wari has a total of four seeds in four pits.\n", "With a two-rank board, players usually are considered to control their respective sides of the board, although moves often are made into the opponent's side. With a four-rank board, players control an inner row and an outer row, and a player's seeds will remain in these closest two rows unless the opponent captured them.\n", "Section::::General gameplay.:Objective.\n", "The objective of most two- and three-row mancala games is to capture more stones than the opponent; in four-row games, one usually seeks to leave the opponent with no legal move or sometimes to capture all counters in their front row.\n", "At the beginning of a player's turn, they select a hole with seeds that will be sown around the board. This selection is often limited to holes on the current player's side of the board, as well as holes with a certain minimum number of seeds.\n", "In a process known as \"sowing\", all the seeds from a hole are dropped one-by-one into subsequent holes in a motion wrapping around the board. Sowing is an apt name for this activity, since not only are many games traditionally played with seeds, but placing seeds one at a time in different holes reflects the physical act of sowing. If the sowing action stops after dropping the last seed, the game is considered a \"single lap\" game.\n", "\"Multiple laps\" or \"relay sowing\" is a frequent feature of mancala games, although not universal. When relay sowing, if the last seed during sowing lands in an occupied hole, all the contents of that hole, including the last sown seed, are immediately re-sown from the hole. The process usually will continue until sowing ends in an empty hole. Another common way to receive \"multiple laps\" is when the final seed sown lands in your designated hole.\n", "Many games from the Indian subcontinent use \"pussa kanawa laps\". These are like standard multilaps, but instead of continuing the movement with the contents of the last hole filled, a player continues with the next hole. A pussakanawa lap move will then end when a lap ends just prior to an empty hole.\n", "If a player ends his stone with a point move he gets a \"free turn\".\n", "Section::::General gameplay.:Capturing.\n", "Depending on the last hole sown in a lap, a player may \"capture\" stones from the board. The exact requirements for capture, as well as what is done with captured stones, vary considerably among games. Typically, a capture requires sowing to end in a hole with a certain number of stones, ending across the board from stones in specific configurations, or landing in an empty hole adjacent to an opponent's hole that contains one or more pieces.\n", "Another common way of capturing is to capture the stones that reach a certain number of seeds at any moment.\n", "Also, several games include the notion of capturing holes, and thus all seeds sown on a captured hole belong at the end of the game to the player who captured it.\n", "Section::::Psychology.\n", "Like other board games, mancala games have led to psychological studies. Retschitzki has studied the cognitive processes used by awalé players. Some of Restchitzki's results on memory and problem solving have recently been simulated by Fernand Gobet with the CHREST computer model. De Voogt has studied the psychology of Bao playing.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of mancala games\n", "BULLET::::- Computer Olympiad: computer-to-computer contests playing Awari\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Deledicq, A. & A. Popova (1977). Wari et solo. Le jeu de calcul Africain. Paris: Cedic.\n", "BULLET::::- Murray, H.J.R. (1952). \"A History of Board-Games other than Chess\". Oxford at the Clarendon Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Voogt, A.J. de (1997). Mancala Board Games. British Museum Press: London.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "type of count-and-capture games", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q267989", "wikidata_label": "mancala", "wikipedia_title": "Mancala", "aliases": { "alias": [ "count-and-capture game", "sowing game" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Apollo\n", "Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , \"Apollōn\" ( ); ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The national divinity of the Greeks, Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the sun and light, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Seen as the most beautiful god and the ideal of the \"kouros\" (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo is considered to be the most Greek of all gods. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as \"Apulu\".\n", "As the patron of Delphi (\"Pythian Apollo\"), Apollo is an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle.\n", "Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. Yet Apollo is also a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague with his arrows.\n", "Apollo is the god of archery and the invention of archery is credited to him and his sister Artemis. He has a golden and a silver bow, and a quiver of golden arrows. \n", "As the god of \"Mousike\" (art of Muses), Apollo presided over all music, songs, dance and poetry. He is the inventor of string-music, and the frequent companion of the Muses, functioning as their chorus leader in celebrations. The lyre is a common attribute of Apollo.\n", "As the protector of young, Apollo (\"kourotrophos\") is concerned with the health and education of children. He presides over their passage into adulthood. \n", "Apollo is an important pastoral deity. He is the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. Protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases and pests were his primary duties. \n", "Apollo encouraged founding new towns and establishment of civil constitution, and is associated with dominion over colonists. He is also the giver of laws, and his oracles were consulted before setting laws in a city. \n", "Apollo is the god who affords help and wards off evil. He delivered men from epidemics. Various epithets call him the \"averter of evil\". As the patron of seafarers, he is also the god of foreigners, the protector of fugitives and refugees.\n", "In Hellenistic times, especially during the 5th century BCE, as \"Apollo Helios\" he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun. In Latin texts, however, there was no conflation of Apollo with Sol among the classical Latin poets until 1st century AD. Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 5th century CE.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , \"Apollōn\" ( ); Doric: , \"Apellōn\"; Arcadocypriot: , \"Apeilōn\"; Aeolic: , \"Aploun\"; )\n", "The name \"Apollo\"—unlike the related older name \"Paean\"—is generally not found in the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form \"]pe-rjo-[\" (Linear B: ]-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.\n", "The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, \"Apellon\" (), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month \"Apellaios\" (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). \n", "According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word \"apella\" (), which originally meant \"wall,\" \"fence for animals\" and later \"assembly within the limits of the square.\" Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the \"ecclesia\" (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun \"apellai\" and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *\"Apalun\".\n", "Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (\"apollymi\"), \"to destroy\". Plato in \"Cratylus\" connects the name with (\"apolysis\"), \"redemption\", with (\"apolousis\"), \"purification\", and with (\"[h]aploun\"), \"simple\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (\"aeiballon\"), \"ever-shooting\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (\"apella\"), which means \"assembly\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (\"sekos\"), \"fold\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the ancient Macedonian language (\"pella\") means \"stone,\" and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia) and (\"Pellēnē\"/\"Pallene\").\n", "A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form \"Apaliunas\" (\"\") is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) \"Aplu\", a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian \"Aplu Enlil\" meaning simply \"the son of Enlil\", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun.\n", "The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (\"mouse Apollo\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).\n", "The Hittite testimony reflects an early form \"\", which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric . The name of the Lydian god \"Qλdãns\" /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect an earlier /kʷalyán-/ before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-Lydian sound change *y \"\" d. Note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-Doric \"Ἀπέλjων\" and Hittite \"Apaliunas\".\n", "A Luwian etymology suggested for \"Apaliunas\" makes Apollo \"The One of Entrapment\", perhaps in the sense of \"Hunter\".\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.\n", "Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus ( ; , \"Phoibos\" ), literally \"bright\". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature.\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Sun.\n", "BULLET::::- Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης, \"Aiglētēs\"), from , \"light of the sun\"\n", "BULLET::::- Helius ( ; , \"Helios\"), literally \"sun\"\n", "BULLET::::- Lyceus ( ; , \"Lykeios\", from Proto-Greek *) \"light\". The meaning of the epithet \"Lyceus\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf ().\n", "BULLET::::- Phanaeus ( ; , \"Phanaios\"), literally \"giving or bringing light\"\n", "BULLET::::- Phoebus ( ; , \"Phoibos\"), literally \"bright\", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans\n", "BULLET::::- Sol (Roman) (), \"sun\" in Latin\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Wolf.\n", "BULLET::::- Lycegenes ( ; , \"Lukēgenēs\"), literally \"born of a wolf\" or \"born of Lycia\"\n", "BULLET::::- Lycoctonus ( ; , \"Lykoktonos\"), from , \"wolf\", and , \"to kill\"\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Origin and birth.\n", "Apollo's birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.\n", "BULLET::::- Cynthius ( ; , \"Kunthios\"), literally \"Cynthian\"\n", "BULLET::::- Cynthogenes ( ; , \"Kynthogenēs\"), literally \"born of Cynthus\"\n", "BULLET::::- Delius ( ; Δήλιος, \"Delios\"), literally \"Delian\"\n", "BULLET::::- Didymaeus ( ; , \"Didymaios\") from δίδυμος, \"twin\") as Artemis' twin\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Place of worship.\n", "Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.\n", "BULLET::::- Acraephius ( ; , \"Akraiphios\", literally \"Acraephian\") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , \"Akraiphiaios\"), \"Acraephian\", from the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus.\n", "BULLET::::- Actiacus ( ; , \"Aktiakos\"), literally \"Actian\", after Actium ()\n", "BULLET::::- Delphinius ( ; , \"Delphinios\"), literally \"Delphic\", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the \"Homeric Hymns\" associated this with dolphins.\n", "BULLET::::- Epactaeus, meaning \"god worshipped on the coast\", in Samos.\n", "BULLET::::- Pythius ( ; , \"Puthios\", from Πυθώ, \"Pythō\"), from the region around Delphi\n", "BULLET::::- Smintheus ( ; , \"Smintheus\"), \"Sminthian\"—that is, \"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\" near the Troad town of Hamaxitus\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Healing and disease.\n", "BULLET::::- Acesius ( ; , \"Akesios\"), from , \"healing\". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora.\n", "BULLET::::- Acestor ( ; , \"Akestōr\"), literally \"healer\"\n", "BULLET::::- Culicarius (Roman) ( ), from Latin \"culicārius\", \"of midges\"\n", "BULLET::::- Iatrus ( ; , \"Iātros\"), literally \"physician\"\n", "BULLET::::- Medicus (Roman) ( ), \"physician\" in Latin. A temple was dedicated to \"Apollo Medicus\" at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.\n", "BULLET::::- Paean ( ; , \"Paiān\"),physician, healer\n", "BULLET::::- Parnopius ( ; , \"Parnopios\"), from , \"locust\"\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Founder and protector.\n", "BULLET::::- Agyieus ( ; , \"Aguīeus\"), from , \"street\", for his role in protecting roads and homes\n", "BULLET::::- Alexicacus ( ; , \"Alexikakos\"), literally \"warding off evil\"\n", "BULLET::::- Apotropaeus ( ; , \"Apotropaios\"), from , \"to avert\"\n", "BULLET::::- Archegetes ( ; , \"Arkhēgetēs\"), literally \"founder\"\n", "BULLET::::- Averruncus (Roman) ( ; from Latin \"āverruncare\"), \"to avert\"\n", "BULLET::::- Clarius ( ; , \"Klārios\"), from Doric , \"allotted lot\"\n", "BULLET::::- Epicurius ( ; , \"Epikourios\"), from , \"to aid\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genetor ( ; , \"Genetōr\"), literally \"ancestor\"\n", "BULLET::::- Nomius ( ; , \"Nomios\"), literally \"pastoral\"\n", "BULLET::::- Nymphegetes ( ; , \"Numphēgetēs\"), from , \"Nymph\", and , \"leader\", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Prophecy and truth.\n", "BULLET::::- Coelispex (Roman) ( ), from Latin \"coelum\", \"sky\", and \"specere\" \"to look at\"\n", "BULLET::::- Iatromantis ( ; , \"Iātromantis\",) from , \"physician\", and , \"prophet\", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy\n", "BULLET::::- Leschenorius ( ; , \"Leskhēnorios\"), from , \"converser\"\n", "BULLET::::- Loxias ( ; , \"Loxias\"), from , \"to say\", historically associated with , \"ambiguous\"\n", "BULLET::::- Manticus ( ; , \"Mantikos\"), literally \"prophetic\"\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Music and arts.\n", "BULLET::::- Musagetes ( ; Doric , \"Mousāgetās\"), from , \"Muse\", and \"leader\"\n", "BULLET::::- Musegetes ( ; , \"Mousēgetēs\"), as the preceding\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Archery.\n", "BULLET::::- Aphetor ( ; , \"Aphētōr\"), from , \"to let loose\"\n", "BULLET::::- Aphetorus ( ; , \"Aphētoros\"), as the preceding\n", "BULLET::::- Arcitenens (Roman) ( ), literally \"bow-carrying\"\n", "BULLET::::- Argyrotoxus ( ; , \"Argyrotoxos\"), literally \"with silver bow\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hecaërgus ( ; , \"Hekaergos\"), literally \"far-shooting\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hecebolus ( ; , \"Hekēbolos\"), \"far-shooting\"\n", "BULLET::::- Ismenius ( ; , \"Ismēnios\"), literally \"of Ismenus\", after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Greco-Roman epithets.:Amazons.\n", "BULLET::::- Amazonius (), Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that near Pyrrhichus there was a sanctuary of Apollo, called Amazonius () with image of the god said to have been dedicated by the Amazons.\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Celtic epithets and cult titles.\n", "Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Atepomarus (\"the great horseman\" or \"possessing a great horse\"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).\n", "Section::::Origins.\n", "The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with \"healing\". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\"\n", "From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of \"symbols and omina\" (σημεῖα καὶ τέρατα : \"sēmeia kai terata\"), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, ideal beauty, fine arts, philosophy, moderation, spiritual-life, the protector of music, divine law and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.\n", "Section::::Origins.:Healer and god-protector from evil.\n", "The function of Apollo as a \"healer\" is connected with Paean (), the physician of the Gods in the \"Iliad\", who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean \"pa-ja-wo-ne\" (Linear B: ), but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song \"paean\" (). The magicians were also called \"seer-doctors\" (), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.\n", "In the \"Iliad\", Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a plague () to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the \"Paean\".\n", "Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are \"paion\" ( literally \"healer\" or \"helper\") \"epikourios\" (, \"succouring\"), \"oulios\" (, \"healer, baleful\") and \"loimios\" (, \"of the plague\"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called \"apotropaios\" (, \"averting evil\") and \"alexikakos\" ( \"keeping off ill\"; from v. + n. ). In later writers, the word, usually spelled \"Paean\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.\n", "Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph. Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.\n", "Section::::Origins.:Dorian origin.\n", "The connection with the Dorians and their initiation festival \"apellai\" is reinforced by the month \"Apellaios\" in northwest Greek calendars. The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: ). \"Apellaios\" is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the \"megistos kouros\" (the great Kouros). However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word \"pella\" (Pella), \"stone\". Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).\n", "The \"Homeric hymn\" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the \"Dark Ages\" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.\n", "The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle. The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (; cf. , \"womb\"), and a male serpent Typhon (; from , \"to smoke\"), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python. Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion, but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.\n", "Apollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology. In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (, \"hegemon\") of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves. The \"elf-shot\" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.\n", "The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \"The Archer\", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiva is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.\n", "Section::::Origins.:Minoan origin.\n", "It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean age. In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Lab(r)yadai, \"the double-axe men\", which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth. The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. \"Apollo Delphinios\" or \"Delphidios\" was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands. Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan \"Mistress of the animals\". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the \"Mister of the animals\", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin \"Mistress of the Animals\", becoming her brother.\n", "The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself. However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.\n", "Plato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by \"mania\" (, \"frenzy\"), a Greek word he connected with \"mantis\" (, \"prophet\"). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC. Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC, there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.\n", "Section::::Origins.:Anatolian origin.\n", "A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain \"purification\".\n", "A similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state. The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.\n", "Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to \"Appaliunas\", a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. A western Anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of \"Artimus\" (Artemis) and \"Qλdãns\", whose name may be cognate with the Hittite and Doric forms, in surviving Lydian texts\".\" However, recent scholars have cast doubt on the identification of \"Qλdãns\" with Apollo.\n", "The Greeks gave to him the name \"agyieus\" as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (\"sibutu\") indicates a Babylonian origin.\n", "The Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian \"Aplu\" was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning \"the son of\", was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In \"Iliad\", his priest prays to \"Apollo Smintheus\", the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.\n", "Section::::Oracular cult.\n", "Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as \"Apollodorus\" or \"Apollonios\" and cities named \"Apollonia\" testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called \"theological oracles\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. \"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\"\n", "Section::::Oracular cult.:Oracular shrines.\n", "Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet \"Abaeus\" (, \"Apollon Abaios\"), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus.\n", "His oracular shrines include:\n", "BULLET::::- Abae in Phocis.\n", "BULLET::::- Bassae in the Peloponnese.\n", "BULLET::::- At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a \"pneuma\", from which the priests drank.\n", "BULLET::::- In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War.\n", "BULLET::::- At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus.\n", "BULLET::::- In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born.\n", "BULLET::::- In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the \"pneuma\" of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.\n", "BULLET::::- In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo.\n", "BULLET::::- In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise \"De Dea Syria\", the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.\n", "BULLET::::- At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.\n", "BULLET::::- In Segesta in Sicily.\n", "Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.\n", "BULLET::::- In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.\n", "BULLET::::- in Labadea, east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.\n", "Section::::Temples of Apollo.\n", "Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics.\n", "The Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn't be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome.\n", "The most important temples are:\n", "Section::::Temples of Apollo.:Greek temples.\n", "BULLET::::- Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to \"Apollo Ismenius\" was built in the 9th century B.C. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C., but only some small parts have been found A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \"daphnephoros\".\n", "BULLET::::- Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of \"Apollo Daphnephoros\", \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", is dated to 800 B.C. The temple was curvilinear \"hecatombedon\" (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C., with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 B.C., with the stylobate measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14.\n", "BULLET::::- Dreros (Crete). The temple of \"Apollo Delphinios\" dates from the 7th century B.C., or probably from the middle of the 8th century B.C. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns.\n", "BULLET::::- Gortyn (Crete). A temple of \"Pythian Apollo\", was built in the 7th century B.C. The plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side.\n", "BULLET::::- Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of \"Apollo Thermios\", was built in the middle of the 7th century B.C. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C., on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.\n", "BULLET::::- Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order.\n", "BULLET::::- Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of \"Apollo Napaios\" was built in the 7th century B.C. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.\n", "BULLET::::- Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 B.C. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone.\n", "BULLET::::- Naukratis: An Ionic temple was built in the early 6th century B.C. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.\n", "BULLET::::- Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch.\n", "BULLET::::- Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 B.C., and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse.\n", "BULLET::::- Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \"Temple of Alcmeonidae\" was built in c. 513 B.C. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (\"dopnephoros\"). The maidens participated with joyful songs.\n", "BULLET::::- Chios: An Ionic temple of \"Apollo Phanaios\" was built at the end of the 6th century B.C. Only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament.\n", "BULLET::::- Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 B.C., and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion.\n", "BULLET::::- Bassae (Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to \"Apollo Epikourios\" (\"Apollo the helper\"), was built in 430 B.C. and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.\n", "BULLET::::- Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C., with a plan measuring 10,00 x 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used.\n", "BULLET::::- Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to \"Apollo Pythios Sotir\" was built in 500 B.C., and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 x 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.\n", "BULLET::::- Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of \"Apollo Didymaios\" started around 540 B.C. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 B.C. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate.\n", "BULLET::::- Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of \"Apollo Clarius\" was probably built in the 3rd century B.C., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C.\n", "BULLET::::- Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god's ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of \"Apollo Smintheus\" was constructed at 150–125 B.C., but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C. The temple measures 40,00 x 23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14.\n", "Section::::Temples of Apollo.:Etruscan and Roman temples.\n", "BULLET::::- Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C. and it indicates the spread of Apollo's culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan, and a triple cella 18,50 m wide.\n", "BULLET::::- Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.\n", "BULLET::::- Pompeii (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century B.C. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D. 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side.\n", "BULLET::::- Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the \"temple of Apollo Medicus\". The first temple building dates to 431 B.C., and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 B.C. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century B.C.\n", "BULLET::::- Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was Ionic and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella.\n", "BULLET::::- Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century A.D. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.\n", "Section::::Mythology.\n", "Apollo appears often in the myths, plays and hymns. As Zeus' favorite son, Apollo had direct access to the mind of Zeus and was willing to reveal this knowledge to humans. A divinity beyond human comprehension, he appears both as a beneficial and a wrathful god.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Birth.\n", "Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto, his previous wife, or one of his mistresses. After his birth, Apollo was nursed by the nymphs Korythalia and Aletheia, the personification of truth. \n", "When Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was impregnated by Zeus, she banned Leto from giving birth on \"terra firma\". In her wanderings, Leto sought shelter on many lands, only to be rejected by them. Finally, she saw Delos, a floating island, which was neither a real island nor a mainland. It is said that Apollo, still in Leto's womb, had informed his mother about Delos to put an end to her suffering. Leto, when welcomed by Delos, gave birth there, clinging to a palm tree.\n", "It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber 9 yards or 8.2 meters long.\n", "When Apollo was born clutching a golden sword, the swans circled Delos seven times and the nymphs sang in delight. Soon after he was born, he was washed clean by the goddesses and was covered in white garment, with golden bands fastened around him. Since Leto was unable to feed the new born, Themis, the goddess of divine law, fed him the nectar, or ambrosia. Upon tasting the divine food, Apollo broke free of the bands fastened onto him and declared that he would be the master of lyre and archery, and interpret the will of Zeus to humankind.\n", "Apollo's birth fixed the floating Delos to the earth. Leto was accepted by the people of Delos and she promised them that her son would be always favorable towards the city. According to some, Apollo secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean after some time. This island later became sacred to Apollo.\n", "Apollo was born on the seventh day (, \"hebdomagenes\") of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Hyperborea.\n", "Hyperborea, the mystical land of eternal spring, venerated Apollo above all the gods. They always sung and danced in his honor, and hosted Pythian games. A vast forest of beautiful trees was called \"the garden of Apollo\". Apollo spends the winter months among the Hyperboreans. His absence from the world caused coldness and this was marked as his annual death. No prophecies were issued during this time. He returned to the world during the beginning of the spring. The festival theophania was observed in Delphi to celebrate his return.\n", "It is said that Leto came to Delos from Hyperborea, accompanied by a pack of wolves. Henceforth, Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and wolves became sacred to Apollo. His intimate connection to wolves is evident from his epithet \"Lyceus\", meaning \"wolf-like\". But Apollo was also the wolf-slayer in his role of the pastoral god who protected flocks from predators. The hyperborean worship of Apollo bears the strongest marks of Apollo being worshipped as the sun god. Shamanistic elements in Apollo's cult are often liked to his Hyperborean origin, and he is likewise speculated to have originated as a solar shaman. Shamans like Abaris and Aristeas were also the followers of Apollo, who hailed from Hyperborea.\n", "In myths, Apollo wept tears of ambers on the banks of Eridanos when his son Asclepius died and buried in Hyperborea the arrow which he had used to kill the cyclops. He later gave this arrow to Abaris.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Childhood and Youth.\n", "As a child, Apollo is said to have built a foundation and an altar on Delos using the horns of the goats that his sister Artemis hunted. Since he learnt the art of building when young, he later became \"Archegetes\", the founder of towns and god who guided men to build new cities. From his father Zeus, Apollo had also received a golden chariot drawn by swans.\n", "In his young years when Apollo spent his time herding cows, he was reared by Thriae, the bee nymphs, who trained him and enhanced his prophetic skills. Apollo is also said to have invented the lyre, and along with Artemis, the art of archery. He then taught to the humans the art of healing and archery. Phoebe, his grandmother, gave the oracular shrine of Delphi to Apollo as a birthday gift. Themis inspired him to be the oracular voice of Delphi thereon.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Childhood and Youth.:Python.\n", "Python, a chthonic serpent-dragon, was a child of Gaea and the guardian of the Delphic Oracle, whose death was foretold by Apollo when he was still in Leto's womb. Python was the nurse of the giant Typhon. In most of the traditions, Apollo was still a child when he killed Python. \n", "Python was sent by Hera to hunt the pregnant Leto to death, and had assaulted Leto. To avenge the trouble given to his mother, the young Apollo, with his bow and arrows that he had received from Hephaestus, went in search of Python and killed it in the sacred cave at Delphi with his arrows. The Delphian nymphs were present and encouraged Apollo during the battle with the cry \"Hie Paean\". After Apollo was victorious, they also brought him gifts and gave the Corycian cave to him. According to Homer, Apollo had encountered and killed the Python when he was looking for a place to establish his shrine. \n", "According to other versions, when Leto was in Delphi, Python had attacked her. Apollo defended his mother and killed Python. Euripides in his Iphigenia in Aulis gives an account of his fight with Python and the events aftermath. \n", "You killed him, o Phoebus, while still a baby, still leaping in the arms of your dear mother, and you entered the holy shrine, and sat on the golden tripod, on your truthful throne distributing prophecies from the gods to mortals.\n", "A detailed account of Apollo's conflict with Gaea and Zeus' intervention on behalf of his young son is also given. \n", "But when Apollo came and sent Themis, the child of Earth, away from the holy oracle of Pytho, Earth gave birth to dream visions of the night; and they told to the cities of men the present, and what will happen in the future, through dark beds of sleep on the ground; and so Earth took the office of prophecy away from Phoebus, in envy, because of her daughter. The lord made his swift way to Olympus and wound his baby hands around Zeus, asking him to take the wrath of the earth goddess from the Pythian home. Zeus smiled, that the child so quickly came to ask for worship that pays in gold. He shook his locks of hair, put an end to the night voices, and took away from mortals the truth that appears in darkness, and gave the privilege back again to Loxias.\n", "Apollo also demanded that all the other methods of divination be made inferior, and Zeus granted him that too. Because of this, Athena, who had been practicing divination by throwing pebbles, cast her pebbles away in displeasure.\n", "However, Apollo had committed a blood murder, and had to be purified. Because Python was a child of Gaea, Gaea wanted Apollo to be banished to Tartarus as a punishment. Zeus didn't agree and instead exiled his son from Olympus, and instructed him to get purified. Apollo had to serve as a slave for nine years. After the servitude was over, as per his father's order, Apollo travelled to the Vale of Tempe to bath in waters of Peneus. There Zeus himself performed purification rites on Apollo. Purified, Apollo was escorted by his half sister Athena to Delphi where the oracular shrine was finally handed over to him by Gaea. According to a variation, Apollo had also travelled to Crete, where Carmanor had to perform purification rites on him. Apollo later established the Pythian games to appropriate Gaea. Henceforth, Apollo became the god who cleansed himself from the sin of murder and, made men aware of their guilt and purified them.\n", "Zeus sent Apollo to go to Delphi and establish his law and order there. But Apollo, disobeying his father, went to the land of Hyperborea and stayed there for a year. When he returned, he ascended back to Olympus. Zeus, pleased with his son's integrity, gave Apollo the seat next to him on his right side. He also gifted to Apollo a golden tripod, a golden bow and arrows, a golden chariot and the land of Delphi.\n", "Soon after his return, Apollo needed to recruit people to Delphi. So, when he spotted a ship sailing from Crete, he sprang aboard in the form of a dolphin. The crew was awed into submission and followed a course that led the ship to Delphi. There Apollo revealed himself as a god. Initiating them to his service, he instructed them to keep righteousness in their hearts. The Pythia was Apollo's high priestess and his mouthpiece through whom he gave prophecies. Pythia is arguably the constant favorite of Apollo among the mortals.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Childhood and Youth.:Tityos.\n", "Hera once again sent another giant, Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo shot him with his arrows and attacked him with his golden sword. According to other version, Artemis also aided him in protecting their mother by attacking Tityos with her arrows. After the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of , where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Admetus.\n", "King Admetus was the king of Pherae who was known for his hospitality. When Apollo was exiled from Olympus for killing Python, he served as a herdsman under Admetus who was still a young king. Apollo is said to have shared a romantic relationship with Admetus during his stay of 9 years. After his servitude was over, Apollo went back to Olympus as a god. \n", "Because Admetus treated Apollo well, in return, the god conferred great benefits on him. Apollo's mere presence is said to have made the cows give birth to twins . Out of love and gratitude, Apollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias. He was present during their wedding. When Admetus angered the goddess Artemis by neglecting to make her offerings, Apollo came to Admetus' rescue and calmed his sister. Much later, Apollo convinced or tricked the Fates into letting Admetus live past his time.\n", "According to another version, or perhaps some years later, when Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead, Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but his mother Leto intervened, and reminding Zeus of their old love, pleaded him not to kill their son. Zeus obliged and sentenced Apollo to one year of hard labor once again under Admetus. \n", "The love between Apollo and Admetus was a favored topic of Roman poets like Ovid and Servius.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Niobe.\n", "The fate of Niobe was prophesied by Apollo while he was still in Leto's womb. Niobe was the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion. She displayed hubris when she boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. She further mocked Apollo's effeminate appearance and Artemis' manly appearance. Leto, insulted by this, told her children to punish Niobe. Accordingly, Apollo killed Niobe's sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, among the Niobids, Chloris and her brother Amyclas were not killed because they prayed to Leto. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.\n", "A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.\n", "When Chloris married and had children, Apollo granted her son Nestor the years he had taken away from the Niobids. Hence, Nestor was able to live for 3 generations.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Exile in Troy.\n", "Once Apollo, along with Athena and Poseidon, participated in Hera's scheme to hold Zeus captive and demand a better rule from him. Though they were successful in trapping Zeus with nets, Zeus managed to get himself freed with the help of Thetis. Feeling betrayed and angry, he sent Apollo and Poseidon to serve as slaves under the Trojan king Laomedon. According to other version, both gods went there to test Laomedon. Apollo guarded the cattle of Laomedon in the valleys of mount Ida, while Poseidon built the walls of Troy. There, Apollo had a lover named Ourea, and sired a son Ileus by her.\n", "Later, Apollo was also made to build the walls. Apollo obeyed, and by playing his lyre, he built the walls of Troy. However, the king refused to give them the wages he had promised. Angered, Apollo sent a pestilence to the city. To deliver the city from it, Laomedon had to sacrifice his daughter Hesione (who would later be saved by Heracles).\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Trojan War.\n", "Apollo sided with the Trojans during the Trojan war, a war waged by the Greeks against the Trojans.\n", "During the war, Agamemnon, a Greek hero captured Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses. Angered, Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment. He demanded to return the girl, and the Achaeans (Greeks) complied, indirectly causing the \"anger of Achilles\", which is the theme of the \"Iliad\".\n", "Receiving the aegis from Zeus, Apollo entered the battlefield as per his father's wish, causing great terror to the enemy with his war cry, pushing them back and destroying many of them. He is described as \"the rouser of armies\", because he rallied the Trojan army when they were falling apart.\n", "When Zeus allowed the other gods to get involved in the war, Apollo was provoked by Poseidon to a duel. However, Apollo declined to fight him, saying that he wouldn't fight his uncle for the sake of mortals.\n", "When Diomedes, the Greek hero, injured Aeneas, a Trojan ally, Aphrodite tried to rescue him but Diomedes injured her as well. Apollo then enveloped Aeneas in a cloud to protect him. He repelled the attacks Diomedes made on him and gave the hero a stern warning to abstain himself from attacking a god. Aeneas was then taken to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy, where he was healed.\n", "After the death of Sarpedon, a son of Zeus, Apollo rescued the corpse from the battlefield as per his father's wish and cleaned it. He then gave it to Sleep (Hypnos) and Death (Thanatos). Apollo had also once convinced Athena to stop the war for that day, so that the warriors can relieve themselves for a while.\n", "The Trojan hero Hector was favored by Apollo, who, according to some, was the god's own son by Hecuba. When he got injured, Apollo healed him and encouraged him to take up the arms. During a duel with Achilles, when Hector was about to lose, Apollo hid Hector in a cloud of mist to save him. At last, after Hector's fated death, Apollo protected his corpse from Achilles' attempt to mutilate it by creating a magical cloud over the corpse.\n", "The Greek warrior Patroclus tried to get into the fort of Troy and was stopped by Apollo. Encouraging Hector to attack Patroclus, Apollo stripped the armour of Patroclus and broke his weapons. Patroclus was eventually killed by Hector.\n", "Apollo held anger towards Achilles throughout the war. The reason for this was the murder of his son Tenes before the war began, and brutal assassination of his another son Troilus in his own temple, both by Achilles. Not only did Apollo save Hector from Achilles, he also tricked Achilles by disguising himself as a Trojan warrior and driving him away from the gates. He foiled Achilles' attempt to mutilate Hector's dead body.\n", "Finally, Apollo caused Achilles' death by guiding an arrow shot by Paris into Achilles' heel. In some versions, Apollo himself killed Achilles by taking the disguise of Paris.\n", "Apollo helped many Trojan warriors, including Agenor, Polydamas, Glaucus in the battlefield. Though he greatly favored the Trojans, Apollo was bound to follow the orders of Zeus and served his father loyally during the war.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Heracles.\n", "After Heracles (then named Alcides) was struck with madness and killed his family, he sought to purify himself and consulted the oracle of Apollo. Apollo, through the Pythia, commanded him to serve king Eurystheus for twelve years and complete the ten tasks the king would give him. Only then would Alcides be absolved of his sin. Apollo also renamed him as Heracles.\n", "To complete his third task, Heracles had to capture the Ceryneian Hind, a hind sacred to Artemis, and bring it alive. He chased the hind for one year. When the animal eventually got tired and tried crossing the river Ladon, he captured it. While he was taking it back, he was confronted by Apollo and Artemis, who was angered at Heracles for this act. However, Heracles soothed the goddess, explained the situation and pleaded her. In the end, Artemis gave her consent. \n", "After he was freed from his servitude to Eurystheus, Heracles fell in conflict with Iphytus, a prince of Oechalia, and murdered him. Soon after, he contracted a terrible disease. He consulted the oracle of Apollo once again, in hopes to get rid of the disease. The Pythia, however, denied to give any prophesy. In anger, Heracles snatched the sacred tripod and started going away, intending to start his own Oracle. However, Apollo did not tolerate this and stopped Heracles. A duel ensued between Apollo and Heracles where Athena supported the latter. Soon, Zeus intervened between the fighting brothers by throwing his thunderbolt between them. He reprimanded Heracles for this act of violation, and asked Apollo to give a solution to Heracles. Apollo then ordered the hero to serve under Omphale, queen of Lydia for one year in order to purify himself.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Periphas.\n", "Periphas was an Attican king and a priest of Apollo. He was noble, just and rich. He did all his duties justly. Because of this people were very fond of him and started honouring him to the same extent as Zeus. At one point, they worshipped Periphas in place of Zeus and set up shrines and temples for him. This annoyed Zeus, who decided to annihilate the entire family of Periphas. But because he was a just king and a good devotee, Apollo intervened and requested his father to spare Periphas. Zeus considered Apollo's words and agreed to let him live. But he metamorphosed Periphas into an eagle and made the eagle the king of birds. When Periphas' wife requested Zeus to let her stay with her husband, Zeus turned her into a vulture and fulfilled her wish.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Plato's concept of soulmates.\n", "A long time ago, there were three kinds of human beings: male, descended from the sun; female, descended from the earth; and androgynous, descended from the moon. Each human being was completely round, with four arms and fours legs, two identical faces on opposite sides of a head with four ears, and all else to match. They were powerful and unruly. Otis and Ephialtes even dared to scale Mount Olympus.\n", "To check their insolence, Zeus devised a plan to humble them and improve their manners instead of completely destroying them. He cut them all in two and asked Apollo to make necessary repairs, giving humans the individual shape they still have now. Apollo turned their heads and necks around towards their wounds, he pulled together their skin at the abdomen, and sewed the skin together at the middle of it. This is what we call navel today. He smoothened the wrinkles and shaped the chest. But he made sure to leave a few wrinkles on the abdomen and around the navel so that they might be reminded of their punishment.\n", "\"As he [Zeus] cut them one after another, he bade Apollo give the face and the half of the neck a turn... Apollo was also bidden to heal their wounds and compose their forms. So Apollo gave a turn to the face and pulled the skin from the sides all over that which in our language is called the belly, like the purses which draw in, and he made one mouth at the centre [of the belly] which he fastened in a knot (the same which is called the navel); he also moulded the breast and took out most of the wrinkles, much as a shoemaker might smooth leather upon a last; he left a few wrinkles, however, in the region of the belly and navel, as a memorial of the primeval state.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Nurturer of the young.\n", "Apollo \"Kourotrophos\" is the god who nurtures and protects the children and youth, especially boys. He oversees their education and their passage into adulthood. Education is said to have originated from Apollo and the Muses. Many myths have him train his children. It was a custom for boys to cut and dedicate their long hair to Apollo after reaching adulthood. \n", "Chiron, the abandoned centaur was fostered by Apollo who instructed him in medicine, prophecy, archery and more. Chiron's calm nature and wisdom, in contrast to rest of the centaurs, is attributed to the quality education Apollo gave him. Chiron would later become a great teacher himself. \n", "Asclepius in his childhood gained much knowledge pertaining to medicinal arts by his father. However, he was later entrusted to Chiron for further education.\n", "Anius, Apollo's son by Rhoeo, was abandoned by his mother soon after his birth. Apollo brought him up and educated him in mantic arts. Anius later became the priest of Apollo and the king of Delos.\n", "Iamus was the son of Apollo and Evadne. When he reached the age of education, Apollo took him to Olympia and taught him many arts, including the ability to understand and explain the languages of birds.\n", "Idmon was educated by Apollo to be a seer. Even though he foresaw his death that would happen in his journey with the Argonauts, he embraced his destiny and died a brave death. To commemorate his son's bravery, Apollo commanded Boetians to build a town around the tomb of the hero, and to honor him. \n", "Apollo adopted Carnus, the abandoned son of Zeus and Europa. He reared the child with the help of his mother Leto and educated him to be a seer. \n", "Apollo saved a shepherd boy (name unknown) from death in a large deep cave, by the means of vultures. To thank him, the shepherd built Apollo a temple under the name Vulturius.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:God of music.\n", "Apollo's music is soulful and enchanting. His music would deliver people from their pain, and hence, like Dionysus, he is also called the liberator.\n", "Apollo often appears as the companion of the Muses and as \"Musagetes\", he leads them into dance while he sang. He is found delighting the immortal gods with his songs and music on the lyre. Apollo and the Muses are often seen on Parnassus, which is one of their favorite spots.\n", "Apollo was always invited to play music on weddings of the gods, like the marriage of Eros and Psyche, Peleus and Thetis. When Orpheus was still a child, Apollo gifted a lyre and taught him how to play it. Apollo also participated in musical contests when challenged by others. He was the victor in all those contests, but usually punished his opponents severely for their hubris.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:God of music.:Apollo's lyre.\n", "The invention of lyre is attributed either to Hermes or to Apollo himself. Distinctions have been made that Hermes invented lyre made of tortoise shell, whereas the lyre Apollo invented was a regular lyre.\n", "Myths tell that the infant Hermes stole a number of Apollo's cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made his lyre.\n", "Upon discovering the theft, Apollo confronted Hermes and asked him to return his cattle. When Hermes acted innocent, Apollo took the matter to Zeus. Zeus, having seen the events, sided with Apollo, and ordered Hermes to return the cattle. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.\n", "According to other versions, Apollo had invented the lyre himself, whose strings he tore in repent to the excess punishment he had given to Marsyas. Hermes' lyre, therefore, is rather a reinvention.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:God of music.:Contest with Pan.\n", "Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge Apollo, the god of music. The mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. It was so beautiful that Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and everyone was pleased with the judgement. Only Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:God of music.:Contest with Marsyas.\n", "Marsyas was a satyr who was punished by Apollo for his hubris. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. Athena had also placed a curse upon the instrument, that whoever would pick it up would be severely punished. When Marsyas played the flute, everyone became frenzied with joy. This led Marsyas to think that he was better than Apollo, and he challenged the god to a musical contest. The contest was judged by the Muses, or the nymphs of Nysa. Athena was also present to witness the contest. \n", "Marsyas taunted Apollo for \"wearing his hair long, for having a fair face and smooth body, for his skill in so many arts\". He also further said\n", "'His [Apollo] hair is smooth and made into tufts and curls that fall about his brow and hang before his face. His body is fair from head to foot, his limbs shine bright, his tongue gives oracles, and he is equally eloquent in prose or verse, propose which you will. What of his robes so fine in texture, so soft to the touch, aglow with purple? What of his lyre that flashes gold, gleams white with ivory, and shimmers with rainbow gems? What of his song, so cunning and so sweet? Nay, all these allurements suit with naught save luxury. To virtue they bring shame alone!'\n", "The Muses and Athena sniggered at this comment. The contestants agreed to take turns displaying their skills and the rule was that the victor can \"do whatever he wanted\" to the loser. Marsyas, since he was a satyr, expected to do something sexual in nature to Apollo when he would win the contest. \n", "According to one account, after they each had performed, both were deemed equal by the Nysiads. But in the next round, Apollo played and sang with his melodious voice at the same time. Marsyas argued against this, saying that Apollo would have an advantage and accused Apollo of cheating. But Apollo replied that since Marsyas played the flute, which needed air blown from the throat, it was almost the same as singing, and that either they both should get an equal chance to combine their skills or none of them should use their mouths at all. The nymphs decided that Apollo's arguement was just. Apollo again played his lyre and sang at the same time, mesmerising the audience. Marsyas could not do this. Apollo was declared the winner and angered with Marsyas' haughtiness and his accusation, he decided to flay the satyr.\n", "According to another account, Marsyas played his flute out of tune at one point and accepted his defeat. Out of shame, he assigned to himself the punishment of being skinned for a wine sack.\n", "Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so the Muses who were the judges declared Apollo the winner, who hung Marsyas from a tree to flay him.\n", "Apollo flayed the limbs of Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then gave the rest of his body for proper burial and nailed Marsyas' flayed skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas. But, Apollo soon repented and being distressed at what he had done, he broke the strings of his lyre and threw it away. The lyre was later discovered by the Muses and Apollo's sons Linus and Orpheus. The Muses fixed the middle string, Linus the string struck with the forefinger, and Orpheus the lowest string and the one next to it. They took it back to Apollo, but the god laid away both the lyre and the pipes, and joined Cybele in her wanderings to as far as Hyperborea.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:God of music.:Contest with Cinyras.\n", "Cinyras was a ruler of Cyprus, who was a friend of Agamemnon. Cinyras promised to assist Agamemnon in the Trojan war, but did not keep his promise. Agamemnon cursed Cinyras. He invoked Apollo and asked the god to avenge the broken promise. Apollo then had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, and defeated him. Either Cinyras committed suicide when he lost, or was killed by Apollo.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Patron of sailors.\n", "Apollo's functions as the patron and protector of sailors, one of the duties he shares with Poseidon. In the myths, he is seen helping heroes who pray to him for safe journey. \n", "When Apollo spotted a ship of Cretan sailors that was caught in a storm, he quickly assumed the shape of a dolphin and guided their ship safely to Delphi.\n", "When the Argonauts faced a terrible storm, Jason prayed to his patron, Apollo, to help them. Apollo used his bow and golden arrow to shed light upon an island , where the Argonauts soon took shelter. This island was renamed \"Anaphe\", which means \"He revealed it\".\n", "Apollo helped the Greek hero, Diomedes, to escape from a great tempest during his journey back to home. As a token of gratitude, Diomedes built a temple in honor of Apollo Epibaterius, Apollo the embarker.\n", "During the Trojan war, Odysseus came to the Trojan camp to return Chriseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses, and brought many offerings to Apollo. Pleased with this, Apollo sent gentle breezes that would help Odysseus reach safely back to the Greek camp. \n", "Arion was a poet who was kidnapped by some sailors for the rich prizes he possessed. Arion requested them to let him sing for the last time, to which the sailors consented. Arion began singing a song in praise of Apollo, seeking the god's help. Consequently, numerous dolphins surrounded the ship and when Arion jumped into the water, the dolphins carried him away safely.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Wars.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Wars.:Titanomachy.\n", "Once Hera, out of spite, aroused the Titans to war against Zeus and take away his throne. Accordingly, when the Titans tried to climb Mount Olympus, Zeus with the help of Apollo, Artemis and Athena, defeated them and cast them into tartarus.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Wars.:Trojan war.\n", "Apollo played a pivotal role in the entire Trojan war. He sided with the Trojans, and sent a terrible plague to the Greek camp, which indirectly led to the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon. He killed the Greek heroes Patroclus, Achilles, and numerous Greek soldiers. He also helped many Trojan heroes, the most important one being Hector.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Wars.:Telegony war.\n", "A war broke out between the Brygoi and the Thesprotians, who had the support of Odysseus. The gods Athena and Ares came to the battlefield and took sides. Athena helped the hero Odysseus while Ares fought alongside of the Brygoi. When Odysseus lost, Athena and Ares came into a direct duel. To stop the battling gods and the terror created by their battle, Apollo intervened and stopped the duel between them .\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Wars.:Indian war.\n", "When Zeus told that if Dionysus defeats the impudent Indians, he would earn a place among the gods, Dionysus declared a war against Indians and travelled to India along with his army of Bacchantes and satyrs. Among the warriors was Aristaeus, Apollo's son. Apollo armed his son with his own hands and gave him a bow, arrows, and fitted a strong shield to his arm. After Zeus urged Apollo to join the war, Apollo went to the battlefield.There he saw several of his nymphs and Aristaeus drowning in a river and took them to safety. He healed Aristaeus, taught him more useful healing arts and sent him back to heal the army of Dionysus. \n", "Section::::Mythology.:Wars.:Theban war.\n", "During the war between the sons of Oedipus, Apollo favored Amphiaraus, a seer and one of the leaders in the war. Though saddened that the seer was fated to be doomed in the war, Apollo made Amphiaraus' last hours glorious by \"lighting his shield and his helm with starry gleam\". When Hypseus tried to kill the hero by a spear, Apollo directed the spear towards the charioteer of Amphiaraus instead. Then Apollo himself replaced the charioteer and took the reins in his hands. He deflected many spears and arrows away them. He also killed many of the enemy warriors like Melaneus, Antiphus, Aetion, Polites and Lampus. At last when the moment of departure came, Apollo expressed his grief with tears in his eyes and bid farewell to Amphiaraus, who was soon engulfed by the Earth.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Slaying of giants.\n", "Apollo killed the giants Python and Tityos, who had assaulted his mother Leto. \n", "Section::::Mythology.:Slaying of giants.:Gigantomachy.\n", "During the gigantomachy, Apollo killed the giant Ephialtes by shooting him in his eyes. He also killed Porphyrion, the king of giants, using his bow and arrows.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Slaying of giants.:Aloadae.\n", "Otis and Ephialtes, the twin giants were together called the Aloadae. These giants are said to have grown every year by one cubit in breadth and three cubits in height. They once threatened to wage a war on gods and attempted to storm Mt. Olympus by piling up mountains. They also threatened to change land into sea and sea into land. Some say they even dared to seek the hand of Hera and Artemis in marriage. Angered by this, Apollo killed them by shooting arrows at them. According to another tale, Apollo killed them with a trick. He sent a deer between them. As they tried to kill it with their javelins, they accidentally stabbed each other and died.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Slaying of giants.:Phorbas.\n", "Phorbas was a savage giant king of Phlegyas who was described as having swine like features. He wished to plunder Delphi for its wealth. He seized the roads to Delphi and started harassing the pilgrims. He captured the old people and children and sent them to his army to hold them for ransom. And he challenged the young and sturdy men to a match of boxing, only to cut their heads off when they would get defeated by him. He hung the chopped off heads to an oak tree. Finally, Apollo came to put an end to this cruelty. He entered a boxing contest with Phorbas and killed him with a single blow.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Other stories.\n", "As a child, Apollo built an altar made of goat horns which was considered as one of the wonders of the world.\n", "In the first Olympic games, Apollo defeated Ares and became the victor in wrestling. He outran Hermes in the race and won first place.\n", "Apollo rescued Hemithea and Parthenos, sisters of Rhoeo from their drunk father and turned them into goddesses.\n", "Apollo spoke to Zeus regarding Prometheus, the titan who was punished by Zeus for stealing fire. Apollo, with tears in his eyes, pleaded Zeus to release the kind Titan. Zeus, moved by Apollo's words and the tears of Artemis and Leto, sent Heracles to free Prometheus.\n", "Apollo guided Aphrodite to his sanctuary when she was grief-stricken with Adonis' death. He helped her free herself from the heartbreak.\n", "Apollo divides months into summer and winter. He rides on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months, and the absence of warmth in winters is due to his departure. During his absence, Delphi was under the care of Dionysus, and no prophecies were given during winters.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Female lovers.\n", "Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.\n", "Daphne was a nymph whose parentage varies. She scorned Apollo's advances and ran away from him. When Apollo chased her in order to persuade her, she changed herself into a laurel tree. According to other versions, she cried for help during the chase, and Gaea helped her by taking her in and placing a laurel tree in her place. According to Roman poet Ovid, the chase was brought about by Cupid, who hit Apollo with golden arrow of love and Daphne with leaden arrow of hatred. The myth explains the origin of the laurel and connection of Apollo with the laurel and its leaves, which his priestess employed at Delphi. The leaves became the symbol of victory and laurel wreaths were given to the victors of the Pythian games.\n", "Apollo is said to have been the lover of all nine Muses, and not being able to choose one of them, decided to remain unwed. He fathered the Corybantes by the Muse Thalia, Orpheus by Calliope, Linus of Thrace by Calliope or Urania and Hymenaios(Hymen) by either Terpsichore or Clio or Calliope.\n", "Cyrene, was a Thessalian princess whom Apollo loved. In her honor, he built the city Cyrene and made her its ruler. She was later granted longevity by Apollo who turned her into a nymph. The couple had two sons, Aristaeus, and Idmon.\n", "Evadne was a nymph daughter of Poseidon and a lover of Apollo. She bore him a son, Iamos. During the time of the childbirth, Apollo sent Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth to assist her.\n", "Rhoeo, a princess of the island of Naxos was loved by Apollo. Out of affection for her, Apollo turned her sisters into goddesses. On the island Delos she bore Apollo a son named Anius. Not wanting to have the child, she entrusted the infant to Apollo and left. Apollo raised and educated the child on his own.\n", "Ourea, a daughter of Poseidon, fell in love with Apollo when he and Poseidon were serving the Trojan king Laomedon. They both united on the day the walls of Troy were built. She bore to Apollo a son, whom Apollo named Ileus, after the city of his birth, Ilion (Troy). Ileus was very dear to Apollo.\n", "Thero, daughter of Phylas, a maiden as beautiful as the moonbeams, was loved by the radiant Apollo, and she loved him in return. By their union, she became mother of Chaeron, who was famed as \"the tamer of horses\". He later built the city Chaeronea.\n", "Hyrie or Thyrie was the mother of Cycnus. Apollo turned both the mother and son into swans when they jumped into a lake and tried to kill themselves.\n", "Hecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus, and Apollo avenged his death by killing Achilles. After the sack of Troy, Hecuba was taken to Lycia by Apollo.\n", "Coronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. While pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus and slept with him. When Apollo found out about her infidelity through his prophetic powers, he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. Apollo rescued the baby by cutting open Koronis' belly and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise.\n", "In Euripides' play \"Ion\", Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. He used his powers to conceal her pregnancy from her father. Later, when Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Male lovers.\n", "Hyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning \"alas\". He was later resurrected and taken to heaven. The festival Hyacinthia was a national celebration of Sparta, which commemorated the death and rebirth of Hyacinthus.\n", "Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus was so saddened by its death that he asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.\n", "Admetus, the king of Pherae, was also Apollo's lover. During his exile, which lasted either for one year or nine years, Apollo served Admetus as a herdsman. Developing a passion for the king there, he herded and fed the cattle, and caused the cows to give birth to twin calves. He would make cheese and serve it to Admetus and was often seen being domestic, causing embarrassment to his family. \n", "When Admetus wanted to marry princess Alcestis, Apollo provided a chariot pulled by a lion and a boar he had tamed. This satisfied Alcestis' father and he let Admetus marry his daughter. Further, Apollo saved the king from Artemis' wrath and also convinced the Moirai to postpone Admetus' death once.\n", "Branchus, a shepherd, one day came across Apollo in the woods. Captivated by the god's beauty, he kissed Apollo. Apollo requited his affections and wanting to reward him, bestowed prophetic skills on him. His descendants, the Branchides, were an influential clan of prophets.\n", "Other male lovers of Apollo include:\n", "BULLET::::- Adonis, who is said to have been the lover of both Apollo and Aphrodite.\n", "BULLET::::- Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon\n", "BULLET::::- Helenus, the son of Priam and a Trojan Prince, was a lover of Apollo and received from him an ivory bow with which he later wounded Achilles in the hand.\n", "BULLET::::- Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus)\n", "BULLET::::- Hymenaios, god of marriage hymns (here, the son of Magnes)\n", "BULLET::::- Iapis\n", "BULLET::::- Phorbas, the dragon slayer (probably the son of Triopas)\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Children.\n", "Apollo sired many children, from mortal women and nymphs as well as the goddesses. His children grew up to be physicians, musicians, poets, seers or archers. Many of his sons founded new cities and became kings. They were all usually very beautiful.\n", "Asclepius is the most famous son of Apollo. His skills as a physician surpassed that of Apollo's. Zeus killed him for bringing back the dead, but upon Apollo's request, he was resurrected as a god. \n", "Aristaeus was placed under the care of Chiron after his birth. He became the god of beekeeping, cheese making, animal husbandry and more. He was ultimately given immortality for the benefits he bestowed upon the humanity. The Corybantes were spear-clashing, dancing demigods. \n", "The sons of Apollo who participated in the trojan war include Trojan princes Hector and Troilus, and Tenes, the king of Tenedos. All three killed by Achilles in the course of the war. \n", "Apollo's children who became musicians and bards include Orpheus, Linus, Ialemus, Hymenaeus, Philammon, Eumolpus and Eleuther. Apollo fathered 3 daughters, Apollonis, Borysthenis and Cephisso, who formed a group of minor Muses, the \"Musa Apollonides\". They were nicknamed Nete, Mese and Hypate after the highest, middle and lowest strings of his lyre. Phemonoe was a seer and a poetess who was the inventor of Hexameter. \n", "Apis, Idmon, Iamus, Tenerus, Mopsus, Galeus, Telmessus and others were gifted seers. Anius, Pythaeus and Ismenus lived as high priests. Most of them were trained by Apollo himself.\n", "Arabus, Delphos, Dryops, Miletos, Tenes, Epidaurus, Ceos, Lycoras, Syrus, Pisus, Marathus, Megarus, Patarus, Acraepheus, Cicon, Chaeron and many other sons of Apollo, under the guidance of his words, founded eponymous cities.\n", "He also had a son named Chrysorrhoas who was a mechanic artist. His other daughters include Eurynome, Chariclo wife of Chiron, Eurydice the wife of Orpheus, Eriopis, famous for her beautiful hair, Melite the heroine, Pamphile the silk weaver, Parthenos, and by some accounts, Phoebe, Hilyra and Scylla. Apollo turned Parthenos into a constellation after her early death. \n", "Additionally, Apollo fostered and educated Chiron, the centaur who later became the greatest teacher and educated many demigods, including Apollo's sons. Apollo also fostered Carnus, the son of Zeus and Europa.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Failed love attempts.\n", "Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.\n", "Sinope, a nymph, was approached by the amorous Apollo. She made him promise that he would grant to her whatever she would ask for, and then cleverly asked him to let her stay a virgin. Apollo kept his promise and went back.\n", "Bolina was admired by Apollo but she refused him and jumped into the sea. To avoid her death, Apollo turned her into a nymph and let her go.\n", "Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses.\n", "Cassandra, was a daughter of Hecuba and Priam. Apollo wished to court her. Cassandra promised to return his love on one condition - he should give her the power to see the future. Apollo fulfilled her wish, but she went back on her word and rejected him soon after. Angered that she broke her promise, Apollo cursed her that even though she would see the future, no one would ever believe her prophecies.\n", "Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, rejected both Apollo's and Poseidon's marriage proposals and swore that she would always stay unmarried.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Female counterparts.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Female counterparts.:Artemis.\n", "Artemis as the sister of Apollo, is \"thea apollousa\", that is, she as a female divinity represented the same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity. In the pre-Hellenic period, their relationship was described as the one between husband and wife, and there seems to have been a tradition which actually described Artemis as the wife of Apollo. However, this relationship was never sexual but spiritual, which is why they both are seen being unmarried in the Hellenic period.\n", "Artemis, like her brother, is armed with a bow and arrows. She is the cause of sudden deaths of women. She also is the protector of the young, especially girls. Though she has nothing to do with oracles, music or poetry, she sometimes led the female chorus on Olympus while Apollo sang. The laurel was sacred to both. \"Artemis Daphnaia\" had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi. In later times when Apollo was regarded as identical with the sun or Helios, Artemis was naturally regarded as Selene or the moon. \n", "The Laurel was sacred to both. \"Apollo Daphnephoros\" had a temple in Eretria, a \"place where the citizens are to take the oaths.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Female counterparts.:Hecate.\n", "Hecate, the goddess of witchcraft and magic, is the chthonic counterpart of Apollo. They both are cousins, since their mothers - Leto and Asteria - are sisters. One of Apollo's epithets, \"Hecatos\", is the masculine form of Hecate, and both the names mean \"working from afar\". While Apollo presided over the prophetic powers and magic of light and heaven, Hecate presided over the prophetic powers and magic of night and chthonian darkness. If Hecate is the \"gate-keeper\", Apollo \"Agyieus\" is the \"door-keeper\". Hecate is the goddess of crossroads and Apollo is the god and protector of streets.\n", "The oldest evidence found for Hecate's worship is at Apollo's temple in Miletos. There, Hecate was taken to be Apollo's sister counterpart in the absence of Artemis. Hecate's lunar nature makes her the goddess of the waning moon and contrats and complements, at the same time, Apollo's solar nature.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Female counterparts.:Athena.\n", "As a deity of knowledge and great power, Apollo was seen being the male counterpart of Athena. Being Zeus' favorite children, they were given more powers and duties. Apollo and Athena often took up the role as protectors of cities, and were patrons of some of the important cities. Athena was the principle goddess of Athens, Apollo was the principle god of Sparta.\n", "As patrons of arts, Apollo and Athena were companions of the Muses, the former a much more frequent companion than the latter. Apollo was sometimes called the son of Athena and Hephaestus due to his wise and artistic nature.\n", "In the Trojan war, as Zeus' executive, Apollo is seen holding the aegis like Athena usually does. Apollo's decisions were usually approved by his sister Athena, and they both worked to establish the law and order set forth by Zeus.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Apollo in the \"Oresteia\".\n", "In Aeschylus' \"Oresteia\" trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies (female personifications of vengeance).\n", "Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he drives them away. He says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.\n", "Section::::Mythology.:Roman Apollo.\n", "The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.\n", "On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \"Apollinare\". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the \"Ludi Apollinares\" (\"Apollonian Games\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.\n", "After the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.\n", "Section::::Festivals.\n", "The chief Apollonian festival was the Pythian Games held every four years at Delphi and was one of the four great Panhellenic Games. Also of major importance was the Delia held every four years on Delos.\n", "Athenian annual festivals included the Boedromia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, and Thargelia.\n", "Spartan annual festivals were the Carneia and the Hyacinthia.\n", "Thebes every nine years held the Daphnephoria.\n", "Section::::Attributes and symbols.\n", "Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.\n", "The palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.\n", "As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called \"Appaliunas\" or \"Apalunas\" in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of \"Lykegenes\" can simply be read as \"born in Lycia\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).\n", "In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.\n", "Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.\n", "Section::::Apollo in the arts.\n", "Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \"delight\" (, \"agalma\"), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.\n", "The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.\n", "The evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greece the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalism with stylization.\n", "Section::::Apollo in the arts.:Art and Greek philosophy.\n", "The evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.\n", "Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation. The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (, \"eikones\", \"images\") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art. The Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection. (canon).\n", "In classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of \"ideal forms\" to his metaphysical theory of \"forms\" (\"ideai\", \"ideas\"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words \"oida\" (, \"(I) know\") and \"eidos\" (, \"species\"), a thing seen, have the same root as the word \"idea\" (), a thing ἰδείν to see. indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.\n", "Section::::Apollo in the arts.:Archaic sculpture.\n", "Kouros (\"male youth\") is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of \"Apollo\". The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods. The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in \"ideal forms\" that can be imagined and represented. These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of \"ideal balance and order\". His shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: (gnōthi seautón=\"know thyself\") and (\"mēdén ágan\", \"nothing in excess\"), and (eggýa pára d'atē, \"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\").\n", "In the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself. A fine example is the statue of the \"Sacred Gate Kouros\" which was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the \"thing in itself\", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the \"New York kouros\", which is the oldest fully preserved statue of \"Kouros\" type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.\n", "The animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus (Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment. These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.\n", "The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of \"Apollo Ptoios\", Boeotia alone. The last stage in the development of the \"Kouros type\" is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.\n", "Section::::Apollo in the arts.:Classical sculpture.\n", "At the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoan element. Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his \"Canon\" wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras.\n", "The famous \"Apollo of Mantua\" and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm. The type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the \"cythara\" against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.\n", "Though the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self. Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.\n", "Section::::Apollo in the arts.:Pediments and friezes.\n", "In the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.\n", "The Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.\n", "These representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and from a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.\n", "Section::::Apollo in the arts.:Hellenistic Greece-Rome.\n", "Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.\n", "The life-size so-called \"Adonis\" found in 1780 on the site of a \"villa suburbana\" near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman \"Thysdrus\", he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.\n", "Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.\n", "Section::::Modern reception.\n", "Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a \"Hymn of Apollo\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's \"Apollon musagète\" (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs \"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\"/\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\".\n", "In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.\n", "Charles Handy, in \"Gods of Management\" (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organisational culture. Apollo represents a 'role' culture where order, reason, and bureaucracy prevail.\n", "In spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Dryad\n", "BULLET::::- Epirus\n", "BULLET::::- Pasiphaë\n", "BULLET::::- Phoebus (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Sibylline oracles\n", "BULLET::::- Tegyra\n", "BULLET::::- Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Primary sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Hesiod, \"Theogony\", in \"The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White\", Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n", "BULLET::::- Homer, \"The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes\". Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n", "BULLET::::- Homer; \"The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes\". Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n", "BULLET::::- Sophocles, \"Oedipus Rex\"\n", "BULLET::::- Palaephatus, \"On Unbelievable Tales\" 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE)\n", "BULLET::::- Apollodorus, \"Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.\" Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n", "BULLET::::- Ovid, \"Metamorphoses\" 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE)\n", "BULLET::::- Pausanias, \"Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.\" Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n", "BULLET::::- Philostratus the Elder, \"Images\" i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)\n", "BULLET::::- Philostratus the Younger, \"Images\" 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)\n", "BULLET::::- Lucian, \"Dialogues of the Gods\" 14 (170 CE)\n", "BULLET::::- First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae\n", "Section::::References.:Secondary sources.\n", "BULLET::::- M. Bieber, 1964. \"Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art\". Chicago.\n", "BULLET::::- Hugh Bowden, 2005. \"Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy\". Cambridge University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Walter Burkert, 1985. \"Greek Religion\" (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 \"passim\"\n", "BULLET::::- Gantz, Timothy, \"Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources\", Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Graves, 1960. \"The Greek Myths\", revised edition. Penguin.\n", "BULLET::::- Miranda J. Green, 1997. \"Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend\", Thames and Hudson.\n", "BULLET::::- Karl Kerenyi, 1953. \"Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität\" revised edition.\n", "BULLET::::- Karl Kerenyi, 1951. \"The Gods of the Greeks\"\n", "BULLET::::- Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. \"Città e monumenti dei Greci d'Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.\". Roma L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. .\n", "BULLET::::- Martin Nilsson, 1955. \"Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion\", vol. I. C.H. Beck.\n", "BULLET::::- Pauly–Wissowa, \"Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft\": II, \"Apollon\". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert).\n", "BULLET::::- Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. \"Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst\". Traces the changing iconography of Apollo.\n", "BULLET::::- D.S.Robertson (1945) \"A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture\" Cambridge University Press\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, William; \"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology\", London (1873). \"Apollo\"\n", "BULLET::::- Spivey Nigel (1997) \"Greek art\" Phaedon Press Ltd.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada\n", "BULLET::::- The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1650 images of Apollo\n" ] }

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125, 132, 147, 197, 216, 13, 20, 39, 63, 91, 112, 47, 94, 110, 175, 218, 13, 73, 147, 162, 321, 394, 194, 275, 296, 385, 38, 180, 193, 439, 713, 756, 794, 828, 853, 79, 95, 143, 171, 199, 206, 254, 300, 343, 370, 84, 280, 11, 8, 22, 419, 32, 18, 52, 150, 187, 15, 37, 60, 73, 6, 17, 136, 155, 199, 99, 121, 21, 70, 21, 114, 132, 108, 144, 19, 63, 145, 17, 19, 22, 22, 48, 31, 61, 97, 107, 21, 35, 64, 92, 210, 49, 78, 172, 29, 118, 125, 26, 103, 131, 29, 100, 111, 26, 118, 29, 28, 87, 113, 137, 28, 140, 157, 173, 44, 54, 141, 219, 386, 405, 492, 613, 82, 161, 243, 255, 329, 615, 719, 60, 104, 202, 154, 175, 213, 345, 373, 378, 503, 64, 179, 197, 224, 563, 637, 70, 191, 396, 416, 537, 17, 113, 174, 202, 294, 221, 265, 310, 329, 369, 397, 451, 29, 193, 213, 233, 284, 327, 333, 459, 9, 15, 138, 302, 62, 134, 180, 211, 246, 256, 535, 605, 615, 628, 382, 394, 5, 52, 90, 248, 256, 504, 99, 109, 169, 250, 280, 402, 410, 482, 40, 66, 72, 83, 99, 146, 190, 251, 376, 415, 595, 5, 48, 79, 102, 251, 257, 351, 495, 590, 40, 228, 371, 19, 51, 63, 90, 147, 288, 345, 539, 740, 99, 110, 143, 162, 272, 445, 484, 689, 700, 852, 914, 26, 70, 85, 114, 124, 151, 169, 240, 16, 26, 18, 37, 21, 54, 22, 73, 21, 31, 20, 21, 33, 64, 121, 21, 57, 78, 87, 95, 272, 33, 97, 135, 21, 31, 22, 21, 38, 61, 50, 288, 455, 549, 1166, 15, 254, 388, 26, 174, 295, 19, 619, 667, 18, 25, 250, 374, 437, 18, 25, 19, 32, 44, 231, 19, 28, 92, 266, 338, 25, 37, 191, 25, 43, 21, 31, 203, 28, 37, 118, 19, 27, 38, 47, 300, 18, 421, 17, 27, 16, 24, 65, 93, 131, 160, 202, 18, 32, 151, 169, 179, 238, 323, 371, 381, 17, 165, 20, 29, 159, 329, 18, 32, 53, 18, 41, 198, 406, 21, 28, 39, 48, 454, 16, 25, 205, 27, 36, 271, 19, 379, 478, 47, 236, 292, 47, 149, 204, 18, 32, 39, 60, 154, 20, 41, 116, 374, 48, 299, 359, 488, 77, 131, 300, 417, 10, 152, 513, 641, 654, 212, 83, 310, 363, 6, 18, 93, 204, 205, 388, 474, 134, 160, 104, 226, 405, 433, 549, 702, 787, 137, 381, 42, 335, 422, 12, 35, 225, 254, 474, 103, 190, 272, 310, 455, 80, 92, 17, 107, 127, 149, 236, 40, 54, 125, 68, 30, 43, 244, 351, 304, 342, 51, 25, 57, 98, 289, 324, 19, 13, 45, 71, 358, 27, 164, 185, 22, 101, 27, 106, 180, 72, 86, 52, 63, 72, 14, 213, 70, 414, 798, 814, 8, 355, 369, 403, 358, 435, 224, 6, 29, 9, 5, 28, 5, 38, 5, 127, 21, 59, 50, 68, 188, 238, 90, 101, 109, 120, 379, 113, 170, 288, 147, 8, 133, 273, 636, 7, 19, 61, 84, 142, 493, 517, 94, 135, 13, 64, 75, 90, 450, 462, 695, 737, 29, 60, 262, 291, 100, 18, 48, 231, 38, 31, 115, 5, 9, 63, 147, 186, 197, 181, 195, 233, 344, 34, 88, 114, 31, 196, 207, 241, 470, 42, 69, 291, 578, 588, 616, 23, 58, 113, 68, 7, 43, 26, 48, 101, 23, 55, 41, 80, 106, 254, 6, 18, 259, 356, 394, 519, 615, 722, 55, 150, 169, 178, 190, 207, 229, 243, 272, 280, 6, 221, 232, 6, 88, 147, 5, 183, 29, 114, 161, 265, 5, 25, 248, 40, 6, 33, 41, 86, 97, 232, 7, 33, 54, 85, 119, 134, 355, 362, 12, 23, 45, 55, 71, 201, 257, 8, 71, 148, 224, 372, 566, 33, 59, 156, 344, 7, 46, 267, 8, 18, 20, 62, 19, 32, 80, 21, 69, 17, 19, 9, 9, 236, 83, 95, 106, 127, 64, 71, 80, 87, 102, 112, 125, 165, 178, 191, 360, 4, 11, 18, 27, 35, 43, 90, 112, 6, 15, 23, 32, 39, 50, 65, 72, 119, 100, 110, 125, 135, 164, 203, 225, 301, 49, 181, 198, 209, 8, 30, 68, 6, 6, 8, 20, 82, 122, 9, 6, 474, 76, 6, 133, 145, 93, 324, 364, 66, 71, 12, 23, 46, 80, 131, 252, 291, 397, 445, 55, 456, 88, 293, 333, 70, 209, 243, 380, 26, 177, 227, 259, 319, 363, 51, 131, 171, 48, 61, 72, 87, 41, 60, 6, 45, 54, 100, 140, 155, 219, 273, 328, 344, 418, 13, 83, 125, 145, 151, 160, 196, 204, 211, 293, 172, 183, 217, 312, 322, 426, 532, 731, 116, 268, 409, 529, 47, 72, 86, 99, 121, 86, 107, 136, 223, 244, 440, 460, 571, 145, 165, 186, 352, 477, 31, 119, 6, 146, 388, 1173, 325, 497, 548, 574, 739, 758, 97, 156, 166, 191, 221, 313, 88, 121, 320, 633, 658, 834, 1154, 1236, 40, 222, 290, 522, 767, 88, 136, 190, 391, 293, 339, 21, 31, 261, 419, 430, 74, 97, 161, 184, 213, 225, 345, 381, 435, 502, 31, 80, 103, 237, 292, 314, 356, 447, 49, 77, 182, 277, 83, 196, 216, 262, 280, 347, 95, 227, 289, 308, 13, 126, 199, 24, 84, 17, 18, 20, 36, 29, 18, 45, 18, 29, 245, 17, 222, 17, 224, 21, 23, 23, 261, 16, 21, 272, 34, 36, 18, 38, 26, 25, 24, 25, 26, 82, 108, 18, 81 ], "text": [ "Attic", "Ionic", "Homeric Greek", "Olympian deities", "classical Greek", "Roman religion", "Greek", "Roman mythology", "Zeus", "Leto", "Artemis", "kouros", "Etruscan mythology", "Delphi", "oracular", "deity", "Delphic Oracle", "Asclepius", "plague", "attribute of Apollo", "colonists", "Helios", "Titan", "god of the sun", "conflation", "Sol", "Attic", "Ionic", "Homeric Greek", "Doric", "Arcadocypriot", "Aeolic", "older name", "Linear B", "Mycenean Greek", "lacunose", "KN", "etymology", "Classical Attic", "common era", "Doric", "apellaia", "apellai", "Apella", "ecclesia", "R. S. P. Beekes", "Pre-Greek", "popular etymology", "Plato", "Cratylus", "Hesychius", "ancient Macedonian language", "toponyms", "Pella", "ancient Macedonia", "Pallene", "Hittite", "Apaliunas", "Manapa-Tarhunta letter", "Hurrian", "Etruscan", "Aplu", "Akkadian", "Enlil", "Nergal", "Shamash", "Apollo Smintheus", "apotropaic", "Hittite", "Luwian", "epithet", "Latin literature", "Helios", "Lyceus", "Proto-Greek", "Leto", "Lycia", "Sol", "Mount Cynthus", "Delos", "Artemis", "Delphi", "Actium", "Boeotia", "Acraephia", "Acraepheus", "etiology", "Homeric Hymns", "Epactaeus", "Samos", "Smintheus", "Troad", "Hamaxitus", "Elis", "agora", "Acestor", "temple", "Bellona", "Paean", "Agyieus", "Alexicacus", "Archegetes", "Doric", "Doric", "Muse", "Amphion", "Niobe", "Amazonius", "Pausanias", "Description of Greece", "Pyrrhichus", "Amazons", "Roman Empire", "Celtic", "Celtic gods", "Apollo Atepomarus", "Mauvières", "Indre", "Apollo Belenus", "Gaul", "Noricum", "Apollo Cunomaglus", "Nettleton Shrub", "Wiltshire", "Apollo Grannus", "Maponus", "Apollo Moritasgus", "Apollo Vindonnus", "Essarois", "Châtillon-sur-Seine", "Burgundy", "Apollo Virotutis", "Haute-Savoie", "Jublains", "Maine-et-Loire", "Delphi", "Delos", "Artemis", "Pytho", "archaic Greece", "prophet", "classical Greece", "Walter Burkert", "omina", "omen", "Anatolia", "ritual", "legalism", "Anatolia", "Greek people", "Paean", "Iliad", "Mycenean", "Vedic", "Rudra", "Achaeans", "hecatomb", "v.", "n.", "healing", "apotropaic", "Dionysus", "Helios", "Asclepius", "Python", "Roman", "apellai", "Doric", "Ancient Macedonian", "Pella", "Omphalos", "Homeric hymn", "Dark Ages", "Mycenaean civilization", "Gaia", "Python", "Delphyne", "Typhon", "Zeus", "Titanomachy", "Python", "daemon", "Minoan", "Artemis", "Germanic", "Norse mythology", "Greek mythology", "nymphs", "Nordic", "Elves", "arrow", "Vedic", "Rudra", "Shiva", "Indo-European", "Mycenaean", "Lab(r)yadai", "Minoan", "labrys", "Cretan", "labyrinth", "Artemis", "Britomartis", "Diktynna", "Minoan", "Sibyl", "Anatolia", "Plato", "Dodona", "mania", "Near East", "Mari", "Anatolia", "Leto", "Lydia", "Asia Minor", "Anatolia", "Sibyl", "Assyro", "Babylon", "Hittites", "Plutarch", "Creta", "seer", "Epimenides", "Athens", "Alcmeonidae", "sacrifice", "Solon", "shamanic religions of Asia", "Homeric", "Anatolia", "Homer", "Trojans", "Achaeans", "Trojan War", "Wilusa", "Troy", "Homer", "Artemis", "Lydian", "agyieus", "full moon", "Babylonia", "Late Bronze Age", "Hittite", "Hurrian", "plague", "apotropaic", "Nergal", "Shamash", "Iliad", "Paean", "Delos", "Delphi", "Delian Apollo", "Pythian Apollo", "cult", "archaic period", "theophoric names", "Didyma", "Clarus", "all-encompassing, highest deity", "Julian the Apostate", "oracle", "Clarus", "Branchidae", "Abae", "Phocis", "toponym", "Abaeus", "Croesus", "Abae", "Phocis", "Bassae", "Peloponnese", "Clarus", "Asia Minor", "Corinth", "Tenea", "Khyrse", "Troad", "Delos", "Delphi", "Pythia", "pneuma", "Adyton", "Didyma", "Anatolia", "Lydia", "Luwian", "Sardis", "Branchus", "Hierapolis Bambyce", "De Dea Syria", "Syrian Goddess", "Patara", "Lycia", "Segesta", "Oropus", "Athens", "Amphiaraus", "Trophonius", "Crete", "divine", "Doric order", "Pythagoras", "Doric order", "Ionic order", "Corinthian order", "Thebes, Greece", "Doric", "Daphnephoria", "Eretria", "stylobate", "pteron", "Dreros", "Crete", "Delphi", "Minoan", "Doric", "Gortyn", "Crete", "Thermon", "West Greece", "Doric", "peristyle", "Corinth", "Doric", "stylobate", "Delphi", "Doric order", "Lesbos", "Aeolic", "Aeolic", "Cyrene, Libya", "Doric", "Naukratis", "Ionic", "Ionic order", "Syracuse, Sicily", "Doric", "stylobate", "Selinus", "Sicily", "Doric", "Temple C", "Syracuse", "Delphi", "Thebes, Greece", "Chios", "Ionic", "Abae", "Phocis", "Persia", "Xerxes", "Boeotia", "Hadrian", "Mycenae", "Bassae", "Peloponnesus", "Iktinos", "Doric", "Ionic", "Corinthian", "stylobate", "Doric", "peristyle", "Delos", "Doric", "Ambracia", "Doric", "Arta", "stylobate", "Didyma", "Miletus", "Ionic", "Clarus", "Colophon", "Doric", "Hadrian", "Hamaxitus", "Troad", "Iliad", "Chryses", "stylobate", "Veii", "Etruria", "Tuscan", "Falerii Veteres", "Etruria", "Apollo Soranus", "Pompeii", "Tuscan", "Ionic", "temple of Apollo Sosianus", "Gaius Sosius", "Corinthian", "temple of Apollo Palatinus", "Augustus", "Ionic", "Melite", "Mdina", "Malta", "Temple of Apollo", "Aletheia", "Hera", "Leto", "terra firma", "Delos", "Eileithyia", "Themis", "ambrosia", "lyre", "Thargelion", "Bysios", "Artemis", "Ortygia", "Hyperborea", "Pythian games", "Delphi", "Abaris", "Aristeas", "Archegetes", "Thriae", "Phoebe", "Delphi", "Python", "chthonic", "Delphic Oracle", "Typhon", "Hephaestus", "Paean", "Corycian cave", "Euripides", "Iphigenia in Aulis", "Gaea", "Olympus", "Vale of Tempe", "Peneus", "Athena", "Carmanor", "Pythian games", "Hyperborea", "Pythia", "Tityos", "Tartarus", "vulture", "King Admetus", "Pherae", "Alcestis", "King Pelias", "Fates", "Asclepius", "Cyclopes", "Tartarus", "Leto", "hard labor", "Ovid", "Servius", "Niobe", "Thebes", "Amphion", "hubris", "Niobids", "Mount Sipylos", "Asia Minor", "Achelous", "Nestor", "Athena", "Poseidon", "Thetis", "Laomedon", "Hesione", "Heracles", "Trojan war", "Agamemnon", "Chryseis", "Chryses", "anger of Achilles", "Iliad", "aegis", "Diomedes", "Aeneas", "Aphrodite", "Troy", "Sarpedon", "Hypnos", "Thanatos", "Hector", "Hecuba", "Patroclus", "Tenes", "Troilus", "Paris", "Achilles", "Agenor", "Polydamas", "Glaucus", "Heracles", "Eurystheus", "Ceryneian Hind", "Oracle", "Omphale", "Lydia", "Periphas", "Otis", "Ephialtes", "Mount Olympus", "abdomen", "navel", "Muses", "Chiron", "centaur", "Asclepius", "Anius", "Rhoeo", "Iamus", "Evadne", "Idmon", "Argonauts", "Carnus", "Europa", "Muses", "Musagetes", "lyre", "Parnassus", "Eros", "Psyche", "Peleus", "Thetis", "hubris", "Pylos", "tortoise", "lyre", "Marsyas", "Pan", "Tmolus", "Midas", "donkey", "Marsyas", "satyr", "hubris", "aulos", "Athena", "Muse", "Nysa", "Nysiads", "flute", "flayed", "Celaenae", "Phrygia", "hubris", "Linus", "Orpheus", "Cybele", "Hyperborea", "Cyprus", "Agamemnon", "lyre", "Cinyras", "Poseidon", "Argonauts", "Jason", "Anaphe", "Diomedes", "Odysseus", "Chryses", "Arion", "Hera", "Zeus", "Mount Olympus", "Artemis", "Athena", "Achilles", "Agamemnon", "Patroclus", "Hector", "Brygoi", "Odysseus", "Ares", "Dionysus", "Bacchantes", "satyrs", "Aristaeus", "nymphs", "Oedipus", "Amphiaraus", "Hypseus", "Melaneus", "Antiphus", "Lampus", "gigantomachy", "Ephialtes", "Porphyrion", "Aloadae", "Phorbas", "Phlegyas", "Olympic games", "Ares", "Hermes", "Hemithea", "Rhoeo", "Prometheus", "Adonis", "Hyperborea", "Dionysus", "Daphne", "nymph", "Gaea", "Ovid", "Cupid", "laurel", "Delphi", "Pythian games", "Muses", "Corybantes", "Thalia", "Orpheus", "Calliope", "Linus of Thrace", "Urania", "Hymenaios", "Terpsichore", "Clio", "Cyrene", "Aristaeus", "Idmon", "Evadne", "Iamos", "Eileithyia", "Rhoeo", "Anius", "Poseidon", "Laomedon", "Troy", "Troy", "Thero", "Phylas", "Chaeronea", "Cycnus", "Hecuba", "Priam", "Troy", "Troilus", "oracle", "Achilleus", "Coronis", "Phlegyas", "Lapiths", "Asclepius", "Ischys", "Elatus", "centaur", "Chiron", "Euripides", "Ion", "Ion", "Creusa", "Xuthus", "Hermes", "Delphi", "Hyacinth", "Sparta", "discus", "Zephyrus", "flower", "Hyacinthia", "Cyparissus", "Heracles", "javelin", "Cypress", "Admetus", "Alcestis", "Moirai", "Branchus", "Adonis", "Atymnius", "Sarpedon", "Helenus", "Sicyon", "Hippolytus, the son of Theseus", "Hymenaios", "Magnes", "Iapis", "Phorbas", "Asclepius", "Aristaeus", "Corybantes", "Hector", "Troilus", "Tenes", "Tenedos", "Orpheus", "Linus", "Ialemus", "Hymen", "Philammon", "Eumolpus", "Eleuther", "Apollonis", "Borysthenis", "Cephisso", "Phemonoe", "Apis", "Idmon", "Iamus", "Tenerus", "Mopsus", "Galeus", "Anius", "Ismenus", "Arabus", "Delphos", "Dryops", "Miletos", "Tenes", "Epidaurus", "Lycoras", "Syrus", "Acraepheus", "Eurynome", "Chariclo", "Chiron", "Eurydice", 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{ "description": "god in Greek mythology", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q37340", "wikidata_label": "Apollo", "wikipedia_title": "Apollo", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Phoebus" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mixmaster Morris\n", "Mixmaster Morris (born Morris Gould, 30 December 1965) is an English ambient DJ and underground musician. Famous for his, \"It's time to lie down and be counted\" quote, relating specifically to ambient music, Morris stated \"It's exactly what you need if you have a busy and stressful life\".\n", "Section::::Life and career.\n", "Morris Gould was born in Brighton, Sussex, England, but grew up in Lincolnshire and was educated at Millfield in Somerset, and King's College London. At 15 he founded a punk rock band, The Ripchords, whose sole release, an eponymous EP with four tracks, was championed by the BBC Radio One DJ John Peel. After leaving university, he began working as a DJ in 1985 with his \"Mongolian Hip Hop Show\" on pirate radio station Network 21 in London – the handle Mixmaster Morris was suggested by the station director. After a year of managing a club called \"The Gift\" in New Cross, which had been founded by Keith Gallagher and named after a Velvet Underground song, Morris began releasing material as The Irresistible Force in 1987 in collaboration with singer-songwriter Des de Moor. He became involved with the emerging UK acid house scene, after organising Madhouse at The Fridge, Brixton in 1988 – which was the subject of a piece by Peel in \"The Observer\".\n", "A show with the band Psychic TV led to him becoming full-time DJ with The Shamen, and touring with them on their 'Synergy' tours for nearly two years.\n", "The first release as The Irresistible Force was the single, \"I Want To\" (1988), but success came with the first album, \"Flying High\", released in 1992 on Rising High Records. In 1994, Morris released the second album \"Global Chillage\" which featured a holographic sleeve, and was released in the US on Astralwerks. After a period of legal problems the third album \"It's Tomorrow Already\" came out on Ninja Tune.\n", "In 1990, he made one of the first chillout compilations, \"Give Peace a Dance 2: The Ambient Collection\" for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, followed by the series \"Chillout or Die\" for Rising High Records. A mix tape for \"Mixmag\" shared with Alex Patterson was also released as a CD. \"The Morning After\" became his first major-label mix album, followed by \"Abstract Funk Theory\" for Obsessive.\n", "Through the 1990s he was a regular DJ in the chill out room at Return to the Source parties in London, around the UK and abroad. In 2003 he released the mix CD \"God Bless the Chilled\" for the Return to the Source Ambient Meditations series.\n", "He has produced many remixes since 1985, including Coldcut's \"Autumn Leaves\". This remix was nominated by Norman Cook as his favourite chillout track on BBC Television. His mix for INXS was a Top 20 hit in the UK. Other early remixes were of Lloyd Cole, Dave Howard Singers, Bang Bang Machine, Stump, Higher Intelligence Agency, Sven Vath and Rising High Collective.\n", "In the early 1990s his key residencies were alongside the Detroit masters at Lost, Megatripolis at London's Heaven, and also the Tribal Gathering parties. He became known for wearing holographic suits, produced by the company Spacetime, which he modelled for \"Vogue\" magazine. Throughout the decade, Morris wrote about electronic music for the \"NME\", \"Mixmag\", and \"i-D\". He was resident on Kiss FM for several years, and then a regular on Solid Steel, the Ninja Tune syndicated radio show. He made his film debut in \"Modulations\" (Caipirinha Films), and his music was used in a number of other films including \"Groove\" and \"Hey Happy\".\n", "Morris has played in over fifty countries at nightclubs and parties, and particularly music festivals such as the Full Moon parties in the Mojave Desert, Glastonbury Festival, Rainbow 2000 and Mother SOS in Japan, Chillits in Northern California, and Berlin's Love Parade. He also ran the downtempo night Nubient in Brixton. In 1995, he played at the first The Big Chill festival, and then became a resident for the next 16 years.\n", "He also collaborated with the German musician Pete Namlook under the name Dreamfish, recording two albums. Also with SF-based musician Jonah Sharp and Haruomi Hosono of Yellow Magic Orchestra he made the album \"Quiet Logic\" for the Japanese label Daisyworld.\n", "In 1998 he joined the UK's Ninja Tune record label, with whom he toured as a DJ and made three releases. 1999 saw him win 'Best Chillout DJ' at the Ibiza DJ Awards at Pacha, Ibiza, and in 2001 he won the title for a second time, becoming the first DJ to achieve this. He has appeared in many lists of the worlds top DJ's including the Ministry of Sound book \"The Annual\" and 2003's \"DJs by Lopez\", and \"URB Magazine\"'s Top 100 DJ list. Morris records regular radio shows for the Japanese internet radio station Samurai FM. In 2006 he started a new club at the Big Chill House in Kings Cross, London, and did a guest mix for BBC Radio 1's \"The Blue Room\" show. His essay about jazz was published in the book, \"Crossfade\", and he made a one-off appearance reading it aloud.\n", "In March 2007, together with Coldcut, he organised a tribute show to the writer and philosopher Robert Anton Wilson, which they performed at the Queen Elizabeth Hall. He also played in Goa for the first time with The Big Chill, and started a new residency at The Prince in Brixton. In May 2008 Morris undertook an ambient mix on BBC Radio 1, and put a The Irresistible Force band together to play at The Big Chill festival. In 2009, he compiled a podcast for Tate Britain to accompany their Altermodern exhibition, and opened a new AV night called MMMTV in Camden. The mix CD, \"Calm Down My Selector\" was released in January by Wakyo Records, and he made a tour of Japan to promote it.\n", "In 2010, he won another Ibiza DJ Award, for the third time. In October that year, he was announced as Head of A+R for Apollo Records. 2011 saw him rejoin Bestival as part of their \"Ambient Forest\" team.\n", "2017 saw Morris continue to stay at the top of the psybient/downtempo movement and charts, especially mixcloud where he held top positions in most categories relating to ambient music for the full year. 2017 also saw the triumphant return of Mixmaster Morris with his acclaimed release \"Kira Kira\", a lush soundscape that was received well by many publications and listeners and earned a spot in \"Extreme Chill's\" top twenty of 2017 along such luminaries as Brian Eno and Steve Roach.\n", "Section::::Discography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Flying High\" – Rising High Records (1992)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Global Chillage\" – Rising High Records (1994)\n", "BULLET::::- \"It's Tomorrow Already\" – Ninja Tune (1998)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kira Kira\" – Liquid Sound Design (2017)\n", "Section::::Appearances in media.\n", "BULLET::::- The track \"Power\" from \"It's Tomorrow Already\" was used as bumper music during the 2009 Australian Open tennis tournament.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of ambient music artists\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Toop, David. \"Ocean of Sound\". Serpents Tail, 1995\n", "BULLET::::- Prendergast, Mark. \"The Ambient Century\". Bloomsbury Publishing, 2000\n", "BULLET::::- Gill, John. \"Queer Noises\". Cassell, 1995\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Richard. \"Seduced And Abandoned\". Cassell, 1995\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English ambient DJ", "enwikiquote_title": "Mixmaster Morris", "wikidata_id": "Q3317284", "wikidata_label": "Mixmaster Morris", "wikipedia_title": "Mixmaster Morris", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Maus (disambiguation)\n", "Maus is a series of Pulitzer Prize-winning graphic novels by Art Spiegelman.\n", "Maus may also refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maus\", the German word for mouse\n", "BULLET::::- Burg Maus, a castle in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany\n", "BULLET::::- \"Die Sendung mit der Maus\", a children's television show from Germany\n", "BULLET::::- Maus (band), an Icelandic rock band\n", "BULLET::::- MAUS mine (), an Italian designed anti-personnel scatter mine\n", "BULLET::::- Panzer VIII Maus, a German World War II super-heavy tank\n", "BULLET::::- DarkMaus, a video game\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Mau (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Maws (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Maastricht\n", "Maastricht (, , ; Limburgish : ; ; ) is a city and a municipality in the southeast of the Netherlands. It is the capital and largest city of the province of Limburg. Maastricht is located on both sides of the Meuse (Dutch: \"Maas\"), at the point where the Jeker joins it. It is adjacent to the border with Belgium.\n", "Maastricht developed from a Roman settlement to a medieval religious centre. In the 16th century it became a garrison town and in the 19th century an early industrial city. Today, the city is a thriving cultural and regional hub. It became well known through the Maastricht Treaty and as the birthplace of the euro. Maastricht has 1677 national heritage buildings (\"Rijksmonumenten\"), the second highest number in the Netherlands, after Amsterdam. The city is visited by tourists for shopping and recreation, and has a large international student population. Maastricht is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network and is part of the Meuse-Rhine Euroregion, which includes the nearby German and Belgian cities of Aachen, Eupen, Hasselt, Liège, and Tongeren. The Meuse-Rhine Euroregion is a metropolis with a population of about 3.9 million with several international universities.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Toponymy.\n", "Maastricht is mentioned in ancient documents as \"[Ad] Treiectinsem [urbem]\" ab. 575, \"Treiectensis\" in 634, \"Triecto, Triectu\" in 7th century, \"Triiect\" in 768-781, \"Traiecto\" in 945, \"Masetrieth\" in 1051.\n", "The place name \"Maastricht\" is an Old Dutch compound \"Masa-\" ( \"Maas\" \"the Meuse river\") + Old Dutch \"*treiekt\", itself borrowed from Gallo-Romance cf. its Walloon name \"li trek\", from Classical Latin \"trajectus\" (\"ford, passage, place to cross a river\") with the later addition of \"Maas\" \"Meuse\" to avoid the confusion with the \"-trecht\" of Utrecht having exactly the same original form and etymology. The Latin name first appears in medieval documents and it is not known whether \"*Trajectu(s)\" was Maastricht's name during Roman times. A resident of Maastricht is referred to as \"Maastrichtenaar\" whilst in the local dialect it is either \"Mestreechteneer\" or, colloquially, \"Sjeng\" (derived from the formerly popular French name \"Jean\").\n", "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "Neanderthal remains have been found to the west of Maastricht (Belvédère excavations). Of a later date are Palaeolithic remains, between 8,000 and 25,000 years old. Celts lived here around 500 BC, at a spot where the river Meuse was shallow and therefore easy to cross.\n", "It is not known when the Romans arrived in Maastricht, or whether the settlement was founded by them. The Romans built a bridge across the Meuse in the 1st century AD, during the reign of Augustus Caesar. The bridge was an important link in the main road between Bavay and Cologne. Roman Maastricht was probably relatively small. Remains of the Roman road, the bridge, a religious shrine, a Roman bath, a granary, some houses and the 4th-century castrum walls and gates, have been excavated. Fragments of provincial Roman sculptures, as well as coins, jewellery, glass, pottery and other objects from Roman Maastricht are on display in the exhibition space of the city's public library (\"Centre Céramique\").\n", "According to legend, the Armenian-born Saint Servatius, Bishop of Tongeren, died in Maastricht in 384 where he was interred along the Roman road, outside the castrum. According to Gregory of Tours bishop Monulph was to have built around 570 the first stone church on the grave of Servatius, the present-day Basilica of Saint Servatius. The city remained an early Christian diocese until it lost the distinction to nearby Liège in the 8th or 9th century.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n", "In the early Middle Ages Maastricht was part of the heartland of the Carolingian Empire along with Aachen and the area around Liège. The town was an important centre for trade and manufacturing. Merovingian coins minted in Maastricht have been found in places throughout Europe. In 881 the town was plundered by the Vikings. In the 10th century it briefly became the capital of the duchy of Lower Lorraine.\n", "During the 12th century the town flourished culturally. The provosts of the church of Saint Servatius held important positions in the Holy Roman Empire during this era. The two collegiate churches were largely rebuilt and redecorated. Maastricht Romanesque stone sculpture and silversmithing are regarded as highlights of Mosan art. Maastricht painters were praised by Wolfram von Eschenbach in his Parzival. Around the same time, the poet Henric van Veldeke wrote a legend of Saint Servatius, one of the earliest works in Dutch literature. The two main churches acquired a wealth of relics and the septennial Maastricht Pilgrimage became a major event.\n", "Unlike most Dutch towns, Maastricht did not receive city rights at a certain date. These developed gradually during its long history. In 1204 the city's dual authority was formalised in a treaty, with the prince-bishops of Liège and the dukes of Brabant holding joint sovereignty over the city. Soon afterwards the first ring of medieval walls were built. In 1275, the old Roman bridge collapsed under the weight of a procession, killing 400 people. A replacement, funded by church indulgences, was built slightly to the north and survives until today, the Sint Servaasbrug.\n", "Throughout the Middle Ages, the city remained a centre for trade and manufacturing principally of wool and leather but gradually economic decline set in. After a brief period of economic prosperity around 1500, the city's economy suffered during the wars of religion of the 16th and 17th centuries, and recovery did not happen until the industrial revolution in the early 19th century.\n", "Section::::History.:16th to 18th centuries.\n", "The important strategic location of Maastricht resulted in the construction of an impressive array of fortifications around the city during this period. The Spanish and Dutch garrisons became an important factor in the city's economy. In 1579 the city was sacked by the Spanish army led by the Duke of Parma (Siege of Maastricht, 1579). For over fifty years the Spanish crown took over the role previously held by the dukes of Brabant in the joint sovereignty over Maastricht. In 1632 the city was conquered by Prince Frederick Henry of Orange and the Dutch States General replaced the Spanish crown in the joint government of Maastricht.\n", "Another Siege of Maastricht (1673) took place during the Franco-Dutch War. In June 1673, Louis XIV laid siege to the city because French battle supply lines were being threatened. During this siege, Vauban, the famous French military engineer, developed a new strategy in order to break down the strong fortifications surrounding Maastricht. His systematic approach remained the standard method of attacking fortresses until the 20th century. On 25 June 1673, while preparing to storm the city, captain-lieutenant Charles de Batz de Castelmore, also known as the \"comte d'Artagnan\", was killed by a musket shot outside Tongerse Poort. This event was embellished in Alexandre Dumas' novel \"The Vicomte de Bragelonne\", part of the D'Artagnan Romances. French troops occupied Maastricht from 1673 to 1678.\n", "In 1748 the French again conquered the city at what is known as the Second French Siege of Maastricht, during the War of Austrian Succession. The French took the city for the last time in 1794, when the condominium was dissolved and Maastricht was annexed to the First French Empire (1794–1814). For twenty years Maastricht remained the capital of the French département of Meuse-Inférieure.\n", "Section::::History.:19th and early 20th century.\n", "After the Napoleonic era, Maastricht became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. It was made the capital of the newly formed Province of Limburg (1815–1839). When the southern provinces of the newly formed kingdom seceded in 1830, the Dutch garrison in Maastricht remained loyal to the Dutch king, William I, even when most of the inhabitants of the town and the surrounding area sided with the Belgian revolutionaries. In 1831, arbitration by the Great Powers allocated the city to the Netherlands. However, neither the Dutch nor the Belgians agreed to this and the arrangement was not implemented until the 1839 Treaty of London. During this period of isolation Maastricht developed into an early industrial town.\n", "Because of its eccentric location in the southeastern Netherlands, and its geographical and cultural proximity to Belgium and Germany, integration of Maastricht and Limburg into the Netherlands did not come about easily. Maastricht retained a distinctly non-Dutch appearance during much of the 19th century and it was not until the First World War that the city was forced to look northwards.\n", "Like the rest of the Netherlands, Maastricht remained neutral during World War I. However, being wedged between Germany and Belgium, it received large numbers of refugees, putting a strain on the city's resources. Early in World War II, the city was taken by the Germans by surprise during the Battle of Maastricht of May 1940. On 13 and 14 September 1944 it was the first Dutch city to be liberated by Allied forces of the US Old Hickory Division. The three Meuse bridges were destroyed or severely damaged during the war. As elsewhere in the Netherlands, the majority of Maastricht Jews died in Nazi concentration camps.\n", "Section::::History.:After World War II.\n", "During the latter half of the century, traditional industries (such as Maastricht's potteries) declined and the city's economy shifted to a service economy. Maastricht University was founded in 1976. Several European institutions found their base in Maastricht. In 1981 and 1991 European Councils were held in Maastricht, the latter one resulting a year later in the signing of the Maastricht Treaty, leading to the creation of the European Union and the euro. Since 1988, The European Fine Art Fair, regarded as the world's leading art fair, annually draws in some of the wealthiest art collectors.\n", "In recent years, Maastricht launched several campaigns against drug-dealing in an attempt to stop foreign buyers taking advantage of the liberal Dutch legislation and causing trouble in the downtown area.\n", "Since the 1990s, large parts of the city have been refurbished, including the areas around the main railway station and the Maasboulevard promenade along the Meuse, the Entre Deux and Mosae Forum shopping centres, as well as some of the main shopping streets. A prestigious quarter designed by international architects and including the new Bonnefanten Museum, a public library, and a theatre was built on the grounds of the former Société Céramique factory near the town centre. As a result, Maastricht looks notably smarter. Further large-scale projects, such as the redevelopment of the area around the A2 motorway, the Sphinx Quarter and the Belvédère area, are under construction.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Neighbourhoods.\n", "Maastricht consists of five districts (\"stadsdelen\") and 44 neighbourhoods (\"wijken\"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.\n", "BULLET::::1. Maastricht Centrum (Binnenstad, Jekerkwartier, Kommelkwartier, Statenkwartier, Boschstraatkwartier, Sint Maartenspoort, Wyck-Céramique)\n", "BULLET::::2. South-West (Villapark, Jekerdal, Biesland, Campagne, Wolder, Sint Pieter)\n", "BULLET::::3. North-West (Brusselsepoort, Mariaberg, Belfort, Pottenberg, Malpertuis, Caberg, Malberg, Dousberg-Hazendans, Daalhof, Boschpoort, Bosscherveld, Frontenkwartier, Belvédère, Lanakerveld)\n", "BULLET::::4. North-East (Beatrixhaven, Borgharen, Itteren, Meerssenhoven, Wyckerpoort, Wittevrouwenveld, Nazareth, Limmel, Amby)\n", "BULLET::::5. South-East (Randwyck, Heugem, Heugemerveld, Scharn, Heer, De Heeg, Vroendaal)\n", "The neighbourhoods of Itteren, Borgharen, Limmel, Amby, Heer, Heugem, Scharn, Oud-Caberg, Sint Pieter and Wolder all used to be separate municipalities or villages until they were annexed by the city of Maastricht in the course of the 20th century.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Neighbouring villages.\n", "The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Maastricht directly.\n", "\"Clockwise from north-east to north-west:\"\n", "BULLET::::- Bunde,\n", "BULLET::::- Meerssen,\n", "BULLET::::- Berg en Terblijt,\n", "BULLET::::- Bemelen,\n", "BULLET::::- Cadier en Keer,\n", "BULLET::::- Gronsveld,\n", "BULLET::::- Oost,\n", "BULLET::::- Lanaye (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Petit-Lanaye (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Kanne (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Vroenhoven (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Kesselt (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Veldwezelt (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Lanaken (B),\n", "BULLET::::- Neerharen (B).\n", "\"(B = Situated in Belgium)\"\n", "Section::::Geography.:Border.\n", "Maastricht's city limits has an international border with Belgium. Most of it borders Belgium's Flemish region, but a small part to the south also has a border with the Walloon region. Both countries are part of Europe's Schengen Area thus are open without border controls.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n", "Maastricht features the same climate as most of the Netherlands (\"Cfb\", Oceanic climate), however, due to its more inland location in between hills, summers tend to be warmer (especially in the Meuse valley, which lies 70 metres lower than the meteorological station) and winters a bit colder, although the difference is only remarkable at a few days a year. The highest temperature recorded was on 25 July 2019 at .\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Languages.\n", "Maastricht is a city of linguistic diversity, partly as a result of its location at the crossroads of multiple language areas and its international student population.\n", "BULLET::::- Dutch is the national language and the language of elementary and secondary education (excluding international institutions) as well as administration. Dutch in Maastricht is often spoken with a distinctive Limburgish accent, which should not be confused with the Limburgish language.\n", "BULLET::::- Limburgish (or \"Limburgian\") is the overlapping term of the tonal dialects spoken in the Dutch and Belgian provinces of Limburg. The Maastrichtian dialect (\"Mestreechs\") is only one of many variants of Limburgish. It is characterised by stretched vowels and some French influence on its vocabulary. In recent years the Maastricht dialect has been in decline (see dialect levelling) and a language switch to Standard Dutch has been noted.\n", "BULLET::::- French used to be the language of education in Maastricht. In the 18th century the language occupied a powerful position as judicial and cultural language, and it was used throughout the following century by the upper classes. Between 1851 and 1892 a Francophone newspaper (\"Le Courrier de la Meuse\") was published in Maastricht. The language is often part of secondary school curricula. Many proper names and some street names are French and the language has left many traces in the local dialect.\n", "BULLET::::- German, like French, is often part of secondary school curricula. Due to Maastricht's geographic proximity to Germany and the great number of German students in the city, German is widely spoken.\n", "BULLET::::- English has become an important language in education. At Maastricht University and Hogeschool Zuyd it is the language of instruction for many courses. Many foreign students and expatriates use English as a lingua franca. English is also a mandatory subject in Dutch elementary and secondary schools.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Religion.\n", "The largest religion in Maastricht is Christianity with 65.1% of the population that is Christian, of whom 92.31% is Catholic.\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Private companies based in Maastricht.\n", "BULLET::::- Sappi – South African Pulp and Paper Industry\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Mosa – ceramic tiles\n", "BULLET::::- O-I Manufacturing;– previously Kristalunie Maastricht; glass\n", "BULLET::::- ENCI – cement factory\n", "BULLET::::- BASF – previously Ten Horn; pigments\n", "BULLET::::- Rubber Resources;– previously Radium Foam and Vredestein; rubber recycling\n", "BULLET::::- Hewlett-Packard – previously Indigo, manufacturer of electronic data systems\n", "BULLET::::- Vodafone – mobile phone company\n", "BULLET::::- Q-Park – international operator of parking garages\n", "BULLET::::- DHL – international express mail services\n", "BULLET::::- Teleperformance – contact center services\n", "BULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz – customer contact centre for Europe\n", "BULLET::::- VGZ – health insurance, customer contact centre\n", "BULLET::::- Pie Medical Imaging – cardiovascular quantitative analysis software\n", "BULLET::::- Esaote (former Pie Medical Equipment) – manufacturer of medical and veterinary diagnostic equipment\n", "BULLET::::- CardioTek – manufacturer of medical equipment for Cardiac electrophysiology procedures\n", "BULLET::::- BioPartner Centre Maastricht – life sciences spin-off companies\n", "Section::::Economy.:Public institutions.\n", "Since the 1980s a number of European and international institutions have made Maastricht their base. They provide an increasing number of employment opportunities for expats living in the Maastricht area.\n", "BULLET::::- Administration of the Dutch province of Limburg\n", "BULLET::::- Meuse-Rhine Euroregion\n", "BULLET::::- \"Limburg Development Company LIOF\"\n", "BULLET::::- Rijksarchief Limburg – archives of the province of Limburg\n", "BULLET::::- Eurocontrol – The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation\n", "BULLET::::- European Journalism Centre\n", "BULLET::::- European Institute of Public Administration (EIPA)\n", "BULLET::::- European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM)\n", "BULLET::::- \"European centre for work and society (ECWS)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maastricht Centre for Transatlantic Studies (MCTS)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Expert Centre for Sustainable Business and Development Cooperation (ECSAD)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Council of European Municipalities and Regions (REGR)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"European Centre for Digital Communication (EC/DC)\"\n", "BULLET::::- UNU-MERIT\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maastricht Research School of Economics of TEchnology and ORganization (METEOR)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Research Institute for Knowledge Systems (RIKS)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cicero Foundation (CF)\"\n", "Section::::Culture and tourism.\n", "Section::::Culture and tourism.:Sights of Maastricht.\n", "Maastricht is known in the Netherlands and beyond for its lively squares, narrow streets, and historic buildings. The city has 1,677 national heritage buildings (\"rijksmonumenten\"), more than any Dutch city outside Amsterdam. In addition to that there are 3,500 locally listed buildings (\"gemeentelijke monumenten\"). The entire city centre is a conservation area (\"beschermd stadsgezicht\"). The tourist information office (VVV) is located in the Dinghuis, a medieval courthouse overlooking Grote Staat.\n", "Maastricht's main sights include:\n", "BULLET::::- Meuse river, with several parks and promenades along the river, and some interesting bridges:\n", "BULLET::::- Sint Servaasbrug, partly from the 13th century; the oldest bridge in the Netherlands;\n", "BULLET::::- Hoge Brug (\"High Bridge\"), a modern pedestrian bridge designed by René Greisch;\n", "BULLET::::- City fortifications, including:\n", "BULLET::::- Remnants of the first and second medieval city wall and several towers (13th and 14th centuries);\n", "BULLET::::- Helpoort (\"Hell's Gate\"), an imposing gate with two towers, built shortly after 1230, the oldest city gate in the Netherlands;\n", "BULLET::::- Waterpoortje (\"Little Water Gate\"), a medieval gate in Wyck, used for accessing the city from the Meuse, demolished in the 19th century but rebuilt shortly afterwards;\n", "BULLET::::- Hoge Fronten (or: Linie van Du Moulin), remnants of 17th- and 18th-century fortifications with a number of well-preserved bastions and a nearby early 19th-century fortress, Fort Willem I;\n", "BULLET::::- Fort Sint-Pieter (\"Fortress Saint Peter\"), early 18th-century fortress on the flanks of Mount Saint Peter;\n", "BULLET::::- Casemates, an underground network of tunnels, built as sheltered emplacements for guns and cannons. These tunnels run for several kilometres underneath the city's fortifications, some isolated, others connected to each other. Guided tours are available.\n", "BULLET::::- Binnenstad: inner-city district with pedestrianized shopping streets including Grote and Kleine Staat, and high-end shopping streets Stokstraat and Maastrichter Smedenstraat. The main sights in Maastricht as well as a large number of cafés, pubs and restaurants are centred around the three main squares in Binnenstad:\n", "BULLET::::- Vrijthof, the largest and best-known square in Maastricht, with many well-known pubs and restaurants (including two - one former - gentlemen's clubs). Other sights include:\n", "BULLET::::- Basilica of Saint Servatius, a predominantly Romanesque church with important medieval sculptures (most notably the westwork and east choir sculpted capitals, corbels and reliefs, and the sculpted South Portal or Bergportaal). The tomb of Saint Servatius in the crypt is a favoured place of pilgrimage. The church has an important church treasury;\n", "BULLET::::- Sint-Janskerk, a Gothic church dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, the city's main Protestant church since 1632, adjacent to the Basilica of Saint Servatius, with a distinctive red, limestone tower;\n", "BULLET::::- Spaans Gouvernement (\"Spanish Government Building\"), a 16th-century former canon's house, also used by the Brabant and Habsburg rulers, now housing the Museum aan het Vrijthof;\n", "BULLET::::- Hoofdwacht (\"Main Watch\"), a 17th-century military guard house, used for exhibitions;\n", "BULLET::::- Generaalshuis (\"General's House\"), a Neoclassical mansion, now the city's main theater (Theater aan het Vrijthof).\n", "BULLET::::- Onze Lieve Vrouweplein, a tree-lined square with a number of pavement cafes. Main sights:\n", "BULLET::::- Basilica of Our Lady, an 11th-century church, one of the Netherlands' most significant Romanesque buildings with an important church treasury. Perhaps best known for the shrine of Our Lady, Star of the Sea in an adjacent Gothic chapel;\n", "BULLET::::- Derlon Museumkelder, a small museum with Roman and earlier remains in the basement of Hotel Derlon.\n", "BULLET::::- Markt, the town's market square, completely refurbished in 2006-07 and now virtually traffic free. Sights include:\n", "BULLET::::- The Town Hall, built in the 17th century by Pieter Post and considered one of the highlights of Dutch Baroque architecture. Nearby is Dinghuis, the medieval town hall and courthouse with an early Renaissance façade;\n", "BULLET::::- Mosae Forum, a new shopping centre and civic building designed by Jo Coenen and Bruno Albert. Inside the Mosae Forum parking garage is a small exhibition of Citroën miniature cars;\n", "BULLET::::- Entre Deux, a rebuilt shopping centre in Postmodern style, which has won several international awards. It includes a bookstore located inside a former 13th-century Dominican church. In 2008, British newspaper \"The Guardian\" proclaimed this the world's most beautiful bookshop.\n", "BULLET::::- Jekerkwartier, a neighbourhood named after the small river Jeker, which pops up between old houses and remnants of city walls. The western part of the neighbourhood (also called the Latin Quarter of Maastricht), is dominated by university buildings and art schools. Sights include:\n", "BULLET::::- a number of churches and monasteries, some from the Gothic period (the Old Franciscan Church), some from the Renaissance (Faliezustersklooster), some from the Baroque period (Bonnefanten Monastery; Walloon Church, Lutheran Church);\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht Natural History Museum, a small museum of natural history in a former monastery;\n", "BULLET::::- Grote Looiersstraat (\"Great Tanners' Street\"), a former canal that was filled in during the 19th century, lined with elegant houses, the city's poorhouse (now part of the university library) and Sint-Maartenshofje, a typically Dutch hofje.\n", "BULLET::::- Kommelkwartier and Statenkwartier, two relatively quiet inner city neighbourhoods with several imposing monasteries and university buildings. The largely Gothic Crosier Monastery is now a five-star hotel.\n", "BULLET::::- Boschstraatkwartier, an upcoming neighbourhood and cultural hotspot in the north of the city centre. Several of the former industrial buildings are being transformed for new uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Sint-Matthiaskerk, a 14th-century parish church dedicated to Saint Matthew;\n", "BULLET::::- Bassin, a restored early 19th-century inner harbor with restaurants and cafés on one side and interesting industrial architecture on the other side.\n", "BULLET::::- Wyck, the old quarter on the right bank of the river Meuse.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Martin's Church, a Gothic Revival church designed by Pierre Cuypers in 1856;\n", "BULLET::::- Rechtstraat is a street in Wyck, with many historic buildings and a mix of specialty shops, art galleries and restaurants;\n", "BULLET::::- Stationsstraat and Wycker Brugstraat are elegant streets with the majority of the buildings dating from the late 19th century. At the east end of Stationsstraat stands the Maastricht railway station from 1913.\n", "BULLET::::- Céramique, a modern neighbourhood on the site of the former Céramique potteries with a park along the river Meuse (Charles Eyckpark). Now a showcase of architectural highlights:\n", "BULLET::::- Wiebengahal, one of the few remaining industrial monuments in the neighbourhood and an early example of modern architecture in the Netherlands, dating from 1912;\n", "BULLET::::- Bonnefanten Museum by Aldo Rossi;\n", "BULLET::::- Centre Céramique, a public library and exhibition space by Jo Coenen;\n", "BULLET::::- La Fortezza, an office and apartment building by Mario Botta;\n", "BULLET::::- Siza Tower, a residential tower clad with zinc and white marble, by Álvaro Siza Vieira;\n", "BULLET::::- Also buildings by MBM, Cruz y Ortiz, Luigi Snozzi, Aurelio Galfetti, Herman Hertzberger, Wiel Arets, Hubert-Jan Henket, Charles Vandenhove and Bob Van Reeth.\n", "BULLET::::- Sint-Pietersberg (\"Mount Saint Peter\"): modest hill and nature reserve south of the city, peaking at above sea level. It serves as Maastricht's main recreation area and a viewing point. The main sights include:\n", "BULLET::::- Fort Sint-Pieter, an early 18th-century military fortress fully restored in recent years;\n", "BULLET::::- Caves of Maastricht aka \"Grotten Sint-Pietersberg\", an underground network of man-made tunnels (\"caves\") in limestone quarries. Guided tours are available;\n", "BULLET::::- Slavante, a country pavilion and restaurant on the site of a Franciscan monastery of which parts remain;\n", "BULLET::::- Lichtenberg, a ruined medieval castle keep and a small museum in an adjacent farmstead;\n", "BULLET::::- D'n Observant (\"The Observer\"), an artificial hilltop, made with the spoils of a nearby quarry, now a nature reserve.\n", "Section::::Culture and tourism.:Museums in Maastricht.\n", "BULLET::::- Bonnefanten Museum is the foremost museum for old masters and contemporary fine art in the province of Limburg. The collection features medieval sculpture, early Italian painting, Southern Netherlandish painting, and contemporary art.\n", "BULLET::::- The Treasury of the Basilica of Saint Servatius includes religious artifacts from the 4th to 20th centuries, notably those related to Saint Servatius. Highlights include the shrine, the key and the crosier of Saint Servatius, and the reliquary bust donated by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.\n", "BULLET::::- The Treasury of the Basilica of Our Lady contains religious art, textiles, reliquaries, liturgical vessels and other artifacts from the Middle Ages and later periods.\n", "BULLET::::- Derlon Museumkelder is a preserved archeological site in the basement of a hotel with Roman and pre-Roman remains.\n", "BULLET::::- The Maastricht Natural History Museum exhibits collections relating to the geology, paleontology and flora and fauna of Limburg. Highlights in the collection are several fragment of skeletons of Mosasaurs found in a quarry in Mount Saint Peter.\n", "BULLET::::- Museum aan het Vrijthof is a local art and history museum based in the 16th-century Spanish Government building, featuring some period rooms with 17th- and 18th-century furniture, clocks, Maastricht silver, porcelain, glassware and Maastricht pistols, and temporary exhibitions of local artists and designers.\n", "Section::::Culture and tourism.:Events and festivals.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dies natalis\", birthday of the University of Maastricht, with procession of university faculty to St. John's Church where honorary degrees are awarded.\n", "BULLET::::- Carnival (Maastrichtian: \"Vastelaovend\") - a traditional three-day festival in the southern part of the Netherlands; in Maastricht mainly outdoors with typical \"Zaate Herremeniekes\" (February/March).\n", "BULLET::::- The European Fine Art Fair (TEFAF), the world's leading art and antiques fair (March).\n", "BULLET::::- Amstel Gold Race, an international cycling race which starts in Maastricht (usually April).\n", "BULLET::::- KunstTour, an annual art festival (May).\n", "BULLET::::- European Model United Nations (EuroMUN), an annual international conference in May.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stadsprocessie\", religious procession with reliquaries of local saints (first Sunday after 13 May).\n", "BULLET::::- Pilgrimage of the Relics (Dutch: \"Heiligdomsvaart\"), pilgrimage with relics display and processions dating from the Middle Ages (May/June; once in 7 years; next: 2025).\n", "BULLET::::- Giants' Parade (Dutch: \"Reuzenstoet\"), parade of processional giants, mainly from Belgium and France (June; once in 5 years; next: 2024).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maastrichts Mooiste\", an annual running and walking event (June).\n", "BULLET::::- Fashionclash, international fashion event throughout the city (June).\n", "BULLET::::- Vrijthof concerts by André Rieu and the Johann Strauss Orchestra (July/August).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Preuvenemint\", a large culinary event held on the Vrijthof square (August).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Inkom\", the traditional opening of the academic year and introduction for new students of Maastricht University (August).\n", "BULLET::::- Musica Sacra, a festival of religious (classical) music (September).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nederlandse Dansdagen\" (Netherlands Dance Days), a modern dance festival (October).\n", "BULLET::::- Jazz Maastricht, a jazz festival formerly known as Jeker Jazz (autumn).\n", "BULLET::::- \"11de van de 11de\" (the 11th of the 11th), the official start of the carnival season (11 November).\n", "BULLET::::- Jumping Indoor Maastricht, an international \"concours hippique\" (showjumping) (November).\n", "BULLET::::- Magic Maastricht (\"Magisch Maastricht\"), a winter-themed funfair and Christmas market held on Vrijthof square and other locations throughout the city (December/January).\n", "Furthermore, the Maastricht Exposition and Congress Centre (MECC) hosts many events throughout the year.\n", "Section::::Nature.\n", "Section::::Nature.:Parks.\n", "There are several city parks and recreational areas in Maastricht:\n", "BULLET::::- Stadspark, the main public park in Maastricht, partly 19th-century, with remnants of the medieval city walls, a branch of the Jeker river, a mini-zoo and several public sculptures (e.g. the statue of d'Artagnan in Aldenhofpark, a 20th-century extension of Stadspark). Other extensions of the park are called Kempland, Henri Hermanspark, Monseigneur Nolenspark and Waldeckpark. From 2014 onwards, the grounds of the former Tapijn military barracks will be gradually added to the park;\n", "BULLET::::- Jekerpark, a new park along the river Jeker, separated from Stadspark by a busy road;\n", "BULLET::::- Frontenpark, a new park west of the city centre, incorporating parts of the fortifications of Maastricht from the 17th to 19th centuries;\n", "BULLET::::- Charles Eykpark, a modern park between the public library and Bonnefanten Museum on the east bank of the Meuse river, designed in the late 1990s by Swedish landscape architect Gunnar Martinsson.\n", "BULLET::::- Griendpark, a modern park on the east bank of the river with an inline-skating and skateboarding course.\n", "BULLET::::- Geusseltpark in eastern Maastricht and J.J. van de Vennepark in western Maastricht, both with elaborate sports facilities.\n", "Section::::Nature.:Natural areas.\n", "BULLET::::- The Meuse river and its green banks in outlying areas. In the northern areas around Itteren and Borgharen 'new nature' is being created in combination with river protection measures and gravel mining.\n", "BULLET::::- Pietersplas, an artificial lake between Maastricht and Gronsveld that was the result of gravel pits on the banks of the Meuse river. There is a beach on the northern slope of the lake and a marina near Castle Hoogenweerth. The eastern riverbed between Pietersplas and the provincial government building is a nature reserve (Kleine Weerd).\n", "BULLET::::- The Jeker Valley, along the river Jeker, starts near the city centre in Stadspark and leads via Jekerpark to an area with green meadows, fertile fields, some vineyards on the slopes of Cannerberg, several water mills and Château Neercanne, and continues further south into Belgium.\n", "BULLET::::- The green flanks of Mount Saint Peter, including many footpaths.\n", "BULLET::::- Dousberg and Zouwdal, a modest hill and valley surrounded by urban development on the western edge of the city, partly in Belgium. A large part of the hill is now in use as an international golf course (Golfclub Maastricht).\n", "BULLET::::- Landgoederenzone, an extended area in the northeast of Maastricht (partly in Meerssen) consisting of around fifteen country estates, such as Severen, Geusselt, Bethlehem, Mariënwaard, Kruisdonk, Vaeshartelt, Meerssenhoven, Borgharen and Hartelstein. Some of the castles, villas and stately homes are surrounded by industrial areas or quarries.\n", "BULLET::::- Bike paths through agricultural areas in several outlying quarters (like \"Biesland\" and \"Wolder\").\n", "Section::::Sports.\n", "BULLET::::- In football, Maastricht is represented by MVV Maastricht (Dutch: \"Maatschappelijke Voetbal Vereniging Maastricht\"), who (as of the 2016–2017 season) play in the Dutch first division of the national competition (which is the second league after the Eredivisie league). MVV's home is the Geusselt stadium near the A2 highway.\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht is also home to the Maastricht Wildcats, an American Football League team and member of the AFBN (American Football Bond Nederland).\n", "BULLET::::- Since 1998, Maastricht has been the traditional starting place of the annual Amstel Gold Race, the only Dutch cycling classic. For several years the race also finished in Maastricht, but since 2002 the finale has been on the Cauberg hill in nearby Valkenburg. Tom Dumoulin was born in Maastricht.\n", "BULLET::::- Since 2000, Maastricht has been the first city in the Netherland with a lacrosse team. The Student Sport Association \"Maaslax\" is closely linked to Maastricht University and member of the NLB (Nederland Lacrosse Bond).\n", "Section::::Politics.\n", "Section::::Politics.:City council.\n", "The municipal government of Maastricht consists of a city council, a mayor and a number of aldermen. The city council, a 39-member legislative body directly elected for four years, appoints the aldermen on the basis of a coalition agreement between two or more parties after each election. The 2006 municipal elections in the Netherlands were, as often, dominated by national politics and led to a shift from right to left throughout the country. In Maastricht, the traditional broad governing coalition of Christian Democrats (CDA), Labour (PvdA), Greens (GreenLeft) and Liberals (VVD) was replaced by a centre-left coalition of Labour, Christian Democrats and Greens. Two Labour aldermen were appointed, along with one Christian Democrat and one Green alderman. Due to internal disagreements, one of the VVD council members left the party in 2005 and formed a new liberal group in 2006 (Liberalen Maastricht). The other opposition parties in the current city council are the Socialist Party (SP), the Democrats (D66) and two local parties (Stadsbelangen Mestreech (SBM) and the Seniorenpartij).\n", "Section::::Politics.:Aldermen and mayors.\n", "The aldermen and the mayor make up the executive branch of the municipal government. After the previous mayor, Gerd Leers (CDA), decided to step down in January 2010 following the 'Bulgarian Villa' affair, an affair concerning a holiday villa project in Byala, Bulgaria, in which the mayor was alleged to have been involved in shady deals to raise the value of villas he had ownership of. Up until July 1, 2015 the mayor of Maastricht was Onno Hoes, a Liberal (VVD), the only male mayor in the country, who officially was married to a male person. In 2013 Hoes was the subject of some political commotion, after facts had been disclosed about intimate affairs with several other male persons. The affair had no consequences for his political career. Because of a new affair in 2014 Hoes eventually stepped down.\n", "Since July 1, 2015 the current mayor of Maastricht has been Annemarie Penn-te Strake. Penn is independent and serves no political party, although her husband is a former chairman of the Maastricht Seniorenpartij. She has served for the Dutch judicial system for many years in many different positions. During her tenure as mayor she still serves as attorney general.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Cannabis.\n", "One controversial issue which has dominated Maastricht politics for many years and which has also affected national and international politics, is the city's approach to soft drugs. Under the pragmatic Dutch soft drug policy, a policy of non-enforcement, individuals may buy and use cannabis from 'coffeeshops' (cannabis bars) under certain conditions. Maastricht, like many other border towns, has seen a growing influx of 'drug tourists', mainly young people from Belgium, France and Germany, who provide a large amount of revenue for the coffeeshops (around 13) in the city centre. The city government, most notably ex-mayor Leers, have been actively promoting drug policy reform in order to deal with its negative side effects.\n", "One of the proposals, known as the 'Coffee Corner Plan', proposed by then-mayor Leers and supported unanimously by the city council in 2008, was to relocate the coffeeshops from the city centre to the outskirts of the town (in some cases near the national Dutch-Belgian border). The purpose of this plan was to reduce the impact of drug tourism on the city centre, such as parking problems and the illegal sale of hard drugs in the vicinity of the coffeeshops, and to monitor the sale and use of cannabis more closely in areas away from the crowded city centre. The Coffee Corner Plan, however, has met with fierce opposition from neighbouring municipalities (some in Belgium) and from members of the Dutch and Belgian parliament. The plan has been the subject of various legal challenges and has not been carried out up to this date (2014).\n", "On 16 December 2010, the Court of Justice of the European Union upheld a local Maastricht ban on the sale of cannabis to foreign tourists, restricting entrance to coffeeshops to residents of Maastricht. The ban did not affect scientific or medical usage. In 2011, the Dutch government introduced a similar national system, the \"wietpas\" (\"cannabis pass\"), restricting access to Dutch coffeeshops to residents of the Netherlands. After protests from local mayors about the difficulty of implementing the issuing of wietpasses, Dutch parliament in 2012 agreed to replace the pass by any proof of residency. The new system has led to a slight reduction in drug tourism to cannabis shops in Maastricht but at the same time to an increase of drug dealing on the street.\n", "Section::::Transport.\n", "Section::::Transport.:By car.\n", "Maastricht is served by the A2 and A79 motorways. The city can be reached from Brussels and Cologne in approximately one hour and from Amsterdam in about two and a half hours.\n", "The A2 motorway runs through Maastricht in a double-decked tunnel. Before 2016, the A2 motorway ran through the city; heavily congested, it caused air pollution in the urban area. Construction of a two-level tunnel designed to solve these problems started in 2011 and was opened (in stages) by December 2016.\n", "In spite of several large underground car parks, parking in the city centre forms a major problem during weekends and bank holidays because of the large numbers of visitors. Parking fees are deliberately high to make visitors to use public transport or park and ride facilities away from the centre.\n", "Section::::Transport.:By train.\n", "Maastricht is served by three rail operators, all of which call at the main Maastricht railway station near the centre and two of which call at the smaller Maastricht Randwyck, near the business and university district. Only Arriva also calls at Maastricht Noord, which opened in 2013. Intercity trains northwards to Amsterdam, Eindhoven, Den Bosch and Utrecht are operated by Dutch Railways. The National Railway Company of Belgium runs south to Liège in Belgium. The line to Heerlen, Valkenburg and Kerkrade is operated by Arriva. The former railway to Aachen was closed down in the 1980s. A small section of the old westbound railway to Hasselt (Belgium) was restored in recent years and will be used as a modern tramline, scheduled to open in 2023.\n", "Section::::Transport.:By tram.\n", "The Dutch and Flanders governments reached an agreement in 2014 to build a new tram route, the Hasselt – Maastricht tramway, as part of the larger Spartacus scheme. It was scheduled to take three years, from 2015 to 2018, and to cost €283 million. However, the planning process has been heavily delayed, and as of 2018, construction has not yet started. The tram is now scheduled to be operating in 2024. When completed, the tram will carry passengers from Maastricht city centre to Hasselt city centre in 30 minutes. It will be operated by the Belgian transport company De Lijn, with 2 scheduled stops in Maastricht and another 10 in Flanders.\n", "Section::::Transport.:By bus.\n", "Regular bus lines connect the city centre, outer areas, business districts and railway stations. The regional Arriva bus network extends to most parts of South Limburg and Aachen in Germany. Regional buses by De Lijn connect Maastricht with Hasselt, Tongeren and Maasmechelen, and one bus connects Maastricht with Liège, operated by TEC.\n", "Section::::Transport.:By air.\n", "Maastricht is served by the nearby Maastricht Aachen Airport , in nearby Beek, and it is informally referred to by that name. The airport is served by Corendon Dutch Airlines and Ryanair. The airport has regular scheduled flights to destinations around the Mediterranean as well as charter flights to Lourdes and operated by Enter Air. The airport is located about north of the city centre.\n", "Section::::Transport.:By boat.\n", "Maastricht has a river port (\"Beatrixhaven\") and is connected by water with Belgium and the rest of the Netherlands through the river Meuse, the Juliana Canal, the Albert Canal and the Zuid-Willemsvaart. Although there are no regular boat connections to other cities, various organized boat trips for tourists connect Maastricht with Belgium cities such as Liège.\n", "Section::::Transport.:Distances to other cities.\n", "These distances are as the crow flies and so do not represent actual overland distances.\n", "BULLET::::- Liège: south\n", "BULLET::::- Aachen: east\n", "BULLET::::- Eindhoven: north-west\n", "BULLET::::- Düsseldorf: north-east\n", "BULLET::::- Cologne: east\n", "BULLET::::- Brussels: west\n", "BULLET::::- Antwerp: north-west\n", "BULLET::::- Bonn: south-east\n", "BULLET::::- Charleroi: south-west\n", "BULLET::::- Luxembourg City: south\n", "BULLET::::- Ghent: west\n", "BULLET::::- Utrecht: north-west\n", "BULLET::::- Rotterdam: north-west\n", "BULLET::::- Amsterdam: north-west\n", "BULLET::::- Lille: west\n", "BULLET::::- Frankfurt am Main: south-east\n", "BULLET::::- Groningen: north\n", "BULLET::::- Strasbourg: south-east\n", "BULLET::::- Paris: south-west\n", "BULLET::::- Hannover: north-east\n", "BULLET::::- Stuttgart: south-east\n", "BULLET::::- Basel: south-east\n", "BULLET::::- London: north-west\n", "BULLET::::- Zürich: south-east\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "Section::::Education.:Secondary education.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bernard Lievegoedschool\" (Anthroposophical education)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bonnefantencollege\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Porta Mosana College\"\n", "BULLET::::- Sint-Maartenscollege\n", "BULLET::::- United World College Maastricht\n", "Section::::Education.:Tertiary education.\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht University (Dutch: \"Universiteit Maastricht\" or UM) including:\n", "BULLET::::- University College Maastricht\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht School of Management\n", "BULLET::::- Teikyo University (Maastricht campus closed in 2007)\n", "BULLET::::- Zuyd University of Applied Sciences (Dutch: \"Hogeschool Zuyd\", also has departments in Sittard and Heerlen) including:\n", "BULLET::::- Academy for Dramatic Arts Maastricht (Dutch: \"Toneelacademie Maastricht\")\n", "BULLET::::- School of Fine Arts Maastricht (Dutch: \"Academie Beeldende Kunsten Maastricht\")\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht Academy of Music (Dutch: \"Conservatorium Maastricht\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"Academy of architecture\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Teachers training college\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Faculty of International Business and Communication\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maastricht Hotel Management School\"\n", "Section::::Education.:Other.\n", "BULLET::::- Jan Van Eyck Academie - post-academic art institute\n", "BULLET::::- Berlitz Language School Maastricht\n", "BULLET::::- \"Talenacademie Nederland\"\n", "Section::::International relations.\n", "Section::::International relations.:Twin towns.\n", "Maastricht is twinned with:\n", "BULLET::::- Liège, Belgium\n", "BULLET::::- Koblenz, Germany\n", "BULLET::::- Rama, Nicaragua\n", "BULLET::::- Chengdu, China (since 2012)\n", "Section::::International relations.:Other relations.\n", "BULLET::::- Most Ancient European Towns Network\n", "Section::::Notable people.\n", "Section::::Notable people.:Born in Maastricht.\n", "BULLET::::- Bryan Smeets (born 1992) - Football player\n", "BULLET::::- Jean-Eugène-Charles Alberti (1777 – after 1843) – painter\n", "BULLET::::- Henri Arends (1921–1993) – conductor\n", "BULLET::::- Doris Baaten (born 1956) – voice actress\n", "BULLET::::- Mieke de Boer (born 1980) – female darts player\n", "BULLET::::- Alphons Boosten (1893–1951) – architect\n", "BULLET::::- Theo Bovens (born 1959) – politician\n", "BULLET::::- Joseph Bruyère (born 1948) – Belgian cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- Jean-Baptiste Coclers (1696–1772) – painter\n", "BULLET::::- Louis Bernard Coclers (1740–1817) – painter\n", "BULLET::::- Peter Debye (1884–1966) – Nobel prize winning chemist\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Dumoulin (born 1990) – cyclist, Giro d'Italia winner\n", "BULLET::::- Hendrick Fromantiou (1633/4 – after 1693) – still life painter\n", "BULLET::::- Joop Haex (1911–2002) – politician\n", "BULLET::::- André Henri Constant van Hasselt (1806–1874) – French-writing poet\n", "BULLET::::- Hubert Hermans (born 1937) – psychologist and creator of Dialogical Self Theory\n", "BULLET::::- Pieter van den Hoogenband (born 1978) – swimmer and a triple Olympic champion\n", "BULLET::::- Pierre Kemp (1886–1967) – poet\n", "BULLET::::- Sjeng Kerbusch (1947–1991) – behavior geneticist\n", "BULLET::::- Mathieu Kessels (1784–1836) – sculptor\n", "BULLET::::- Lambert of Maastricht (c. 636 – c. 705) – bishop, saint\n", "BULLET::::- Eric van der Luer (born 1965) – footballer, football manager\n", "BULLET::::- Pierre Lyonnet (1708–1789) – naturalist, cryptographer, engraver\n", "BULLET::::- Félix de Mérode (1791–1857) – politician, writer\n", "BULLET::::- Jan Pieter Minckeleers (1748–1824) – scientist and inventor of coal gas lighting\n", "BULLET::::- Bram Moszkowicz (born 1960) – ex-barrister\n", "BULLET::::- Benny Neyman (1951–2008) – singer of popular songs\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Nijssen (born 1964) – tennis player\n", "BULLET::::- Jacques Ogg (born 1948) – harpsichordist\n", "BULLET::::- Henrietta d'Oultremont (1792–1864) – second wife of William I of the Netherlands\n", "BULLET::::- Jan Peumans (born 1951) – Belgian politician\n", "BULLET::::- Guido Pieters (born 1948) – film director\n", "BULLET::::- Dick Raaymakers (1930–2013) – composer, theater maker\n", "BULLET::::- Prince Rajcomar (born 1985) – football player\n", "BULLET::::- Louis Regout (1861–1915) – politician\n", "BULLET::::- André Rieu (born 1949) – violinist, conductor and composer\n", "BULLET::::- Fred Rompelberg (born 1945) – cyclist, former holder of the world record for paced bicycle land speed\n", "BULLET::::- Louis Rutten (1884-1946) – Dutch geologist\n", "BULLET::::- Henri Sarolea (1844–1900) – railway entrepreneur and contractor\n", "BULLET::::- Hubert Soudant (born 1946) – conductor\n", "BULLET::::- Victor de Stuers (1843–1916) – politician, monument conservationist\n", "BULLET::::- Jac. P. Thijsse (1865–1945) – botanist, conservationist\n", "BULLET::::- Frans Timmermans (born 1961) – politician\n", "BULLET::::- Johann Friedrich August Tischbein (1750–1812) – portrait painter\n", "BULLET::::- Maxime Verhagen (born 1956) – politician\n", "BULLET::::- Hubert Vos (1855–1935) – painter\n", "BULLET::::- Ad Wijnands (born 1959) – cyclist, Tour de France stage winner\n", "BULLET::::- Jeroen Willems (1962–2012) – actor, singer\n", "BULLET::::- Henri Winkelman (1876–1952) – general\n", "BULLET::::- Danny Wintjens (born 1983) – football goalkeeper\n", "BULLET::::- Boudewijn Zenden (born 1976) – football player\n", "BULLET::::- Kim Zwarts (born 1955) – photographer\n", "Section::::Notable people.:Residing in Maastricht.\n", "BULLET::::- Jo Bonfrere (born 1946) – football player\n", "BULLET::::- Willy Brokamp (born 1946) – football player\n", "BULLET::::- Jeroen Brouwers (born 1940) – writer, journalist\n", "BULLET::::- Gondulph of Maastricht (c. 524 – c. 607) – bishop, saint\n", "BULLET::::- Theo Hiddema (born 1944) – lawyer\n", "BULLET::::- Willem Hofhuizen (1915–1986) – painter\n", "BULLET::::- Monulph of Maastricht (6th century) – bishop, saint\n", "BULLET::::- Max Moszkowicz (born 1926) – lawyer\n", "BULLET::::- Servatius of Maastricht (4th century – 384?) – bishop, saint\n", "BULLET::::- Jan van Steffeswert (15th/16th century) – sculptor, wood carver\n", "BULLET::::- Aert van Tricht (15th/16th century) – metal caster\n", "BULLET::::- Henric van Veldeke (12th century) – poet, hagiographer\n", "Section::::Local anthem.\n", "In 2002 the municipal government officially adopted a local anthem (Limburgish (Maastrichtian variant): \"Mestreechs Volksleed\", ) composed of lyrics in Maastrichtian. The theme was originally written by Ciprian Porumbescu (1853–1883).\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Jewish inhabitants of Maastricht\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht Treaty\n", "BULLET::::- Treaty of Maastricht (1843)\n", "BULLET::::- The Maastrichtian Age marks the end of the Cretaceous Period of geological time\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Notes\n", "BULLET::::- Literature\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht city portal\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht municipality website\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht in Roman times\n", "BULLET::::- Webpage about Maastricht fortifications\n", "BULLET::::- Webpage about the 1673 siege\n", "BULLET::::- Maastricht tourism website\n" ] }

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"hofje", "Crosier%20Monastery%2C%20Maastricht", "Matthew%20the%20Apostle", "Wyck%20%28Maastricht%29", "Gothic%20Revival%20architecture", "Pierre%20Cuypers", "Maastricht%20railway%20station", "Bonnefanten%20Museum", "Aldo%20Rossi", "Jo%20Coenen", "Mario%20Botta", "%C3%81lvaro%20Siza%20Vieira", "MBM%20%28architecture%20firm%29", "Cruz%20y%20Ortiz", "Luigi%20Snozzi", "Aurelio%20Galfetti", "Herman%20Hertzberger", "Wiel%20Arets", "Hubert-Jan%20Henket", "Charles%20Vandenhove", "Bob%20Van%20Reeth", "Mount%20Saint%20Peter", "Above%20mean%20sea%20level", "Caves%20of%20Maastricht", "Bonnefanten%20Museum", "Southern%20Netherlands", "Treasury%20of%20the%20Basilica%20of%20Saint%20Servatius", "Saint%20Servatius", "shrine", "crosier", "Alexander%20Farnese%2C%20Duke%20of%20Parma", "Basilica%20of%20Our%20Lady%2C%20Maastricht%23Treasury%20Basilica%20of%20Our%20Lady", "Maastricht%20Natural%20History%20Museum", "geology", "paleontology", "flora", "fauna", "Limburg%20%28Netherlands%29", "Mosasaur", "Mount%20Saint%20Peter", "Museum%20aan%20het%20Vrijthof", "Maastricht%20silver", "University%20of%20Maastricht", "honorary%20degree", "Carnival", "Maastrichtian%20dialect", "Zaate%20Herremenie", "The%20European%20Fine%20Art%20Fair", "Amstel%20Gold%20Race", "KunstTour", "procession", "Pilgrimage%20of%20the%20Relics%2C%20Maastricht", "Processional%20giants%20and%20dragons%20in%20Belgium%20and%20France", "Fashionclash", "Vrijthof", "Andr%C3%A9%20Rieu", "Johann%20Strauss%20Orchestra", "Musica%20Sacra%20%28Maastricht%29", "jazz%20festival", "showjumping", "Jeker", "d%27Artagnan", "fortifications", "Bonnefanten%20Museum", "Gunnar%20Martinsson", "Itteren", "Borgharen", "Gronsveld", "marina", "Jeker", "Ch%C3%A2teau%20Neercanne", "Mount%20Saint%20Peter", "Meerssen", "Borgharen", "association%20football", "MVV", "Eredivisie", "De%20Geusselt", "Maastricht%20Wildcats", "American%20Football%20Bond%20Nederland", "Amstel%20Gold%20Race", "Cauberg", "Valkenburg%20aan%20de%20Geul", "Tom%20Dumoulin", 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"Nederlandse%20Spoorwegen", "National%20Railway%20Company%20of%20Belgium", "Li%C3%A8ge%20%28city%29", "Belgium", "Heerlen", "Valkenburg%20aan%20de%20Geul", "Kerkrade", "Arriva", "Aachen", "Hasselt", "Hasselt%20-%20Maastricht%20tramway", "Flanders", "Hasselt%20%E2%80%93%20Maastricht%20tramway", "Hasselt", "De%20Lijn", "Arriva%20Nederland", "South%20Limburg%20%28Netherlands%29", "Aachen", "Germany", "De%20Lijn", "Hasselt", "Tongeren", "Maasmechelen", "Li%C3%A8ge", "Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20R%C3%A9gionale%20Wallonne%20du%20Transport", "Maastricht%20Aachen%20Airport", "Beek", "Corendon%20Dutch%20Airlines", "Ryanair", "Lourdes", "Enter%20Air", "port", "Belgium", "Meuse", "Juliana%20Canal", "Albert%20Canal", "Zuid-Willemsvaart", "Li%C3%A8ge", "as%20the%20crow%20flies", "Li%C3%A8ge", "Aachen", "Eindhoven", "D%C3%BCsseldorf", "Cologne", "Brussels", "Antwerp", "Bonn", "Charleroi", "Luxembourg%20City", "Ghent", "Utrecht%20%28city%29", "Rotterdam", "Amsterdam", "Lille", "Frankfurt%20am%20Main", "Groningen", "Strasbourg", "Paris", "Hannover", "Stuttgart", "Basel", "London", "Z%C3%BCrich", "Anthroposophical", "Sint-Maartenscollege", "United%20World%20College%20Maastricht", "Maastricht%20University", "University%20College%20Maastricht", "Maastricht%20School%20of%20Management", "Teikyo%20University", "Zuyd%20University", "Sittard", "Heerlen", "Toneelacademie%20Maastricht", "Academie%20Beeldende%20Kunsten%20Maastricht", "Maastricht%20Academy%20of%20Music", "Jan%20Van%20Eyck%20Academie", "Berlitz%20Language%20Schools", "Twin%20towns%20and%20sister%20cities", "Li%C3%A8ge", "Belgium", "Koblenz", "Germany", "El%20Rama", "Nicaragua", "Chengdu", "China", "Most%20Ancient%20European%20Towns%20Network", "Bryan%20Smeets", "Jean-Eug%C3%A8ne-Charles%20Alberti", "Henri%20Arends", "Doris%20Baaten", "Mieke%20de%20Boer", "Alphons%20Boosten", "Theo%20Bovens", "Joseph%20Bruy%C3%A8re", "Jean-Baptiste%20Coclers", "Louis%20Bernard%20Coclers", "Peter%20Debye", "Nobel%20prize", "Tom%20Dumoulin", 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{ "description": "municipality in the Netherlands", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1309", "wikidata_label": "Maastricht", "wikipedia_title": "Maastricht", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Mastrique" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Maroboduus\n", "Maroboduus (born \"circa\" 30 BC, died in AD 37), was a Romanized king of the Germanic Suebi, who under pressure from the wars of the Cherusci and Romans, and losing the Suevic Semnones and Langobardi from his kingdom, moved with the Marcomanni into the forests of Bohemia, near to the Quadi.\n", "The name \"Maroboduus\" can be broken down into two Celtic elements, \"māro-\" meaning \"great\" (cf. Welsh \"mawr\", Irish \"mór\"), and \"bodwos\" meaning \"raven\" (cf. Irish \"badhbh\"). \n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Maroboduus was born into a noble family of the Marcomanni. As a young man, he lived in Italy and enjoyed the favour of the Emperor Augustus. The Marcomanni had been beaten utterly by the Romans in 10 BC. About 9 BC, Maroboduus returned to Germania and became ruler of his people. To deal with the threat of Roman expansion into the Rhine-Danube basin, he led the Marcomanni to the area later known as Bohemia to be outside the range of the Roman influence. There, he took the title of king and organized a confederation of several neighboring Germanic tribes. He was the first documented ruler of Bohemia.\n", "Augustus planned in 6 AD to destroy the kingdom of Maroboduus, which he considered to be too dangerous for the Romans. The future emperor Tiberius commanded 12 legions to attack the Marcomanni, but the outbreak of a revolt in Illyria, and the need for troops there, forced Tiberius to conclude a treaty with Maroboduus and to recognize him as king.\n", "Section::::War with Arminius and death.\n", "His rivalry with Arminius, the Cheruscan leader who inflicted the devastating defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest on the Romans under Publius Quinctilius Varus in 9 AD, prevented a concerted attack on Roman territory across the Rhine in the north (by Arminius) and in the Danube basin in the south (by Maroboduus).\n", "However, according to the first-century AD historian Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Arminius sent Varus's head to Maroboduus, but the king of the Marcomanni sent it to Augustus. In the revenge war of Tiberius and Germanicus against the Cherusci, Maroboduus stayed neutral.\n", "In 17 AD, war broke out between Arminius and Maroboduus, and after an indecisive battle, Maroboduus withdrew into the hilly forests of Bohemia, in 18 AD. In the next year, Catualda, a young Marcomannic nobleman living in exile among the Gutones, returned, perhaps by a subversive Roman intervention, and defeated Maroboduus. The deposed king had to flee to Italy, and Tiberius detained him 18 years in Ravenna. There, Maroboduus died in 37 AD. Catualda was, in turn, defeated by the Hermunduri Vibilius, after which the realm was ruled by the Quadian Vannius. Vannius was himself also deposed by Vibilius, in coordination with his nephews Vangio and Sido, who then ruled as Roman client kings.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Peter Kehne: \"Marbod.\" In: \"Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde\", vol. 19 (2001), p. 258-262.\n", "BULLET::::- Tacitus, \"Annals\", & .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Gaulish English Dictionary\n" ] }

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{ "description": "king of the Marcomanni", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q165144", "wikidata_label": "Maroboduus", "wikipedia_title": "Maroboduus", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mike Muuss\n", "Michael John Muuss (October 16, 1958 – November 20, 2000) was the American author of the freeware network tool ping.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "A graduate of Johns Hopkins University, Muuss was a senior scientist specializing in geometric solid modeling, ray-tracing, MIMD architectures and digital computer networks at the United States Army Research Laboratory at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland when he died. He wrote a number of software packages (including BRL-CAD) and network tools (including ttcp and the concept of the default route or \"default gateway\") and contributed to many others (including BIND).\n", "However, the thousand-line ping, which he wrote in December 1983 while working at the Ballistic Research Laboratory, is the program for which he is most remembered. Due to its usefulness, ping has been implemented on a large number of operating systems, initially BSD and Unix, but later others including Windows and Mac OS X.\n", "In 1993, the USENIX Association gave a Lifetime Achievement Award (\"Flame\") to the Computer Systems Research Group at University of California, Berkeley, honoring 180 individuals, including Muuss, who contributed to the CSRG's 4.4BSD-Lite release.\n", "Muuss is mentioned in two books, \"The Cuckoo's Egg\" () and \"Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier\" (), for his role in tracking down crackers. He also is mentioned in Peter Salus's \"A Quarter Century of UNIX\".\n", "Muuss died in an automobile collision on Interstate 95 on November 20, 2000. The Michael J. Muuss Research Award, set up by friends and family of Muuss, memorializes him at Johns Hopkins University.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Heterogeneous Element Processor\n", "BULLET::::- ttcp\n", "BULLET::::- ping\n", "BULLET::::- BRL-CAD\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Muuss's home page\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Muuss, The Story of the PING Program\n", "BULLET::::- An Early UseNet Post by Mike Muuss Discussing Ping's history ICMP As A Diagnostic Tool?\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Muuss, The Story of the TTCP Program\n", "BULLET::::- BRL-CAD\n" ] }

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{ "description": "American computer programmer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q279206", "wikidata_label": "Mike Muuss", "wikipedia_title": "Mike Muuss", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Michael John Muuss" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20149, "parentid": 869015176, "revid": 903704817, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-27T12:13:44Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mike%20Muuss&oldid=903704817" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Mousse\n", "A mousse (French 'foam' ) is a soft prepared food that incorporates air bubbles to give it a light and airy texture. It can range from light and fluffy to creamy and thick, depending on preparation techniques. A mousse may be sweet or savory.\n", "Sweet mousses are typically made with whipped egg whites, whipped cream, or both, and flavored with one or more of chocolate, coffee, caramel, puréed fruits, or various herbs and spices, such as mint or vanilla. In the case of some chocolate mousses, egg yolks are often stirred into melted chocolate to give the final product a richer mouthfeel. Mousses are also typically chilled before being served, which gives them a denser texture. Sweetened mousse is served as a dessert, or used as an airy cake filling. It is sometimes stabilized with gelatin.\n", "Savory mousses can be made from meat, fish, shellfish, foie gras, cheese, or vegetables. Hot mousses often get their light texture from the addition of beaten egg whites.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Various desserts consisting of whipped cream in pyramidal shapes with coffee, liqueurs, chocolate, fruits, and so on either in the mixture or poured on top were called \"crème en mousse\" 'cream in a foam', \"crème mousseuse\" 'foamy cream', \"mousse\" 'foam', and so on, as early as 1768. Modern mousses are a continuation of this tradition.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Foam (culinary)\n", "BULLET::::- Bavarian cream\n", "BULLET::::- Fruit whip\n", "BULLET::::- Flourless chocolate cake\n", "BULLET::::- Mousseline sauce\n", "BULLET::::- Parfait (food)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "soft prepared dessert that incorporates air bubbles to give it a light and airy texture", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q624004", "wikidata_label": "mousse", "wikipedia_title": "Mousse", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20151, "parentid": 892862425, "revid": 908538119, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-30T10:49:38Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mousse&oldid=908538119" }

{ "paragraph": [ "M. C. Escher\n", "Maurits Cornelis Escher (; 17 June 1898 – 27 March 1972) was a Dutch graphic artist who made mathematically-inspired woodcuts, lithographs, and mezzotints.\n", "Despite wide popular interest, Escher was for long somewhat neglected in the art world, even in his native Netherlands. He was 70 before a retrospective exhibition was held. In the twenty-first century, he became more widely appreciated, with exhibitions across the world.\n", "His work features mathematical objects and operations including impossible objects, explorations of infinity, reflection, symmetry, perspective, truncated and stellated polyhedra, hyperbolic geometry, and tessellations. Although Escher believed he had no mathematical ability, he interacted with the mathematicians George Pólya, Roger Penrose, Harold Coxeter and crystallographer Friedrich Haag, and conducted his own research into tessellation.\n", "Early in his career, he drew inspiration from nature, making studies of insects, landscapes, and plants such as lichens, all of which he used as details in his artworks. He traveled in Italy and Spain, sketching buildings, townscapes, architecture and the tilings of the Alhambra and the Mezquita of Cordoba, and became steadily more interested in their mathematical structure.\n", "Escher's art became well known among scientists and mathematicians, and in popular culture, especially after it was featured by Martin Gardner in his April 1966 Mathematical Games column in \"Scientific American\". Apart from being used in a variety of technical papers, his work has appeared on the covers of many books and albums. He was one of the major inspirations of Douglas Hofstadter's Pulitzer Prize-winning 1979 book \"Gödel, Escher, Bach\".\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Maurits Cornelis Escher was born on 17 June 1898 in Leeuwarden, Friesland, the Netherlands, in a house that forms part of the Princessehof Ceramics Museum today. He was the youngest son of the civil engineer George Arnold Escher and his second wife, Sara Gleichman. In 1903, the family moved to Arnhem, where he attended primary and secondary school until 1918. Known to his friends and family as \"Mauk\", he was a sickly child and was placed in a special school at the age of seven; he failed the second grade. Although he excelled at drawing, his grades were generally poor. He took carpentry and piano lessons until he was thirteen years old.\n", "In 1918, he went to the Technical College of Delft. From 1919 to 1922, Escher attended the Haarlem School of Architecture and Decorative Arts, learning drawing and the art of making woodcuts. He briefly studied architecture, but he failed a number of subjects (due partly to a persistent skin infection) and switched to decorative arts, studying under the graphic artist Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita.\n", "Section::::Study journeys.\n", "In 1922, an important year of his life, Escher traveled through Italy, visiting Florence, San Gimignano, Volterra, Siena, and Ravello. In the same year, he traveled through Spain, visiting Madrid, Toledo, and Granada. He was impressed by the Italian countryside and, in Granada, by the Moorish architecture of the fourteenth-century Alhambra. The intricate decorative designs of the Alhambra, based on geometrical symmetries featuring interlocking repetitive patterns in the coloured tiles or sculpted into the walls and ceilings, triggered his interest in the mathematics of tessellation and became a powerful influence on his work.\n", "Escher returned to Italy and lived in Rome from 1923 to 1935. While in Italy, Escher met Jetta Umiker – a Swiss woman, like himself attracted to Italy – whom he married in 1924. The couple settled in Rome where their first son, Giorgio (George) Arnaldo Escher, named after his grandfather, was born. Escher and Jetta later had two more sons – Arthur and Jan.\n", "He travelled frequently, visiting (among other places) Viterbo in 1926, the Abruzzi in 1927 and 1929, Corsica in 1928 and 1933, Calabria in 1930, the Amalfi coast in 1931 and 1934, and Gargano and Sicily in 1932 and 1935. The townscapes and landscapes of these places feature prominently in his artworks. In May and June 1936, Escher travelled back to Spain, revisiting the Alhambra and spending days at a time making detailed drawings of its mosaic patterns. It was here that he became fascinated, to the point of obsession, with tessellation, explaining:\n", "The sketches he made in the Alhambra formed a major source for his work from that time on. He also studied the architecture of the Mezquita, the Moorish mosque of Cordoba. This turned out to be the last of his long study journeys; after 1937, his artworks were created in his studio rather than in the field. His art correspondingly changed sharply from being mainly observational, with a strong emphasis on the realistic details of things seen in nature and architecture, to being the product of his geometric analysis and his visual imagination. All the same, even his early work already shows his interest in the nature of space, the unusual, perspective, and multiple points of view.\n", "Section::::Later life.\n", "In 1935, the political climate in Italy (under Mussolini) became unacceptable to Escher. He had no interest in politics, finding it impossible to involve himself with any ideals other than the expressions of his own concepts through his own particular medium, but he was averse to fanaticism and hypocrisy. When his eldest son, George, was forced at the age of nine to wear a Ballila uniform in school, the family left Italy and moved to Château-d'Œx, Switzerland, where they remained for two years.\n", "The Netherlands post office had Escher design a semi-postal stamp for the \"Air Fund\" in 1935, and again in 1949 he designed Netherlands stamps. These were for the 75th anniversary of the Universal Postal Union; a different design was used by Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles for the same commemoration.\n", "Escher, who had been very fond of and inspired by the landscapes in Italy, was decidedly unhappy in Switzerland. In 1937, the family moved again, to Uccle (Ukkel), a suburb of Brussels, Belgium. World War II forced them to move in January 1941, this time to Baarn, Netherlands, where Escher lived until 1970. Most of Escher's best-known works date from this period. The sometimes cloudy, cold, and wet weather of the Netherlands allowed him to focus intently on his work. After 1953, Escher lectured widely. A planned series of lectures in North America in 1962 was cancelled after an illness, and he stopped creating artworks for a time, but the illustrations and text for the lectures were later published as part of the book \"Escher on Escher\". He was awarded the Knighthood of the Order of Orange-Nassau in 1955; he was later made an Officer in 1967.\n", "In July 1969 he finished his last work, a large woodcut with threefold rotational symmetry called \"Snakes\", in which snakes wind through a pattern of linked rings. These shrink to infinity toward both the center and the edge of a circle. It was exceptionally elaborate, being printed using three blocks, each rotated three times about the center of the image and precisely aligned to avoid gaps and overlaps, for a total of nine print operations for each finished print. The image encapsulates Escher's love of symmetry; of interlocking patterns; and, at the end of his life, of his approach to infinity. The care that Escher took in creating and printing this woodcut can be seen in a video recording.\n", "Escher moved to the Rosa Spier Huis in Laren in 1970, an artists' retirement home in which he had his own studio. He died in a hospital in Hilversum on 27 March 1972, aged 73. He is buried at the New Cemetery in Baarn.\n", "Section::::Mathematically inspired work.\n", "Escher's work is inescapably mathematical. This has caused a disconnect between his full-on popular fame and the lack of esteem with which he has been viewed in the art world. His originality and mastery of graphic techniques are respected, but his works have been thought too intellectual and insufficiently lyrical. Movements such as conceptual art have, to a degree, reversed the art world's attitude to intellectuality and lyricism, but this did not rehabilitate Escher, because traditional critics still disliked his narrative themes and his use of perspective. However, these same qualities made his work highly attractive to the public. \n", "Escher is not the first artist to explore mathematical themes: Parmigianino (1503–1540) had explored spherical geometry and reflection in his 1524 \"Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror\", depicting his own image in a curved mirror, while William Hogarth's 1754 \"Satire on False Perspective\" foreshadows Escher's playful exploration of errors in perspective. Another early artistic forerunner is Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–1778), whose dark \"fantastical\" prints such as \"The Drawbridge\" in his \"Carceri\" (\"Prisons\") sequence depict perspectives of complex architecture with many stairs and ramps, peopled by walking figures. Only with 20th century movements such as Cubism, De Stijl, Dadaism, and Surrealism did mainstream art start to explore Escher-like ways of looking at the world with multiple simultaneous viewpoints. However, although Escher had much in common with, for example, Magritte's surrealism, he did not make contact with any of these movements.\n", "Section::::Mathematically inspired work.:Tessellation.\n", "In his early years, Escher sketched landscapes and nature. He also sketched insects such as ants, bees, grasshoppers, and mantises, which appeared frequently in his later work. His early love of Roman and Italian landscapes and of nature created an interest in tessellation, which he called \"Regular Division of the Plane\"; this became the title of his 1958 book, complete with reproductions of a series of woodcuts based on tessellations of the plane, in which he described the systematic buildup of mathematical designs in his artworks. He wrote, \"Mathematicians have opened the gate leading to an extensive domain\".\n", "After his 1936 journey to the Alhambra and to La Mezquita, Cordoba, where he sketched the Moorish architecture and the tessellated mosaic decorations, Escher began to explore the properties and possibilities of tessellation using geometric grids as the basis for his sketches. He then extended these to form complex interlocking designs, for example with animals such as birds, fish, and reptiles. One of his first attempts at a tessellation was his pencil, India ink, and watercolour \"Study of Regular Division of the Plane with Reptiles\" (1939), constructed on a hexagonal grid. The heads of the red, green, and white reptiles meet at a vertex; the tails, legs, and sides of the animals interlock exactly. It was used as the basis for his 1943 lithograph \"Reptiles\".\n", "His first study of mathematics began with papers by George Pólya and by the crystallographer Friedrich Haag on plane symmetry groups, sent to him by his brother Berend, a geologist. He carefully studied the 17 canonical wallpaper groups and created periodic tilings with 43 drawings of different types of symmetry. From this point on, he developed a mathematical approach to expressions of symmetry in his artworks using his own notation. Starting in 1937, he created woodcuts based on the 17 groups. His \"Metamorphosis I\" (1937) began a series of designs that told a story through the use of pictures. In \"Metamorphosis I\", he transformed convex polygons into regular patterns in a plane to form a human motif. He extended the approach in his piece \"Metamorphosis III\", which is four metres long.\n", "In 1941 and 1942, Escher summarized his findings for his own artistic use in a sketchbook, which he labeled (following Haag) \"Regelmatige vlakverdeling in asymmetrische congruente veelhoeken\" (\"Regular division of the plane with asymmetric congruent polygons\"). The mathematician Doris Schattschneider unequivocally described this notebook as recording \"a methodical investigation that can only be termed mathematical research.\" She defined the research questions he was following as\n", "Section::::Mathematically inspired work.:Geometries.\n", "Although Escher did not have mathematical training—his understanding of mathematics was largely visual and intuitive—his art had a strong mathematical component, and several of the worlds that he drew were built around impossible objects. After 1924, Escher turned to sketching landscapes in Italy and Corsica with irregular perspectives that are impossible in natural form. His first print of an impossible reality was \"Still Life and Street\" (1937); impossible stairs and multiple visual and gravitational perspectives feature in popular works such as \"Relativity\" (1953). \"House of Stairs\" (1951) attracted the interest of the mathematician Roger Penrose and his father, the biologist Lionel Penrose. In 1956, they published a paper, \"Impossible Objects: A Special Type of Visual Illusion\" and later sent Escher a copy. Escher replied, admiring the Penroses' continuously rising flights of steps, and enclosed a print of \"Ascending and Descending\" (1960). The paper also contained the tribar or Penrose triangle, which Escher used repeatedly in his lithograph of a building that appears to function as a perpetual motion machine, \"Waterfall\" (1961).\n", "Escher was interested enough in Hieronymus Bosch's 1500 triptych \"The Garden of Earthly Delights\" to re-create part of its right-hand panel, \"Hell\", as a lithograph in 1935. He reused the figure of a Mediaeval woman in a two-pointed headdress and a long gown in his lithograph \"Belvedere\" in 1958; the image is, like many of his other \"extraordinary invented places\", peopled with \"jesters, knaves, and contemplators\". Thus, Escher not only was interested in possible or impossible geometry but was, in his own words, a \"reality enthusiast\"; he combined \"formal astonishment with a vivid and idiosyncratic vision\".\n", "Escher worked primarily in the media of lithographs and woodcuts, although the few mezzotints he made are considered to be masterpieces of the technique. In his graphic art, he portrayed mathematical relationships among shapes, figures, and space. Integrated into his prints were mirror images of cones, spheres, cubes, rings, and spirals.\n", "Escher was also fascinated by mathematical objects such as the Möbius strip, which has only one surface. His wood engraving \"Möbius Strip II\" (1963) depicts a chain of ants marching forever over what, at any one place, are the two opposite faces of the object—which are seen on inspection to be parts of the strip's single surface. In Escher's own words:\n", "The mathematical influence in his work became prominent after 1936, when, having boldly asked the Adria Shipping Company if he could sail with them as travelling artist in return for making drawings of their ships, they surprisingly agreed, and he sailed the Mediterranean, becoming interested in order and symmetry. Escher described this journey, including his repeat visit to the Alhambra, as \"the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped\".\n", "Escher's interest in curvilinear perspective was encouraged by his friend and \"kindred spirit\", the art historian and artist Albert Flocon, in another example of constructive mutual influence. Flocon identified Escher as a \"thinking artist\" alongside Piero della Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Wenzel Jamnitzer, Abraham Bosse, Girard Desargues, and Père Nicon. Flocon was delighted by Escher's \"Grafiek en tekeningen\" (\"Graphics in Drawing\"), which he read in 1959. This stimulated Flocon and André Barre to correspond with Escher and to write the book \"La Perspective curviligne\" (\"Curvilinear perspective\").\n", "Section::::Mathematically inspired work.:Platonic and other solids.\n", "Escher often incorporated three-dimensional objects such as the Platonic solids such as spheres, tetrahedrons, and cubes into his works, as well as mathematical objects such as cylinders and stellated polyhedra. In the print \"Reptiles\", he combined two- and three-dimensional images. In one of his papers, Escher emphasized the importance of dimensionality:\n", "Escher's artwork is especially well-liked by mathematicians such as Doris Schattschneider and scientists such as Roger Penrose, who enjoy his use of polyhedra and geometric distortions. For example, in \"Gravitation\", animals climb around a stellated dodecahedron.\n", "The two towers of \"Waterfall\" impossible building are topped with compound polyhedra, one a compound of three cubes, the other a stellated rhombic dodecahedron now known as Escher's solid. Escher had used this solid in his 1948 woodcut \"Stars\", which also contains all five of the Platonic solids and various stellated solids, representing stars; the central solid is animated by chameleons climbing through the frame as it whirls in space. Escher possessed a 6 cm refracting telescope and was a keen-enough amateur astronomer to have recorded observations of binary stars.\n", "Section::::Mathematically inspired work.:Levels of reality.\n", "Escher's artistic expression was created from images in his mind, rather than directly from observations and travels to other countries. His interest in the multiple levels of reality in art is seen in works such as \"Drawing Hands\" (1948), where two hands are shown, each drawing the other. The critic Steven Poole commented that\n", "Section::::Mathematically inspired work.:Infinity and hyperbolic geometry.\n", "In 1954, the International Congress of Mathematicians met in Amsterdam, and N. G. de Bruin organized a display of Escher's work at the Stedelijk Museum for the participants. Both Roger Penrose and H. S. M. Coxeter were deeply impressed with Escher's intuitive grasp of mathematics. Inspired by \"Relativity\", Penrose devised his tribar, and his father, Lionel Penrose, devised an endless staircase. Roger Penrose sent sketches of both objects to Escher, and the cycle of invention was closed when Escher then created the perpetual motion machine of \"Waterfall\" and the endless march of the monk-figures of \"Ascending and Descending\". \n", "In 1957, Coxeter obtained Escher's permission to use two of his drawings in his paper \"Crystal symmetry and its generalizations\". He sent Escher a copy of the paper; Escher recorded that Coxeter's figure of a hyperbolic tessellation \"gave me quite a shock\": the infinite regular repetition of the tiles in the hyperbolic plane, growing rapidly smaller towards the edge of the circle, was precisely what he wanted to allow him to represent infinity on a two-dimensional plane.\n", "Escher carefully studied Coxeter's figure, marking it up to analyse the successively smaller circles with which (he deduced) it had been constructed. He then constructed a diagram, which he sent to Coxeter, showing his analysis; Coxeter confirmed it was correct, but disappointed Escher with his highly technical reply. All the same, Escher persisted with hyperbolic tiling, which he called \"Coxetering\". Among the results were the series of wood engravings \"Circle Limit I–IV\". In 1959, Coxeter published his finding that these works were extraordinarily accurate: \"Escher got it absolutely right to the millimeter\".\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Escher's special way of thinking and rich graphics have had a continuous influence in mathematics and art, as well as in popular culture.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:In art collections.\n", "The Escher intellectual property is controlled by the M.C. Escher Company, while exhibitions of his artworks are managed separately by the M.C. Escher Foundation.\n", "The primary institutional collections of original works by M.C. Escher are the Escher Museum in The Hague; the National Gallery of Art (Washington, DC); the National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa); the Israel Museum (Jerusalem); and the Huis ten Bosch (Nagasaki, Japan).\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Exhibitions.\n", "Despite wide popular interest, Escher was for a long time somewhat neglected in the art world; even in his native Netherlands, he was 70 before a retrospective exhibition was held. In the twenty-first century, major exhibitions have been held in cities across the world. An exhibition of his work in Rio de Janeiro attracted more than 573,000 visitors in 2011; its daily visitor count of 9,677 made it the most visited museum exhibition of the year, anywhere in the world. No major exhibition of Escher's work was held in Britain until 2015, when the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art ran one in Edinburgh from June to September 2015, moving in October 2015 to the Dulwich Picture Gallery, London. The exhibition moved to Italy in 2015–2016, attracting over 500,000 visitors in Rome and Bologna, and then Milan.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:In mathematics and science.\n", "Doris Schattschneider identifies 11 strands of mathematical and scientific research anticipated or directly inspired by Escher. These are the classification of regular tilings using the edge relationships of tiles: two-color and two-motif tilings (counterchange symmetry or antisymmetry); color symmetry (in crystallography); metamorphosis or topological change; covering surfaces with symmetric patterns; Escher's algorithm (for generating patterns using decorated squares); creating tile shapes; local versus global definitions of regularity; symmetry of a tiling induced by the symmetry of a tile; orderliness not induced by symmetry groups; the filling of the central void in Escher's lithograph \"Print Gallery\" by H. Lenstra and B. de Smit.\n", "The Pulitzer Prize-winning 1979 book \"Gödel, Escher, Bach\" by Douglas Hofstadter discusses the ideas of self-reference and strange loops, drawing on a wide range of artistic and scientific sources including Escher's art and the music of J. S. Bach.\n", "The asteroid 4444 Escher was named in Escher's honor in 1985.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:In popular culture.\n", "Escher's fame in popular culture grew when his work was featured by Martin Gardner in his April 1966 \"Mathematical Games\" column in \"Scientific American\". Escher's works have appeared on many album covers including The Scaffold's 1969 \"L the P\" with \"Ascending and Descending\"; Mott the Hoople's eponymous 1969 record with \"Reptiles\", Beaver & Krause's 1970 \"In A Wild Sanctuary\" with \"Three Worlds\"; and Mandrake Memorial's 1970 \"Puzzle\" with \"House of Stairs\" and (inside) \"Curl Up\". His works have similarly been used on many book covers, including some editions of Edwin Abbott's \"Flatland\", which used \"Three Spheres\"; E. H. Gombrich's \"Meditations on a Hobby Horse\" with \"Horseman\"; Pamela Hall's \"Heads You Lose\" with \"Plane Filling 1\"; Patrick A. Horton's \"Mastering the Power of Story\" with \"Drawing Hands\"; Erich Gamma et al.'s \"Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-oriented software\" with \"Swans\"; and Arthur Markman's \"Knowledge Representation\" with \"Reptiles\". The \"World of Escher\" markets posters, neckties, T-shirts, and jigsaw puzzles of Escher's artworks. Both Austria and the Netherlands have issued postage stamps commemorating the artist and his works.\n", "Section::::Selected works.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Trees\", ink (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"St. Bavo's, Haarlem\", ink (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Flor de Pascua (The Easter Flower)\", woodcut/book illustrations (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eight Heads\", woodcut (1922)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dolphins\" also known as \"Dolphins in Phosphorescent Sea\", woodcut (1923)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tower of Babel\", woodcut (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Street in Scanno, Abruzzi\", lithograph (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Castrovalva\", lithograph (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Bridge\", lithograph (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Palizzi, Calabria\", woodcut (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pentedattilo, Calabria\", lithograph (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Atrani, Coast of Amalfi\", lithograph (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ravello and the Coast of Amalfi\", lithograph (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Covered Alley in Atrani, Coast of Amalfi\", wood engraving (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Phosphorescent Sea\", lithograph (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Still Life with Spherical Mirror\", lithograph (1934)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hand with Reflecting Sphere\" also known as \"Self-Portrait in Spherical Mirror\", lithograph (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Inside St. Peter's\", wood engraving (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Portrait of G.A. Escher\", lithograph (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Hell\"\", lithograph, (copied from a painting by Hieronymus Bosch) (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Regular Division of the Plane\", series of drawings that continued until the 1960s (1936)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Still Life and Street\" (his first impossible reality), woodcut (1937)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Metamorphosis I\", woodcut (1937)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Day and Night\", woodcut (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cycle\", lithograph (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sky and Water I\", woodcut (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sky and Water II\", lithograph (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Metamorphosis II\", woodcut (1939–1940)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Verbum (Earth, Sky and Water)\", lithograph (1942)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Reptiles\", lithograph (1943)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ant\", lithograph (1943)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Encounter\", lithograph (1944)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Doric Columns\", wood engraving (1945)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Balcony\", lithograph (1945)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Three Spheres I\", wood engraving (1945)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Magic Mirror\", lithograph (1946)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Three Spheres II\", lithograph (1946)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Another World Mezzotint\" also known as \"Other World Gallery\", mezzotint (1946)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eye\", mezzotint (1946)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Another World\" also known as \"Other World\", wood engraving and woodcut (1947)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Crystal\", mezzotint (1947)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Up and Down\" also known as \"High and Low\", lithograph (1947)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Drawing Hands\", lithograph (1948)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dewdrop\", mezzotint (1948)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stars\", wood engraving (1948)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Double Planetoid\", wood engraving (1949)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Order and Chaos (Contrast)\", lithograph (1950)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rippled Surface\", woodcut and linoleum cut (1950)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Curl-up\", lithograph (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"House of Stairs\", lithograph (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"House of Stairs II\", lithograph (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Puddle\", woodcut (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gravitation\", (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dragon\", woodcut lithograph and watercolor (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cubic Space Division\", lithograph (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Relativity\", lithograph (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tetrahedral Planetoid\", woodcut (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Compass Rose (Order and Chaos II)\", lithograph (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Convex and Concave\", lithograph (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Three Worlds\", lithograph (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Print Gallery\", lithograph (1956)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mosaic II\", lithograph (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cube with Magic Ribbons\", lithograph (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Belvedere\", lithograph (1958)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sphere Spirals\", woodcut (1958)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Circle Limit III\", woodcut (1959)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ascending and Descending\", lithograph (1960)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Waterfall\", lithograph (1961)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Möbius Strip II (Red Ants)\", woodcut (1963)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Knot\", pencil and crayon (1966)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Metamorphosis III\", woodcut (1967–1968)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Snakes\", woodcut (1969)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Victor Vasarely\n", "BULLET::::- Escher sentences, named after works like \"Ascending and Descending\"\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Further reading.:Media.\n", "BULLET::::- Escher, M. C. \"The Fantastic World of M. C. Escher\", Video collection of examples of the development of his art, and interviews, Director, Michele Emmer.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- — physical replicas of some of Escher's \"impossible\" designs\n", "BULLET::::- Copyright issue regarding Escher from the Artquest Artlaw archive.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Dutch graphic artist", "enwikiquote_title": "M. C. Escher", "wikidata_id": "Q1470", "wikidata_label": "M. C. Escher", "wikipedia_title": "M. C. Escher", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Maurits Cornelis Escher", "Mauricio Escher", "Mauk Escher" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20127, "parentid": 899799952, "revid": 903447150, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-25T19:07:55Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M.%20C.%20Escher&oldid=903447150" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Marcomanni\n", "The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribal confederation who eventually came to live in a powerful kingdom north of the Danube, somewhere in the region near modern Bohemia, during the peak of power of the nearby Roman Empire. According to Tacitus and Strabo they were Suebian.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Origin.\n", "It is believed their name derives possibly from the Proto-Germanic forms of \"march\" (\"frontier, border\") and \"men\", \"*Markōmanniz\", which would have been rendered in Latin form as \"Marcomanni\".\n", "The Marcomanni first appear in historical records as confederates of the Suebi of Ariovistus fighting against Julius Caesar in Gaul (modern France), having crossed the Rhine from present-day southern Germany. The exact position of their lands at this time is not known. The fact that their name existed before the Romans had territory near the Danube or Rhine raises the question of which border they lived near in order to explain their name. Their name may echo an earlier demarcation between the northern Germanic tribes of the Jastorf cultural circle, and those of the Celtic maximum expansion during the earlier and later Iron Age of La Tene dominance throughout Europe, that from findings in the archaeological record pressed North through with some influence as far as into Jutland, but mostly remained separated South and settled on Oppidas over today Thuringia and Saxony along the Hercynian forest, intrinsically connected to the major trade roads that went into the more evolved centers of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia all still Celtic regions then. It has been suggested that they may have lived near the conjunction of Rhine and Main river, at the areas formerly inhabited but left deserted by the Helvetii and Taurisci. However the historian Florus reports that Drusus erected a mound of their spoils during his campaign of 12-9 BC, after defeating the Tencteri and Chatti, and before next turning to Cherusci, Suevi, and Sicambri, suggesting that they were not close to any obvious border at the time.\n", "According to the accounts of Tacitus (Germ. 42), Paterculus (2.108), Pliny the Elder, and Strabo (vii. p. 290) they eventually moved into the large area previously occupied by the Boii, specifically in a region already called \"Baiohaemum\", where their allies and fellow Suevi the Quadi lived. This was described as being within the Hercynian forest and was possibly in the region of modern Bohemia, although this is not certain. By 6 BC, their king, Maroboduus, had established a powerful kingdom there that Augustus perceived as a threat to Rome. Before he could act, however, the revolt in Illyria intervened. Eventually Maroboduus was deposed and exiled by Catualda (AD 19). Catualda was in turn deposed by Vibilius of the Hermunduri the same year, and succeeded by the Quadian Vannius. Around 50 AD, Vannius was himself also deposed by Vibilius, in coordination with his nephews Vangio and Sido.\n", "Tacitus, in the late 1st century mentions (\"Germania\" I.42) the Marcomanni as being under kings appointed by Rome.\n", "Section::::History.:Marcomannic Wars.\n", "In the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni entered into a confederation with other peoples including the Quadi, Vandals, and Sarmatians, against the Roman Empire. This was probably driven by movements of larger tribes, like the Goths. According to the historian Eutropius, the forces of the emperor, Marcus Aurelius, battled against the Marcomannic confederation for three years at the fortress of Carnuntum in Pannonia. Eutropius compared the war, and Aurelius's success against the Marcomanni and their allies, to the Punic Wars. The comparison was apt in that this war marked a turning point and had significant Roman defeats; it caused the death of two Praetorian Guard commanders. The war began in 166, when the Marcomanni overwhelmed the defences between Vindobona and Carnuntum, penetrated along the border between the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum, laid waste to Flavia Solva, and could be stopped only shortly before reaching Aquileia on the Adriatic Sea. The war lasted until Aurelius's death in 180. It would prove to be only a limited success for Rome; the Danube river remained as the frontier of the empire until the final fall of the West.\n", "Section::::History.:Later history.\n", "The Christianisation of the Marcomanni, at least into a Roman orthodox form of Christianity, seems to have occurred under their queen, Fritigil (wife of an unnamed king) in the mid fourth century. She corresponded with Ambrose of Milan to bring about the conversion. This was the last clear evidence of the Marcomanni having a polity. It was possibly on the Roman side of the Danube by this time. Soon after, the Pannonian and Danubian area went into a long period of turmoil.\n", "After crossing the Rhine in 406 and the Pyrenees in 409, a group of Suevi, who had migrated together with Vandals and Alans, established themselves in the Roman province of Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), where they were considered \"foederati\" and founded the Suebi Kingdom of Gallaecia. These Suevi were probably a mix of Suevian groups from the area north of Danube and Pannonian basin such as the Marcomanni, Quadi and Buri.\n", "There, Hermeric swore fealty to the emperor in 410. Bracara Augusta, the modern city of Braga in Portugal, previously the capital of Roman Gallaecia, now became the capital of the Suebic Kingdom.\n", "The Danubian area meanwhile became the core of Attila the Hun's empire, and within it there seem to have been many Suebians. One group of them managed to reform into an independent group after the Battle of Nedao in 454, like many other groups who emerged from Attila's confederation. These Suevi eventually came into conflict with the Ostrogoths, who had been on the losing side at Nadao.\n", "Jordanes, the historian of the Goths, reported (\"Getica\" 280) that after the Battle of Bolia, the Ostrogoths attacked the Suevi (ruled by a man named Hunimund, who also seems to have led an attack on Passau) by crossing the Danube when frozen, and going into a high Alpine area held by the confederates of the Suevi at this time, the Alamanni. (He said that several streams start in this area which enter the Danube with a loudly.) The region held by these Suevi was described as having Bavarians to the west, Franks to the east, Burgundians to the south, and Thuringians to the north. The text seems to indicate that these Suevi had moved into the Alamannic area but that these specific Suevi were seen as distinct from both Alamanni and Bavarians. This was also the first mention of Bavarians and they are also often proposed to have had Marcomanni in their ancestry.\n", "According to historians such as Herwig Wolfram:\n", "The Marcomanni and the Quadi gave up their special names after crossing the Danube, in fact both the emigrants and the groups remaining in Pannonia became Suebi again. The Pannonian Suebi became subjects of the Huns. After the battle at the Nadao they set up their kingdom, and when it fell, they came, successively under Herulian and Longobard rule, south of the Danube under Gothic rule, and eventually again under Longobard rule.\n", "There is a runic alphabet called the Marcomannic runes, but they are not believed to be related to the Marcomannic people.\n", "Section::::Kings of the Marcomanni.\n", "BULLET::::- Maroboduus, c. 9 BC – 18 AD\n", "BULLET::::- Catualda, 18 – 20\n", "BULLET::::- Vannius, 20 – c. 50\n", "BULLET::::- Vangio and Sido, c. 50 – ?\n", "BULLET::::- Ballomar, c. 166? – 172 or 178?\n", "BULLET::::- Attalus, c. 160/8\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- History of Portugal\n", "BULLET::::- History of Spain\n", "BULLET::::- Irminones\n", "BULLET::::- List of ancient Germanic peoples\n", "BULLET::::- Migrations period\n", "BULLET::::- Timeline of Germanic kingdoms\n", "Section::::Classical sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Caesar \"De Bello Gallico\", at The Latin Library\n", "BULLET::::- Tacitus \"Germania\", at The Latin Library\n", "BULLET::::- Tacitus \"Annales\", at The Latin Library\n" ] }

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{ "description": "historical ethnical group", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q209851", "wikidata_label": "Marcomanni", "wikipedia_title": "Marcomanni", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20144, "parentid": 903661969, "revid": 903662754, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-27T03:42:26Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcomanni&oldid=903662754" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Microwave\n", "Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between and . Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter wave) bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm). In all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, K, K, or K band, or by similar NATO or EU designations.\n", "The prefix \"\" in \"microwave\" is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range. Rather, it indicates that microwaves are \"small\" (having shorter wavelengths), compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave technology. The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study.\n", "Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not diffract around hills, follow the earth's surface as ground waves, or reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km). At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer. Microwaves are widely used in modern technology, for example in point-to-point communication links, wireless networks, microwave radio relay networks, radar, satellite and spacecraft communication, medical diathermy and cancer treatment, remote sensing, radio astronomy, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, industrial heating, collision avoidance systems, garage door openers and keyless entry systems, and for cooking food in microwave ovens.\n", "Section::::Electromagnetic spectrum.\n", "Microwaves occupy a place in the electromagnetic spectrum with frequency above ordinary radio waves, and below infrared light:\n", "In descriptions of the electromagnetic spectrum, some sources classify microwaves as radio waves, a subset of the radio wave band; while others classify microwaves and radio waves as distinct types of radiation. This is an arbitrary distinction.\n", "Section::::Propagation.\n", "Microwaves travel solely by line-of-sight paths; unlike lower frequency radio waves, they do not travel as ground waves which follow the contour of the Earth, or reflect off the ionosphere (skywaves). Although at the low end of the band they can pass through building walls enough for useful reception, usually rights of way cleared to the first Fresnel zone are required. Therefore, on the surface of the Earth, microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about . Microwaves are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere, and the attenuation increases with frequency, becoming a significant factor (rain fade) at the high end of the band. Beginning at about 40 GHz, atmospheric gases also begin to absorb microwaves, so above this frequency microwave transmission is limited to a few kilometers. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.\n", "Section::::Propagation.:Troposcatter.\n", "In a microwave beam directed at an angle into the sky, a small amount of the power will be randomly scattered as the beam passes through the troposphere. A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon with a high gain antenna focused on that area of the troposphere can pick up the signal. This technique has been used at frequencies between 0.45 and 5 GHz in tropospheric scatter (troposcatter) communication systems to communicate beyond the horizon, at distances up to 300 km.\n", "Section::::Antennas.\n", "The short wavelengths of microwaves allow omnidirectional antennas for portable devices to be made very small, from 1 to 20 centimeters long, so microwave frequencies are widely used for wireless devices such as cell phones, cordless phones, and wireless LANs (Wi-Fi) access for laptops, and Bluetooth earphones. Antennas used include short whip antennas, rubber ducky antennas, sleeve dipoles, patch antennas, and increasingly the printed circuit inverted F antenna (PIFA) used in cell phones.\n", "Their short wavelength also allows narrow beams of microwaves to be produced by conveniently small high gain antennas from a half meter to 5 meters in diameter. Therefore, beams of microwaves are used for point-to-point communication links, and for radar. An advantage of narrow beams is that they don't interfere with nearby equipment using the same frequency, allowing frequency reuse by nearby transmitters. Parabolic (\"dish\") antennas are the most widely used directive antennas at microwave frequencies, but horn antennas, slot antennas and dielectric lens antennas are also used. Flat microstrip antennas are being increasingly used in consumer devices. Another directive antenna practical at microwave frequencies is the phased array, a computer-controlled array of antennas which produces a beam which can be electronically steered in different directions.\n", "At microwave frequencies, the transmission lines which are used to carry lower frequency radio waves to and from antennas, such as coaxial cable and parallel wire lines, have excessive power losses, so when low attenuation is required microwaves are carried by metal pipes called waveguides. Due to the high cost and maintenance requirements of waveguide runs, in many microwave antennas the output stage of the transmitter or the RF front end of the receiver is located at the antenna.\n", "Section::::Design and analysis.\n", "The term \"microwave\" also has a more technical meaning in electromagnetics and circuit theory. Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as \"microwave\" when the wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the circuit, so that lumped-element circuit theory is inaccurate, and instead distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis. \n", "As a consequence, practical microwave circuits tend to move away from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower-frequency radio waves. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are replaced by waveguides and stripline, and lumped-element tuned circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant stubs. In turn, at even higher frequencies, where the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves becomes small in comparison to the size of the structures used to process them, microwave techniques become inadequate, and the methods of optics are used.\n", "Section::::Microwave sources.\n", "High-power microwave sources use specialized vacuum tubes to generate microwaves. These devices operate on different principles from low-frequency vacuum tubes, using the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron (used in microwave ovens), klystron, traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous stream of electrons.\n", "Low-power microwave sources use solid-state devices such as the field-effect transistor (at least at lower frequencies), tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, and IMPATT diodes. Low-power sources are available as benchtop instruments, rackmount instruments, embeddable modules and in card-level formats. A maser is a solid state device which amplifies microwaves using similar principles to the laser, which amplifies higher frequency light waves.\n", "All warm objects emit low level microwave black-body radiation, depending on their temperature, so in meteorology and remote sensing microwave radiometers are used to measure the temperature of objects or terrain. The sun and other astronomical radio sources such as Cassiopeia A emit low level microwave radiation which carries information about their makeup, which is studied by radio astronomers using receivers called radio telescopes. The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), for example, is a weak microwave noise filling empty space which is a major source of information on cosmology's Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.\n", "Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-point telecommunications (i.e. non-broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily focused into narrower beams than radio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively higher frequencies allow broad bandwidth and high data transmission rates, and antenna sizes are smaller than at lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to transmitted frequency. Microwaves are used in spacecraft communication, and much of the world's data, TV, and telephone communications are transmitted long distances by microwaves between ground stations and communications satellites. Microwaves are also employed in microwave ovens and in radar technology.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.:Communication.\n", "Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long-distance telephone calls were carried via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the \"hop\" to the next site, up to 70 km away.\n", "Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications used for Wi-Fi, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5–4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services in this range in the U.S. — with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the 3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity.\n", "Metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) are based on standards such as IEEE 802.16, designed to operate between 2 and 11 GHz. Commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges.\n", "Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols based on standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (such as iBurst) operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency.\n", "Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, use the low-microwave/high-UHF frequencies around 1.8 and 1.9 GHz in the Americas and elsewhere, respectively. DVB-SH and S-DMB use 1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while proprietary/incompatible satellite radio in the U.S. uses around 2.3 GHz for DARS.\n", "Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. See broadcast auxiliary service (BAS), remote pickup unit (RPU), and studio/transmitter link (STL).\n", "Most satellite communications systems operate in the C, X, K, or K bands of the microwave spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF frequencies. Satellite TV either operates in the C band for the traditional large dish fixed satellite service or K band for direct-broadcast satellite. Military communications run primarily over X or K-band links, with K band being used for Milstar.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.:Navigation.\n", "Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the American Global Positioning System (introduced in 1978) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.:Radar.\n", "Radar is a radiolocation technique in which a beam of radio waves emitted by a transmitter bounces off an object and returns to a receiver, allowing the location, range, speed, and other characteristics of the object to be determined. The short wavelength of microwaves causes large reflections from objects the size of motor vehicles, ships and aircraft. Also, at these wavelengths, the high gain antennas such as parabolic antennas which are required to produce the narrow beamwidths needed to accurately locate objects are conveniently small, allowing them to be rapidly turned to scan for objects. Therefore, microwave frequencies are the main frequencies used in radar. Microwave radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic control, weather forecasting, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement. Long distance radars use the lower microwave frequencies since at the upper end of the band atmospheric absorption limits the range, but millimeter waves are used for short range radar such as collision avoidance systems.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.:Radio astronomy.\n", "Microwaves emitted by astronomical radio sources; planets, stars, galaxies, and nebulas are studied in radio astronomy with large dish antennas called radio telescopes. In addition to receiving naturally occurring microwave radiation, radio telescopes have been used in active radar experiments to bounce microwaves off planets in the solar system, to determine the distance to the Moon or map the invisible surface of Venus through cloud cover.\n", "A recently completed microwave radio telescope is the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, located at more than 5,000 meters (16,597 ft) altitude in Chile, observes the universe in the millimetre and submillimetre wavelength ranges. The world's largest ground-based astronomy project to date, it consists of more than 66 dishes and was built in an international collaboration by Europe, North America, East Asia and Chile.\n", "A major recent focus of microwave radio astronomy has been mapping the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) discovered in 1964 by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. This faint background radiation, which fills the universe and is almost the same in all directions, is \"relic radiation\" from the Big Bang, and is one of the few sources of information about conditions in the early universe. Due to the expansion and thus cooling of the Universe, the originally high-energy radiation has been shifted into the microwave region of the radio spectrum. Sufficiently sensitive radio telescopes can detected the CMBR as a faint signal that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.:Heating and power application.\n", "A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.\n", "Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing products.\n", "Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).\n", "Microwaves are used in stellarators and tokamak experimental fusion reactors to help break down the gas into a plasma, and heat it to very high temperatures. The frequency is tuned to the cyclotron resonance of the electrons in the magnetic field, anywhere between 2-200 GHz, hence it is often referred to as Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH). The upcoming ITER thermonuclear reactor will use up to 20 MW of 170 GHz microwaves.\n", "Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.\n", "Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of at a depth of . The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of active denial system in fixed installations.\n", "Section::::Microwave uses.:Spectroscopy.\n", "Microwave radiation is used in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR or ESR) spectroscopy, typically in the X-band region (~9 GHz) in conjunction typically with magnetic fields of 0.3 T. This technique provides information on unpaired electrons in chemical systems, such as free radicals or transition metal ions such as Cu(II). Microwave radiation is also used to perform rotational spectroscopy and can be combined with electrochemistry as in microwave enhanced electrochemistry.\n", "Section::::Microwave frequency bands.\n", "Bands of frequencies in the microwave spectrum are designated by letters. Unfortunately, there are several incompatible band designation systems, and even within a system the frequency ranges corresponding to some of the letters vary somewhat between different application fields. The letter system had its origin in World War 2 in a top secret U.S. classification of bands used in radar sets; this is the origin of the oldest letter system, the IEEE radar bands. One set of microwave frequency bands designations by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), is tabulated below:\n", "P band is sometimes used for K Band. \"P\" for \"previous\" was a radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std 521.\n", "When radars were first developed at K band during World War II, it was not known that there was a nearby absorption band (due to water vapor and oxygen in the atmosphere). To avoid this problem, the original K band was split into a lower band, K, and upper band, K.\n", "Section::::Microwave frequency measurement.\n", "Microwave frequency can be measured by either electronic or mechanical techniques.\n", "Frequency counters or high frequency heterodyne systems can be used. Here the unknown frequency is compared with harmonics of a known lower frequency by use of a low frequency generator, a harmonic generator and a mixer. Accuracy of the measurement is limited by the accuracy and stability of the reference source.\n", "Mechanical methods require a tunable resonator such as an absorption wavemeter, which has a known relation between a physical dimension and frequency.\n", "In a laboratory setting, Lecher lines can be used to directly measure the wavelength on a transmission line made of parallel wires, the frequency can then be calculated. A similar technique is to use a slotted waveguide or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the wavelength. These devices consist of a probe introduced into the line through a longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are primarily intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line. However, provided a standing wave is present, they may also be used to measure the distance between the nodes, which is equal to half the wavelength. Precision of this method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations.\n", "Section::::Effects on health.\n", "Microwaves do not contain sufficient energy to chemically change substances by ionization, and so are an example of non-ionizing radiation. The word \"radiation\" refers to energy radiating from a source and not to radioactivity. It has not been shown conclusively that microwaves (or other non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation) have significant adverse biological effects at low levels. Some, but not all, studies suggest that long-term exposure may have a carcinogenic effect. This is separate from the risks associated with very high-intensity exposure, which can cause heating and burns like any heat source, and not a unique property of microwaves specifically.\n", "During World War II, it was observed that individuals in the radiation path of radar installations experienced clicks and buzzing sounds in response to microwave radiation. This microwave auditory effect was thought to be caused by the microwaves inducing an electric current in the hearing centers of the brain. Research by NASA in the 1970s has shown this to be caused by thermal expansion in parts of the inner ear. In 1955 Dr. James Lovelock was able to reanimate rats chilled to 0-1°C using microwave diathermy.\n", "When injury from exposure to microwaves occurs, it usually results from dielectric heating induced in the body. Exposure to microwave radiation can produce cataracts by this mechanism, because the microwave heating denatures proteins in the crystalline lens of the eye (in the same way that heat turns egg whites white and opaque). The lens and cornea of the eye are especially vulnerable because they contain no blood vessels that can carry away heat. Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as from an oven that has been tampered with to allow operation even with the door open) can produce heat damage in other tissues as well, up to and including serious burns that may not be immediately evident because of the tendency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher moisture content.\n", "Eleanor R. Adair conducted microwave health research by exposing herself, animals and humans to microwave levels that made them feel warm or even start to sweat and feel quite uncomfortable. She found no adverse health effects other than heat.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Hertzian optics.\n", "Microwaves were first generated in the 1890s in some of the earliest radio experiments by physicists who thought of them as a form of \"invisible light\". James Clerk Maxwell in his 1873 theory of electromagnetism, now called Maxwell's equations, had predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves and proposed that light was composed of these waves. In 1888, German physicist Heinrich Hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of radio waves using a primitive spark gap radio transmitter. Hertz and the other early radio researchers were interested in exploring the similarities between radio waves and light waves, to test Maxwell's theory. They concentrated on producing short wavelength radio waves in the UHF and microwave ranges, with which they could duplicate classic optics experiments, using quasioptical components such as prisms and lenses made of paraffin, sulfur and pitch and wire diffraction gratings, to refract and diffract radio waves like light rays. Hertz produced waves up to 450 MHz; his directional 450 MHz transmitter consisted of a 26 cm brass rod dipole antenna with a spark gap between the ends suspended at the focal line of a parabolic antenna made of a curved zinc sheet, powered by high voltage pulses from an induction coil. His historic experiments demonstrated that radio waves like light exhibited refraction, diffraction, polarization, interference and standing waves, proving that radio waves and light waves were both forms of Maxwell's electromagnetic waves.\n", "In 1894, Oliver Lodge and Augusto Righi generated 1.5 and 12 GHz microwaves respectively with small metal ball spark resonators. The same year Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first person to produce millimeter waves, generating 60 GHz (5 millimeter) microwaves using a 3 mm metal ball spark oscillator. Bose also invented waveguide and horn antennas for use in his experiments. Russian physicist Pyotr Lebedev in 1895 generated 50 GHz millimeter waves. In 1897 Lord Rayleigh solved the mathematical boundary-value problem of electromagnetic waves propagating through conducting tubes and dielectric rods of arbitrary shape. which gave the modes and cutoff frequency of microwaves propagating through a waveguide. \n", "However, since microwaves were limited to line of sight paths, they could not communicate beyond the visual horizon, and the low power of the spark transmitters then in use limited their practical range to a few miles. The subsequent development of radio communication after 1896 employed lower frequencies, which could travel beyond the horizon as ground waves and by reflecting off the ionosphere as skywaves, and microwave frequencies were not further explored at this time.\n", "Section::::History.:First microwave communication experiments.\n", "Practical use of microwave frequencies did not occur until the 1940s and 1950s due to a lack of adequate sources, since the triode vacuum tube (valve) electronic oscillator used in radio transmitters could not produce frequencies above a few hundred megahertz due to excessive electron transit time and interelectrode capacitance. By the 1930s, the first low power microwave vacuum tubes had been developed using new principles; the Barkhausen-Kurz tube and the split-anode magnetron. These could generate a few watts of power at frequencies up to a few gigahertz, and were used in the first experiments in communication with microwaves.\n", "In 1931 an Anglo-French consortium demonstrated the first experimental microwave relay link, across the English Channel between Dover, UK and Calais, France. The system transmitted telephony, telegraph and facsimile data over bidirectional 1.7 GHz beams with a power of one-half watt, produced by miniature Barkhausen-Kurz tubes at the focus of metal dishes.\n", "A word was needed to distinguish these new shorter wavelengths, which had previously been lumped into the \"short wave\" band, which meant all waves shorter than 200 meters. The terms \"quasi-optical waves\" and \"ultrashort waves\" were used briefly, but didn't catch on. The first usage of the word \"micro-wave\" apparently occurred in 1931.\n", "Section::::History.:Radar.\n", "The development of radar, mainly in secrecy, before and during World War 2, resulted in the technological advances which made microwaves practical. Wavelengths in the centimeter range were required to give the small radar antennas which were compact enough to fit on aircraft a narrow enough beamwidth to localize enemy aircraft. It was found that conventional transmission lines used to carry radio waves had excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and George Southworth at Bell Labs and Wilmer Barrow at MIT independently invented waveguide in 1936. Barrow invented the horn antenna in 1938 as a means to efficiently radiate microwaves into or out of a waveguide. In a microwave receiver, a nonlinear component was needed that would act as a detector and mixer at these frequencies, as vacuum tubes had too much capacitance. To fill this need researchers resurrected an obsolete technology, the point contact crystal detector (cat whisker detector) which was used as a demodulator in crystal radios around the turn of the century before vacuum tube receivers. The low capacitance of semiconductor junctions allowed them to function at microwave frequencies. The first modern silicon and germanium diodes were developed as microwave detectors in the 1930s, and the principles of semiconductor physics learned during their development led to semiconductor electronics after the war.\n", "The first powerful sources of microwaves were invented at the beginning of World War 2: the klystron tube by Russell and Sigurd Varian at Stanford University in 1937, and the cavity magnetron tube by John Randall and Harry Boot at Birmingham University, UK in 1940. Britain's 1940 decision to share its microwave technology with the US (the Tizard Mission) significantly influenced the outcome of the war. The MIT Radiation Laboratory established secretly at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1940 to research radar, produced much of the theoretical knowledge necessary to use microwaves. By 1943, 10 centimeter (3 GHz) radar was in use on British and American warplanes. The first microwave relay systems were developed by the Allied military near the end of the war and used for secure battlefield communication networks in the European theater.\n", "Section::::History.:Post World War 2.\n", "After World War 2, microwaves were rapidly exploited commercially. Due to their high frequency they had a very large information-carrying capacity (bandwidth); a single microwave beam could carry tens of thousands of phone calls. In the 1950s and 60s transcontinental microwave relay networks were built in the US and Europe to exchange telephone calls between cities and distribute television programs. In the new television broadcasting industry, from the 1940s microwave dishes were used to transmit backhaul video feed from mobile production trucks back to the studio, allowing the first remote TV broadcasts. The first communications satellites were launched in the 1960s, which relayed telephone calls and television between widely separated points on Earth using microwave beams. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson while investigating noise in a satellite horn antenna at Bell Labs, Holmdel, New Jersey discovered cosmic microwave background radiation.\n", "Microwave radar became the central technology used in air traffic control, maritime navigation, anti-aircraft defense, ballistic missile detection, and later many other uses. Radar and satellite communication motivated the development of modern microwave antennas; the parabolic antenna (the most common type), cassegrain antenna, lens antenna, slot antenna, and phased array.\n", "The ability of short waves to quickly heat materials and cook food had been investigated in the 1930s by I. F. Mouromtseff at Westinghouse, and at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair demonstrated cooking meals with a 60 MHz radio transmitter. In 1945 Percy Spencer, an engineer working on radar at Raytheon, noticed that microwave radiation from a magnetron oscillator melted a candy bar in his pocket. He investigated cooking with microwaves and invented the microwave oven, consisting of a magnetron feeding microwaves into a closed metal cavity containing food, which was patented by Raytheon on 8 October 1945. Due to their expense microwave ovens were initially used in institutional kitchens, but by 1986 roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned one. Microwave heating became widely used as an industrial process in industries such as plastics fabrication, and as a medical therapy to kill cancer cells in microwave hyperthermy.\n", "The traveling wave tube (TWT) developed in 1943 by Rudolph Kompfner and John Pierce provided a high-power tunable source of microwaves up to 50 GHz, and became the most widely used microwave tube (besides the ubiquitous magnetron used in microwave ovens). The gyrotron tube family developed in Russia could produce megawatts of power up into millimeter wave frequencies, and is used in industrial heating and plasma research, and to power particle accelerators and nuclear fusion reactors.\n", "Section::::History.:Solid state microwave devices.\n", "The development of semiconductor electronics in the 1950s led to the first solid state microwave devices which worked by a new principle; negative resistance (some of the prewar microwave tubes had also used negative resistance). The feedback oscillator and two-port amplifiers which were used at lower frequencies became unstable at microwave frequencies, and negative resistance oscillators and amplifiers based on one-port devices like diodes worked better.\n", "The tunnel diode invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki could produce a few milliwatts of microwave power. Its invention set off a search for better negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators, resulting in the invention of the IMPATT diode in 1956 by W.T. Read and Ralph L. Johnston and the Gunn diode in 1962 by J. B. Gunn. Diodes are the most widely used microwave sources today. Two low-noise solid state negative resistance microwave amplifiers were developed; the ruby maser invented in 1953 by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, and the varactor parametric amplifier developed in 1956 by Marion Hines. These were used for low noise microwave receivers in radio telescopes and satellite ground stations. The maser led to the development of atomic clocks, which keep time using a precise microwave frequency emitted by atoms undergoing an electron transition between two energy levels. Negative resistance amplifier circuits required the invention of new nonreciprocal waveguide components, such as circulators, isolators, and directional couplers. In 1969 Kurokawa derived mathematical conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits which formed the basis of microwave oscillator design.\n", "Section::::History.:Microwave integrated circuits.\n", "Prior to the 1970s microwave devices and circuits were bulky and expensive, so microwave frequencies were generally limited to the output stage of transmitters and the RF front end of receivers, and signals were heterodyned to a lower intermediate frequency for processing. The period from the 1970s to the present has seen the development of tiny inexpensive active solid state microwave components which can be mounted on circuit boards, allowing circuits to perform significant signal processing at microwave frequencies. This has made possible satellite television, cable television, GPS devices, and modern wireless devices, such as smartphones, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth which connect to networks using microwaves.\n", "Microstrip, a type of transmission line usable at microwave frequencies, was invented with printed circuits in the 1950s. The ability to cheaply fabricate a wide range of shapes on printed circuit boards allowed microstrip versions of capacitors, inductors, resonant stubs, splitters, directional couplers, diplexers, filters and antennas to be made, thus allowing compact microwave circuits to be constructed. \n", "Transistors that operated at microwave frequencies were developed in the 1970s. The semiconductor gallium arsenide (GaAs) has a much higher electron mobility than silicon, so devices fabricated with this material can operate at 4 times the frequency of similar devices of silicon. Beginning in the 1970s GaAs was used to make the first microwave transistors, and it has dominated microwave semiconductors ever since. MESFETs (metal-semiconductor field-effect transistors), fast GaAs field effect transistors using Schottky junctions for the gate, were developed starting in 1968 and have reached cutoff frequencies of 100 GHz, and are now the most widely used active microwave devices. Another family of transistors with a higher frequency limit is the HEMT (high electron mobility transistor), a field effect transistor made with two different semiconductors, AlGaAs and GaAs, using heterojunction technology, and the similar HBT (heterojunction bipolar transistor).\n", "GaAs can be made semi-insulating, allowing it to be used as a substrate on which circuits containing passive components as well as transistors can be fabricated by lithography. By 1976 this led to the first integrated circuits (ICs) which functioned at microwave frequencies, called monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMIC). The word \"monolithic\" was added to distinguish these from microstrip PCB circuits, which were called \"microwave integrated circuits\" (MIC). Since then silicon MMICs have also been developed. Today MMICs have become the workhorses of both analog and digital high frequency electronics, enabling the production of single chip microwave receivers, broadband amplifiers, modems, and microprocessors.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Block upconverter (BUC)\n", "BULLET::::- Cosmic microwave background\n", "BULLET::::- Electron cyclotron resonance\n", "BULLET::::- International Microwave Power Institute\n", "BULLET::::- Low-noise block converter (LNB)\n", "BULLET::::- Maser\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave auditory effect\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave cavity\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave chemistry\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave radio relay\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave transmission\n", "BULLET::::- Rain fade\n", "BULLET::::- RF switch matrix\n", "BULLET::::- The Thing (listening device)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- EM Talk, Microwave Engineering Tutorials and Tools\n", "BULLET::::- Millimeter Wave and Microwave Waveguide dimension chart.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "form of electromagnetic radiation", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q127995", "wikidata_label": "microwave", "wikipedia_title": "Microwave", "aliases": { "alias": [ "microwaves" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20097, "parentid": 905714440, "revid": 906110924, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-13T18:08:44Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microwave&oldid=906110924" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Wagram\n", "The Battle of Wagram (; 5–6 July 1809) was a military engagement of the Napoleonic Wars that ended in a costly but decisive victory for Emperor Napoleon I's French and allied army against the Austrian army under the command of Archduke Charles of Austria-Teschen. The battle led to the breakup of the Fifth Coalition, the Austrian and British-led alliance against France.\n", "In 1809, the French military presence in Germany was diminished as Napoleon transferred a number of soldiers to fight in the Peninsular War. As a result, the Austrian Empire saw its chance to recover some of its former sphere of influence and invaded the Kingdom of Bavaria, a French ally. Recovering from his initial surprise, Napoleon beat the Austrian forces and occupied Vienna at the beginning of May 1809. Despite the string of sharp defeats and the loss of the empire's capital, Archduke Charles salvaged an army, with which he retreated north of the Danube. This allowed the Austrians to continue the war. Towards the end of May, Napoleon resumed the offensive, suffering a surprise defeat at the Battle of Aspern-Essling.\n", "It took Napoleon six weeks to prepare his next offensive, for which he amassed a 165,000-man French, German and Italian army in the vicinity of Vienna. The Battle of Wagram began after Napoleon crossed the Danube with the bulk of these forces during the night of 4 July and attacked the 145,000-man strong Austrian army. Having successfully crossed the river, Napoleon attempted an early breakthrough and launched a series of evening attacks against the Austrian army. The Austrians were thinly spread in a wide semicircle, but held a naturally strong position. After the attackers enjoyed some initial success, the defenders regained the upper hand and the attacks failed. Bolstered by his success, the next day at dawn Archduke Charles launched a series of attacks along the entire battle line, seeking to take the opposing army in a double envelopment. The offensive failed against the French right but nearly broke Napoleon's left. However, the Emperor countered by launching a cavalry charge, which temporarily halted the Austrian advance. He then redeployed IV Corps to stabilise his left, while setting up a grand battery, which pounded the Austrian right and centre. The tide of battle turned and the Emperor launched an offensive along the entire line, while \"Maréchal\" Louis-Nicolas Davout drove an offensive, which turned the Austrian left, and rendered Charles's position untenable. Towards mid-afternoon on 6 July, Charles admitted defeat and led a retreat, frustrating enemy attempts to pursue. After the battle, Charles remained in command of a cohesive force and decided to retreat to Bohemia. However, the Grande Armée eventually caught up with him and scored a victory at the Battle of Znaim. With the battle still raging, Charles decided to ask for an armistice, effectively ending the war.\n", "With 80,000 casualties, the two-day battle of Wagram was particularly bloody, mainly due to the use of 1,000 artillery pieces and the expenditure of over 180,000 rounds of artillery ammunition on a flat battlefield packed with some 300,000 men. Although Napoleon was the uncontested winner, he failed to secure an overwhelming victory and the Austrian casualties were only slightly greater than those of the French and allies. Nonetheless, the defeat was serious enough to shatter the morale of the Austrians, who could no longer find the will to continue the struggle. The resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn meant the loss of one sixth of the Austrian Empire's subjects, along with some territories, rendering it landlocked until the German Campaign of 1813. \n", "After the battle, Emperor Napoleon bestowed to Louis-Alexandre Berthier, who was his Marshal, Chief of Staff and Vice-Constable of the Empire, the victory title of 1st Prince of Wagram, making him an official member of the French nobility. Berthier had previously been granted the title of Sovereign Prince of Neuchâtel and the Prince of Valangin in 1806. This allowed his descendants to carry the titles of Prince and Princess of Wagram.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "Section::::Prelude.:Context.\n", "In 1809, the First French Empire held a dominant position on the European continent. Resounding victories during the 1805 to 1807 wars against the Third and Fourth coalitions had ensured almost undisputed continental hegemony, to such an extent that no other European power could challenge the might of Napoleon's empire. However, despite having defeated Austria, forced Russia into an uneasy alliance and reduced Prussia to the rank of a second-rate power, Napoleon did not manage to force the United Kingdom to make peace. With the British in complete control of the seas, Napoleon thus opted for an economic war, imposing the Continental System against the British Isles, in a bid to dry up vital British commercial relations with the continent. To ensure the effectiveness of the Continental System, he sought to force Portugal, a traditional British trading partner, to observe it; when diplomatic means failed in 1808, Napoleon had the country occupied, forcing the ruling dynasty of Braganza to flee the country and seek refuge in its main colony, Brazil. In a move that would prove to be both uninspired and ill-handled, Napoleon also opted to change the ruling dynasty of Spain, replacing King Charles IV with his own brother, Joseph, who became King José I of Spain. The new king was, however, not well received by the population and much of the country's ruling elite, which triggered a bloody guerrilla war throughout the country. The French position in the peninsula was rendered untenable after the Battle of Bailen, a rare and resounding defeat for the French forces and an event that greatly encouraged the Austrian war party. With Napoleon forced to intervene personally and commit increasingly significant forces to the Spanish, the French military position in central Europe was severely weakened. In addition, Franco-Russian relations had deteriorated and, although the two countries remained allies on paper, it was unlikely that Russia would commit itself seriously to fighting France's enemies on the continent.\n", "France's main adversary in central Europe was the Austrian Empire. Defeated at Ulm and Austerlitz in 1805 and forced to conclude the humiliating Peace of Pressburg, Austria still possessed a formidable army which, in the years following Austerlitz, had undergone major reforms. By 1809, the state was almost bankrupt and acutely aware that it could not retain its status as a great power if it did not manage to regain some of its former influence in Germany and Italy. Encouraged by Napoleon's peninsular imbroglio, British subsidies and the promise of a military intervention in northern Europe, the Austrians decided that the European political context of 1808 and 1809 offered their best chance to retake lost provinces. In order to win the war against the French, Vienna was counting on massive nationalist, anti-French uprisings throughout Germany and hoping that an early success might convince Prussia to join the new coalition, while calculating that Russia would most likely not interfere in support of the French. Austrian military preparations were accelerated in 1808 and early 1809, with operations set to occur in several war theatres, including the main one in Bavaria and sideshows in Italy, Dalmatia, Westphalia, Tyrol and Poland. In stark contrast to 1805, by 1809 Austria had managed to reform its military and build a relatively modern and overall redoubtable army, placed in the hands of their best commander, Archduke Charles of Austria, brother of Emperor Francis I of Austria.\n", "Section::::Prelude.:Opening campaign.\n", "By March 1809, war between Austria and France was imminent and the Habsburg army, 200,000 men strong, massed in the northwestern province of Bohemia, near the frontier with the Confederation of the Rhine, the French-dominated confederacy of German states. Austria hoped that Prussia would join the war and, by massing its main army in Bohemia, it signalled its intent to join up with the Prussians. However, by early April 1809, it became obvious that Prussia was not ready to commit, and the Austrians were forced to move their main army southwards, in a bid to launch their westward offensive along the Danube. Strategically, the decision was sound, since an offensive along the river valley allowed better protection for the Austrian capital. Nevertheless, the time-consuming manoeuvres to Bohemia and back cost the Austrians an entire month.\n", "On 9 April 1809, without any declaration of war, the main Austrian army crossed the Inn River into Bavaria, one of France's main allies, while secondary Austrian armies launched offensives of their own. Meanwhile, Napoleon was in Paris, conscious that the war was imminent but unaware that the Austrians were prepared for immediate offensive. Command of the French and allied army, styled \"Grande Armée d'Allemagne\", was in the hands of \"Maréchal\" Berthier, a formidable officer when working as Napoleon's chief of staff, but completely out of his depth as a commander by proxy. Furthermore, in order to remain in close contact with Paris by military telegraph and to avoid provoking the Austrians, Berthier was initially ordered to set up his headquarters near Strasbourg, hundreds of kilometres away from the front line, before moving to Germany as war broke out. As a result, Berthier's response to Charles's invasion was timid and, after misinterpreting Napoleon's orders, he left two entire army corps in isolated positions. Consequently, during the first week of the campaign, Charles was able to advance virtually unmolested and take advantage of the poor French deployment. All changed from 17 April, when Napoleon arrived in person and began concentrating his available troops to meet the Austrian onslaught. Before Napoleon could concentrate his corps, Charles attacked Davout's isolated corps at Teugen-Hausen but the dogged French marshal repulsed the attackers. The tide of the campaign had turned but Napoleon misjudged the strategic situation, thinking that the force that had fought Davout was only a flank guard and that the main force lay before him; in reality it was the opposite. As the French took the offensive several actions ensued : Landshut, Abensberg, Eckmühl and Ratisbon, with the Austrians coming off worse each time and having their left wing cut off from the bulk of the army. In the end, however, Charles succeeded in avoiding a decisive defeat, preserving a combat-ready army which he directed north of the Danube, where he awaited Napoleon's next move.\n", "Charles's retreat left Napoleon with two options: pursue the defeated Austrian army north of the Danube or occupy Vienna, which was now covered by a secondary enemy force and could not hope to hold out. Uncharacteristically, Napoleon, who had stated on a number of occasions that the purpose of any campaign is to destroy the main army of the enemy, opted for the latter course of action and entered the enemy capital on 12 May, only to find the city's strategic bridges over the Danube blown up. With the emperor poised for an immediate continuation of the offensive north of the river, this was a considerable setback. Meanwhile, Charles brought the bulk of his remaining force on the northern bank of the river, close to Vienna, which lured Napoleon into attacking them right away. Napoleon's rushed crossing of the river was made on fragile, hastily built pontoon bridges, over an increasingly swollen river. The French crossing resulted in the Battle of Aspern-Essling, beginning on 21 May; the more numerous Austrian army faced only a fraction of the \"Grande Armée\", as Napoleon was unable to bring through the bulk of his forces in time. Still, Charles's attempt to drive the outnumbered enemy back resulted in total failure, as the French led a skillful combined-arms defense, with their cavalry playing a vital role in keeping the Austrians at bay. Fighting resumed early on 22 May, when Napoleon began receiving some reinforcements and decided to attack. The French offensive was quite successful but Napoleon soon received alarming news that the main bridge had broken and consequently, no further reinforcements and ammunition could be brought from the southern bank, making a protracted battle impossible. This prompted the emperor to immediately stop his attack and order a phased retreat onto the large Danube island of Lobau. Given that the Austrians, with their superior numbers and overwhelming artillery firepower, were now intent upon seizing the opportunity to launch a counterattack of their own, retreat was most difficult. It took all the experience of the French commanders and the determination and self-sacrifice of the troops, including the Guard, to fend off the ferocious Austrian onslaught but, by nightfall, the remains of the French forces were safely across the arm of the Danube, on the island of Lobau. Napoleon had suffered the first significant defeat of his career.\n", "Section::::Prelude.:Towards another battle.\n", "The Battle of Aspern-Essling was extremely costly for both sides, resulting in some 53,000 casualties, almost equally divided between the two armies. For the Austrians, Aspern-Essling was a costly victory. Crucially, it improved the overall morale of the troops as it proved that, despite their early string of defeats, the army could fight extremely well. However, in the weeks following the battle, Archduke Charles became increasingly skeptical about his chances of winning the war. His analysis of the battle revealed that he had been unable to capitalise on his overwhelming numerical superiority and had thus failed to achieve more than a tactical victory. Also of great significance, despite Austrian attempts to trumpet their victory against Napoleon, its political consequences remained limited: there were no signs of a general uprising in Germany, Prussia was still unwilling to enter the war and Great Britain was not ready to launch its promised land expedition in northern Europe, while Russia, France's ally since 1807, was becoming increasingly aggressive against the Austrian forces in Galicia. Thus, Charles's skepticism stemmed from the realisation that none of the strategic prerequisites for an Austrian victory in this war had materialised. He came to believe that his country's best option was to open negotiations with Napoleon but, despite his warning that \"the first battle lost is a death sentence for the monarchy\", his brother, Emperor Francis repeatedly refused to consider the option.\n", "Although a generalissimus, with supreme authority over the entire Austrian army, Charles's position was constantly undermined by his imperial brother and the war party at the court, who were corresponding directly on military matters with his chief of staff, \"General Major\" Wimpffen and some of the corps commanders. The constant flow of information from the front maintained a bellicose atmosphere in the high political circles and an erroneously optimistic opinion about Austria's military situation, which hindered Charles's best attempts to get his brother to sue for peace.\n", "It thus became clear to the Archduke that another battle would be forthcoming, although he still nourished hopes that Napoleon himself might make peace overtures. Although morale among the rank and file remained fair following Aspern-Essling, the atmosphere among the Austrian senior commanders was particularly rotten and Charles's insufficiently assiduous preparations for another battle further sapped their confidence in him. One of the senior generals, Johann von Hiller, commander of VI Korps was overtly critical of Charles's strategy and resigned on 4 July, on the eve of the battle of Wagram, giving health reasons as a pretext. Archduke Charles did make considerable efforts to rebuild his army and, despite the slow arrival of reinforcements, by the end of June, it was close to full strength again. Overall, Archduke Charles was well aware that he did not possess the means necessary to lead any offensive actions, so he promptly dismissed suggestions to run any major operations against the French base on Lobau island. A plan to march to Pressburg, cross the Danube and launch operations against the enemy's rear from there was also dismissed as strategically unsound after \"General Major\" Wimpffen noted that such a plan would leave Bohemia, the richest province still under the Austrian Empire's control, open to a French invasion. By the end of June, Archduke Charles was still hoping that Napoleon might opt to negotiate, a misapprehension that the latter encouraged through a series of ruses. In the event that a battle would indeed occur, Charles planned to remain on the defensive and thus his actions depended on the moves of the enemy. A member of the House of Habsburg, Archduke Charles saw the army as an invaluable tool, meant to protect the existence of the Monarchy. He was thus a cautious commander, never willing to risk it all in order to obtain a decisive victory, a commitment that he reiterated towards the end of June, when he wrote to his uncle and mentor, Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, stating that, should another battle be unavoidable, he would \"strike one more blow against the French\" but \"risk nothing or as little as possible\". Although he reckoned that Austria would need a major victory in order to turn the tide of the war, he believed that another battle against Napoleon would have doubtful results.\n", "Meanwhile, having retreated to the island of Lobau after the battle of Aspern-Essling, Napoleon knew that he had failed in his attempt to cross the Danube and was so astonished by the severity of the setback that he remained in unaccustomed inaction for 36 hours. After recovering his usual drive, his immediate concern was to improve the dire situation of his army, which was in very bad shape and virtually trapped on Lobau island, after the Danube had swollen. With his usual tireless activity, he supervised the transformation of Lobau island into a huge army base. The French built temporary campaign hospitals for his 20,000 wounded, as well as warehouses and barracks, which sheltered a numerous permanent military garrison. As soon as a secure bridge was built, the Emperor had the wounded and a part of the troops transferred to the mainland, but maintained IV Corps on the island. He did not intend to abandon this position, as he was planning to use it as a springboard for his upcoming crossing. His next task was to rebuild the army. Casualties had been roughly equal to those of the enemy, but, with fewer troops engaged, some of Napoleon's battalions needed rebuilding from scratch. Losses in officers in particular had been extremely high and proved difficult to replace. \"Maréchal\" Jean Lannes, one of Napoleon's ablest commanders and a personal friend, had been mortally wounded in action and died nine days after the battle. Another irreplaceable loss was Louis-Vincent-Joseph Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire, who had been created a Marshal of the Empire just a month before, in recognition of his brilliant conduct during the earlier campaign, but received a mortal wound during the battle and died before the coveted baton could arrive from Paris. Jean-Louis-Brigitte Espagne, another famous general was killed in action at the head of his \"cuirassiers\" and the commander in chief of the artillery, Nicolas-Marie Songis des Courbons, became severely ill and had to leave his command a few weeks after the battle. Despite all these setbacks, the army and its officers retained total confidence in Napoleon's ability to lead them to victory and morale remained high. Evidence of this came a couple of days before the newly planned crossing of the Danube, when Napoleon's most senior Corps commander, \"Maréchal\" André Masséna fell from his horse and badly injured his foot, rendering him unable to ride for some time. In sheer contrast with Hiller's gesture, Masséna, although in significant pain, made arrangements to lead his men in battle from a phaeton and vowed to retain his command, much to the Emperor's relief.\n", "Napoleon reckoned that he would need careful planning and superior forces, before he could attempt another crossing of the Danube. In order to achieve that, he needed to secure his island-base at Lobau. Following the Emperor's orders, the commander of the Grande Armée artillery, General Songis and his successor, General Lariboisière, installed a massive 124-gun battery on the island. They also carefully scouted the shores and small islands of the Danube and installed batteries in strategic positions, in a bid to cover Vienna, but above all with the aim of keeping the enemy guessing about the exact location of the upcoming crossing. The French also needed reliable bridges. Starting work on 1 June, General Bertrand led vast military engineering works that resulted in the building of two strong bridges from the south bank to Lobau island. These were to be used to transfer supplies and troops onto the island. Bertrand secured these bridges against any floating barges that the Austrians might have launched to destroy them, by building palisades upstream. In order to cross from the island to the northern bank, a series of pivoting bridges and landing craft were also built. The French also captured a Danube flotilla and built additional patrol ships, which meant that they were, by the end of June, in almost complete control of the river, allowing Napoleon to write in the Army Bulletin of 2 July that \"the Danube no longer exists for the French army\".\n", "Section::::The first day.\n", "Section::::The first day.:Preliminaries.\n", "The Austrian high command was well aware of the French preparations on Lobau island and thus understood that the French attack would come from there. Archduke Charles was however unsure about where the French would cross and, together with his staff reckoned that the crossing would most likely be made from the north of the island, making landfall roughly at the same location as at the Battle of Aspern-Essling. Working on this hypothesis, Charles had a chain of 16 defensive redoubts built, essentially between Aspern and Groß-Enzersdorf. Strangely, he did not extend the earthworks southeast, along the riverline, which meant that the line could be outflanked. Moreover, the redoubts did not provide all-round protection and an Austrian observer noted that only Turks would throw up such poor earthworks. Charles's belief that Napoleon would cross north of Lobau seemed to be confirmed on 2 July, when he received news that French forces began to cross the river there. The Austrian commander thought that the battle scenario he had prepared for – a repetition of the battle fought at the end of May – was about to materialise, so he promptly moved his entire force to face the enemy. However, it soon became obvious that the French force was only a small detachment, sent forward to secure a bridgehead.\n", "On 3 July, Archduke Charles finally decided not to fight the enemy near the Danube and retreated to the higher ground overlooking the Marchfeld. This was a major decision, as it meant that the earlier plan to man the 16 redoubts next to the Danube and fight the enemy there was abandoned. Instead, Archduke Charles occupied both the Bisamberg heights and the Wagram plateau behind the Russbach river, covering the retreat routes to Bohemia and Moravia respectively, thus occupying a sound strategic position. Although the army was not strong enough to occupy both positions and no earthworks were provided for the new position, it was thought that, given that the two heights were placed at an angle to one another, any enemy force attacking would find itself placed between two pincers. There was perhaps further justification for this choice on a tactical level: the broken and wooded terrain in the immediate proximity of the Danube was adapted to fighting in open order formations, which were insufficiently mastered by his men, and at which the French were adept. This was, without a doubt, one of the bitter lessons that the Austrians learned at Aspern and Essling. But above all, the cautious Archduke Charles was unwilling to take the risk of committing his forces in such an advanced position, knowing that he would have a hard time extricating them, should retreat have become necessary. He also planned not to face the enemy on the flat plains of the Marchfeld, an ideal cavalry terrain, where the numerically superior French horse would quickly gain the upper hand. The two influential staff officers, Wimpffen and Grünne, had been actively advocating for this position for weeks and this time Charles finally acquiesced to their point of view.\n", "Section::::The first day.:Opposing plans.\n", "Intelligence received on 4 July informed the Archduke that the French had weakened their position at Pressburg, a clear sign that the enemy would launch its operations very soon. At 07:00 on 4 July, Charles wrote to his brother, Archduke John of Austria, whose secondary army was stationed near Pressburg. Charles informed John that the battle was imminent and that it \"will decide the fate of our dynasty\", ordering him to draw closer to the main army by marching to Marchegg, adding that John should leave behind \"all baggage and impedimenta\". As chance would have it, heavy thunderstorms delayed delivery of the message, which only got to Archduke John 23 hours later.\n", "Archduke Charles did not seriously consider the possibility that the French could cross elsewhere than north of Lobau island until late on 4 July. When he finally accounted for this scenario, Charles remained faithful to his earlier plan not to move his forces towards the river. Instead, he planned to allow the enemy to move into the Marchfeld, leaving there only the Advance Guard and VI Korps, with orders to delay their deployment, cause disorder and casualties, while gradually moving back. Meanwhile, he was planning to maintain his main body on the naturally strong position on the Wagram plateau, with the rest of his forces further west on the Bisamberg heights, the two positions that Wimpffen and Grünne had favoured all along. Should the French have attempted to attack the forces on the Wagram plateau, the forces present there were expected to resist long enough to allow Charles to fall on the enemy's flank with the forces placed the Bisamberg heights. Conversely, should the enemy have attacked the forces on the Bisamberg heights, the main force on the Wagram plateau would have attacked the enemy's flank. The plan was good enough, but had two major flaws. Firstly, it failed to account for the slowness of the Austrian staff work, which impaired coordination between these forces. Secondly, it left the Advance Guard and VI Corps with an ambiguous objective: if Charles wanted protracted resistance, then these forces were too weak to accomplish such a task; however, if the objective was only brief resistance, then they were too numerous and thus needlessly exposed.\n", "Meanwhile, the French were getting ready to cross, according to detailed crossing plans drawn in advance by the Chief of Staff of the \"Grande Armée\", \"Maréchal\" Berthier. Napoleon was aware that the Austrians had thrown earthworks between Aspern and Groß-Enzersdorf and planned to cross southeast of these positions and then outflank the enemy fortified line. This meant, however, that his forces had a much longer march before making contact with the enemy. On 4 July, by nightfall, under the cover of a violent thunderstorm that impeded any Austrian observation, Napoleon gave the order for the commencement of the crossing operations.\n", "Section::::The first day.:Across the Danube.\n", "One French thrust was directed at occupying the strategic Hansel-Grund salient, east of Lobau island, which a brigade under Conroux secured towards 22:00. This allowed the French to deploy three pivoting bridges, which had been prepared in advance and on which other elements of Oudinot's II Corps began to cross. Meanwhile, further north, Colonel Sainte-Croix, \"aide-de-camp\" to \"Maréchal\" Masséna had 1,500 men of IV Corps embarked on landing craft and crossed the river, without meeting any opposition. Sainte-Croix's \"pontonniers\" then started work and, making good use of the current, managed to bridge the arm of the Danube in no more than five minutes, using another pivoting bridge. This allowed Masséna's divisions to begin crossing, while the division commanded by Legrand, already on the northern bank since 2 July, made a feint towards Aspern and Essling, in a bid to divert Austrian attention from the actual crossing. Several other bridges were finalised towards 02:00, allowing the bulk of II and III Corps, with their respective artillery, cavalry and equipment trains to cross to the northern bank. Napoleon ordered the \"pontonniers\" to build three additional bridges and work continued well after dawn on 5 July, after the bulk of the \"Grande Armée\" had already crossed the river. The battle had begun.\n", "As the French were crossing east of Lobau island, the only significant Austrian force in the immediate vicinity was Armand von Nordmann's Advance Guard, which had been left in the sector with orders to delay the enemy advance. Nordmann's men were faced with a massive artillery barrage from French batteries on Lobau island and, with increasing numbers of enemy battalions coming up, Nordmann had no option but to turn north, leaving behind detachments at Sachsengang castle and Gross-Enzersdorf. With most of his troops available by now, Oudinot and his II Corps approached Sachsengang castle and came up against its defenders: two Austrian battalions and a few small-calibre cannon. The French opted against storming the position and instead brought forward their howitzers, in a bid to shell the defenders into submission. Austrian resistance was brief, with the garrison surrendering towards 08:00. Further north, Masséna directed his divisions straight to the strategic village of Gross-Enzersdorf, where the rest of Nordmann's rearguard (two battalions from the \"Bellegarde\" regiment) lay. The village itself constituted a sturdy defensive position and Napoleon himself came forward to inspect it, noticing that it was strong enough to potentially delay the deployment of IV Corps onto the Marchfeld plain beyond. The Emperor thus ordered his heavy batteries on Lobau island, including 22 heavy 16-pounders, 14 mortars and 10 howitzers, to bombard the village. In total, some one thousand shells were fired on Gross-Enzersdorf, with the village quickly becoming engulfed in flames. The commander of Austrian VI Korps, \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Klenau, whose force was in the vicinity, also with orders to delay the French advance, tried to relieve the defenders, but they were successfully checked by Jacob François Marulaz's French cavalry from IV Corps. With the defenders of the village now cut off and defending what was becoming a burning inferno, Colonel Sainte-Croix assumed command of the 46th Line regiment and stormed the position, taking some 400 prisoners. Further west, the division commanded by Boudet moved against the village of Essling, which fell to the French without much resistance. By 10:00, Napoleon was pleased to notice that the bridgehead had been completely secured and that all enemy attempts to destroy the bridges had failed. Indeed, all Austrian attempts to frustrate the French crossing by using the tactics that worked so well during the Battle of Aspern-Essling – sending barges or trees downstream to ram the bridges – failed utterly on 5 July, because the French flotilla was in full control of the river. This allowed the bulk of Napoleon's army to cross to the northern bank of the Danube at great speed and in perfect safety.\n", "Archduke Charles was by now well aware of Napoleon's intentions but remained committed to his plan not to fight the battle on the flat Marchfeld plain, where the superior French cavalry would have given Napoleon a clear edge. Thus, Charles did nothing to support his two forward units and watched as Nordmann gradually withdrew north, towards the Russbach line and Klenau withdrew northwest, towards Breintlee. Meanwhile, Napoleon was free to advance north, into the Marchfeld plain, where he would have enough room to deploy his forces. The French advanced in battalion columns, with their front line formed by the Corps of Masséna on the left, Oudinot in the centre and Davout on the right, and the respective Corps cavalry screening the flanks. By noon, the French had advanced into the Marchfeld, a move which so far suited both commanders.\n", "Section::::The first day.:Clashes on the Marchfeld.\n", "As the French were successfully moving forward, the Austrian Advance Guard, under \"Feldmareschalleutnant\" Nordmann, supported by \"Feldmareschalleutnant\" Klenau's VI Korps, in all 25,000 infantrymen, were gradually withdrawing northwards. The Austrian infantry were formed in masses, a formation that had proved very efficient in fending off cavalry, but whose compact ranks made it extremely vulnerable to artillery fire. Casualties began to mount at an alarming rate and Nordmann's infantry, initially 12,000 men strong, was particularly exposed to artillery fire during its retreat towards Grosshofen. Additionally, towards 13:00, Nordmann became extremely concerned that the numerous French cavalry, might cut him off from the rest of the army. Seeing the dangerous situation of his Advance Guard, Archduke Charles ordered Liechtenstein to the rescue of these infantrymen with five cavalry regiments. Liechtenstein moved swiftly towards the east with his squadrons, arriving in the vicinity of Glinzendorf, but then remained passive, while the French, who now had a numerous combined-arms presence there, were able to continue their advance unmolested. The first serious Austrian attempt to slow down the French onslaught came towards 15:00, when Liechtenstein and Nordmann tried to organise a joint operation, but they gave up quite early on, realising that they were opposed by a very powerful force of several infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions from \"Maréchal\" Davout's III French Corps. The Austrians pulled back, leaving Davout free to position his men between Glinzendorf and Raasdorf, thus drawing closer to the II Corps.\n", "Further west, \"Maréchal\" Bernadotte's IX Corps had been steadily advancing, with the French II Corps on their right, but began to meet steady resistance, when troops from Nordmann's Corps decided to make a stand. These men were from Riese's brigade, soon reinforced by the 13th Wallachian-Illyrian \"Grenzer\" and Infantry Regiment 46 \"Chasteler\". Bernadotte sent forward the two battalions of the 5th Light regiment, which successfully pushed back the opposition, allowing the rest of his Corps to continue its advance towards the village of Aderklaa, near which they had to stop, towards 15:30, as they met enemy cavalry. Towards 17:00, in an attempt to secure the vital position at Aderklaa, the Austrians launched a cavalry attack with the brigade of French \"émigré\" Roussel d'Hurbal. This heavy cavalry brigade, around 1,000 sabres strong, deployed on two lines, with the 3rd \"Herzog Albert\" Cuirassiers on the left and the 2nd \"Erzherzog Franz\" Cuirassiers on the right. D'Hurbal was suddenly charged by the 400 cavalrymen from the Saxon \"Prinz Klemens Chevaulegers\" regiment from Bernadotte's Corps, who had recklessly moved forward unsupported. D'Hurbal's cuirassiers stood to receive the charge and repulsed them by firing a pistol volley from 30 meters. This practice that was highly unusual for the cavalry tactics of the time but in this case it worked perfectly, with the Saxon chevaulegers sent fleeing. The Saxons then brought up the bulk of their cavalry, in echelon formation, with the right leading. D'Hurbal again chose to meet them with a pistol volley but this time the Saxons managed to maintain the impetus of their charge and crashed into the Austrian cuirassiers. Amongst the Saxon cavalry was a single squadron of the \"Herzog Albrecht Chevaulegers\" regiment, which shared the same Regimental Proprietor with the Austrian \"Herzog Albert\" cuirassiers and these units fought in a generalized melee that involved the entire cavalry present. After a few minutes, d'Hurbal's Austrians were beaten back and pursued, until they were rescued by Lederer's cuirassier brigade. After this cavalry action, Prince Liechtenstein decided that he had lost too many men to no avail and consequently pulled the bulk of his forces back to safety, behind the Wagram-Gerasdorf line, leaving five cavalry regiments with the IV Korps at Markgrafneusiedl.\n", "Meanwhile, Nordmann's slow retreat allowed Klenau's VI Austrian Korps, which had also been placed in an advanced position, to make a skillful fighting retreat westwards, taking few losses. In sharp contrast, Nordmann's Advance Guard suffered horrendous losses, with its initial 12,000 infantry reduced to little more than 6,000 soldiers capable of further action. This unusually high casualty rate resulted from Nordmann having been positioned in a perilous location and having been maintained there for too long, to little purpose. Additionally, Nordmann had benefitted from little protection from the cavalry present in that sector. After a well-led and determined staged retreat, Nordmann managed to extricate his battered troops, reaching the relative safety of the town of Markgrafneusiedl. The Advance Guard continued to constitute a viable fighting force and they were thus integrated in the IV Korps, guarding the Austrian left wing. The Austrian army was now deployed on a very wide ark-shaped frontage, long, including Klenau's VI Korps on the far right, then Kollowrat's III Korps on the right-centre, Hohenzollern's II Korps and Bellegarde's I Korps behind the Russbach line in central position, while Rosenberg's IV Korps covered the left. Liechtenstein's Grenadier Reserve divisions were placed in second line, with the Cavalry Reserve in a central position next to the village of Wagram.\n", "Opposite to the Austrians lay the French Army, which managed to fully deploy towards 18:00. From left to right, the French army included: Masséna's IV Corps, covering a wide area between the Danube and Süssenbrunn, the lead elements of Bernadotte's XI Corps (Dupas's division) near Aderklaa, Viceroy Eugène's \"Army of Italy\" in the centre, while Oudinot's II Corps was deployed opposite to Baumersdorf and Davout's III Corps continued the French line eastwards, beyond Glinzendorf. The rest of the French and Allied troops, including the Imperial Guard and \"Maréchal\" Bessières's Cavalry Reserve, were in second line. Napoleon had a sound strategic position, as he was holding the central position and had a much shorter line than his opponent.\n", "Section::::The first day.:The evening attacks.\n", "After the successful crossing of the Danube and deployment of his army on the Marchfeld plain, Napoleon achieved his primary goal for the day. Nevertheless, towards 18:00, either because he was dissatisfied with the result of the first engagements or because he was fearing that the enemy might retreat under the cover of darkness, the Emperor began issuing orders for an immediate attack. Never a man to lose time, Napoleon probably noted that the sun was still high on the sky, that the Austrian right wing was placed noticeably far away from the main body, and that there was still no sign of the arrival of Archduke John's army from the east. This attack was also meant to probe the strength and resolution of the enemy, as the Emperor did not know exactly what forces lay before him. The attack was to take place against the Russbach line on a wide front, between Wagram and Markgrafneusiedl, with Bernadotte, Eugène, Oudinot and Davout all ordered forward. Nevertheless, the French troops were all very tired and the most difficult tasks were assigned to some of the weakest troops available, namely elements of the Corps of Bernadotte and Oudinot. Additionally, with the Emperor ordering an immediate attack, the General Staff failed to transmit the orders to the respective commanders in due time, which resulted in a failure to launch synchronized actions.\n", "An artillery bombardment, between 19:00 and 19:30 opened up the French attack, with Oudinot launching a part of his II Corps against the Austrian II Korps under Prince Hozenzollern. The Austrian defenders were prepared for the attack: Hohenzollern had deployed his men in two lines, with a heavy skirmisher screen and was occupying a naturally strong position, which had been reinforced with earthworks. The Austrian Korps had also deployed its powerful artillery of 68 pieces. Nevertheless, the French crossed the Russbach stream, spearheaded by Frère's division, which managed to reach the outskirts of the small village of Baumersdorf. This village, consisting of no more than 30 wooden houses and a bridge, soon caught fire from the French artillery bombardment, but the Austrian defenders from Hardegg's brigade (8th \"Jäger\" regiment and a battalion of Volunteers from the \"Erzherzog Karl Legion\") stood their ground, despite the flames. Unable to storm the position with Frère's division, Oudinot launched a flanking attack to the right of the village, with some of his best troops: the 57th Line regiment (styled \"the Terrible\") and the 10th Light regiment, both from Grandjean's division. The 57th Line valiantly assaulted the village from the east and occupied its first houses, where they had to stop. Meanwhile, the 10th Light crossed the Russbach downstream and, after passing through the boggy terrain below the escarpment, began to make its way up the slope. As the 10th Light was coming up towards the village, they were at first greeted with intense artillery fire and then Buresch's brigade released some heavy musketry upon them. This disordered the ranks of the French regiment, which began to waver and the last straw came when they saw Prince Hohenzollern personally leading the 500 cavalrymen from the \"Vincent Chevaulegers\" regiment against them: the 10th Light panicked and fled, taking the 57th Line with them. After a disorderly retreat, the two regiments stopped and reformed when they met the steady ranks of the Imperial Guard, towards Raasdorf. By now, it was past 20:00, night was falling and Oudinot had been repulsed with significant losses.\n", "While Oudinot was engaged with Hohenzollern at Baumersdorf, to the west, \"Général de Division\" Jacques MacDonald, commander of the V Corps of the \"Army of Italy\" launched his men in an assault on the Wagram plateau. With the village of Baumersdorf in flames and a gentle breeze blowing from the east, the advance of the French troops was masked by heavy smoke. Dupas's division, temporarily attached to the \"Army of Italy\", spearheaded this attack and, as chance would have it, happened to get between the Austrian 1st and II Korps and was thus free to advance unmolested on Deutsch-Wagram from the east. Attacking Dedovich's division at Deutsch-Wagram, Dupas's small Franco-Saxon division was soon supported by Lamarque's division, personally led by MacDonald, with the divisions of Seras, Durutte and Sahuc, all from Paul Grenier's VI Corps, also coming up in support. Seeing the French advance, the Austrian artillerymen panicked and abandoned their guns, with the infantry regiments 35 and 47 (\"Vogelsang\") also retreating in some disorder. \"General der Kavallerie\" Bellegarde intervened in person, maneuvering to refuse his flank to the enemy, with the French advance also faltering, due to heavy smoke. With visibility reduced, the French mistook the white uniforms of their Saxon allies from the Schützen and Grenadier battalions, believing them to be Austrians and promptly firing at them, which triggered a precipitated retreat of these men. With Archduke Charles now personally present to reestablish order, the morale of the Austrians soared and a vigorous joint attack by infantry regiment 42 (\"Erbach\"), joined by Hohenzollern's \"Vincent Chevaulegers\" and \"Hessen-Homburg\" Hussars repulsed the French attackers, pushing them beyond the Russbach and to their initial positions. Bellegarde's good maneuver and Archduke Charles's inspired intervention ensured a totally successful counterattack, and avoided what could have developed into a dangerous situation for the Austrian army. Opposite to them, both the Saxons, who had suffered high casualties, and the French troops were retreating in complete disorder and halted only near Raasdorf.\n", "To the west, \"Maréchal\" Bernadotte, in command of the Saxon IX Corps, was preparing his own assault, planning to attack the Austrians at Deutsch-Wagram from the west. This attack was delayed, as Bernadotte had to wait for the arrival of Zezschwitz's division, but at around 21:00 the Saxons moved towards the village. As Lecoq's Saxon brigade approached the position, they were instantly met with sustained musketry fire from the Austrian defenders, two battalions of infantry regiment 17 (\"Reuss-Plauen\") and the 2nd \"Jäger\" regiment, but the Saxons pushed on and entered the village. Once they reached the vicinity of the village church, the Saxons were steadily met by the third battalion of infantry regiment 17 and the attack at once broke down, with the attackers forced to take shelter in the buildings nearby. Moments later, Zeschau's Saxon brigade, with Prince Maximilian's regiment attached to it, came in support, but these troops had been much disordered when crossing the Russbach, and upon entering the smoke filled streets of the village, they too lost impetus. With visibility much reduced by smoke, the situation at Deutsch-Wagram soon turned into chaos as all the troops inside spoke German and all, except the Austrian \"Jägers\", wore white uniforms. There were thus several instances in which Saxon troops fired at each other and their situation took a turn for the worse towards 22:30, when \"Generalmajor\" Hartizsch brought fresh Saxon troops against the position. Hartizsch was not informed that friendly troops were already in the village and, as he was coming up for the attack, he saw a large number of white-coats moving out of the position. The commander at once ordered his men to fire and minutes of friendly fire and hand-to-hand combat ensued before it became obvious that these men were actually Saxons too. This fortuitous event had a significant impact on the attack, as the Saxons in the village now thought themselves surrounded and at once broke and retreated in disorder. The Saxon troops of the IX Corps were now completely demoralised and any attempts to rally and reform them at Aderklaa towards 23:00 failed.\n", "A final French attack was launched by Davout's III Corps, on the French right. Just like Bernadotte's, this action began later than expected, towards 21:00, with Davout's men tired after a day of marching and fighting. The French objective in this sector was to attack the naturally strong position at Markgrafneusiedl, which had been reinforced with earthworks and was defended by the rested troops of \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Rosenberg of the Austrian IV Army Korps. After a short artillery bombardment, Davout sent the divisions of Friant and Morand across the Russbach stream, in a flanking attack from the east, while his other two divisions, under Gudin and Puthod were ordered to attack frontally, through the village of Grosshofen. Davout also sent a part of his cavalry to open the way for the infantry attack but the Austrian cavalry under Nostitz promptly repulsed the French horse. Realising the futility of his action, Davout called off his infantry attack towards 22:00, leaving only his artillery to exchange fire with the Austrian gunners. Davout's initiative to call off his attack early on triggered subsequent, perhaps unwarranted, criticism from Napoleon.\n", "Section::::The first day.:The night of July 5 to July 6.\n", "With the fighting fading out completely towards 23:00, the two commanders were at their respective headquarters, knowing that the following day would be decisive for the outcome of the battle. Meanwhile, with an extremely cold night settling in, soldiers from both armies lit fires to warm up, while they were resting and consuming their modest rations.\n", "Late that night, the French Corps commanders reunited at the Emperor's headquarters at Raasdorf; only Bernadotte was absent, as he was still struggling to rally his routed infantry at Aderklaa. Napoleon knew that he had sustained high losses during the evening attacks and that he had failed in his attempt at a quick breakthrough. As many as 11,000 French and Allies were out of action, including Paul Grenier, commander of VI Corps, who had suffered a shattered hand and was out of action for the next day. Despite these setbacks, the Emperor had managed to fix the enemy forces and was now certain that Archduke Charles was ready to give battle on his current positions. For the second day of battle, Napoleon planned a main attack against the enemy left, which was to be conducted by the powerful III Corps under \"Maréchal\" Davout, who was ordered to attack the enemy on the plateau behind the Russbach stream, storm the strategic village of Markgrafneusiedl and then roll up the enemy flank. Such an action, if successful, would have compromised the position of the other Austrian Korps on the Wagram plateau and would have forced them back northwestwards, away from any reinforcements they might have expected to receive from Pressburg. Napoleon also planned for his II and IX Corps, as well as the \"Army of Italy\" to launch secondary attacks, in order to prevent the Austrians from sending reinforcements to their left. In order to shorten and reinforce his battle line, the Emperor also ordered that most of the IV Corps move closer to Aderklaa, with this Corps set to take its new positions towards 02:00 that night. This meant that only Boudet's division was left at Aspern, with orders to defend the lines of communication lines with the military base on Lobau island. The Imperial Guard, Cavalry Reserve and the reinforcements that Napoleon was expecting were to form the battle reserve of the army.\n", "After the conference, Napoleon asked Davout to stay on and the two spent a long time planning Davout's difficult and complex attack on the fortified position at Markgrafneusiedl, an action which the Emperor saw as decisive for the battle to come. Napoleon was expecting reinforcements: the French XI Corps under Marmont, the divisions of Broussier and Pacthod from the \"Army of Italy\", as well as the Bavarian division under Wrede, which were approaching the battlefield that night. These reinforcements placed the French and Allied forces at 140,500 infantry, 28,000 cavalry and 488 guns, with an additional 8,500 men and 129 guns left behind as garrison on Lobau island.\n", "Archduke Charles of Austria was also planning the next day of battle, at his headquarters in Deutsch-Wagram. Charles was exhausted and had been lightly wounded when he took personal command of a regiment during the critical moments of the battle, but overall he was probably satisfied with the result of the first day of battle. Despite heavy losses (some 6,000 infantrymen) in von Nordmann's Advance Guard, the other formations of the Austrian army were virtually intact. Charles probably noted that, while the enemy managed to deploy on the Marchfeld plain with a surprising speed, all was going according to plan, as it had always been his intention to face them here. Additionally, with the exception of Nordmann's Advance Guard, losses had been relatively moderate and overall the army had fought extremely well. He reckoned that his best option was to take the initiative and, as he later wrote: \"seize the only means which could give any prospect of success against the superior enemy, namely to fall on them by surprise on all sides as day broke\". Orders for an all-out attack at 04:00 were issued at around midnight and Charles's intention was to take advantage of his much longer battle line (around 18 kilometers long, to the French 10 kilometers long line) and take the enemy in a double envelopment. To that effect, VI Korps was ordered to advance on Aspern, with the fresh troops of III Korps on their left, moving through Leopoldau towards Breitenlee, and the Grenadier Reserve was to move through Süssenbrunn. These three Corps were also ordered to keep in line with each other, with the Cavalry Reserve ordered to take position between Süssenbrunn and Aderklaa. The Austrian 1st Korps was to move out of Wagram and advance along the Russbach, with II Korps ordered to remain in place, in order to avoid congestion, and simply provide artillery support. On the Austrian left, IV Korps, with the Advance Guard now attached to it, was to move against the French III Corps, and it was expected that Archduke John's \"Army of Inner Austria\" would arrive from Pressburg in time to support this attack. There would be no proper battle reserve, with the only remaining formation, Prince Reuss's small V Korps left out of the action, as a strategic reserve, with the objective of observing the Danube and protecting the vital routes to Bohemia and Moravia, should retreat become necessary.\n", "Coordination between the Korps' movements was vital for the success of this plan, yet this was something that the Austrian army command and control system had repeatedly failed to achieve during past conflicts. As a result, the two Corps that were farthest from headquarters, VI and III Korps, only received their orders towards 03:00, two hours late. Given the distance that these troops had to march in order to make contact with the enemy, it was clear to the two Korps commanders that they would be unable to attack at 4:00 as ordered. Archduke Charles was also expecting the arrival of reinforcements, 13,000 men of the \"Army of Inner Austria\" led by his brother, Archduke John, whose role was crucial in supporting the attack against the French right. While Charles thought that his brother should arrive on the field of battle at any moment, the latter actually only began his march of march from Pressburg at around 01:00 that night. Without Archduke John's men, the Austrians could muster only 113,500 infantry, 14,600 cavalry and 414 guns for the second day of battle.\n", "Section::::The second day.\n", "Section::::The second day.:Rosenberg's attack.\n", "Positioned on the left of the Austrian army, in and around the strategic village of Markgrafneusiedl, \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Prince Rosenberg-Orsini was in command of the 18,140 men and 60 cannons of the IV Korps. In addition, attached to his force was the much-battered Advance Guard, under \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Nordmann, reduced to around 6,000 infantrymen and some cavalry support, as well as the 3,120 cavalrymen from \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Nostitz's division. Receiving his orders in due time, Rosenberg began to organise his attack, forming the IV Korps into three large columns, preceded by an advance guard. The first column was formed by Hessen-Homburg's brigade, 6 battalions strong, which was directed towards the village of Grosshofen. The second column was 16 battalions strong (12 regular and four \"Landwehr\" battalions) and included the brigades of Swinburn and Weiss, with the orders to move on to Glinzendorf. The second column was preceded by an advance guard under \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Radetzky, 10 battalions and 10 cavalry squadrons strong. The third column, under Nostitz, was 30 squadrons strong and was directed to outflank the French, towards Leopoldsdorf. Setting these troops in motion towards 4:00, just as his orders stated, Rosenberg instructed his commanders to maintain absolute silence among the rank and file as they advanced but, despite this, the troops moved forward in some disorder and with a lot of noise.\n", "Opposite to them lay the III Corps, perhaps the finest of the French army, under the command of \"Maréchal\" Davout. Davout was in command of 31,600 infantry (divisions of Morand, Friant, Gudin and Puthod), 6,200 cavalry (divisions of Grouchy, Pully and Montbrun) and 120 cannon. Davout was unaware that the Austrians were moving to attack him, but he was himself preparing his attack, and thus his troops were ready for action. Puthod's leading elements, one regiment strong, were at Grosshofen, with Gudin positioned between this village and Glinzendorf, which was held by Friant, supported by Morand. The entire cavalry was positioned to protect the right flank of the Corps. To the French surprise, towards 05:00, the Austrians attacked, with Radetzky's leading elements pushing the French outposts out of Grosshofen, and then attacking Glinzendorf. Davout immediately ordered a counterattack on Grosshofen, with Puthod attacking frontally and Gudin from the flank, and made sure that the defenders of Glinzendorf steadfastly hold their ground, while releasing heavy musketry upon the slowly advancing enemy columns. Grouchy's dragoons rode to face the enemy cavalry column, while Montbrun sent a part of his light cavalry division towards Ober Sieberbrunn, in a bid to outflank the Austrians. The sound of the cannon coming from Davout's sector interrupted Napoleon's breakfast, with the Emperor thinking that Archduke John must have arrived on the field of battle with his forces. The threat of Archduke John's arrival was overestimated, since French intelligence inaccurately placed the strength of this army at 30,000 men, instead of its actual 13,000 men. Napoleon immediately ordered Nansouty's and Arrighi's heavy cavalry divisions from the Cavalry Reserve to that sector, followed by the Imperial Guard. Nansouty's horse artillery was the first to arrive and deployed on the right flank of the advancing Austrians, opening enfilade fire.\n", "Meanwhile, Archduke Charles was observing the entire operation. With Archduke John's reinforcements failing to materialise from the east and no sign of the III and VI Korps approaching from the west to take their intended positions, Charles realised that the unsupported Rosenberg was now too exposed and in an increasingly dangerous position. Charles thus ordered Rosenberg to fall back to his initial position at Markgrafneusiedl and assume a defensive posture there. This was no easy task and it took all the determination and skill of \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Radetzky in coordinating a combined-arms operation to slow down the French onslaught, while the rest of Rosenberg's troops retreated. By 06:00, Rosenberg was finally back to his initial positions, but his two-hour action had cost him no less than 1,100 casualties.\n", "Napoleon, who was by now present alongside Davout, reconnoitered the situation and, seeing that Archduke John's army was nowhere near the battlefield, ordered the reserves back to Raasdorf, leaving only Arrighi's cuirassiers and a battery of 12-pounders with III Corps. The Emperor reconfirmed that he wanted Davout to take Markgrafneusiedl, but, instead of a massive frontal attack, he instructed the Marshal to launch a part of his men frontally against the position and a part in an enveloping move from the east, in order to take advantage of the gentle slope there. These new orders meant that Davout could not start his attack right away, as he needed to send a part of his troops east, where he had to bridge the Russbach stream, in order to allow his artillery to cross. Napoleon then issued orders to Oudinot and Eugène, instructing them to support Davout by pinning down the Austrian forces on the Russbach, once the IIIrd Corps began its attack.\n", "Section::::The second day.:Crisis at Aderklaa.\n", "While Rosenberg was attacking on the left, \"General der Kavallerie\" Bellegarde, commander of the Austrian 1st Korps, also set his men in motion in time, just as his orders stated. He had begun his manoeuvre just after 03:00, moving south, out of his position along the Russbach line and at Deutsch-Wagram, Bellegarde formed a vanguard of three battalions and three squadrons, under the command of \"General-Major\" Stutterheim, which he sent towards Aderklaa. A strategic village that was surrounded by an earthwork, Aderklaa offered a strong defensive position and Bellegarde was naturally expecting to encounter stiff resistance from the enemy defending the village. He was much surprised to receive reports that the village was completely undefended and, after making sure that it was not a trap, Bellegarde immediately ordered his vanguard to occupy it. The 1st Korps commander then brought an additional force of 12 battalions of \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Fresnel's division, which he deployed in two lines, behind the position and formed the rest of his Corps in a line between Aderklaa and Deutsch-Wagram. Liechtenstein's cavalry duly came up in support, taking a wide position behind 1st Korps, between Deutsch-Wagram and Süssenbrunn, but Bellegarde chose not move beyond Aderklaa. An immediate Austrian attack would have posed a serious threat to the stability of the French left wing, but Bellegarde had orders which stated that he needed to wait for the Grenadier Reserve to arrive and align itself on his right.\n", "The task of defending Aderklaa belonged to \"Maréchal\" Bernadotte, commander of the Saxon IX Corps. However, Bernadotte's largely inexperienced infantry had suffered greatly during the evening attacks the day before and many units had routed, retreating beyond Aderklaa. With his infantry reduced to some 6,000 men, the commander had difficulties rallying a part of his troop but he could still count on two reasonably valid Saxon divisions. As he would later explain, Bernadotte believed himself in an exposed position and thus took the initiative of abandoning Aderklaa during the night, retreating almost 1 kilometer to the southeast of the village, in a bid to draw closer to the rest of the army. Withdrawing without permission and without notifying Napoleon of his action, Bernadotte irresponsibly compromised the entire French position on the left. Towards 04:00, seeing that the enemy had taken position in and around the village, Bernadotte assembled his artillery in a battery of 26 pieces, which began to bombard Aderklaa, but the Austrian heavy artillery at Deutsch-Wagram responded by releasing a devastating counter-battery fire, which knocked out 15 Saxon pieces during the following three hours.\n", "Meanwhile, an injured Masséna, leading his IV Corps from a conspicuous white phaeton, was also executing his orders and approaching the sector with three of his infantry divisions and his cavalry. In compliance with Napoleon's orders, Masséna's fourth infantry division, under General Boudet, had been left far to the south, defending the village of Aspern. The manoeuvre of IV Corps was hampered by the arrival of the leading battalions of the d'Aspré's division from the Austrian Grenadier Reserve, which delayed Masséna's rearguard division, under General Legrand. Arriving with his other two divisions in the vicinity of Aderklaa towards 07:30, Masséna was spotted by Napoleon, who got into the Marshal's phaeton to consult with him about the situation they were facing and, after a brief discussion, the Emperor ordered the recapture of Aderklaa. Masséna instructed General Carra Saint-Cyr to storm Aderklaa with his division and, seeing that the General delayed his action, trying to find a weak spot of the solid position, the Marshal hurried him forward for an immediate attack. The assault was led by the 24th Light and 4th Line regiments, which were followed by the excellent Hessian Guard brigade. Further east, the still combat-worthy Saxon Corps, including the Franco-Saxon division of General Dupas also moved forward, in a bid to launch a supporting attack between Aderklaa and Deutsch-Wagram. The 24th Light and 4th Line successfully drove back the two Austrian battalions positioned before the village, which broke and caused some disorder in the Austrian first line. The French impetuously moved into Aderklaa and then tried to launch a pursuit beyond this position, but, as soon as they moved out of the village, they were met with sustained fire from Bellegarde's second infantry line. The two regiments withdrew to Aderklaa, where they were reinforced by the Hessian Guard brigade and ordered to hold the position. Not far away from this position, the attack of the Saxons also came to a grinding halt and these men were driven back, exposing the flank of the French troops occupying Aderklaa. At this moment, the Austrians enjoyed a substantial, albeit temporary numerical advantage in this sector, 44,000 men to the French 35,000. This was thus the right time for a general attack, but the Austrian military doctrine discouraged commanders from taking too much initiative, and Bellegarde chose to stick to his orders and wait for III Korps, whose leading elements were only just coming up, in line with the Grenadiers.\n", "Archduke Charles noticed the development on his right, from his observation post at Baumersdorf and promptly rode to Bellegarde with new orders. Charles then personally organised an attack on Aderklaa, with the combined elements of infantry regiment 42 (\"Erbach\") of the 1st Korps and Grenadier battalions \"Scovaud\", \"Jambline\" and \"Brzeczinski\" from the Reserve Korps. The \"Klenau Chevaulegers\" from Liechtenstein's cavalry also charged in support of the infantry. This powerful attack drove Carra Saint-Cyr's defenders out of Aderklaa and the cavalry attack resulted in them joining the panic-stricken Saxons in a disorderly retreat. Masséna's cavalry, under Lasalle and Marulaz promptly stepped in to protect the retreating infantry, driving off the Austrian horse and then charging the artillery that the Austrians were preparing to deploy in front of Aderklaa. The Austrian gunners abandoned their pieces and fled, but Liechtenstein committed additional cavalry, which at once repulsed the French horsemen. Meanwhile, Masséna was preparing to retake Aderklaa with the division of Molitor, spearheaded by Leguay's brigade and the 67th Line regiment. These men soon found their advance barred by a crowd of retreating Saxons, with Masséna forced to order his men to fire at them, in order to clear the way. Molitor decidedly advanced towards his objective, despite the enemy fire and cavalry threatening his flanks and, after some bitter fighting, managed to retake the village towards 09:45.\n", "Nevertheless, the Austrians had sufficient fresh troops in this sector and they soon launched fresh attacks, with elements of 1st Korps and the Grenadier Reserve. Despite having taken heavy casualties during his attack, Molitor resolutely defended the position and it took the numerous Austrians in the sector two full hours before they were able to finally expel him. As for the Saxons and great many Frenchmen, they continued their retreat, with the first fugitives and Bernadotte approaching Raasdorf, were they suddenly met Napoleon in person. For the Emperor, the sight of Bernadotte riding at the head of the disorderly mob and making no apparent attempt to rally his men, was the last straw. After a brief exchange of words, Napoleon sacked the Marshal, adding \"A bungler like you is no good to me.\" The Saxon infantry was by then completely disorganised and it could play no further role in the battle, with only the cavalry and ten cannon still combat-worthy.\n", "Section::::The second day.:Klenau's flank march.\n", "In application of Archduke Charles's plan to take the enemy in a double envelopment, \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Klenau, commanding VI Korps, and \"Feldzeugmeister\" Kollowrat, commanding III Korps, moved forward towards the French left. Both commanders had received their orders very late and both had a long distance to cover before they could reach their assigned positions. They did their best to comply but, given the difficulties of a long night march, their leading elements could only manage to arrive on the Austrian right between 07:30 and 08:00, three hours later than Charles had planned.\n", "Klenau was the first to make contact with the enemy. His troops left Leopoldau towards 07:30 and subsequently deployed between Breitenlee and Hirschstetten, driving in the enemy outposts in the sector. The only French force present here was the 4th division of the IV Corps, under \"Général de Division\" Boudet, some 4,600 men, to Klenau's 14,000. At 08:00, Klenau unlimbered his artillery and began to fire at the French, while sending forward Vecsey's brigade from \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Vincent's division to take the village of Aspern. Boudet saw this development and sent forward a battery of ten cannon, with orders to open enfilade fire and thus delay the enemy. This proved to be a very uninspired move, as Austrian hussars suddenly came up and captured these guns. The French 56th Line regiment boldly charged the enemy horse and momentarily recaptured the guns, but they lacked horses to carry them back and the intense Austrian cannonade soon compelled these men to retreat and leave behind the artillery. After making a timid attempt to defend Aspern with the 93rd Line, Boudet then chose to retreat towards Essling and Vincent's division occupied Aspern, subsequently launching a determined pursuit. The Austrians soon came in range of the French heavy batteries placed on Lobau island, and the bombardment slowed down their advance, but they still pushed on towards Essling, which Boudet promptly abandoned towards 10:00.\n", "The French retreated towards the Mühlau salient and to Groß-Enzersdorf, in a bid to protect the vital bridges towards Lobau island. The Austrians then launched a probing attack on the bridgehead but were rapidly repulsed and subsequently contented themselves with bombarding the French supply train, causing some panic among the civilian suppliers. From his current position, Klenau was able to either strike in the undefended rear of the enemy army, some five kilometers away, or to attack the vital bridges towards Lobau island. However, the Austrian commander chose caution; his force was only about 14,000 men strong, a part of which was now in range of the numerous French heavy batteries on Lobau island and his orders provided for his Korps to keep itself abreast with Kollowrat's III Korps. Had Kollowrat moved forward himself, protecting Klenau's left flank, the Austrian VI Korps might have envisaged the continuation of its action, but, as things were, Kollowrat had not yet moved from his position between Süssenbrunn and Breintlee.\n", "Indeed, further north, Kollowrat had been slow in moving forward with his numerous III Korps. He deployed between the villages of Süssenbrunn and Breintlee and thus threatened the French flank, which was defended only by Legrand's infantry division and some cavalry. Kollowrat finished his positioning manoeuvres only towards 09:30, when his men made contact with Prochaska's Grenadier division of Liechtenstein's Reserve Korps. For lack of orders, Kollowrat did not attempt an attack against the weak French left. In a move which was typical for Austrian tactics at the time, the 60-year-old Austrian commander had been busy securing his own rear, rather than thinking of any offensive action. He had cautiously left behind an entire brigade on the Bissamberg heights, facing Vienna, and detailed a sizable force to garrison Gerasdorf, a village situated in his rear. He also sent a combined-arms force to occupy the village of Breintlee, to the south. Despite his sound tactical position, which allowed him to envelop Masséna's flank or even march towards the undefended Raasdorf, in the rear of the French army, Kollowrat moved forward cautiously, contenting himself with bombarding Masséna's force with two batteries that he had positioned near Breintlee.\n", "Section::::The second day.:The French reaction.\n", "With the situation looking increasingly dangerous for his army, Napoleon reassessed the developments and probably noted that he was holding the central position of an increasingly curved battlefront. He first sent word to Davout to hasten his attack preparations against the Austrian left, but the most urgent matter was to stabilise his own battered left wing. The Emperor did not want to commit his valuable, fresh infantry reserves just yet, so he ordered Masséna to break contact with the enemy and take his IV Corps southwards and attack the Austrian VI Korps. Executing such a manoeuvre required great skill and incurred high risks, as it meant that Masséna's men would have to move in vulnerable march column formations, through a sector with numerous enemy infantry, cavalry and artillery. The departure of these troops also meant that an enormous gap would open up in the French line, which the Emperor ingeniously intended to fill by forming an enormous grand battery, which would check enemy advance in this sector through a sustained artillery barrage. This required time and, with the Austrians from III Korps menacingly moving forward, Napoleon counted on \"Maréchal\" Bessières's cavalry to allow Masséna to disengage and the grand battery to deploy.\n", "Towards 11:00, Bessières received his orders, which provided for an immediate attack at the weak point of the enemy line, the seam between Austrian III Korps and the Reserve Korps, where only \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Prochaska's thinly spread division was covering the wide position between Süssenbrunn and Aderklaa. With the division of Arrighi sent in support of Davout, far on the right flank and the division of Saint-Sulpice detailed to protect Masséna's IV Corps, Bessières brought forward his only remaining unit, the mighty 1st heavy cavalry division, under the skilled 41-year-old general Nansouty. Napoleon also sent orders for the Guard cavalry to come in support, but his orders seem not to have reached them at all. Circumstances were so dire on the French left that Bessières opted not to wait for the Guard cavalry and sent orders for an immediate charge.\n", "It seems that Saint-Germain's brigade was left behind in reserve and out of the actual attack, so Bessières took Nansouty's remaining 16 squadrons, some 2,800 men, including Defrance's 1st and 2nd \"Carabiniers-à-Cheval\" and Doumerc's 2nd and 9th Cuirassiers. The hastily formed squadrons rode forth, but the flat terrain of the Marchfeld provided them with little cover from the devastating fire unleashed upon them by Austrian artillery. The heavy horsemen eventually made contact with the enemy near the village of Süssenbrunn, but found the infantry prepared to receive them and their first charge failed altogether. Rallying the men for a second attempt, with the elite \"carabiniers-à-cheval\" leading the way, Nansouty pushed through, but many of his troopers were unable to follow, leaving many of the squadrons reduced to just a handful of men. It seemed at first that the charge would do some serious damage, especially when the Frenchmen managed to break and sabre the \"Grenz\" \"Georger\" battalion, thus creating a breach between the two Austrian Corps. In the end however, the effects of a cavalry charge against prepared infantry were always set to be limited and the cavalrymen made little further impression on the grenadier battalions, which were by now formed in tight, solid squares. Displaying some great tactical skill, Nansouty wheeled right with his men and fell upon the Austrian artillery line near Aderklaa. Meanwhile, Bessières was busy fetching the Guard cavalry, which was only just beginning to arrive and with which he was intending to launch a second charge. Virtually under Napoleon's eyes, a cannonball brushed Bessières's thigh, unhorsing the Marshal, who violently hit the ground and lost consciousness. While Bessières was being carried away from the battlefield, Nansouty and his \"Carabiniers-à-Cheval\" managed to capture an Austrian artillery battery but Liechtenstein duly sent his fresh cavalry, the 6th \"Rosenberg Chevaulegers\" and 4th \"Kronprinz Ferdinand\" Cuirassiers against them. The Austrians hit the now diminished and tired French cavalry in flank, wounding Defrance and sending his men reeling back to their own lines with heavy casualties. The light cavalry of the Guard, some 2,000 sabres, belatedly launched a brief charge of their own, but they were also repulsed by the prepared enemy. With Bessières presumed dead, Nansouty took command of the entire cavalry, but, not knowing the Emperor's directives, decided to pull his battered troop back. In all, the French cavalry charge had been very costly; for the entire day, Nansouty's division alone lost 1,200 horses killed or wounded and a great number of men out of action. However, it did allow Masséna to successfully disengage and gained time for the deployment of the grand battery.\n", "Napoleon was aware that the cavalry charge was a stopgap, so, while the heavy cavalry was busy blocking the advance of the Austrian infantry, he ordered General Jacques Lauriston to assemble a massive battery. Its objective was to pound the enemy, stop their advance and force them to abandon their position between Aderklaa and Süssenbrunn. Lauriston's battery was formed of 84 pieces, including the entire 60 pieces of the Imperial Guard artillery park and 24 pieces supplied by the \"Army of Italy\". The horse artillery of the Guard, six batteries of six-pounders, eight-pounders and heavy 24-pounder howitzers, under the command of Colonel Augustin-Marie d'Aboville, was the first to come into action, towards 11:00. It was followed by the foot artillery of the Guard, four batteries of 12-pounders, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Antoine Drouot, and, shortly after, by the pieces from the \"Army of Italy\". The grand battery was deployed on a single line, covering some 2 kilometers, with the \"Army of Italy\" cannon facing Liechtenstein's Reserve Korps, while the Guard foot artillery was in the centre, facing Kollowrat's III Korps and the Guard horse artillery extended the line southwards, facing the village of Breintlee, which was in enemy hands. As they unlimbered, the French guns were ordered to open fire at once and the relatively short range – 350 to 550 metres – and the flat and sodden ground, which allowed cannonballs to ricochet far, meant that results were almost immediate. Entire files of Austrian infantry and cavalry, sometimes as much as 20 men, were blown away with a single shot and in some cases the French were even able to use short-range case-shot, which was devastating for the densely packed Austrian battalions. In order to put even more pressure on the enemy, the French battery was ordered to advance steadily, while maintaining the most intense fire. This move soon forced Kollowrat to begin pulling his forces back. Meanwhile, however, the Austrian artillery was releasing sustained counter-battery fire with the six and eight-pounders that formed Kollowratt's and Liechtenstein's Corps artillery. But it was above all the murderous enfilade fire, coming from the two 12-pounder batteries near Wagram, barely one kilometer away, that did the most harm to the French artillerymen. Soon, some French gun crews were reduced to such a point that Napoleon asked for volunteers among the Guard infantry, in order to replace the losses. Discarded artillery matches soon lit up the ripe corn crops and some of the wounded on both sides, unable to crawl away to safety, burned alive where they stood.\n", "While the cannon were roaring, \"Maréchal\" Masséna was near Raasdorf, forming his men for their march south. Towards 11:00, he rallied many of the men who had routed during the attack on Aderklaa and then had rations of brandy distributed, in order to boost morale. With a part of his troops still fighting to keep Aderklaa, Masséna directed his men towards Essling, aiming to threaten Klenau's Corps, which was by now in an advanced position behind the French line, but which had made no attempt to threaten the rear of Napoleon's army. The passive posture of the Austrian Corps was due partly to a lack of orders to advance further and partly to the fact that Klenau's relatively small force was by now out of touch with the main Austrian force. Nevertheless, Masséna's task remained daunting. Some of his troops had to march no less than eight kilometers in vulnerable column formations, moving along the front of an enemy who had deployed numerous cavalry and artillery. Masséna displayed his usual skill and tenacity, using his available cavalry to screen his men and taking advantage of the high corn crops to hide his advance. The French troops, although out of range from enemy musketry, were under constant bombardment from the Austrian artillery. The Austrian cavalry attempted an attack, which nearly reached the carriage of Masséna, whose aides were forced to draw swords and defend him as French cavalry stepped in to repulse their Austrian counterparts. Towards noon, after marching some six and half kilometers in 90 minutes, the leading elements from Masséna's Corps, namely Marulaz's cavalry and Legrand's infantry were within sight of the enemy-occupied village of Essling.\n", "Section::::The second day.:Davout's flanking attack.\n", "While battle was raging on the western side of the battlefield, some 10 kilometers to the east, \"Maréchal\" Davout was preparing his attack, the manoeuvre with which Napoleon intended to win the battle. In order to gain a foothold on the plateau before him, Davout had to drive back the forces of Rosenberg's Austrian IV Korps. The two forces had already clashed during the abortive night attacks the day before and again earlier that morning, between 05:00 and 06:00, when Rosenberg made a surprising attack, which the French managed to repulse. Due in part to the fact that Austrian Corps on other sectors of the battlefield failed to attack at the same time, Rosenberg was forced to draw his troops back to their initial positions, occupying the plateau and the strategic village of Markgrafneusiedl, situated just below the escarpment. This village was the key position, which Davout had to take at all costs, in order for his manoeuvre to succeed. Despite his vast numerical superiority, Davout's mission was not easy, as the Austrians had a numerous cavalry and artillery available to support their infantry. Furthermore, the defensive position was solid, with the village of Markgrafneusiedl formed of sturdy stone houses and a number of large buildings, such as a disused stone church with a tall, conspicuous tower, a monastery and a mill, all of which constituted easily defendable structures. The only weakness of Rosenberg's position was its left side, where the plateau formed a gentle slope, descending northeast.\n", "While the French were preparing their attack, artillery on both sides opened up, with Rosenberg's batteries placed on high ground and at times behind earthworks. Despite the superior Austrian tactical position, after about two hours of bombardment, the French managed to put out of action most of the Austrian pieces and cause fast-spreading fires in the village of Markgrafneusiedl. The fact that the French artillery won its duel with the Austrian artillery was due in part to the larger number of French high-calibre pieces, but most of all to their superior concentration of fire, with the artillery of French III Corps and II Corps cooperating and creating a deadly crossfire. By 09:30, Davout's troops were in position and ready to commence their attack. Initial orders provided that Davout should send his four infantry divisions in a frontal assault northwards, but early that morning Napoleon changed his mind, after reconnoitering the position in person and noticing that he could take advantage from the weakness on the left of the Austrian position. The new orders stated that two of Davout's divisions, those of Gudin and Puthod, were to advance from Grosshofen towards Markgrafneusiedl, forcing Rosenberg to commit a part of his forces in order to meet them, while the remaining infantry divisions, Friant's and Morand's, supported by Grouchy's and Montbruns cavalry divisions, would storm the plateau from the east. This order caused a significant delay, as the troops had to move to their assigned positions eastwards and artillery bridges had to be built, in order for the divisional artillery to be able to cross the Russbach stream. Commanding the Austrian forces in this sector, Rosenberg could rely on reinforcements from Nordmann's Advance Guard, and a numerous cavalry under Nostitz, all of which were placed under his direct command. He was also counting on support from the east, with Archduke John's \"Army of Inner Austria\" set to arrive on the battlefield, but so far these badly needed reinforcements had failed to materialise.\n", "The French began their steady advance between 09:30 and 10:00, their movement hidden from view by the thick smoke resulting from the intense artillery bombardment. On the right, Montbrun's cavalry had already advanced towards Obersiebenbrunn, repulsing Fröhlich's Austrian cavalry elements and clearing the way for Friant and Morand, who began their enveloping manoeuvre against the enemy left. Rosenberg responded by redeploying his reserves to form a new flank: Mayer's brigade in first line, supported by Riese's brigade and Infantry Regiment 58 \"Beaulieu\". However, all these troops were drawn from Nordmann's Advance Guard, a Corps which had sustained heavy casualties the previous day. During this manoeuvre, Nostitz's cavalry, placed initially on the plain below the escarpment, were pushed back and forced up the slope of the plateau by Grouchy's and Pully's dragoons; the Austrian horse subsequently redeployed to protect Nordmann's flank. Meanwhile, Davout personally led forward the divisions of Gudin and Puthod, who were to storm Markgrafneusiedl frontally. The village was defended by three Austrian brigades (Weiss, Hessen-Homburg and Swinburn), supported in second line by Infantry Regiment 3 \"Erzherzog Karl\" and the \"Landwehr\" battalion \"Unter dem Manhartsberg\". The Austrian first line met the advancing columns of Gudin and Puthod with steady fire, which forced the French attack to a temporary halt. Further east, Morand, leading the French attack, faced a similar fate, when the Austrians launched a combined infantry and cavalry attack which forced the French to draw back and reform. The first Austrian line, the two regiments from Mayer's brigade, the 4th \"Hoch und Deutschmeister\" and 49th \"Kerpen\", supported by eight squadrons of hussars from the \"Erzherzog Ferdinand\" regiment counterattacked and Morand's frontline regiments, the 13th Light and 17th Line were momentarily in a difficult situation. However, Friant was quick to react in support of his fellow commander, sending the Gilly brigade against the now exposed flank of the Austrians. At this point, \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Nordmann intervened in person to reestablish the situation and was mortally wounded while doing so, with the Austrian counterattack in this sector failing completely. The brave Nordmann was to be discovered moments later by the French in a ditch, where he was abandoned during the hasty retreat of his men, who sought refuge behind Riese's brigade, where they reformed. Despite being present in large numbers, the Austrian cavalry failed to launch a massed charge and instead launched several small-scale charges, which produced little effect. At this crucial juncture, Friant committed his entire division and, despite the failure of a first attack, soon managed to gain a firm foothold on the escarpment, pushing towards the tower at Markgrafneusiedl, a sign that the battle in this sector was turning in favour of the French.\n", "In the meantime, Gudin and Puthod had also rallied their men and launched them in another attack against Markgrafneusiedl. They were met this time by Rohan's division from Rosenberg's IV Korps, which valiantly attempted to hold its ground, in a stubborn house-to-house defense, despite the fact that village was by now largely engulfed in flames. The French were equally determined and even senior commanders exposed themselves to the greatest dangers (Davout's horse was shot under him and Gudin was seriously wounded) in order to give heart to the men. French pressure and the fast-spreading fire forced Hessen-Homburg's brigade, which had been drawn up in support of Rohan's division, to evacuate the position and reform on the escarpment behind the village, closely followed by Gudin's skirmishers. Combat did continue around the disused church, where Riese's battered brigade, infantry regiments 44 \"Bellegarde\", 46 \"Chasteler\", 58 \"Beaulieu\", nine battalions in total, was still holding out with remarkable tenacity and despite the fact that their commander, \"General-Major\" Riese, did not bother to show himself throughout the day. The church, with its conspicuous stone tower, was finally lost by the Austrians towards noon, when Friant managed to push through and link up with Gudin and Puthod, forcing the three Austrian regiments to withdraw, in order to avoid being outflanked. When Rosenberg failed to retake the tower with Hessen-Homburg's brigade, he decided to redeploy his entire force further back on the plateau and form a new line. This timely action temporarily stopped any further French advance. Seeing this development, Davout chose to force a decisive breakthrough and committed his ultimate reserve, the 3rd Heavy Cavalry Division. The Marshal ordered the heavy cavalry up the plateau west of Markgrafneusiedl, in an immediate frontal assault against the enemy line, rather than on the more favourable cavalry terrain east, where Grouchy, Pully and Montbrun were already operating. The 3rd Heavy Cavalry Division, a unit that the Emperor had attached to III Corps that very morning, was led by 31-year-old \"Général de Division\" Arrighi de Casanova, who had no previous command experience at divisional level. The division was formed of four cuirassier regiments, the 4th, 6th, 7th and 8th, totaling 16 squadrons and almost 2,000 men. Receiving his orders to charge immediately, Arrighi hastily formed his squadrons and led forward Bordessoule's brigade up the slope, but once there, he found himself in the middle of enemy barricades and was, according to his own account, unable to deploy a single squadron. The steel-clad cuirassiers made several attempts to break the sturdy Austrian masses, but the terrain was not proper for such action and their best attempts came to nothing. Taking some 300 casualties after several frustratingly ineffective charges, Arrighi pulled his men back to safety down the slope and furiously set off to find Davout and protest against the orders he had given.\n", "It was just after noon and, despite the failure of the French cavalry assault, Rosenberg was aware that his beleaguered line was about to give way, with possibly catastrophic consequences for the entire Austrian army. With his entire force already committed and no reserves, the Austrian commander could do little to prevent the seemingly unstoppable French onslaught. It was at this decisive moment that Archduke Charles personally brought reinforcements to his battered left wing: five battalions from Infantry Regiment 57 \"Joseph Colloredo\" and 15 \"Zach\", one battery of six-pounders, all drawn from Austrian II Korps and four squadrons of hussars, as well as the entire 8th \"Hohenzollern\" Cuirassier regiment, from the Cavalry Reserve. With the cavalry thus reinforced and placed under the overall command of \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Nostitz, Archduke Charles ordered his horsemen to charge the enemy. At first, \"General-Major\" Wartensleben's brigade, the 3rd \"O'Reilly\" \"Chevaulegers\" and the 6th \"Blackenstein\" Hussars, charged Montbrun's first line, overwhelming the French 7th Hussars. The Austrians then made a dash towards Montbrun's second line, which made a surprising attempt to drive off the attackers with a carbine volley, which failed to break the impetus of the charge and sent the French horse reeling. As a result of his successful charge, Wartensleben was able to capture ten French horse artillery pieces. But the Austrian triumph was fleeting and Montbrun had carefully prepared a countercharge with his reserve and skilfully launched the 12th \"Chasseurs-à-Cheval\" frontally, while the 11th \"Chasseurs-à-Cheval\" charged the \"O'Reilly\" \"Chevaulegers\" from flank. On the French side, Grouchy soon brought his dragoons in support and Nostitz was forced to counter them by committing \"General-Major\" Rothkirch's brigade, formed by the 1st \"Erzherzog Johann\" and 6th \"Riesch\" Dragoons. A massive, albeit brief, cavalry clash occurred and in the melee, both Nostitz and Rothkirch were wounded and the Austrians were driven back, leaving behind the cannon they had captured moments earlier and taking refuge behind the infantry. This was the major cavalry action of the battle and, despite the fact that the Austrians committed over 30 of their 40 squadrons present in the sector, the French gained the upper hand, thanks largely to their superior training for massed action. Charging by single regiments against an enemy who committed entire brigades and divisions in coordinated actions, the Austrians, although superior in overall numbers, had been overwhelmed, a testament to their chronic inability to coordinate large-scale cavalry charges. Towards 13:00, after the failure of his cavalry charge, Rosenberg reckoned that he was unable to hold out on his current positions and began organising a fighting retreat towards Bockfliess, some northwest.\n", "Section::::The second day.:MacDonald's column.\n", "Davout's successful flanking manoeuvre did not escape unnoticed. Despite the considerable distance, towards 13:00, Napoleon could see through his spyglass that the smoke line in Davout's sector was by now well beyond the clearly visible tower at Markgrafneusiedl, a sign that his men had managed to roll back the enemy's flank. With his left now stabilised following Masséna's successful disengagement, the Emperor began issuing orders for a general attack. Masséna was to continue his march south and vigorously attack Klenau around Aspern, Oudinot was ordered to prepare his Corps for an assault against the plateau and dislodge Austrian II Korps, Eugène was to take VI Corps against the enemy forces at Deutsch-Wagram, while MacDonald's V Corps was to draw closer to Aderklaa. During the night, MacDonald had been rejoined by the second division of his Corps and although theoretically 23 battalions strong, this force had diminished complements and could barely muster 8,000 men. With this force, MacDonald was preparing to execute Napoleon's previous orders to storm the plateau near the village of Wagram, much at the same location where he had attacked the previous day, when he received new orders. These provided that MacDonald's force should head west, towards Aderklaa, and deploy to occupy the ground held by the Grand Battery.\n", "Just before 13:00, MacDonald moved towards his assigned location, with eight battalions from Lamarque and Broussier's division deployed in line, forming the front line, with the other 15 battalions remaining in column, a formation which could more easily fend off the increasing menace poised by the numerous enemy cavalry. This unusual formation, some 800 metres long and 550 metres wide, was to be supported by the remains of the Grand Battery, which had orders to advance on its right and open intense fire against the Austrian line. Seras's division was also ordered in support of this attack and deployed some distance behind the column with one of the \"carabiniers-à-cheval\" regiments protecting its rear. The assigned objective of this prodigious mass of men was to bludgeon its way forward and take the village of Süssenbrunn, the seam between the Austrian Grenadier Reserve and III Korps. Once managed to take the position, they would drive a wedge between the two Austrian formations, pushing them apart. A powerful cavalry force was to protect either flank of MacDonald's formation, with Walther's mighty Guard Cavalry Division protecting the right and Nansouty's 1st Heavy Cavalry Division protecting the left. Sahuc's diminished cavalry division from the \"Army of Italy\" was also involved in this action.\n", "As MacDonald's lumbering column moved forward, Austrian artillery opened up against the accompanying French cannon, disabling 15 of them, before they even had time to unlimber and respond. The Austrian guns then focussed on MacDonald's slow-moving formation, whose deep ranks presented ideal targets. Seeing the French advance, Archduke Charles ordered his Corps commanders to refuse the flank of the Grenadier Reserve and III Korps. Liechtenstein ordered Steyer's brigade to deploy in an oblique position and release heavy musketry against the right flank of the advancing French column, while Kollowrat issued a similar order to the Lilienberg brigade, which fired musketry volleys against the left of MacDonald's men, while Austrian artillery was pounding the column's front line. However, by now the French had managed to dent the Austrian line and had only a few hundred metres to go before they could reach the strategic village of Süssenbrunn. With his force reduced to little more than half strength and his battalions forced to form square in order to fend off three successive cavalry attacks from \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Schwarzenberg's cavalry, MacDonald could go no further. He called upon the numerous cavalry available to charge and clear the enemy guns and infantry, who, according to his own account, were by now in a state of complete disarray and ripe for destruction. On his left, Nansouty, who had apparently not been consulted regarding the placement and role of his division in the attack, had kept his men too far back, in order to protect them from the sustained enemy fire. When Nansouty arrived with his cuirassiers, the Austrians were prepared to meet them and the guns had already limbered and moved away to safety. The French cuirassiers charged Vukassovich and Saint-Julien's divisions, but these men were by now formed in the sturdy mass formations, which were virtually invulnerable to cavalry.\n", "Further north, protecting the other flank of MacDonald's column lay the fresh Guard Cavalry Division, which also received MacDonald's invitation to charge, but remained motionless, with its commander, \"Général de Division\" Walther, invoking a lack of orders from his direct commanders, either Napoleon or \"Maréchal\" Bessières. The Emperor was too far away from the action and Bessières had been wounded during his earlier cavalry charge and had been carried away from the battlefield, so the Horse Guards did not move. Towards 14:00, MacDonald's attack had ground to a halt and the opportunity to completely break the Austrian line in this sector came to nothing. Napoleon noted with disgust that it was the first time that the cavalry let him down, but, given the state of exhaustion and the losses sustained by the French forces, MacDonald would have probably been unable to follow up any breakthrough achieved by the cavalry anyway. Still, the resolutely led attack achieved Napoleon's main strategic goal, which was to pin down the Austrian forces in this sector, preventing Charles from reinforcing his battered left. Forced to concede that his attack had lost momentum, MacDonald did his best to shelter his remaining men from the enemy's intense cannonade. However, reinforcements were not far away: the Emperor sent in support Wrede's powerful Bavarian division, 5,500 men strong, as well as the elite \"Chasseurs à Cheval\" and \"Chevau-légers\" regiments of the Imperial Guard, as well as the Saxon cavalry. The Bavarian division quickly came up in support but exchanged fire with the enemy only briefly and it was solely the artillery that really came into action, as the Austrians were by now in full retreat. Behind the Bavarians came the Fusiliers of the \"Young Guard\", four battalion-strong, which were led by the Emperor's aide-de-camp, General Reille, with strict orders to avoid \"getting involved in any adventure\". With the support of the Guard, the Bavarians captured Süssenbrunn and they alone continued the pursuit beyond this village. The Guard \"Chasseurs à Cheval\" tried to halt the advance of the enemy but they were met by Liechtenstein's Austrian cavalry and, receiving no support from their fellow \"Chevau-légers\", they had to withdraw, coming away with only three enemy cannon.\n", "Section::::The second day.:Masséna's \"Infernal Column\".\n", "Meanwhile, Masséna had indeed made remarkable progress since 11:00, when he had begun disengaging from the struggle at Aderklaa and organising his march against Klenau. On the French left, Klenau, commander of VI Korps, was fully aware of Masséna's manoeuvre, stating in his post-battle report that he saw an \"Infernal Column\" advancing towards him. By 12:30, elements of IV Corps were at Essling and Masséna received the Emperor's dispatch, informing him of Davout's success and urging him to attack. Masséna sent Marulaz's cavalry to clear the enemy horse, which was pushing back Boudet's defeated division. Then, Marulaz fell upon and captured the Austrian battery which was bombarding the bridges over the Danube, sending the panicked gunners fleeing for their lives. An Austrian countercharge from Walmoden's Austrian hussars sent the French horse reeling and recaptured the lost battery, managing to carry most of it, except two guns, to safety, before more French cavalry, this time from Lasalle's division, came up against them. The French cavalry attack halted the advance of Klenau's Korps and allowed the French launch an attack of their own against the village of Essling. Six weeks before, during the Battle of Aspern-Essling, the French had valiantly defended this village against several Austrian attacks; now they were ordered to take it from some 1,200 whitecoats. The village was in ruins, but the sturdy stone granary was still standing and represented a formidable defensive structure. Nevertheless, Ledru des Essarts's brigade from Legrand's 1st division stormed the position and, after intense fighting, they secured Essling towards 14:00, sending the defenders fleeing towards Aspern. Masséna then took Aspern after a brief combat and, collecting his four infantry divisions, continued to press Klenau, sending Molitor's division towards Breitenlee. There, General Durutte's division of the \"Army of Italy\", which had been sent to plug the gap between IV Corps and the rest of the army, had just taken the village of Breitenlee. Durutte's division was able to link up with Molitor.\n", "Masséna had accomplished his mission and had no further orders to continue his action but, hearing the intense cannonade on his right, he understood that he needed to continue his attack. He detailed Boudet's division to march on Kagran, while his other three infantry divisions marched on Leopoldau. The corps cavalry preceded the infantry and Lasalle's squadrons caught up with Klenau's infantry near Leopoldau. There, the French cavalry met two Austrian battalions, already formed in solid masses. This formation was ideal for fending off enemy horse. Nevertheless, the French charged impetuously but achieved little. The first mass could only be dispersed after horse artillery came into action. Not long before 17:00, the cavalry moved against the second mass and it was during this action that the gallant Lasalle, one of the best cavalry commanders of his time, was shot dead. Marulaz took overall command of the cavalry and personally placed himself at the head of the 8th Hussars, in a bid to avenge the slain commander; the attempt failed and Marulaz was himself wounded and had to be carried away to the rear. This event, as well as the fact that the French were now under fire from the artillery of Austrian V Korps on Bisamberg heights, convinced Masséna to halt his pursuit. Towards 17:00 Klenau had succeeded in extracting his corps from the dangerous position next to the Danube and moved to relative safety behind the reserve V Korps, deployed on the Bisamberg heights.\n", "Section::::The second day.:Austrian retreat.\n", "While \"Feldmarshalleutnant\" Klenau was being ousted from Essling, Archduke Charles received much-awaited news about the arrival of his brother on the battlefield. However, the news were disappointing: Archduke John of Austria and his 13,000 men, Charles's only hope for rescuing his collapsing left flank, would only be able to arrive towards 17:00, much too late to make any difference. By now, Charles was acutely aware that his troops would not hold out much longer. His three corps on the Wagram plateau (I, II and IV) had been in action for some ten hours. On his right, Kollowrat's III Korps, Klenau's VI Korps and the Reserve Korps were being pushed back. Crucially, he had no battle reserves with which to either support his battered line or to launch a counterattack of his own. Continuing to fight in these conditions would have spelled the end of the \"Kaiserlich-königliche Hauptarmee\" and, in Charles's view, the end of the Habsburg Empire. His only realistic option was to begin an orderly retreat, which he ordered by mid morning, directing each corps along its line of retreat.\n", "While MacDonald's attack was drawing the attention of the Austrians, the French launched their general attack. Napoleon committed Marmont's fresh XI Corps, sending these men to take position opposite to Austrian I Korps and fill the gap between the \"Army of Italy\" and II Corps. Moreover, towards 13:00, the French from Oudinot's II Corps had begun to advance frontally against the Austrian troops on the Wagram plateau. The mercurial Oudinot, who had been waiting for his orders to attack all morning, decided to wait no longer, despite the fact that he had not yet received his order. Opposite to Oudinot was Austrian II Korps. Having spent the entire morning doing nothing else than exchanging artillery fire with French II Corps, these men were relatively fresh. They were also in a very dangerous position. The commander of II Korps, the experienced \"Feldmarschalleutnant\" Hohenzollern, could see that his force was in danger of being attacked from the flank by Davout's seemingly unstoppable corps. Now Oudinot was advancing against him. At first, Hohenzollern tried to hold on his initial positions and his men greeted Oudinot's advancing columns with intense musketry. However, the Austrian commander realised the fragility of his position, seeing that, on his left, all the Austrian troops were in full retreat and he ran the risk of having Oudinot pin his men down, while Davout was free to advance in his flank and rear. Hohenzollern thus had little choice but to order his men to fall back and form a new line further north, sending 5 battalions and several batteries from his second line to form a new flank and slow down Davout's two advancing divisions, which were drawing dangerously close to the strategic village of Baumersdorf.\n", "Seeing the Austrians in full retreat, Oudinot lost his composure and galloped along his line, shouting his commands, ordering his men to run at the enemy. One of the Corps divisional commanders, general Grandjean reiterated this highly unusual and potentially disastrous order, which would have resulted in the columns rapidly dispersing and becoming vulnerable to a counterattack. Luckily enough, the troops were commanded by experienced junior officers, who took over and executed the orderly manoeuvres that were required on such occasions. During this action, Oudinot was wounded twice and had his horse shot from under him, but he retained his command and, after his surgeon dressed his wounds, he led his men on. His troops stormed Baumersdorf, which they took, despite gallant defense from Hardegg's brigade. Oudinot's Corps then fanned out, with the bulk of his men continuing to press Hohenzollern and Tharreau's division wheeling left against Bellegarde's I Korps. To the west, General Pacthod and his division of the \"Army of Italy\", supported by the Italian Royal Guard, were able to manoeuvre unseen by following the riverline of the Russbach up the village of Deutsch-Wagram. There, they fell upon the unprotected flank of d'Aspré's Austrian grenadier division, which had been left behind to cover Bellegarde, who had just begun to retreat, in accordance with Charles's orders. Surprising the grenadiers, Pacthod stormed the position and pushed the Austrians back in disorder beyond the village of Aderklaa. They were supported by Tharreau's division of II Corps, which had managed to storm the plateau next to the village. Bellegarde reacted by sending in some of his reserves to stop the enemy onslaught, but the French managed to secure both Wagram and Aderklaa, two key positions on the battlefield.\n", "By 16:00, the entire Austrian army was in full retreat. They executed this maneouvre admirably, with the formations remaining cohesive and withdrawing in echelon, each formation protecting the retreat of the adjoining one. During this phased retreat, \"Generalmajor\" Smola, commander of the Austrian artillery had a major role, managing to mass a sufficient number of cannon to keep the enemy at a respectable distance. The French, who had been marching and fighting for over forty hours, under intense heat and with scarce rations of water and food, were slowly following the retreating enemy. The exhaustion of the French troops was such that, towards 16:00 a brief moment of panic occurred at Wagram. Dozens of French infantry fled down the escarpment, with the Old Guard forced to form square in order to protect the Emperor's headquarters, before order could be restored. A second such moment took place around one hour later, when a mounted scouting party from Archduke John's army suddenly appeared near Glinzendorf, causing panic among the stragglers and civilian contractors of the army, with the Guard again forced to form square. But John soon received word that the battle was already over and hastily retraced his steps. A final incident took place towards 18:00, when elements of the 108th Line regiment from Davout's Corps caught up with enemy stragglers at the Bockfliess. There, the French found the houses filed with drunken Austrian whitecoats, who refused to surrender and attempted to defend themselves. Some 200 of these men were slaughtered and 400 were captured. By nightfall, contact had been broken and the exhausted French had to stop the pursuit and camp on their positions. Towards dusk, French cavalry caught up with Austrian III Korps and tried to block its retreat but the numerous Austrian cavalry in the sector promptly stepped in, hitting the enemy's flank and sending these horsemen fleeing. This persuaded Archduke Charles that he had left III Korps in an exposed position and ordered it to hasten their retreat and get in line with VI Korps. Towards 20:00 all combat ceased and the Austrians were able to move away without any further incident. Napoleon had won the great Battle of Wagram.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Pursuit and armistice.\n", "By nightfall on 6 July, the Austrians, still capable of action, had broken contact with their pursuers and Charles had managed to reestablish a cohesive, albeit irregular front. The remarkable combat-worthiness shown during the evening fighting left Napoleon wondering whether the Austrians would actually renew battle the next day. The Emperor rose early on 7 July and reconnoitred the battlefield in person, noting the huge losses in men on both sides and seeing that the Austrians had withdrawn. He then returned to more practical matters and, after receiving MacDonald's report, he suddenly embraced the general and elevated him to the dignity of \"Maréchal d'Empire\", the only Marshal to receive the title on a field of battle. The Emperor also criticised Marmont for his slowness in arriving on the battlefield and told Oudinot that he ought to have him shot for attacking without orders. The French resumed their pursuit towards 14:00, as the extreme exhaustion of the army prevented an early start. Their artillery had fired somewhere between 90,000 and 100,000 rounds during the battle, which left the caissons empty and it took some time before they could be refilled. Among the rank and file, there were even instances of severe breakdown in troop discipline, as the army moved through county packed with vines and wine cellars. When an incensed Oudinot, sabre in hand, tried to restore discipline among a group of drunken cavalrymen from his army corps, he was almost attacked by his own men. Pursuit was further complicated by the absence of reliable information about the exact direction of the Austrian retreat. Contradictory intelligence collected by the various Corps confusingly stated that the Austrians were retreating either towards to Brünn or to Znaim and other reports were actually indicating a retreat towards Moravia. The French tried to close the gap through sustained march. Spearheading the pursuit were the army corps of Masséna to the west, Marmont in the centre and Davout to the east, while the \"Army of Italy\" was detailed to keep an eye on Archduke John's army.\n", "The Austrians were actually retreating towards Znaim in Bohemia. The Austrian army had suffered greatly during the Battle of Wagram and had to leave behind their wounded, but did make off with thousands of French prisoners, a couple of dozen guns and a few eagles. Making good use of night marches, Archduke Charles had the bulk of his forces assembled at Korneuburg on 7 July. Charles and his senior commanders had considered various plans to continue the campaign, but in the end, Charles was not positioning his army for a continuation of the campaign. The Austrian commander's view well before the Battle of Wagram had been that Austria's best option was to make peace and, in order to achieve that, the Empire needed to have a large, battle-worthy army, which they could use as leverage during the peace talks. Between 9 and 12 August, the French from Eugène's \"Army of Italy\" clashed with Archduke John's forces in a series of skirmishes and pushed them back into Hungary, while Masséna caught up with and fought the Austrian rearguard in a several actions, most notable of which was the one at Hollabrunn. By now, Napoleon had largely understood Charles's intentions and manoeuvred against them. Marmont and his small XI Corps was the first to engage the Austrian army at the Battle of Znaim and was momentarily largely outnumbered. His 10,000 men faced some 60,000 massed enemy troops, but, in the typical style of Napoleonic warfare, Marmont decided to attack in order to pin down the enemy. He could reasonably expect to be reinforced soon and at 22:00, Napoleon arrived with reinforcements. The battle raged on the next day, with some bloody fighting going on around Znaim. The Austrians took heavy casualties, some 6,200 men, during the battle and, as time passed, the French force was set to be augmented to some 84,000 men, following the imminent arrival of Davout and Oudinot. Recognising the futility of another battle, Charles decided to ask for an armistice. He did so on his own responsibility, as he did not have permission to do so from Emperor Francis I. Ignoring the advice of his senior commanders – \"Maréchal\" Berthier was vocal in advising the continuation of hostilities and destruction of the Austrian Empire – Napoleon accepted. The Armistice of Znaim marked the end of the active phase of the 1809 war between France and Austria.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Casualties.\n", "With more than 300,000 combatants, Wagram was the largest battle in European history up to its time. With at least 72,000 casualties on both sides, it was also the bloodiest military engagement of the entire Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars thus far. The unusually high casualty rate was due mainly to an unprecedented concentration of artillery, on a flat battlefield, where the deadly roundshot – each army fired at least 90,000 during the two days of battle – was most effective.\n", "Napoleon used his usual propaganda to minimise his losses, stating in the Bulletin of the \"Grande Armée\" that Wagram cost the army only \"1,500 dead and 3,000 to 4,000 wounded\". In reality, losses had been horrendous. French medical services were completely overwhelmed, although imperial guardsmen were given priority and were quite well cared for. Of the total 1,200 guardsmen of all arms wounded at Wagram, half were able to return to the ranks within a few days and only 145 died from their wounds. The troops of the line were not so lucky. Most of the wounded on both sides had been hit by cannon fire, which caused horrendous injuries, often requiring amputation. The shock of the surgery, massive loss of blood, poor after-care and the risk of infection meant the chances of survival following amputation were not good.\n", "Globally, since neither army provided a complete tabulation of their losses, the exact number of casualties is hard to establish. One author suggests that French casualties of all sorts approached 40,000 men, greatly surpassing those of the Austrians. More conservative estimates place overall French losses at between 25,000 or 28,000 men and either 31,500 or 33,000 men. Five generals (Duprat, Gautier, Guiot de Lacour, Lasalle and von Hartitzsch) and another 238 officers, as well as 7,000 men were killed. Additionally, 37 generals, 883 officers and over 25,000 men were wounded and 4,000 men were taken prisoner, many of them wounded.\n", "On the Austrian side, losses had also been heavy. An official tabulation established that there were 51,626 officers and men missing on 11 July 1809, compared to the overall complements on 5 July 1809. This figure thus accounts not only for the Battle of Wagram, but also for losses during the many minor engagements and skirmishes that took place after the battle, as well as the losses suffered during the Battle of Znaim. Many of these men were simply missing in action and were subsequently able to return to the colours. Nevertheless, conservative estimates of the Austrian losses at Wagram numbered some 30,000 men, of whom 24,000 were killed or wounded, and the rest taken prisoner. According to Ian Castle, Austrian casualties were as follows: 41,250 total, of which 23,750 killed or wounded, 10,000 missing, 7,500 captured, while French and Allied casualties amounted to 37,500, with 27,500 killed or wounded and 10,000 missing or captured. Four Austrian generals were killed or mortally wounded during the fighting: Nordmann, Vukassovich, Vécsey, and d'Aspré.\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n", "Wagram was one of the few battles thus far in his career in which Napoleon failed to score an uncontested victory with relatively few casualties. The French forces suffered 34,000 casualties, a number compounded by the 20,000 suffered only weeks earlier at Aspern-Essling. This would be indicative of the gradual decline in quality of Napoleon's troops and the increasing experience and competence of his opponents, who were learning from previous errors. The heavy losses suffered, which included many seasoned troops as well as over thirty generals of varying rank, was something that the French would not be able to recover from with ease. Bernadotte's dismissal from the Grande Armée for his failure would have severe consequences for Napoleon in later years. Unexpectedly elected heir to the throne of Sweden the following year, the former Marshal would eventually prove an asset to the Allies.\n", "Section::::Footnotes.\n", "BULLET::::- With some 95,000 men committed to battle, the Austrians had held a 3/1 numeric advantage at the end of the first day of battle and a 3/2 numeric superiority throughout the second day. The Austrians also deployed 200 cannon to the French 90 cannon.\n", "BULLET::::- Hiller was replaced at the command of VI Korps with \"Felmarshalleutnant\" Johann von Klenau, formerly commander of the army Advance Guard. Klenau was himself replaced at the helm of the Advance Guard by \"Felmarshalleutnant\" Armand von Nordmann.\n", "BULLET::::- Lannes had been commanding II Corps. After his death, he was replaced by \"Général de Division\" Nicolas Oudinot, who had held the command of the Corps at the very beginning of the War of the Fifth Coalition.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Hilaire had been commanding the 3rd division of II Corps and was replaced at its helm by \"Général de Division\" Charles-Louis-Dieudonné Grandjean. Espagne had been commanding the 3rd heavy cavalry division of the Cavalry Reserve and was replaced in this capacity by \"Général de Division\" Jean-Toussaint Arrighi de Casanova.\n", "BULLET::::- It formed the first brigade of General Jean Victor Tharreau's 1st division of II Corps.\n", "BULLET::::- The full complements of the Advance Guard on 4 July 1809 had included some 22 cavalry squadrons (2,500 men), 23 infantry battalions (11,500 men) and 48 guns.\n", "BULLET::::- Sources provide various figures regarding the number of guns forming the grand battery. The 25th Bulletin of the \"Grande Armée\", which recounts the facts of the Battle of Wagram, indicates that it was formed of 100 guns and this figure is indicated by most historians, with some putting the figure as high as 112 guns. Recent research shows that both these figures are exaggerated and more realistic estimates place the number of guns at either 72, 80 or 84. André Masséna, a highly credible source and also a man who was in the vicinity of the battery at the time when it was deployed, places its complement at 84 pieces: 60 pieces of the Guard artillery and 24 of the \"Army of Italy\". Despite claims from some authors that the cannon of the Bavarian division were also a part of the battery, there is actually no source contemporary to the battle supporting that claim.\n", "BULLET::::- MacDonald's Corps included Jean-Baptiste Broussier's 1st division, 10 battalions and 4,400 men strong, which had not seen any action during 5 July fighting. It also included Jean Maximilien Lamarque's 2nd Division, which on 4 July numbered 11 battalions, with some 3,740 men, but which had seen intense action during the night attacks on 5 July and had taken casualties.\n", "BULLET::::- The general retreat direction was northwest. Rosenberg's troops were already retreating north towards Bockfluss. Charles's orders provided that the various army corps will retreat, following the pace set by Bellegarde's I Korps. The order provided that Bellegarde was to move towards Gerasdorf, Liechtenstein's cavalry was to remain in the Gerasdorf plain, sending patrols towards the Russbach river to collect information about the French advance, Liechtenstein's grenadiers were directed to Hagenbrunn, Kollowrat's III Korps was to move towards the Stammersdorf heights, while Klenau was to deploy between Gerasdorf and Leopoldsau. Charles informed his corps commanders that he would be establishing his headquarters at Stammersdorf, and that they were all required to send an officer there before nightfall, in order to receive new orders.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Website of the Museum of the Battle of Wagram in Deutsch-Wagram (German Language)\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- David Chandler, \"Napoleon's Marshals\", Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1998, pp 247–251.\n", "BULLET::::- Bowden, Scotty & Tarbox, Charlie. \"Armies on the Danube 1809\". Arlington, Texas: Empire Games Press, 1980.\n", "BULLET::::- Gill, John H. \"1809: Thunder on the Danube\". 3 Volumes, Frontline Books, 2007–2011\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q467777", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Wagram", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Wagram", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Battle of Bagram" ] } }

{ "pageid": 157767, "parentid": 905114465, "revid": 905583242, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-10T01:26:23Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Wagram&oldid=905583242" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Shang-Chi\n", "Shang-Chi () is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Steve Englehart and artist Jim Starlin, first appearing in \"Special Marvel Edition\" #15 (cover-dated December 1973) in the Bronze Age of Comic Books. Often referred to as the \"Master of Kung Fu\", Shang-Chi is proficient in numerous unarmed and weaponry-based wushu styles, including the use of the \"gùn\", \"nunchaku\", and \"jian\". In later years, he gains the power to create countless duplicates of himself, and joins the Avengers.\n", "Shang-Chi was spun off from novelist Sax Rohmer's licensed property as the unknown son of fictional villain Fu Manchu. In later editions, his connection to Fu was underplayed after Marvel lost the comic book rights to the latter's character. \n", "Shang-Chi is set to make his live-action debut in the upcoming film \"Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings\" (2021), set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe. He will be played by Canadian actor Simu Liu.\n", "Section::::Publication history.\n", "The character was conceived in late 1972. Marvel had wished to acquire the rights to adapt the \"Kung Fu\" television program, but were denied permission by the show's owner, Warner Communications, owner of Marvel's primary rival, DC Comics. Instead, Marvel acquired the comic book rights to Sax Rohmer's pulp villain Dr. Fu Manchu. They developed Shang-Chi, a master of kung fu, who was introduced as a previously unknown son of Fu Manchu. Though an original character himself, many of Shang-Chi's supporting characters (most notably Fu Manchu, Sir Denis Nayland Smith, Dr. James Petrie and Fah Lo Suee) were Rohmer creations. No characters from the \"Kung Fu\" television series carried over into the comic series, though the character Lu Sung, in an early issue, bears a strong resemblance to Kwai Chang Caine with the addition of a moustache. With artist Paul Gulacy, his visual appearance was modeled after that of Bruce Lee.\n", "Shang-Chi first appeared in \"Special Marvel Edition\" #15 (December 1973) by Steve Englehart and Jim Starlin. He appeared again in issue #16, and with issue #17 (April 1974) the title was changed to \"The Hands of Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu\". Amidst the martial arts craze in the United States in the 1970s, the book became very popular, surviving until issue #125 (June 1983), a run including four giant-size issues and an annual. \"Special Collector's Edition\" #1 (1975) cover-titled as \"Savage Fists of Kung Fu\" reprinted stories from \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu\" #1-2; \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu Special\" #1; and \"Special Marvel Edition\" #15. He did several crossovers with other Marvel martial artists, including the White Tiger, Iron Fist and the Daughters of the Dragon (Colleen Wing and Misty Knight). He appeared regularly in \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu\".\n", "Shang-Chi had two more short series: the \"Master of Kung Fu: Bleeding Black\" one-shot (1990) and the MAX miniseries \"Master of Kung Fu: Hellfire Apocalypse\" (2002) with artist Paul Gulacy on art again. The character had two stories in the anthology series \"Marvel Comics Presents\", including one by Moench that ran in the series' first eight issues in 1988, and co-starred in the \"Moon Knight Special\" (1992). In 1997 a story arc starring Shang-Chi ran in \"Journey into Mystery\" #514-516, and was intended to lead into a miniseries for the character in 1998.\n", "Although spun out of licensed properties, Shang-Chi is a Marvel-owned character and has been firmly established as a part of the Marvel Universe with guest appearances in numerous other titles, such as \"Marvel Team-Up\", \"Marvel Knights\" and \"X-Men\". Most of the original, licensed characters in the supporting cast have been either phased out or renamed in the more recent series and stories.\n", "In some of his modern appearances, mention is made of his villainous father either in cryptic terms or using a variety of new names, due to Marvel no longer having the rights to Fu Manchu. In 2010's \"Secret Avengers\" #6-10, writer Ed Brubaker officially sidestepped the entire issue via a storyline where the Shadow Council resurrects a zombified version of Fu Manchu, only to discover that \"Fu Manchu\" was only an alias and that Shang-Chi's father real name was Zheng Zu, an ancient Chinese sorcerer who discovered the secret to immortality. Similarly, Shang-Chi's half sister Fah Lo Suee was later renamed Zheng Bao Yu / Cursed Lotus in 2013's \"Fearless Defenders\" #8 while Smith and Petrie have not appeared in any Marvel properties since the end of the \"Master of Kung Fu\" series in 1983. \n", "Shang-Chi returned as a main character in the 2007 \"Heroes for Hire\" comic book.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"Master of Kung Fu\".\n", "Shang-Chi was born in the Honan province of the People's Republic of China, and is the son of Fu Manchu, the Chinese mastermind who has repeatedly attempted world conquest and had a thirst for blood. His mother was a white American woman genetically selected by his father. Shang-Chi was raised and trained from infancy in the martial arts by his father and his tutors. Believing his father was a benevolent humanitarian, Shang-Chi was sent on a mission to London to murder Dr. James Petrie, who his father claimed was evil and a threat to peace. After successfully assassinating Petrie, he encountered Fu Manchu's archenemy, Sir Denis Nayland Smith, who revealed to Shang-Chi his father's true nature. After confronting his mother in New York City for the truth, Shang-Chi realized that Fu Manchu was evil. Shang-Chi fought his way past Fu Manchu's Si-Fan assassins at his Manhattan headquarters, telling his father that they were now enemies and vowing to put an end to his evil schemes. Shang-Chi subsequently fought his adoptive brother Midnight, who was sent by their father to kill Shang-Chi for his defection and then encountered Smith's aide-de-camp and MI-6 agent Black Jack Tarr, sent by Smith to apprehend Shang-Chi. After several encounters and coming to trust one another, Shang-Chi eventually became an ally of Sir Denis Nayland Smith and MI-6. Together with Smith, Tarr, fellow MI-6 agents Clive Reston and Leiko Wu, his eventual love interest, and Dr Petrie, who was revealed to still be alive, Shang-Chi went on many adventures and missions, usually thwarting his father's numerous plans for world domination.. Shang-Chi would occasionally encounter his half-sister Fah Lo Suee who led her own faction of the Si-Fan, but opposed her attempts to make him a pawn in her own schemes to usurp their father from his criminal empire. \n", "With Smith, Tarr, Reston, Wu and Petrie, he formed Freelance Restorations, Ltd, an independent spy agency based in Stormhaven Castle, Scotland. After many skirmishes and battles, Shang-Chi finally witnessed the death of Fu Manchu. Not long after his father's death, a guilt-ridden Shang-Chi quit Freelance Restorations, cut ties with his former allies, forsook his life as an adventurer, and retired to a village in remote Yang-Tin, China, to live as a fisherman.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Return.\n", "Some time later, Shang-Chi returned from China and rejoined Tarr, Reston, and Wu. They battled Argus' terroristic group, formed to cause the United States to act more aggressively against all terrorists. In order to gain information, Argus had Wu tortured, cutting off her left hand as a message. She was rescued by Shang-Chi and the others, but not before he suffered a dose of a slow-acting poison. Before the poison could kill him, he was cured of its effects by Fu Manchu's elixir vitae.\n", "After his father was revealed to still be alive, Shang-Chi would later assist his old allies (who had rejoined MI-6) against him and his previously unknown half-brother Moving Shadow. The mission was a success, resulting in his father's Hellfire weapon being destroyed and Moving Shadow's death at their father's hand for his failure in killing Shang-Chi.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"Heroes for Hire\".\n", "As a member of the restored Heroes for Hire, Shang-Chi had put his strength of character at the service of their teammates. Humbug, turning against the heroes, tries to double cross both his friends and the \"Earth Hive\" of insects, joining the Hive, and offering Colleen Wing and Tarantula to a lifetime of tortures. Even so, when a dying Humbug begs his friend to mercy kill him, Shang-Chi refuses, until he finds that Humbug actually had no qualms to torture Tarantula, if it meant less suffering for Colleen. Shang-Chi then snaps his neck and leaves with the catatonic Tarantula, ashamed of what he believed he had to become, a soulless murderer.\n", "Still working for MI-6, he goes on to collaborate with Pete Wisdom of MI-13 in facing the Welsh dragon, which had turned amnesiac and become a human crimelord. Shang-Chi had been told by Wisdom that the dragon (being inherently noble) would go free once it remembered its true origins, and was embittered to find this had been a lie. He became the tutor of a young Earth-616 Killraven.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Heroic Age.\n", "In the \"Shadowland\" storyline, Shang-Chi is one of the heroes fighting the Hand's ninjas. He later works together with Spider-Man against Mister Negative and temporarily takes Mister Negative's powers until Shang-Chi is brought back to normal by Spider-Man.\n", "In \"Secret Avengers\", Steve Rogers tracks Shang-Chi down to help turn back the Shadow Council, which has partially resurrected Shang-Chi's father (who died sometime after their last encounter) and employed the Hai-Dai, a squad of assassins, to hunt Shang-Chi down. After further research, Beast reveals to Shang-Chi and the Secret Avengers that his father's true identity is that of an ancient sorcerer named Zheng Zu who gained immortality after stealing one of his brothers' life essence and that \"Fu Manchu\" was merely an alias. When Shang-Chi and Rogers meet with John Steele and the Shadow Council for the prisoner exchange for a captured Sharon Carter, Rogers is overpowered by Steele and Shang-Chi is captured. While Zheng Zu prepares to sacrifice Shang-Chi to complete his resurrection, the Avengers and Moon Knight drop in on the him and the Shadow Council. The Prince of Orphans disrupts the ritual, resulting in Zheng Zu's permanent death and Shang-Chi's rescue. \n", "Per the instructions of the new Madame Web, Shang-Chi has begun training Spider-Man in kung fu to help him compensate for the recent loss of his spider-sense.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"Marvel NOW!\".\n", "During the \"Marvel NOW!\" relaunch, Shang-Chi joins the Avengers after being recruited by Captain America and Iron Man.\n", "When the Illuminati were exposed to have tampered with the mind of Captain America and attempting to destroy worlds threatening Earth as part of the Incursions as seen in the \"Time Runs Out\" storyline, Shang-Chi joined a faction of the Avengers led by Sunspot. Sunspot's Avengers, having taken control over A.I.M., discovered that \"Incursion points\" (points where an Incursion world that is about to hit Earth can be seen) were causing a massive number of physical mutations among those who stumbled upon the locations. Sending Shang-Chi to an incursion point in Japan, Shang-Chi was exposed to cosmic-level radiation that transformed Shang-Chi into a mutate capable of creating duplicates of himself.\n", "While on a mission to capture Crossbones, Shang-Chi is informed by Captain America about his former lover Leiko Wu's murder at the hands of Razor Fist while working undercover for MI-6 in one of London's triads. Shang-Chi travels to London for Leiko's funeral and while wondering around Chinatown (where Leiko was murdered), he is attacked by unknown assailants, one whom reveals to Shang that the crime lord White Dragon was behind the murder. Shang-Chi is approached by triad clan leader and former enemy Skull-Crusher who offers him a truce; Chao Sina reveals he and Leiko became lovers while she was working undercover and had planned to defect from MI-6 for him. With help from Skull-Crusher and the newly arrived Daughters of the Dragon and the Sons of the Tiger, Shang-Chi confirms that Razor Fist was hired by White Dragon to kill Leiko due to her involvement with his rival clan leader Skull-Crusher and discovers that White Dragon has access to the Mao Shan Pai, a powerful Chinese black magic. Shang-Chi and Skull-Crusher infiltrate White Dragon's estate where they discover a room displaying the decapitated heads of missing triad leaders. The two of them fight White Dragon but are captured by Shang-Chi's brother, Midnight Sun, who reveals himself to be the true mastermind behind White Dragon. With the Mao Shan Pai spellbook taken by White Dragon's men, M'Nai plans to use its magic to give him power and influence over the triad clans, finally fulfilling Zheng Zu's legacy. Needing the heads of the clan leaders in order to complete the ritual, Midnight Sun beheads White Dragon and Skull-Crusher and proceeds to cast the spell. Instead of giving him power, the spell resurrects Leiko from Chao's spilled blood. The vengeful and black magic wielding Leiko reveals that Skull-Crusher made her the leader of his clan before her death; Chao's death made the ritual invalid and instead brought her back from the dead to punish Midnight Sun. Shang-Chi is able to knock out Midnight Sun during their fight while Leiko brutally defeats Razor Fist by ripping off his bladed arms. Leiko uses her newfound powers to summon the dead spirits of Skull-Crusher, White Dragon and the other dead triad leaders, who drag Midnight Sun into their realm. When Leiko attempts to execute a maimed Razor Fist, Shang-Chi pleads with his former lover to stop; while he is able to get Leiko to spare Razor Fist, he is unable to bring her back to her normal self. Black Jack Tarr (now director of MI-6) and his men raid the estate; Razor Fist and White Dragon's men are arrested while Leiko escapes. Before leaving London, Shang-Chi leaves a photo of him and Leiko at her grave, which is later taken by Leiko after he leaves.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"The Protectors\".\n", "Shang-Chi joins several other Asian American superheroes (Hulk (Amadeus Cho), Silk, Ms. Marvel, Jimmy Woo, and S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jake Oh) for a fundraiser in Flushing, Queens. Later while the group is spending the night out in Koreatown, Manhattan they are ambushed by the alien Prince Regent Phalkan and his small army from Seknarf Seven. Shang-Chi and his allies briefly fight off the invaders before they and a large group of bystanders are teleported near Seknarf Seven, where Phalkan demands that the group offer a few people for food within a time limit. Dubbing their group \"The Protectors\", Woo rallies the group and bystanders into working together to escape, while Shang-Chi leads an attack with Silk and Ms. Marvel. The Protectors are eventually able to free themselves and defeat Phalkan and his forces with the help of the bystanders. The Alpha Flight Space Program arrives to rescue the Protectors and bystanders and arrest Phalkan, who Sasquatch reveals was exiled from Seknarf Seven for treason.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"Secret Empire\".\n", "During the \"Secret Empire\" storyline, Shang-Chi was found to have been a prisoner of HYDRA in Madripoor following HYDRA's takeover of the United States. After Hive and Gorgon are defeated, the Tony Stark A.I. finds him and he states that he does not have the Cosmic Cube shard anymore. A flashback revealed that Emma Frost took the Cosmic Cube shard from him when he was unconscious. Shang-Chi was later seen with the Underground when they and other superheroes are fighting HYDRA's forces in Washington, D.C.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"Domino\".\n", "Seeking a way to fight her ability stealing adversary Topaz, Domino approaches Shang-Chi (who was referred to her by his Protectors teammate Amadeus Cho) at his retreat in Lantau Island for training. After a long training session, the two spend a romantic night out in Hong Kong, only to be ambushed at a night club by a large group of Shang-Chi's enemies, led by Midnight and including Razor Fist, Shen Kuei, Shockwave, Death-Hand, Shadow Stalker, Tiger-Claw and others. Domino and Shang-Chi defeat them with relative ease. The two are eventually confronted by Topaz who Domino defeats using Shang-Chi's teachings. Despite Shang-Chi's pleas for mercy, Domino kills Topaz. Disappointed, Shang-Chi breaks up with Domino and dismisses her as his student.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:\"War of the Realms\".\n", "After taking part in a demonstration for Jimmy Woo's Pan-Asian School for the Unusually Gifted in Mumbai, Shang-Chi and the Protectors are offered membership to Jimmy's Agents of Atlas. Shang-Chi and the others are suddenly alerted by the news of Malekith's invasion of Earth; most of the New Agents of Atlas head to Seoul while Ms. Marvel joins Jake Oh and the Champions in New York. Shang-Chi and the others defend Seoul from Malekith's ally Queen Sindr and her Fire Goblin forces from Muspelheim with help from the Korean heroes White Fox, Crescent, Io and Luna Snow. After Sindr threatens to summon a volcano in the middle of the city and kill millions of innocents, Brawn teleports Atlas and their new allies away from the battle, allowing Sindr to peacefully annex South Korea. Brawn eventually summons the Chinese heroes Sword Master and Aero, Filipina heroine Wave, and the Hawaiian Goddess of Fire and Volcanoes Pele from Shanghai to help assist in the fight against Sindr. The newly summoned heroes are less than pleased for being taken out of their previous battle, but Pele quickly puts a stop to the infighting, warning the group that Sindr plans to melt the polar ice caps if they don't work together. When Sword Master continues to protest, Shang-Chi knocks him to the ground, surprising the young hero. After formulating a plan, Brawn confronts Sindr and her forces directly while Aero, Wave and Luna use Sindr's Black Bifrost to travel to the Arctic to decrease its temperature; Shang-Chi and the others are teleported to Atlas' ally Monkey King of the Ascendants in Northern China where Shang-Chi begins training the remaining members for their final fight. When Sun Wukong scoffs at the idea of being trained by a mortal, Shang-Chi disarms him, impressing the Monkey King. As planned by Brawn, the Queen of Cinders arrives in Northern China with a captured Brawn, only to be taken by surprise by Shang-Chi and the others, who defeat Sindr with Shang-Chi's training, although Pele (who is revealed to have been M-41 Zu, a mystically enhanced Atlas Android) and Monkey King sacrifice themselves in the process. Despite given the chance to surrender, Sindr flees using the Black Bifrost, only for Shang-Chi and the others to follow her with Brawn's teleporter, where they help Captain Marvel defeat her and her remaining forces at the Great Wall of China near Beijing. Shang-Chi is later shown fighting the remaining Fire Goblins alongside Wolverine, Hawkeye, Shuri and the Warriors Three in Shanghai. After Malekith's defeat, Shang-Chi is seen with the other Agents in Shanghai looking on while the captured Fire Goblins are escorted back to Muspelheim.\n", "Section::::Fictional character biography.:New Agents of Atlas.\n", "Shang-Chi officially joins the New Agents of Atlas. Shortly after the \"War of the Realms\" event, Shang-Chi encounters Sword Master in New York City, who is searching for his missing father. Noticing the upstart hero's inexperience and recklessness, Shang takes Lie under his wing to improve his skills. Unbeknownst to the two of them, they are being watched by Ares.\n", "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n", "Although it has never been determined exactly how extensive Shang-Chi's fighting skills are, he has beaten numerous superhuman opponents. Shang-Chi is classed as an athlete but he is one of the best non-superhumans in martial arts and has dedicated much of his life to the art, being referred to by some as the greatest empty-handed fighter and practitioner of kung fu alive. Much of his physical abilities seem to stem from his mastery of chi, which often allows him to surpass physical limitations of normal athletes. He has also demonstrated the ability to dodge bullets from machine guns and sniper rifles, and is able to deflect gunshots with his bracers. Shang-Chi is also highly trained in the arts of concentration and meditation, and is an expert in various hand weapons including swords, staves, kali sticks, nunchaku, and shuriken.\n", "Due to his martial arts prowess, Shang-Chi is a highly sought out teacher and has mentored many characters in kung fu and hand-to-hand combat. Some of Shang-Chi's most prominent students and sparring partners have included Captain America, Spider-Man, Wolverine, and Domino. Another testament to his skill as an instructor was during the \"War of the Realms\" where he was able to train a group of novices in a short amount of time, to the point where his proteges were able to easily fend off an army of powerful Fire Demons using the techniques he taught.\n", "He is also very in tune with the chi emitted by all living beings, to the point where he was able to detect a psionically-masked Jean Grey by sensing her energy.\n", "During his time with the Avengers, Shang-Chi was given special equipment by Tony Stark, including a pair of bracelets that allowed him to focus his chi in ways that increased his strength and a pair of repulsor-powered nunchaku.\n", "Following exposure to the cosmic radiation from the Incursions, Shang-Chi was able to create an unlimited number of duplicates of himself.\n", "Section::::Other versions.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:Battleworld.\n", "In the Battleworld, Shang-Chi fights against and eventually overthrows his father, Zheng Zu, the emperor of K'un-L'un and the Master of the Ten Rings.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:\"House of M\".\n", "Shang-Chi never realizes his father's evil doings before his death at Magneto's hands. This causes him to become consumed with a desire for vengeance. In this reality, Shang-Chi is the head of the Dragons criminal organization, alongside Colleen Wing, Swordsman, Mantis, Zaran and Machete. The Dragons later resolved their rivalry against Luke Cage's gang, but were eventually captured in a trap created by both the Kingpin's assassins and Thunderbird's agents. The Dragons and the Wolfpack were freed by Luke Cage, in which Shang-Chi's gang join the Avengers in their battle against the Brotherhood.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:\"Marvel Apes\".\n", "In this simian version of the Marvel Universe, Shang-Chi and his father work as a subversive organization, trying to get the local sentients to work in peace and not in animalistic domination. The Avengers (Ape-vengers) murder him for this 'weak-minded' sentiment.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:\"Marvel Zombies\".\n", "In the Marvel Zombies continuity, Shang-Chi is turned into a zombie during a multi-hero effort to rescue surviving civilians. In a mid-Manhattan battle, detailed in \"Ultimate Fantastic Four\" #23, he and dozens of other zombie-heroes attempt to consume the last batch of humans. These humans are defended by that universe's Magneto and the Ultimate Fantastic Four. During a successful rescue attempt, Thing sends Shang-Chi flying through the air with one punch. Shang-Chi is then seen attacking Magneto once again, but he is cut in half by the Master of Magnetism. A different Shang-Chi appears in \"Marvel Zombies Return\" in an alternate universe where he is unaffected by the zombie outbreak. The zombie Wolverine finds him in an underground fight club, engaging with other infamous martial artists. The flesh-hungry mutant slashes him to death.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:\"Ultimate Marvel\".\n", "In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Shang-Chi first appeared in \"Ultimate Marvel Team-Up\" #15. He is the son of an international crime lord. Trained from birth to become a living weapon, he became the world's greatest martial artist. A noble spirit, he eventually came to renounce his father's empire. Seeking to get away from his father's reach, he emigrated to New York where he worked as a floor sweeper at Wu's Fish Market in Chinatown. Feeling that the denizens of New York's Chinatown needed someone to protect them, he and his friend Danny Rand were drawn into the gang war between the Kingpin and Hammerhead after the latter targeted him to win over the Chinatown gangs to his cause. The conflict climaxed when Shang-Chi, Danny Rand, Spider-Man, Black Cat, Moon Knight and Elektra ambushed Hammerhead's penthouse, where a battle royale ensued. It ended with an unconscious Elektra, Hammerhead and Moon Knight. The gang members were then arrested by the police.\n", "The martial arts warrior disguised himself as a costumed criminal in order to take down the Kingpin. The Kingpin discovered his plan and threatened to kill the hero, but he was rescued by Daredevil, who then recruited him as a part of his team to take down the Kingpin. After the Kingpin's identity is leaked to the New York Police Department, Shang-Chi and the team disbanded and went their separate ways.\n", "Section::::Other versions.:Earth-13584.\n", "In A.I.M.'s pocket dimension of Earth-13584, Shang-Chi appears as a member of Spider-Man's gang.\n", "Section::::In other media.\n", "Section::::In other media.:Film.\n", "BULLET::::- According to Margaret Loesch, former President and CEO of Marvel Productions, in the 1980s Stan Lee considered Brandon Lee for the role of Shang-Chi and met with the actor and his mother Linda Lee to discuss a potential movie or television series starring the character.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2006, Shang-Chi was chosen as one of the many properties in Marvel Studios' new film deal with Paramount Pictures, along with Captain America, Nick Fury, Doctor Strange, Hawkeye, Power Pack, Black Panther and Cloak and Dagger. In December 2018, Marvel Studios hired David Callaham to write the screenplay for a Shang-Chi film set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. In March 2019, Destin Daniel Cretton was hired to direct. Guntis Sics, the sound mixer on \"\", revealed in an interview that filming will take place in Australia. At San Diego Comic-Con 2019, Simu Liu was announced to portray the character in the film \"Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings\", set for a February 2021 release.\n", "Section::::In other media.:Video games.\n", "BULLET::::- Shang-Chi appears as an unlockable playable character in \"Marvel Future Fight\".\n", "Section::::Collected editions.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu\" (collects \"Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu\" #1-6), 144 pages, May 2003,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Deadly Hands of Kung Fu: Out of the Past\" (collects \"Deadly Hands of Kung Fu\" vol. 2 #1-4 and \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #1, 32-33), 160 pages, November 4, 2014,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Master of Kung Fu: Battleworld\" (collects \"Master of Kung Fu\" vol. 2 #1-4 and \"Ronin\" #2), 112 pages, January 2016,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu Omnibus\"\n", "BULLET::::- Vol. 1 collects \"Special Marvel Edition\" #15-16, \"Master of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #17-37, \"Giant-Size Master of Kung Fu\" #1-4, \"Giant-Size Spider-Man\" #2 and material from \"Iron Man Annual\" vol. 1 #4, 696 pages, June 14, 2016,\n", "BULLET::::- Vol. 2 collects \"Master of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #38-70 and \"Master of Kung Fu Annual\" #1, 664 pages, September 20, 2016,\n", "BULLET::::- Vol. 3 collects \"Master of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #71-101 and \"What If?\" #16, 696 pages, March 14, 2017,\n", "BULLET::::- Vol. 4 collects \"Master of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #102-125, \"Marvel Comics Presents\" vol. 1 #1-8 and \"Master of Kung Fu: Bleeding Black\" #1, 748 pages, October 17, 2017,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Deadly Hands of Kung Fu Omnibus\"\n", "BULLET::::- Vol. 1 collects \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #1-18, \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu Special Album Edition\" and \"The Deadliest Heroes of Kung Fu\", 1,152 pages, November 15, 2016,\n", "BULLET::::- Vol. 2 collects \"The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu\" vol. 1 #19-33 and material from \"Bizarre Adventures\" #25, 1,000 pages, June 20, 2017\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Shang-Chi, Master of Kung Fu at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 15, 2016\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Marvel Comics superhero", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2262357", "wikidata_label": "Shang-Chi", "wikipedia_title": "Shang-Chi", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20129, "parentid": 908585945, "revid": 908619626, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-30T21:32:47Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shang-Chi&oldid=908619626" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Marv Albert\n", "Marv Albert (born Marvin Philip Aufrichtig; June 12, 1941) is an American sportscaster. Honored for his work as a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame, he is commonly referred to as \"the voice of basketball\". From 1967 to 2004, he was also known as \"the voice of the New York Knicks\". Albert currently works for Turner Sports, serving as lead announcer for NBA games on TNT.\n", "In addition to calling both professional and college basketball, he has experience announcing other sports such as American football, ice hockey, horse racing, boxing, and tennis. Albert has called the play-by-play of eight Super Bowls, NBA Finals, and seven Stanley Cup Finals. He has also called the Wimbledon Tennis Championships for TNT with Jim Courier and Mary Carillo. He also worked as a co-host and reporter for two World Series (1986 and 1988)\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Albert was born to a Jewish family in Brooklyn, where he went to Abraham Lincoln High School. While Albert grew up, members of his family owned a grocery store on Brighton Beach Avenue between 3rd and 4th streets known as Aufrichtig's. He then attended Syracuse University's Newhouse School of Public Communications from 1960 through 1963. In 1962, he served as the voice of the AAA Syracuse Chiefs. He then graduated from New York University in 1965.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:National Basketball Association.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:National Basketball Association.:New York Knicks (MSG).\n", "Marv did his first Knicks game on January 27, 1963 on WCBS Radio. He filled in for his mentor, Marty Glickman, who was away in Europe. The game was against the Celtics at the Boston Garden. For 37 years beginning in 1967, Albert was the voice of the New York Knicks on radio and television (getting his start by being a ball boy for the Knicks before getting his first break on New York radio by sportscaster Marty Glickman) before being let go by James L. Dolan, the chairman of the MSG Network and Cablevision, after Albert criticized the Knicks' poor play on-air in 2004. It was said that Marv's high salary was also a factor. His son Kenny Albert has been a part-time play-by-play announcer for the Knicks since 2009, whenever the older Albert's successor Mike Breen (whom he later followed on the \"NBA on NBC\" broadcasts and now works on ESPN and ABC aside from his role at MSG) is unavailable.\n", "For a brief period before he resumed his normal broadcasting duties following his sexual assault arrest (see below), Albert anchored MSG's former nightly sports news report, \"MSG SportsDesk\".\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:National Basketball Association.:NBC Sports.\n", "Marv Albert was the lead play-by-play broadcaster for the \"NBA on NBC\" for most of its run from 1990 to 2002, calling every NBA Finals during that timeframe except for 1998, 1999, and 2000. During this time, Bob Costas had taken over the lead job and called the Finals after Marv's arrest for sexual assault had brought him national disgrace. Marv resumed his previous position for the 2000–2001 season and called Game 4 of the 2002 NBA Finals which was the final NBA telecast on NBC. During his time on NBC, Albert continued as lead play-by-play man for the New York Knicks on local MSG Network telecasts and began calling national games for TNT in 1999 as well. When he regained the lead broadcaster position on NBC, he continued to call play-by-play for both networks until the end of NBC's coverage in 2002.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:National Basketball Association.:TNT.\n", "Albert continues to be the lead play-by-play announcer for National Basketball Association games on TNT, a position he assumed in 1999. Indeed, TNT has become his primary commitment ever since his longtime employer NBC lost the NBA broadcasting rights in 2002, and may have played a role in his departure from the Knicks' broadcast booth. The Knicks reportedly wanted Albert to accept a salary commensurate with his reduced Knicks schedule, but also weren't happy about Albert making what Knicks management felt were overly critical comments about their team in spite of their losing record. \n", "In basketball, his most famous call is his simple \"Yes!\" for a basket, rendered in many variations of volume and length depending on the situation; and a catchphrase that he began using in his youth when playing pickup games with friends.\n", "On April 17, 2002, shortly after calling a game between the Indiana Pacers and Philadelphia 76ers on TNT, both Albert and color analyst Mike Fratello were injured in a limo accident in Trenton, New Jersey. Albert sustained facial lacerations, a concussion, and a sprained ankle. The 2002 NBA Playoffs were set to begin two days later, with Albert scheduled to call multiple games that week. Bob Costas filled in those games and Albert returned to call Game 1 of the Western Conference Semifinals between the Dallas Mavericks and Sacramento Kings.\n", "In 2018, Sports Broadcast Journal speculated that Albert might be the first network play-by-play broadcaster to continue into his 80s, Will Marv Albert be the first network play-by-play announcer to call games into his 80s\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:National Basketball Association.:New Jersey Nets (YES).\n", "In 2005, Albert officially became the lead play-by-play man for the New Jersey Nets franchise and started calling their games on the YES Network, often teaming with Brooklyn native and NBA veteran, Mark Jackson. With that, the Nets employed all three Albert brothers during the franchise's history; Al started his broadcast career with the Nets during their ABA days, while Steve called Nets games during the late 1970s and 1980s. Beginning with the 2008–09 season, Albert was also paired with his TNT broadcast colleague Mike Fratello on the YES Network. However, with the Nets' struggles in the 2009–10 season, Nets management relegated Albert to secondary play-by-play, to avoid a similar incident while Albert was with the Knicks. Since then Ian Eagle has taken over the broadcasts. In 2011, Albert left the YES Network to join CBS Sports for NFL and NCAA tournament coverage.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:National Basketball Association.:Other basketball-related duties.\n", "Albert hosts a basketball-focused interview show on NBA TV, which also airs later on YES.\n", "Since 2003, Albert has also been providing the play-by-play voice on the \"NBA Live\" video-game series on EA Sports, a role he fulfilled until \"NBA Live 10\".\n", "From 2011 to 2015, Albert announced NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship tournament games, the result of longtime tournament broadcaster CBS handing off some of its coverage to Turner Sports.\n", "In February 2016, Albert and Turner Sports announced that he would no longer call NCAA Tournament basketball games, stating that calling four games in one day during the first round, and a total of six matches in three days during the first two rounds, was too much for his 74-year-old voice to handle. Albert said that he \"felt it was the wiser move to go primarily NBA at this stage\".\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Outside basketball.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Outside basketball.:New York Rangers.\n", "In addition to the Knicks, Albert had a lengthy tenure (beginning in 1965) calling the games of another Madison Square Garden tenant, the New York Rangers. He handled the radio call of the Rangers' Stanley Cup–clinching victory in 1994.\n", "He also famously coined the nickname \"Red Light\" for radio analyst Sal Messina, a former Rangers goaltender. His signature play-by-play phrase was \"kick save and a beauty.\"\n", "Over his years as the Rangers broadcaster, Albert missed a large number of games for other commitments. Many other broadcasters filled in, including several who later served long stints for other NHL teams, including Howie Rose, Mike Emrick and John Kelly, as well as brothers Al and Steve. It was Albert's absence from Game 7 of the Rangers–Devils Conference Championship game that led to Rose's famed \"Matteau, Matteau, Matteau\" call.\n", "Albert left the Rangers after the 1994–95 season at the same time Rose took the job as play-by-play announcer of the New York Islanders. Albert's son, Kenny, replaced him, and has been the radio voice of the Rangers ever since. Kenny also calls NHL and Olympic ice hockey for NBC Sports, while also serving as the national radio voice of the Stanley Cup Finals since 2016.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Outside basketball.:New York Giants.\n", "From 1973 to 1976, Albert called radio broadcasts of New York Giants football games, succeeding Marty Glickman after the latter's defection to the New York Jets.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Outside basketball.:\"Monday Night Football\".\n", "Albert was also the lead play-by-play voice of the Westwood One radio network's NFL coverage from 2002 to 2009 seasons, calling \"Monday Night Football\" as well as numerous playoff games and every Super Bowl from 2003 to 2010. On June 4, 2010, it was announced that Albert was leaving his \"NFL on Westwood One\" duties. He was succeeded on the broadcasts by Kevin Harlan.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Outside basketball.:\"NFL on CBS\".\n", "On June 6, 2011, it was announced that Albert was joining CBS Sports to call play-by-play for \"The NFL on CBS\". Albert was usually teamed with Rich Gannon on broadcasts.\n", "On May 29, 2014, Albert stepped down from calling \"The NFL on CBS\" to focus more on his basketball duties for TNT and CBS.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Outside basketball.:Other network duties.\n", "Other NBC Sports duties that Albert held were play-by-play announcing for the NFL (by 1983, Albert was the #2 play-by-play man behind Dick Enberg, usually alternating the secondary NFL role year to year with Don Criqui), college basketball (teaming with Bucky Waters on Big East/ECAC games), horse racing, boxing (often working with Ferdie Pacheco and subsequently, Sugar Ray Leonard when NBC relaunched boxing under the \"Premier Boxing Champions\" umbrella), NHL All-Star Games (Albert called the NHL All-Star Game with John Davidson on NBC from 1990-1994), and Major League Baseball, as well as hosting baseball (including NBC's coverage of the 1986 and 1988 World Series alongside Bob Costas). He also spent 13 years as the sports director of the network's flagship station, WNBC-TV in New York.\n", "Albert also called regular-season and playoff NHL games for the syndicated NHL Network in the 1976–77 season, and from 2000 to 2002 he helped call TNT's coverage of the Wimbledon Championships tennis tournament.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Popularity.\n", "Albert made 126 guest appearances on David Letterman's late night talk shows for NBC and CBS. Each time Albert appeared, he brought with him a group of clips featuring sports bloopers and outstanding plays, which he narrated and dubbed the \"Albert Achievement Awards\". The music accompanying the bloopers was \"12th Street Rag\".\n", "Albert was placed as number 14 on David J. Halberstam's list of Top 50 All Time Network Television Sports Announcers on Yahoo! Sports.\n", "In 1992, he appeared as himself on Roger Waters' rock album \"Amused to Death\", giving a play-by-play account of the destruction of an oil rig on the song \"Perfect Sense, Part II\".\n", "An \"Albert Achievement Awards\" video was released in 1993. It featured cameos by Mike Fratello, Ahmad Rashād, Charles Barkley, David Letterman, O.J. Simpson, Bob Costas, and Tom Brokaw.\n", "Albert became the first guest commentator in MTV's \"Celebrity Deathmatch\" cartoon series. He appeared in the 1998 pilot episode before being replaced with Stacey Cornbred.\n", "Albert was briefly mentioned in the 2006 film \"Grandma's Boy\".\n", "Albert's voice is imitated in Futurama, in the Season 3 episode \"Time Keeps On Slippin'\" in 2001.\n", "Albert also appeared as a special guest on \"The Simpsons\", in the Season 20 episode \"The Burns and the Bees\" in 2008.\n", "Albert’s voice is imitated in Pinky and the Brain, in the season 2, episode \"Hoop Schemes\" in 1997.\n", "Albert's voice is imitated in the popular video game \"NBA Jam\". The announcer was modeled on Albert although there is no mention of Albert in the game and was actually voiced by Tim Kitzrow.\n", "Albert did play-by-play commentary in the video games \"NFL Quarterback Club '98\" and \"NBA Live\".\n", "In the 1999 episode \"Tube Steaks\" of the CBS sitcom \"The King of Queens\", Doug and his friends watch a Knicks-game with Albert's voice commentary.\n", "He authored (with Rick Reilly) an autobiography, \"I'd Love to But I Have a Game\", in 1993.\n", "Albert appeared in a short scene in the 2015 comedy film \"Trainwreck\".\n", "Albert did the commentary, along with Mike Fratello and Steve Kerr, on NBA Live video games made by EA Sports from 2003 to 2009.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting career.:Honors and awards.\n", "BULLET::::- Cable ACE Award – six times.\n", "BULLET::::- Curt Gowdy Media Award – awarded by the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, 1994.\n", "BULLET::::- American Sportscasters Association Sportscaster of the Year (Play-by-Play) – 1996. Other honorees included Sportscaster of the Year (Studio Host) Chris Berman, Hall of Fame inductee Jack Whitaker, Sports Legend Joe Frazier and Honorary Sportscaster Dr. Henry Kissinger.\n", "BULLET::::- Emmy Award – for national sports: five times; for New York: three times.\n", "BULLET::::- Nassau County Sports Hall of Fame – inducted in 2006.\n", "BULLET::::- National Jewish Museum Sports Hall of Fame – inducted in 1992.\n", "BULLET::::- New York State Sportscaster of the Year – twenty times.\n", "BULLET::::- Noted in Roger Waters' album, \"Amused to Death\".\n", "BULLET::::- National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association Hall of Fame – inducted in 2014.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "Albert's son, Kenny, is also a sports commentator, who calls baseball and football for Fox, New York Rangers games on the radio, and has been one of NBC's commentators for ice hockey at the Winter Olympics, as well as NBC's NHL coverage. His daughter, Denise, is a reporter for NBA TV.\n", "Marv has two younger brothers who also are announcers. Steve Albert was the Phoenix Suns play-by-play announcer before his retirement following the 2016-17 season, and has also called play-by-play for several other teams, including the New Orleans Hornets, New Jersey Nets, New York Islanders, New York Mets, and Golden State Warriors. Steve is best known for his work on \"Showtime Championship Boxing\", notably the Holyfield–Tyson bouts. Al Albert was the former play-by-play announcer for the New York Nets (ABA), \"USA Tuesday Night Fights\", the Indiana Pacers and the Denver Nuggets. Al also called national NBA games on the USA Network during its brief tenure in the early 1980s.\n", "Section::::Sexual assault.\n", "Albert became embroiled in a sex scandal in 1997. A 42-year-old woman named Vanessa Perhach accused Albert of throwing her on a bed, biting her, and forcing her to perform oral sex after a February 12, 1997 argument in his Pentagon City hotel room. DNA testing linked Albert to genetic material taken from the bite marks and from semen in Perhach's underwear. During the trial, testimony was presented from another woman, Patricia Masden, who told the jury that Albert had bitten her on two different occasions in 1993 and 1994 in Miami and Dallas hotels, which she viewed as unwanted sexual advances. Masden claimed that in Dallas, Albert called her to his hotel room to help him send a fax, only for her to find him wearing \"white panties and garter belt\". Albert maintained that Perhach had requested that he bite her and denied her accusation that he'd asked her to bring another man into their sexual affair. He described the recorded conversation of hers with the police on the night of the incident as \"an Academy Award performance\". After tests proved that the bite marks were his, he pleaded guilty to misdemeanor assault and battery charges, while the sodomy charge was dropped. Albert was given a 12-month suspended sentence.\n", "Section::::Sexual assault.:Ousted from NBC.\n", "Consequently, NBC – for which Albert worked for over 20 years – fired him shortly before the 1997–98 NBA season began on \"The NBA on NBC\". Bob Costas took over for Albert on the basketball side in the 1997–98 season before stepping down after the 2000 NBA Finals for Albert's return. In addition, Tom Hammond spelled his football duties. It is also revealed on a \"Simpsons\" DVD commentary that he was to appear in the episode \"Bart Star\" but, due to the scandal, was replaced by Roy Firestone.\n", "Section::::Sexual assault.:Return to NBC.\n", "NBC brought Albert back less than two years later, and he was the network's main play-by-play man for the 2000–01 and 2001–02 NBA seasons, including the Finals (working with Doug Collins and later Bill Walton and Steve Jones respectively). NBC lost the rights to the NBA to ABC following the 2001–02 season.\n", "Section::::Broadcasting partners.\n", "BULLET::::- John Andariese\n", "BULLET::::- Butch Beard\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Chadwick\n", "BULLET::::- Chip Cipolla\n", "BULLET::::- Doug Collins\n", "BULLET::::- Cris Collinsworth\n", "BULLET::::- John Davidson\n", "BULLET::::- Boomer Esiason\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Fratello\n", "BULLET::::- Walt Frazier\n", "BULLET::::- Rich Gannon\n", "BULLET::::- Richie Guerin\n", "BULLET::::- Matt Guokas\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Huff\n", "BULLET::::- Magic Johnson\n", "BULLET::::- Steve \"Snapper\" Jones\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Kerr\n", "BULLET::::- Dick Lynch\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Maguire\n", "BULLET::::- Sal Messina\n", "BULLET::::- Reggie Miller\n", "BULLET::::- Earl Monroe\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Parcells\n", "BULLET::::- Cal Ramsey\n", "BULLET::::- Bob Trumpy\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Van Gundy\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Walton\n", "BULLET::::- Bucky Waters\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Webber\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Wyche\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Television and radio broadcaster", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q6778062", "wikidata_label": "Marv Albert", "wikipedia_title": "Marv Albert", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20132, "parentid": 903447162, "revid": 905844842, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-11T20:32:34Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marv%20Albert&oldid=905844842" }

{ "paragraph": [ "MIPS\n", "MIPS may refer to:\n", "Section::::Technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Million instructions per second, a measure of a computer's central processing unit performance\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS architecture, a RISC instruction set architecture\n", "BULLET::::- Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer, an instrument on the Spitzer Space Telescope\n", "BULLET::::- Multi-directional Impact Protection System, a helmet safety technology\n", "BULLET::::- Stanford MIPS, a research project\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS-X, a follow-on project to the Stanford MIPS\n", "Section::::Organizations.\n", "BULLET::::- Maharana Institute of Professional Studies, an institution in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India\n", "BULLET::::- Mansehra International Public School and College in Mansehra, Pakistan\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS Technologies, formerly MIPS Computer Systems, the developer of the MIPS architecture\n", "BULLET::::- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Science (MIPS) in Parkville, Victoria\n", "BULLET::::- Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences, a genomics research center in Germany\n", "Section::::Other.\n", "BULLET::::- Material input per unit of service, an economic efficiency indicator\n", "BULLET::::- Menards Infiniti Pro Series, a former name of an Indy Pro Series automobile race\n", "BULLET::::- Monthly income preferred stock, a financial instrument\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS, a rabbit in \"Super Mario 64\"\n", "BULLET::::- Minimum Ionizing Particles, a term widely used in experimental particle physics\n", "BULLET::::- Merit-based Incentive Payment System, a part of the Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- MIP (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 20165, "parentid": 899782336, "revid": 899805581, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-01T14:07:05Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MIPS&oldid=899805581" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Metallocene\n", "A metallocene is a compound typically consisting of two cyclopentadienyl anions (, abbreviated Cp) bound to a metal center (M) in the oxidation state II, with the resulting general formula (CH)M. Closely related to the metallocenes are the metallocene derivatives, e.g. titanocene dichloride, vanadocene dichloride. Certain metallocenes and their derivatives exhibit catalytic properties, although metallocenes are rarely used industrially. Cationic group 4 metallocene derivatives related to [CpZrCH] catalyze olefin polymerization.\n", "Some metallocenes consist of metal plus two cyclooctatetraenide anions (, abbreviated cot), namely the lanthanocenes and the actinocenes (uranocene and others).\n", "Metallocenes are a subset of a broader class of compounds called sandwich compounds .\n", "In the structure shown at right, the two pentagons are the cyclopentadienyl anions with circles inside them indicating they are aromatically stabilized. Here they are shown in a staggered conformation.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The first metallocene to be classified was ferrocene, and was discovered simultaneously in 1951 by Kealy and Pauson, and Miller et al. Kealy and Pauson were attempting to synthesize fulvalene through the oxidation of a cyclopentadienyl salt with anhydrous FeCl but obtained instead the substance CHFe At the same time, Miller \"et al\" reported the same iron product from a reaction of cyclopentadiene with iron in the presence of aluminum, potassium, or molybdenum oxides. The structure of \"CHFe\" was determined by Wilkinson et al. and by Fischer et al. These two were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1973 for their work on sandwich compounds, including the structural determination of ferrocene. They determined that the carbon atoms of the cyclopentadienyl (Cp) ligand contributed equally to the bonding and that bonding occurred due to the metal d-orbitals and the π-electrons in the p-orbitals of the Cp ligands. This complex is now known as ferrocene, and the group of transition metal dicyclopentadienyl compounds is known as metallocenes. Metallocenes have the general formula [(\"η\"-CH)M]. Fischer et al. first prepared the ferrocene derivatives involving Co and Ni. Often derived from substituted derivatives of cyclopentadienide, metallocenes of many elements have been prepared.\n", "One of the very earliest commercial manufacturers of metallocenes was Arapahoe Chemicals in Boulder, Colorado.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "The general name metallocene is derived from ferrocene, (CH)Fe or CpFe, systematically named bis(\"η\"-cyclopentadienyl)iron(II). According to the IUPAC definition, a metallocene contains a transition metal and two cyclopentadienyl ligands coordinated in a sandwich structure, i.e., the two cyclopentadienyl anions are on parallel planes with equal bond lengths and strengths. Using the nomenclature of \"hapticity\", the equivalent bonding of all 5 carbon atoms of a cyclopentadienyl ring is denoted as \"η\", pronounced \"pentahapto\". There are exceptions, such as uranocene, which has two cyclooctatetraene rings sandwiching a uranium atom.\n", "In metallocene names, the prefix before the \"-ocene\" ending indicates what metallic element is between the Cp groups. For example, in ferrocene, iron(II), ferrous iron is present.\n", "In contrast to the more strict definition proposed by IUPAC, which requires a d-block metal and a sandwich structure, the term metallocene and thus the denotation \"-ocene\", is applied in the chemical literature also to non-transition metal compounds, such as barocene (CpBa), or structures where the aromatic rings are not parallel, such as found in manganocene or titanocene dichloride (CpTiCl).\n", "Some metallocene complexes of actinides have been reported where there are three cyclopendadienyl ligands for a monometallic complex, all three of them bound η.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n", "There are many (\"η\"-CH)–metal complexes and they can be classified by the following formulas:\n", "Metallocene complexes can also be classified by type:\n", "BULLET::::1. Parallel\n", "BULLET::::2. Multi-decker\n", "BULLET::::3. Half-sandwich compound\n", "BULLET::::4. Bent metallocene or tilted\n", "BULLET::::5. More than two Cp ligands\n", "Section::::Synthesis.\n", "Three main routes are normally employed in the formation of these types of compounds:\n", "Section::::Synthesis.:Using a metal salt and cyclopentadienyl reagents.\n", "Sodium cyclopentadienide (NaCp) is the preferred reagent for these types of reactions. It is most easily obtained by the reaction of molten sodium and dicyclopentadiene. Traditionally, the starting point is the cracking of dicyclopentadienyl, the dimer of cyclopentadiene. Cyclopentadiene is deprotonated by strong bases or alkali metals.\n", "NaCp acts as a reducing agent and a ligand in this reaction.\n", "Section::::Synthesis.:Using a metal and cyclopentadiene.\n", "This technique provides using metal atoms in the gas phase rather than the solid metal. The highly reactive atoms or molecules are generated at a high temperature under vacuum and brought together with chosen reactants on a cold surface.\n", "Section::::Synthesis.:Using cyclopentadienyl reagents.\n", "A variety of reagents have been developed that transfer Cp to metals. Once popular was thallium cyclopentadienide. It reacts with metal halides to give thallium chloride, which is poorly soluble, and the cyclopentadienyl complex. Trialkyltin derivatives of Cp have also been used.\n", "Many other methods have been developed. Chromocene can be prepared from chromium hexacarbonyl by direct reaction with cyclopentadiene in the presence of diethylamine; in this case, the formal deprotonation of the cyclopentadiene is followed by reduction of the resulting protons to hydrogen gas, facilitating the oxidation of the metal centre.\n", "Metallocenes generally have high thermal stability. Ferrocene can be sublimed in air at over 100 °C with no decomposition; metallocenes are generally purified in the laboratory by vacuum sublimation. Industrially, sublimation is not practical so metallocenes are isolated by crystallization or produced as part of a hydrocarbon solution. For Group IV metallocenes, donor solvents like ether or THF are distinctly undesirable for polyolefin catalysis. Charge-neutral metallocenes are soluble in common organic solvents. Alkyl substitution on the metallocene increases the solubility in hydrocarbon solvents.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n", "A structural trend for the series MCp involves the variation of the M-C bonds, which elongate as the valence electron count deviates from 18.\n", "In metallocenes of the type (CR)M, the cyclopentadienyl rings rotate with very low barriers. Single crystal X-ray diffraction studies reveal both eclipsed or staggered rotamers. For non-substituted metallocenes the energy difference between the staggered and eclipsed conformations is only a few kJ/mol. Crystals of ferrocene and osmocene exhibit eclipsed conformations at low temperatures, whereas in the related bis(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) complexes the rings usually crystallize in a staggered conformation, apparently to minimize steric hindrance between the methyl groups.\n", "Section::::Spectroscopic properties.\n", "Section::::Spectroscopic properties.:Vibrational (infrared and Raman) spectroscopy of metallocenes.\n", "Infrared and Raman spectroscopies have proved to be important in the analysis of cyclic polyenyl metal sandwich species, with particular use in elucidating covalent or ionic M–ring bonds and distinguishing between central and coordinated rings. Some typical spectral bands and assignments of iron group metallocenes are shown in the following table:\n", "Section::::Spectroscopic properties.:NMR (H and C) spectroscopy of metallocenes.\n", "Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the most applied tool in the study of metal sandwich compounds and organometallic species, giving information on nuclear structures in solution, as liquids, gases, and in the solid state. H NMR chemical shifts for diamagnetic organotransition-metal compounds is usually observed between 25 and 40 ppm, but this range is much more narrow for diamagnetic metallocene complexes, with chemical shifts usually observed between 3 and 7 ppm.\n", "Section::::Spectroscopic properties.:Mass spectrometry of metallocenes.\n", "Mass spectrometry of metallocene complexes has been very well studied and the effect of the metal on the fragmentation of the organic moiety has received considerable attention and the identification of metal-containing fragments is often facilitated by the isotope distribution of the metal. The three major fragments observed in mass spectrometry are the molecular ion peak, [CHM], and fragment ions, [CHM] and M.\n", "Section::::Derivatives.\n", "After the discovery of ferrocene, the synthesis and characterization of derivatives of metallocene and other sandwich compounds attracted researchers’ interests.\n", "Section::::Derivatives.:Metallocenophanes.\n", "Metallocenophanes feature linking of the cyclopentadienyl or polyarenyl rings by the introduction of one or more heteroannular bridges. Some of these compounds undergo thermal ring-opening polymerizations (ROP) to give soluble high molecular weight polymers with transition metals in the polymer backbone. Ansa-metallocenes are derivatives of metallocenes with an intramolecular bridge between the two cyclopentadienyl rings.\n", "Section::::Derivatives.:Polynuclear and heterobimetallic metallocenes.\n", "BULLET::::- Ferrocene derivatives: biferrocenophanes have been studied for their mixed valence properties. Upon one-electron oxidation of a compound with two or more equivalent ferrocene moieties, the electron vacancy could be localized on one ferrocene unit or completely delocalized.\n", "BULLET::::- Ruthenocene derivatives: in the solid state biruthenocene is disordered and adopts the transoid conformation with the mutual orientation of Cp rings depending on the intermolecular interactions.\n", "BULLET::::- Vanadocene and rhodocene derivatives: vanadocene complexes have been used as starting materials for the synthesis of heterobimetallic complexes. The 18 valence electron ions [CpRh] are very stable, unlike the neutral monomers CpRh which dimerize immediately at room temperature and they have been observed in matrix isolation.\n", "Section::::Derivatives.:Multi-decker sandwich compounds.\n", "Triple-decker complexes are composed of three Cp anions and two metal cations in alternating order. The first triple-decker sandwich complex, [NiCp], was reported in 1972. Many examples have been reported subsequently, often with boron-containing rings.\n", "Section::::Derivatives.:Metallocenium cations.\n", "The most famous example is ferrocenium, [Fe(CH)], the blue iron(III) complex derived from oxidation of orange iron(II) ferrocene (few metallocene anions are known).\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "Many derivatives of early metal metallocenes are active catalysts for olefin polymerization. Unlike traditional and still dominant heterogeneous Ziegler–Natta catalysts, metallocene catalysts are homogeneous. Early metal metallocene derivatives, e.g. Tebbe's reagent, Petasis reagent, and Schwartz's reagent are useful in specialized organic synthetic operations.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Potential applications.\n", "The ferrocene/ferrocenium biosensor has been discussed for determining the levels of glucose in a sample electrochemically through a series of connected redox cycles.\n", "Metallocene dihalides [CpMX] (M = Ti, Mo, Nb) exhibit anti-tumor properties, although none have proceeded far in clinical trials.\n", "Metallocenes may be useful for isotope separation.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Jemmis \"mno\" rules\n", "BULLET::::- Actinocenes\n", "BULLET::::- f-block metallocene\n" ] }

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{ "description": "class of chemical compounds", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q413676", "wikidata_label": "metallocene", "wikipedia_title": "Metallocene", "aliases": { "alias": [ "metallocenes" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20154, "parentid": 885962166, "revid": 887642573, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-03-13T22:44:15Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metallocene&oldid=887642573" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Maze\n", "A maze is a path or collection of paths, typically from an entrance to a goal. The word is used to refer both to branching tour puzzles through which the solver must find a route, and to simpler non-branching (\"unicursal\") patterns that lead unambiguously through a convoluted layout to a goal. (The term \"labyrinth\" is generally synonymous with \"maze\", but can also connote specifically a unicursal pattern.) The pathways and walls in a maze are typically fixed, but puzzles in which the walls and paths can change during the game are also categorised as mazes or tour puzzles.\n", "Section::::Maze construction.\n", "Mazes have been built with walls and rooms, with hedges, turf, corn stalks, straw bales, books, paving stones of contrasting colors or designs, and brick, or in fields of crops such as corn or, indeed, maize. Maize mazes can be very large; they are usually only kept for one growing season, so they can be different every year, and are promoted as seasonal tourist attractions. Indoors, mirror mazes are another form of maze, in which many of the apparent pathways are imaginary routes seen through multiple reflections in mirrors. Another type of maze consists of a set of rooms linked by doors (so a passageway is just another room in this definition). Players enter at one spot, and exit at another, or the idea may be to reach a certain spot in the maze. Mazes can also be printed or drawn on paper to be followed by a pencil or fingertip. Mazes can be built with snow.\n", "Section::::Generating mazes.\n", "Maze generation is the act of designing the layout of passages and walls within a maze. There are many different approaches to generating mazes, with various maze generation algorithms for building them, either by hand or automatically by computer.\n", "There are two main mechanisms used to generate mazes. In \"carving passages\", one marks out the network of available routes. In building a maze by \"adding walls\", one lays out a set of obstructions within an open area. Most mazes drawn on paper are done by drawing the walls, with the spaces in between the markings composing the passages.\n", "Section::::Solving mazes.\n", "Maze solving is the act of finding a route through the maze from the start to finish. Some maze solving methods are designed to be used inside the maze by a traveler with no prior knowledge of the maze, whereas others are designed to be used by a person or computer program that can see the whole maze at once.\n", "The mathematician Leonhard Euler was one of the first to analyze plane mazes mathematically, and in doing so made the first significant contributions to the branch of mathematics known as topology.\n", "Mazes containing no loops are known as \"standard\", or \"perfect\" mazes, and are equivalent to a \"tree\" in graph theory. Thus many maze solving algorithms are closely related to graph theory. Intuitively, if one pulled and stretched out the paths in the maze in the proper way, the result could be made to resemble a tree.\n", "Section::::Mazes in psychology experiments.\n", "Mazes are often used in psychology experiments to study spatial navigation and learning. Such experiments typically use rats or mice. Examples are:\n", "BULLET::::- Barnes maze\n", "BULLET::::- Morris water maze\n", "BULLET::::- Oasis maze\n", "BULLET::::- Radial arm maze\n", "BULLET::::- Elevated plus maze\n", "BULLET::::- T-maze\n", "Section::::Other types of mazes.\n", "BULLET::::- Ball-in-a-maze puzzles: Dexterity puzzles which involve navigating a ball through a maze or labyrinth.\n", "BULLET::::- Block maze: A maze in which the player must complete or clear the maze pathway by positioning blocks. Blocks may slide into place or be added.\n", "BULLET::::- Hamilton maze: A maze in which the goal is to find the unique Hamiltonian cycle.\n", "BULLET::::- Linear or railroad maze: A maze in which the paths are laid out like a railroad with switches and crossovers. Solvers are constrained to moving only forward. Often, a railroad maze will have a single track for entrance and exit.\n", "BULLET::::- Logic mazes: These are like standard mazes except they use rules other than \"don't cross the lines\" to restrict motion.\n", "BULLET::::- Loops and traps maze: A maze that features one-way doors. The doors can lead to the correct path or create traps that divert you from the correct path and lead you to the starting point. The player may not return through a door through which he has entered, so dead ends may be created. The path is a series of loops interrupted by doors. Through the use of reciprocal doors, the correct path can intersect the incorrect path on a single plane. A graphical variant of this maze type is an arrow maze.\n", "BULLET::::- Mazes in higher dimensions: It is possible for a maze to have three or more dimensions. A maze with bridges is three-dimensional, and some natural cave systems are three-dimensional mazes. The computer game \"Descent\" uses fully three-dimensional mazes. Any maze can be mapped into a higher dimension without changing its topology.\n", "BULLET::::- Number maze: A maze in which numbers are used to determine jumps that form a pathway, allowing the maze to criss-cross itself many times.\n", "BULLET::::- Picture maze: A standard maze that forms a picture when solved.\n", "BULLET::::- Turf mazes and mizmazes: A pattern like a long rope folded up, without any junctions or crossings.\n", "Section::::Publications about mazes.\n", "Numerous mazes of different kinds have been drawn, painted, published in books and periodicals, used in advertising, in software, and sold as art. In the 1970s there occurred a publishing \"maze craze\" in which numerous books, and some magazines, were commercially available in nationwide outlets and devoted exclusively to mazes of a complexity that was able to challenge adults as well as children (for whom simple maze puzzles have long been provided both before, during, and since the 1970s \"craze\").\n", "Some of the best-selling books in the 1970s and early 1980s included those produced by Vladimir Koziakin, Rick and Glory Brightfield, Dave Phillips, Larry Evans, and Greg Bright. Koziakin's works were predominantly of the standard two-dimensional \"trace a line between the walls\" variety. The works of the Brightfields had a similar two-dimensional form but used a variety of graphics-oriented \"path obscuring\" techniques. Although the routing was comparable to or simpler than Koziakin's mazes, the Brightfields' mazes did not allow the various pathway options to be discerned easily by the roving eye as it glanced about.\n", "Greg Bright's works went beyond the standard published forms of the time by including \"weave\" mazes in which illustrated pathways can cross over and under each other. Bright's works also offered examples of extremely complex patterns of routing and optical illusions for the solver to work through. What Bright termed \"mutually accessible centers\" (\"The Great Maze Book\", 1973) also called \"braid\" mazes, allowed a proliferation of paths flowing in spiral patterns from a central nexus and, rather than relying on \"dead ends\" to hinder progress, instead relied on an overabundance of pathway choices. Rather than have a single solution to the maze, Bright's routing often offered multiple equally valid routes from start to finish, with no loss of complexity or diminishment of solver difficulties because the result was that it became difficult for a solver to definitively \"rule out\" a particular pathway as unproductive. Some of Bright's innovative mazes had no \"dead ends\", although some clearly had looping sections (or \"islands\") that would cause careless explorers to keep looping back again and again to pathways they had already travelled.\n", "The books of Larry Evans focused on 3-D structures, often with realistic perspective and architectural themes, and Bernard Myers (\"Supermazes\" No. 1) produced similar illustrations. Both Greg Bright (\"The Hole Maze Book\") and Dave Phillips (\"The World's Most Difficult Maze\") published maze books in which the sides of pages could be crossed over and in which holes could allow the pathways to cross from one page to another, and one side of a page to the other, thus enhancing the 3-D routing capacity of 2-D printed illustrations.\n", "Adrian Fisher is both the most prolific contemporary author on mazes, and also one of the leading maze designers. His book \"The Amazing Book of Mazes\" (2006) contains examples and photographs of numerous methods of maze construction, several of which have been pioneered by Fisher; \"The Art of the Maze\" (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990) contains a substantial history of the subject, whilst \"Mazes and Labyrinths\" (Shire Publications, 2004) is a useful introduction to the subject.\n", "A recent book by Galen Wadzinski (\"The Ultimate Maze Book\") offers formalized rules for more recent innovations that involve single-directional pathways, 3-D simulating illustrations, \"key\" and \"ordered stop\" mazes in which items must be collected or visited in particular orders to add to the difficulties of routing (such restrictions on pathway traveling and re-use are important in a printed book in which the limited amount of space on a printed page would otherwise place clear limits on the number of choices and pathways that can be contained within a single maze). Although these innovations are not all entirely new with Wadzinski, the book marks a significant advancement in published maze puzzles, offering expansions on the traditional puzzles that seem to have been fully informed by various video game innovations and designs, and adds new levels of challenge and complexity in both the design and the goals offered to the puzzle-solver in a printed format.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Asia.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Asia.:Dubai.\n", "BULLET::::- Gardens Shopping Mall, Dubai (world's largest indoor maze)\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Asia.:Japan.\n", "BULLET::::- Hikimi no Meiro, Kiso, Nagano, Japan\n", "BULLET::::- Kyodai Meiro Palladium, Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan\n", "BULLET::::- Sendai Hi-Land, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan\n", "BULLET::::- Shirahama Energy Land, Shirahama, Wakayama, Japan\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Pacific.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Pacific.:New Zealand.\n", "BULLET::::- Amazing Maze n' Maize\n", "BULLET::::- The Great Maze at Puzzling World\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Austria.\n", "BULLET::::- Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, has a large hedge maze in its gardens.\n", "BULLET::::- Swarovski Crystal World, Wattens, Tyrol, has a hand-shaped hedge maze in its gardens.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Belgium.\n", "BULLET::::- Loppem Castle maze\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Denmark.\n", "BULLET::::- Samsø Labyrinten (The world's largest permanent maze, 60.000 m)\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- Hortus Vitalis – Der Irrgarten, Bad Salzuflen (hedge maze)\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Greece.\n", "BULLET::::- Labyrinth Park near Hersonissos, Crete (extends to approximately 1.300 m)\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Italy.\n", "BULLET::::- Castello di Masino, Caravino 10010, Torino, Italia\n", "BULLET::::- , Chiusi, Tuscany (see Pliny's Italian labyrinth)\n", "BULLET::::- Villa Pisani, Stra, near Venice ()\n", "BULLET::::- The labyrinth of Franco Maria Ricci at Fontanellato ()\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Netherlands.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Waterlabyrinth\", Nijmegen, designed by Klaus van de Locht, 1981 ()\n", "BULLET::::- Doolhof Ruurlo, Ruurlo, designed by Daniel Marot, based on the design for Hampton Court Maze ()\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Portugal.\n", "BULLET::::- Parque do Arnado, Ponte de Lima, District of Viana do Castelo\n", "BULLET::::- Parque de São Roque, District of Porto\n", "BULLET::::- Forest Reserve of Pinhal da Paz, São Miguel Island, Azores\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:Spain.\n", "BULLET::::- Alcázar of Seville, Seville\n", "BULLET::::- Corn Laberynth in the Camino de Santiago, León\n", "BULLET::::- Parc del laberint d'Horta, Barcelona, ()\n", "BULLET::::- Parc de la Torreblanca, Esplugues de Llobregat ()\n", "BULLET::::- Parque de El Capricho, Madrid\n", "BULLET::::- Laberinto de Villapresente, Cantabria. With 5,625qm, it is the largest maze in Spain.\n", "BULLET::::- Parque de Tentegorra, Murcia\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso, Segovia ()\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:Europe.:UK.\n", "BULLET::::- Blake House Craft Centre, Braintree, Essex, England (Open July–September)\n", "BULLET::::- Carnfunnock Country Park, Northern Ireland. A hedge maze in the shape of Northern Ireland and winner of 1985 Design a Maze competition.\n", "BULLET::::- Castlewellan, Northern Ireland, world's largest permanent hedge maze\n", "BULLET::::- Chatsworth House garden maze, planted with 1,209 yews.\n", "BULLET::::- Cliveden House Originally laid out in 1894, the maze was restored and re-opened to the public in 2011, consisting of 1100 Yew trees.\n", "BULLET::::- Crystal Palace Park, South London. Laid out in the 1870s, this is the largest maze in London.\n", "BULLET::::- Glendurgan Garden, Cornwall. A cherry laurel hedge maze created in 1833.\n", "BULLET::::- Hampton Court Maze. A famous historic maze in the Palace gardens.\n", "BULLET::::- Hever Castle Maze, Hever, Kent. Yew tree maze and a splashing water maze\n", "BULLET::::- Hoo Hill Maze, Shefford, Bedfordshire, England\n", "BULLET::::- Norwich Cathedral, Norfolk, England. A labyrinth in the Cloister Garth. Laid to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of HM Queen Elizabeth II in 2002.\n", "BULLET::::- Richings Park Amazing Maize Maze, Richings Park, near Heathrow, England (Open July–September)\n", "BULLET::::- Saltwell Park, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. A yew-tree maze restored to its original condition in 2005 and open to the public during park opening hours.\n", "BULLET::::- Somerleyton Hall, Suffolk, England. A yew hedge maze designed and planted in 1846 by William Nesfield.\n", "BULLET::::- York Maze. Located near RAF Elvington and constructed using maize (Dalek corn) plants, the maze was created to celebrate the 50th anniversary of \"Doctor Who\".\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:North America.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:North America.:Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2012, the Kraay Family Farm in Alberta, Canada created the world's largest QR code in the form of a massive corn maze, popularly known as The Edmonton Corn Maze.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:North America.:USA.\n", "BULLET::::- The Stanley Hotel in Estes Park, Colorado, which inspired Stephen King's novel \"The Shining\" (1977) but did not sport a hedge maze (despite one's being famously depicted in the 1980 film adaption), in November 2014 publicized an international design competition requesting entrants to propose designs to plant a 10,100-square-foot hedge maze, using 1,600 to 2,000 Alpine Currant hedge bushes, on the hotel's front lawn. On 31 January, the judges selected Jesse Alfaro’s Evans, Colorado construction company.\n", "BULLET::::- Dole Pineapple Plantation, Oahu.\n", "BULLET::::- Tanglewood Music Center Hedge Maze, Lenox and Stockbridge, Massachusetts.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:South Africa.\n", "Chartwell Castle in Johannesburg claims to have the biggest known uninterrupted hedgerow maze in the Southern world, with over 900 conifers. It covers about 6000 sq.m. (approximately 1.5 acres), which is around 5 times bigger than The Hampton Court Maze. The center is about 12m × 12m. The maze was designed and laid out by Conrad Penny.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:South America.\n", "Section::::Mazes open to the public.:South America.:Brazil.\n", "BULLET::::- Labirinto Verde, Nova Petrópolis, (Circular hedge maze built in 1989; Latitude 29°22'32.71\"S Longitude 51°06'43.68\"W)\n", "Section::::Mazes in popular culture.\n", "Section::::Mazes in popular culture.:Mazes on Television.\n", "BULLET::::- Both \"Nubeluz\" and \"American Gladiators\", from Peru and the United States respectively, featured a giant life-size maze used in competition. The object on both programs was for the contestants to find their way from the entrance to the exit as quickly as possible. On \"Nubeluz\", the contestants took turns running through the maze; on \"American Gladiators\", both contestants ran through the maze simultaneously. The giant maze was part of the game rotation on both programs concurrently, and was also retired from both programs simultaneously.\n", "Section::::Mazes in popular culture.:Fictional mazes.\n", "BULLET::::- The film adaptation of Stephen King's 1977 novel, \"The Shining\" (1980), includes a harrowing scene featuring Jack Torrance and Danny Torrance in an ominous hedge maze.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Celtic maze\n", "BULLET::::- Crop circle\n", "BULLET::::- Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- The definitive guide to British Mazes.\n", "BULLET::::- Includes\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Labyrinth Society official web page\n" ] }

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{ "description": "puzzle game in the form of a complex branching passage", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q606777", "wikidata_label": "maze", "wikipedia_title": "Maze", "aliases": { "alias": [ "labyrinth" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20161, "parentid": 904887419, "revid": 904887535, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-05T09:02:45Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maze&oldid=904887535" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Muon\n", "The muon (; from the Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with an electric charge of −1 \"e\" and a spin of 1/2, but with a much greater mass. It is classified as a lepton. As is the case with other leptons, the muon is not believed to have any sub-structure—that is, it is not thought to be composed of any simpler particles.\n", "The muon is an unstable subatomic particle with a mean lifetime of , much longer than many other subatomic particles. As with the decay of the non-elementary neutron (with a lifetime around 15 minutes), muon decay is slow (by subatomic standards) because the decay is mediated by the weak interaction exclusively (rather than the more powerful strong interaction or electromagnetic interaction), and because the mass difference between the muon and the set of its decay products is small, providing few kinetic degrees of freedom for decay. Muon decay almost always produces at least three particles, which must include an electron of the same charge as the muon and two neutrinos of different types.\n", "Like all elementary particles, the muon has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge (+1 \"e\") but equal mass and spin: the antimuon (also called a \"positive muon\"). Muons are denoted by and antimuons by . Muons were previously called mu mesons, but are not classified as mesons by modern particle physicists (see ), and that name is no longer used by the physics community.\n", "Muons have a mass of , which is about 207 times that of the electron. Due to their greater mass, muons are not as sharply accelerated when they encounter electromagnetic fields, and do not emit as much bremsstrahlung (deceleration radiation). This allows muons of a given energy to penetrate far more deeply into matter than electrons since the deceleration of electrons and muons is primarily due to energy loss by the bremsstrahlung mechanism. As an example, so-called \"secondary muons\", generated by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere, can penetrate to the Earth's surface, and even into deep mines.\n", "Because muons have a very large mass and energy compared with the decay energy of radioactivity, they are never produced by radioactive decay. They are, however, produced in copious amounts in high-energy interactions in normal matter, in certain particle accelerator experiments with hadrons, or naturally in cosmic ray interactions with matter. These interactions usually produce pi mesons initially, which most often decay to muons.\n", "As with the case of the other charged leptons, the muon has an associated muon neutrino, denoted by , which is not the same particle as the electron neutrino, and does not participate in the same nuclear reactions.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Muons were discovered by Carl D. Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer at Caltech in 1936, while studying cosmic radiation. Anderson noticed particles that curved differently from electrons and other known particles when passed through a magnetic field. They were negatively charged but curved less sharply than electrons, but more sharply than protons, for particles of the same velocity. It was assumed that the magnitude of their negative electric charge was equal to that of the electron, and so to account for the difference in curvature, it was supposed that their mass was greater than an electron but smaller than a proton. Thus Anderson initially called the new particle a \"mesotron\", adopting the prefix \"meso-\" from the Greek word for \"mid-\". The existence of the muon was confirmed in 1937 by J. C. Street and E. C. Stevenson's cloud chamber experiment.\n", "A particle with a mass in the meson range had been predicted before the discovery of any mesons, by theorist Hideki Yukawa:\n", "It seems natural to modify the theory of Heisenberg and Fermi in the following way. The transition of a heavy particle from neutron state to proton state is not always accompanied by the emission of light particles. The transition is sometimes taken up by another heavy particle.\n", "Because of its mass, the mu meson was initially thought to be Yukawa's particle, but it later proved to have the wrong properties. Yukawa's predicted particle, the pi meson, was finally identified in 1947 (again from cosmic ray interactions), and shown to differ from the earlier-discovered mu meson by having the correct properties to be a particle which mediated the nuclear force.\n", "With two particles now known with the intermediate mass, the more general term \"meson\" was adopted to refer to any such particle within the correct mass range between electrons and nucleons. Further, in order to differentiate between the two different types of mesons after the second meson was discovered, the initial mesotron particle was renamed the \"mu meson\" (the Greek letter \"μ\" (\"mu\") corresponds to \"m\"), and the new 1947 meson (Yukawa's particle) was named the pi meson.\n", "As more types of mesons were discovered in accelerator experiments later, it was eventually found that the mu meson significantly differed not only from the pi meson (of about the same mass), but also from all other types of mesons. The difference, in part, was that mu mesons did not interact with the nuclear force, as pi mesons did (and were required to do, in Yukawa's theory). Newer mesons also showed evidence of behaving like the pi meson in nuclear interactions, but not like the mu meson. Also, the mu meson's decay products included both a neutrino and an antineutrino, rather than just one or the other, as was observed in the decay of other charged mesons.\n", "In the eventual Standard Model of particle physics codified in the 1970s, all mesons other than the mu meson were understood to be hadrons—that is, particles made of quarks—and thus subject to the nuclear force. In the quark model, a \"meson\" was no longer defined by mass (for some had been discovered that were very massive—more than nucleons), but instead were particles composed of exactly two quarks (a quark and antiquark), unlike the baryons, which are defined as particles composed of three quarks (protons and neutrons were the lightest baryons). Mu mesons, however, had shown themselves to be fundamental particles (leptons) like electrons, with no quark structure. Thus, mu mesons were not mesons at all, in the new sense and use of the term \"meson\" used with the quark model of particle structure.\n", "With this change in definition, the term \"mu meson\" was abandoned, and replaced whenever possible with the modern term \"muon\", making the term mu meson only historical. In the new quark model, other types of mesons sometimes continued to be referred to in shorter terminology (e.g., \"pion\" for pi meson), but in the case of the muon, it retained the shorter name and was never again properly referred to by older \"mu meson\" terminology.\n", "The eventual recognition of the \"mu meson\" muon as a simple \"heavy electron\" with no role at all in the nuclear interaction, seemed so incongruous and surprising at the time, that Nobel laureate I. I. Rabi famously quipped, \"Who ordered that?\"\n", "In the Rossi–Hall experiment (1941), muons were used to observe the time dilation (or, alternatively, length contraction) predicted by special relativity, for the first time.\n", "Section::::Muon sources.\n", "Muons arriving on the Earth's surface are created indirectly as decay products of collisions of cosmic rays with particles of the Earth's atmosphere.\n", "When a cosmic ray proton impacts atomic nuclei in the upper atmosphere, pions are created. These decay within a relatively short distance (meters) into muons (their preferred decay product), and muon neutrinos. The muons from these high-energy cosmic rays generally continue in about the same direction as the original proton, at a velocity near the speed of light. Although their lifetime \"without\" relativistic effects would allow a half-survival distance of only about 456 m (2.197 µs×ln(2) × 0.9997×c) at most (as seen from Earth) the time dilation effect of special relativity (from the viewpoint of the Earth) allows cosmic ray secondary muons to survive the flight to the Earth's surface, since in the Earth frame the muons have a longer half-life due to their velocity. From the viewpoint (inertial frame) of the muon, on the other hand, it is the length contraction effect of special relativity which allows this penetration, since in the muon frame its lifetime is unaffected, but the length contraction causes distances through the atmosphere and Earth to be far shorter than these distances in the Earth rest-frame. Both effects are equally valid ways of explaining the fast muon's unusual survival over distances.\n", "Since muons are unusually penetrative of ordinary matter, like neutrinos, they are also detectable deep underground (700 meters at the Soudan 2 detector) and underwater, where they form a major part of the natural background ionizing radiation. Like cosmic rays, as noted, this secondary muon radiation is also directional.\n", "The same nuclear reaction described above (i.e. hadron-hadron impacts to produce pion beams, which then quickly decay to muon beams over short distances) is used by particle physicists to produce muon beams, such as the beam used for the muon \"g\" − 2 experiment.\n", "Section::::Muon decay.\n", "Muons are unstable elementary particles and are heavier than electrons and neutrinos but lighter than all other matter particles. They decay via the weak interaction. Because leptonic family numbers are conserved in the absence of an extremely unlikely immediate neutrino oscillation, one of the product neutrinos of muon decay must be a muon-type neutrino and the other an electron-type antineutrino (antimuon decay produces the corresponding antiparticles, as detailed below). Because charge must be conserved, one of the products of muon decay is always an electron of the same charge as the muon (a positron if it is a positive muon). Thus all muons decay to at least an electron, and two neutrinos. Sometimes, besides these necessary products, additional other particles that have no net charge and spin of zero (e.g., a pair of photons, or an electron-positron pair), are produced.\n", "The dominant muon decay mode (sometimes called the Michel decay after Louis Michel) is the simplest possible: the muon decays to an electron, an electron antineutrino, and a muon neutrino. Antimuons, in mirror fashion, most often decay to the corresponding antiparticles: a positron, an electron neutrino, and a muon antineutrino. In formulaic terms, these two decays are:\n", "The mean lifetime, = /, of the (positive) muon is  . The equality of the muon and antimuon lifetimes has been established to better than one part in 10.\n", "Section::::Muon decay.:Prohibited decays.\n", "Certain neutrino-less decay modes are kinematically allowed but are, for all practical purposes, forbidden in the Standard Model, even given that neutrinos have mass and oscillate. Examples forbidden by lepton flavour conservation are:\n", "and\n", "To be precise: in the Standard Model with neutrino mass, a decay like → + is technically possible, for example by neutrino oscillation of a virtual muon neutrino into an electron neutrino, but such a decay is astronomically unlikely and therefore should be experimentally unobservable: less than one in 10 muon decays should produce such a decay.\n", "Observation of such decay modes would constitute clear evidence for theories beyond the Standard Model. Upper limits for the branching fractions of such decay modes were measured in many experiments starting more than years ago. The current upper limit for the → + branching fraction was measured 2009–2013 in the MEG experiment and is 4.2 × 10.\n", "Section::::Muon decay.:Theoretical decay rate.\n", "The muon decay width which follows from Fermi's golden rule has dimension of energy, and must be proportional to the square of the amplitude, and thus the square of Fermi's coupling constant (formula_1), with over-all dimension of inverse fourth power of energy. By dimensional analysis, this leads to Sargent's rule of fifth-power dependence on ,\n", "where formula_3, and formula_4 is the fraction of the maximum energy transmitted to the electron.\n", "The decay distributions of the electron in muon decays have been parameterised using the so-called Michel parameters. The values of these four parameters are predicted unambiguously in the Standard Model of particle physics, thus muon decays represent a good test of the space-time structure of the weak interaction. No deviation from the Standard Model predictions has yet been found.\n", "For the decay of the muon, the expected decay distribution for the Standard Model values of Michel parameters is\n", "where formula_6 is the angle between the muon's polarization vector formula_7 and the decay-electron momentum vector, and formula_8 is the fraction of muons that are forward-polarized. Integrating this expression over electron energy gives the angular distribution of the daughter electrons:\n", "The electron energy distribution integrated over the polar angle (valid for formula_10) is\n", "Due to the muons decaying by the weak interaction, parity conservation is violated. Replacing the formula_12 term in the expected decay values of the Michel Parameters with a formula_13 term, where is the Larmor frequency from Larmor precession of the muon in a uniform magnetic field, given by:\n", "formula_14\n", "where is mass of the muon, is charge, is the muon g-factor and is applied field.\n", "A change in the electron distribution computed using the standard, unprecessional, Michel Parameters can be seen displaying a periodicity of π radians. This can be shown to physically correspond to a phase change of π, introduced in the electron distribution as the angular momentum is changed by the action of the charge conjugation operator, which is conserved by the weak interaction.\n", "The observation of parity violation in muon decay can be compared to the concept of violation of parity in weak interactions in general as an extension of The Wu Experiment, as well as the change of angular momentum introduced by a phase change of π corresponding to the charge-parity operator being invariant in this interaction. This fact is true for all lepton interactions in The Standard Model.\n", "Section::::Muonic atoms.\n", "The muon was the first elementary particle discovered that does not appear in ordinary atoms.\n", "Section::::Muonic atoms.:Negative muon atoms.\n", "\"Negative\" muons can, however, form muonic atoms (previously called mu-mesic atoms), by replacing an electron in ordinary atoms. Muonic hydrogen atoms are much smaller than typical hydrogen atoms because the much larger mass of the muon gives it a much more localized ground-state wavefunction than is observed for the electron. In multi-electron atoms, when only one of the electrons is replaced by a muon, the size of the atom continues to be determined by the other electrons, and the atomic size is nearly unchanged. However, in such cases the orbital of the muon continues to be smaller and far closer to the nucleus than the atomic orbitals of the electrons.\n", "Muonic helium is created by substituting a muon for one of the electrons in helium-4. The muon orbits much closer to the nucleus, so muonic helium can therefore be regarded like an isotope of helium whose nucleus consists of two neutrons, two protons and a muon, with a single electron outside. Colloquially, it could be called \"helium 4.1\", since the mass of the muon is slightly greater than 0.1 amu. Chemically, muonic helium, possessing an unpaired valence electron, can bond with other atoms, and behaves more like a hydrogen atom than an inert helium atom.\n", "Muonic heavy hydrogen atoms with a negative muon may undergo nuclear fusion in the process of muon-catalyzed fusion, after the muon may leave the new atom to induce fusion in another hydrogen molecule. This process continues until the negative muon is captured by a helium nucleus, and cannot escape until it decays.\n", "Finally, a possible fate of negative muons bound to conventional atoms is that they are captured by the weak-force by protons in nuclei in a sort of electron-capture-like process. When this happens, the proton becomes a neutron and a muon neutrino is emitted.\n", "Section::::Muonic atoms.:Positive muon atoms.\n", "A \"positive\" muon, when stopped in ordinary matter, cannot be captured by a proton since it would need to be an antiproton. The positive muon is also not attracted to the nucleus of atoms. Instead, it binds a random electron and with this electron forms an exotic atom known as muonium (Mu) atom. In this atom, the muon acts as the nucleus. The positive muon, in this context, can be considered a pseudo-isotope of hydrogen with one ninth of the mass of the proton. Because the reduced mass of muonium, and hence its Bohr radius, is very close to that of hydrogen, this short-lived \"atom\" (or a muon and electron) behaves chemically—to a first approximation—like the isotopes of hydrogen (protium, deuterium and tritium).\n", "Both positive and negative muons can be part of a short-lived pi-mu atom consisting of a muon and an oppositely charged pion. These atoms were observed in the 1970s in experiments at Brookhaven and Fermilab.\n", "Section::::Use in measurement of the proton charge radius.\n", "The experimental technique that is expected to provide the most precise determination of the root-mean-square charge radius of the proton is the measurement of the frequency of photons (precise \"color\" of light) emitted or absorbed by atomic transitions in muonic hydrogen. This form of hydrogen atom is composed of a negatively charged muon bound to a proton. The muon is particularly well suited for this purpose because its much larger mass results in a much more compact bound state and hence a larger probability for it to be found inside the proton in muonic hydrogen compared to the electron in atomic hydrogen. The Lamb shift in muonic hydrogen was measured by driving the muon from a 2s state up to an excited 2p state using a laser. The frequency of the photons required to induce two such (slightly different) transitions were reported in 2014 to be 50 and 55 THz which, according to present theories of quantum electrodynamics, yield an appropriately averaged value of for the charge radius of the proton.\n", "The internationally accepted value of the proton's charge radius is based on a suitable average of results from older measurements of effects caused by the nonzero size of the proton on scattering of electrons by nuclei and the light spectrum (photon energies) from excited atomic hydrogen. The official value updated in 2014 is (see orders of magnitude for comparison to other sizes).\n", "The expected precision of this result is inferior to that from muonic hydrogen by about a factor of fifteen, yet they disagree by about 5.6 times the nominal uncertainty in the difference (a discrepancy called 5.6\"σ\" in scientific notation). A conference of the world experts on this topic led to the decision to exclude the muon result from influencing the official 2014 value, in order to avoid hiding the mysterious discrepancy.\n", "This \"proton radius puzzle\" remained unresolved as of late 2015, and has attracted much attention, in part because of the possibility that both measurements are valid, which would imply the influence of some \"new physics\".\n", "Section::::Anomalous magnetic dipole moment.\n", "The anomalous magnetic dipole moment is the difference between the experimentally observed value of the magnetic dipole moment and the theoretical value predicted by the Dirac equation. The measurement and prediction of this value is very important in the precision tests of QED (quantum electrodynamics). The E821 experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) studied the precession of muon and anti-muon in a constant external magnetic field as they circulated in a confining storage ring. E821 reported the following average value in 2006:\n", "where the first errors are statistical and the second systematic.\n", "The prediction for the value of the muon anomalous magnetic moment includes three parts:\n", "The difference between the \"g\"-factors of the muon and the electron is due to their difference in mass. Because of the muon's larger mass, contributions to the theoretical calculation of its anomalous magnetic dipole moment from Standard Model weak interactions and from contributions involving hadrons are important at the current level of precision, whereas these effects are not important for the electron. The muon's anomalous magnetic dipole moment is also sensitive to contributions from new physics beyond the Standard Model, such as supersymmetry. For this reason, the muon's anomalous magnetic moment is normally used as a probe for new physics beyond the Standard Model rather than as a test of QED. Muon \"g\"−2, a new experiment at Fermilab using the E821 magnet will improve the precision of this measurement.\n", "Section::::Muon radiography and tomography.\n", "Since muons are much more deeply penetrating than X-rays or gamma rays, muon imaging can be used with much thicker material or, with cosmic ray sources, larger objects. One example is commercial muon tomography used to image entire cargo containers to detect shielded nuclear material, as well as explosives or other contraband.\n", "The technique of muon transmission radiography based on cosmic ray sources was first used in the 1950s to measure the depth of the overburden of a tunnel in Australia and in the 1960s to search for possible hidden chambers in the Pyramid of Chephren in Giza. In 2017, the discovery of a large void (with a length of 30 m minimum) by observation of cosmic-ray muons was reported.\n", "In 2003, the scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory developed a new imaging technique: muon scattering tomography. With muon scattering tomography, both incoming and outgoing trajectories for each particle are reconstructed, such as with sealed aluminum drift tubes. Since the development of this technique, several companies have started to use it.\n", "In August 2014, Decision Sciences International Corporation announced it had been awarded a contract by Toshiba for use of its muon tracking detectors in reclaiming the Fukushima nuclear complex. The Fukushima Daiichi Tracker (FDT) was proposed to make a few months of muon measurements to show the distribution of the reactor cores.\n", "In December 2014, Tepco reported that they would be using two different muon imaging techniques at Fukushima, \"Muon Scanning Method\" on Unit 1 (the most badly damaged, where the fuel may have left the reactor vessel) and \"Muon Scattering Method\" on Unit 2.\n", "The International Research Institute for Nuclear Decommissioning IRID in Japan and the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization KEK call the method they developed for Unit 1 the muon permeation method; 1,200 optical fibers for wavelength conversion light up when muons come into contact with them. After a month of data collection, it is hoped to reveal the location and amount of fuel debris still inside the reactor. The measurements began in February 2015.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Muonic atoms\n", "BULLET::::- Muon spin spectroscopy\n", "BULLET::::- Muon-catalyzed fusion\n", "BULLET::::- Muon tomography\n", "BULLET::::- Comet (experiment), searching for the elusive coherent neutrino-less conversion of a muon to an electron in J-PARC\n", "BULLET::::- Mu2e, an experiment to detect neutrinoless conversion of muons to electrons\n", "BULLET::::- List of particles\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- g-2 (muon anomalous magnetic moment) experiment\n", "BULLET::::- muLan (Measurement of the Positive Muon Lifetime) experiment\n", "BULLET::::- The Review of Particle Physics\n", "BULLET::::- The TRIUMF Weak Interaction Symmetry Test\n", "BULLET::::- The MEG Experiment (Search for the decay Muon → Positron + Gamma)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "elementary subatomic particle with negative electric charge", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q3151", "wikidata_label": "muon", "wikipedia_title": "Muon", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20146, "parentid": 906728081, "revid": 908157775, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-27T21:04:57Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muon&oldid=908157775" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg\n", "Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg (11 November 1599 – 28 March 1655) was a German princess and queen consort of Sweden.\n", "She was the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and Anna, Duchess of Prussia, daughter of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia.\n", "In the year 1620, Maria Eleonora married the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus with her mother's consent, but against the will of her brother George William, Elector of Brandenburg, who had just succeeded her father. She bore her husband a daughter, Christina, in 1626.\n", "She was described as the most beautiful queen in Europe, and, as her daughter later said, had 'all the virtues and vices' associated with her gender.\n", "Section::::Engagement.\n", "In 1616, the 22-year-old Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden started looking around for a Protestant bride. He had since 1613 tried to get his mother's permission to marry the noblewoman Ebba Brahe, but this was not allowed, and he had to give up his wishes to marry her, though he continued to be in love with her. He received reports with the most flattering descriptions of the physical and mental qualities of the beautiful 17-year-old princess Maria Eleonora. Elector John Sigismund was favorably inclined towards the Swedish king, but he had become very infirm after an apoplectic stroke in the autumn of 1617. His determined Prussian wife showed a strong dislike for this Swedish suitor, because Prussia was a Polish fief and the Polish King Sigismund III Vasa still resented his loss of Sweden to Gustavus Adolphus' father Charles IX.\n", "Maria Eleonora had additional suitors in the young William of Orange, Wladislaw Vasa of Poland, Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg and even the future Charles I of England. Maria Eleonora's brother George William was flattered by the offer of the British Crown Prince and proposed their younger sister Catherine (1602–1644) as a more suitable wife for the Swedish king. Maria Eleonora, however, seems to have had a preference for Gustavus Adolphus. For him it was a matter of honour to acquire the hand of Maria Eleonora and none other. He had the rooms of his castle in Stockholm redecorated and started making preparations to leave for Berlin to press his suit in person, when a letter arrived from Maria Eleonora's mother to his mother. The Electress demanded in no uncertain terms that the Queen Dowager should prevent her son's journey, as \"being prejudicial to Brandenburg's interests in view of the state of war existing between Sweden and Poland\". Her husband, she wrote, was \"so enfeebled in will by illness that he could be persuaded to agree to anything, even if it tended to the destruction of the country\". It was a rebuff that verged on an insult.\n", "Section::::Marriage and children.\n", "The Elector John Sigismund, Maria Eleonora's father, died on 23 December 1619, and the prospect of a Swedish marriage seemed gone with him. In the spring of 1620, however, stubborn Gustavus Adolphus arrived in Berlin. The Electress Dowager maintained an attitude of reserve and even refused to grant the Swedish king a personal meeting with Maria Eleonora. All those who were present, however, noticed the princess's interest in the young king. Afterwards, Gustavus Adolphus made a round of other Protestant German courts with the professed intention of inspecting a few matrimonial alternatives. On his return to Berlin, the Electress Dowager seems to have become completely captivated by the charming Swedish king. After plighting his troth to Maria Eleonora, Gustavus Adolphus hurried back to Sweden to make arrangements for the reception of his bride.\n", "The new Elector, George William, who resided in Prussia, was appalled when he heard of his mother's independent action. He wrote to Gustavus Adolphus to refuse his consent to the marriage until Sweden and Poland had settled their differences. It was the Electress Dowager, however, who, in accordance with Hohenzollern family custom, had the last word in bestowing her daughter's hand in marriage. She sent Maria Eleonora to territory outside of George William's reach and concluded the marriage negotiations herself.\n", "Anna of Prussia provided herself with a selection of objects of value from the exchequer before she joined Maria Eleonora in Brunswick. A detachment of the Swedish fleet took the women over to Kalmar, where Gustavus Adolphus was impatiently awaiting them. The wedding took place in Stockholm on 25 November 1620. A comedy was performed based on the history of Olof Skötkonung. Gustavus Adolphus - in his own words - finally \"had a Brandenburg lady in his marriage bed\". Anna of Prussia actually stayed with her daughter in Sweden for several years after the marriage.\n", "Gustavus Adolphus shared Maria Eleonora's interest in architecture and her love of music, while she was sentimentally devoted to her husband. Often, she lamented that she never had her hero for herself. Foreign ambassadors found her gracious and beautiful and she had good taste, although her character showed some extravagant traits. Maria Eleonora had a definite liking for entertainment and sweetmeats, and she soon succumbed to the current fashionable craze for buffoons and dwarfs. She spoke French, the court language of the age, but never bothered to learn to write German or Swedish correctly.\n", "Within six months of their marriage, Gustavus Adolphus left to command the siege of Riga, leaving Maria Eleonora in the early stages of her first pregnancy. She lived exclusively in the company of her German ladies-in-waiting and had difficulty in adapting herself to the Swedish people, countryside and climate. She disliked the bad roads, sombre forests and wooded houses, roofed with turf. She also pined for her husband. A year after their wedding she had a miscarriage and became seriously ill. She was tempestuous, excessive, neurotic and jealous. She was often given to harsh language, and she did not spare her husband, even when strangers were present. Her emotional life lacked balance, and everything Maria Eleonora undertook on her own initiative needed careful watching. Soon Gustavus Adolphus' intimates knew that his married life was a source of grief and anxiety.\n", "In the autumn of 1623 Maria Eleonora gave birth to a daughter, but the baby died the next year. At that time, the only surviving male heirs were the hated king of Poland and his sons. With Gustavus Adolphus risking his life in battles, an heir to the throne was anxiously awaited. In the autumn Maria Eleonora was pregnant for a third time. In May 1625 she was in good spirits and insisted on accompanying her husband on the royal yacht to review the fleet. There seemed to be no danger, as the warships were moored just opposite the castle, but a sudden storm nearly capsized the yacht. The queen was hurried back to the castle, but when she got there she was heard to exclaim: \"Jesus, I cannot feel my child!\" Shortly afterwards the longed-for son was stillborn.\n", "Section::::Birth of Christina.\n", "With the renewal of the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus had to leave his wife again. It is likely that she gave way to depression and grief, as we know she did in 1627, and it is probably for this reason that the king let his queen join him in Livonia after the Poles had been defeated in January 1626. By April, Maria Eleonora found she was again pregnant. No risks were taken this time and the astrologers predicted the birth of a son and heir. During a lull in the warfare, Gustavus Adolphus hurried back to Stockholm to await the arrival of the baby. The birth was a difficult one. On 7 December, a baby was born with a fleece (lanugo), which enveloped it from its head to its knees, leaving only its face, arms and lower part of its legs free. Moreover, it had a large nose and was covered with hair. Thus, it was assumed the baby was a boy, and so the King was told. Closer inspection, however, determined that the baby was a girl. Gustavus Adolphus' half-sister Catherine informed him that the child was a girl. She \"carried the baby in her arms to the king in a condition for him to see and to know and realise for himself what she dared not tell him\". Gustavus Adolphus remarked: \"She is going to be clever, for she has taken us all in.\" His disappointment did not last long, and he decided that she would be called Christina after his mother. He gave orders for the birth to be announced with all the solemnity usually accorded to the arrival of a male heir. This seems to indicate that Gustavus Adolphus, at the age of 33, had little hope of having other children. Maria Eleonora's state of health seems to be the most likely explanation for this. Her later portraits and actions, however, do not indicate that she was physically fragile.\n", "Shortly after the birth, Maria Eleonora was in no condition to be told the truth about the baby's sex, and the king and court waited several days before breaking the news to her. She screamed: \"Instead of a son, I am given a daughter, dark and ugly, with a great nose and black eyes. Take her from me, I will not have such a monster!\" She may have suffered from a post-natal depression. In her agitated state, the queen tried to injure the child.\n", "In Christina's early childhood, she repeatedly met with accidents. Once a beam fell mysteriously upon the cradle. Another time, she fell from a flight of stairs, apparently by accident. On another occasion the nursemaid was blamed for dropping the baby onto a stone floor, injuring a shoulder that ever afterwards remained a little crooked.\n", "In the year after Christina's birth, Maria Eleonora was described as being in a state of hysteria owing to her husband's absences. In 1632 Gustavus Adolphus described his wife as being \"a very sick woman\". There was some excuse for her; she had lost three babies and still felt herself an isolated foreigner in a hostile land, even more so after 1627 when her brother joined Sweden's enemies. Meanwhile, her husband's life was constantly in danger when he was on campaign. In 1627 Gustavus Adolphus was both ill and wounded. Two years later he had a narrow escape at Stuhm.\n", "Gustavus Adolphus was devoted to his daughter and tried to raise Christina like a boy. At the age of two, she clapped her hands and laughed with joy when the great cannons of Kalmar Castle boomed out the royal salute. Afterwards, Gustavus Adolphus often took his daughter with him to military reviews. Maria Eleonora showed little affection for her daughter and was not allowed any influence in Christina's upbringing. The princess was placed in the care of Gustavus Adolphus' half-sister Catherine and the Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna.\n", "In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus concluded that Habsburg designs for Baltic supremacy threatened Sweden's very existence and also its religious freedom. Before he left to join the Thirty Years War, he discussed a possible regency with members of the government and admitted to them that his wife was \"a miserable woman\". Even so, Gustavus Adolphus could not bring himself to nominate a regency council in which her name did not appear. To Axel Oxenstierna, he confessed: \"If anything happens to me, my family will merit your pity [..], the mother lacking in common sense, the daughter a minor - hopeless, if they rule, and dangerous, if others come to rule over them.\"\n", "Section::::Widowhood.\n", "During the next two years Gustavus Adolphus marched across a devastated Germany, conquering Pomerania and Mecklenburg. In early November 1632 he went to Erfurt to say goodbye to Maria Eleonora, who had been in Germany since the previous winter. In the Battle of Lützen, the 37-year-old Gustavus Adolphus was shot in the back. He fell and was dragged for some distance by his horse. He managed to free himself from the stirrup, but while lying on the ground \"The Lion of the North\" was killed by another shot through his head. By nightfall both armies were exhausted, but Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and the Swedes had captured all the Imperial artillery and were in possession of the key position. The king's body was found lying face downwards in the mud, plundered of everything but his shirt.\n", "Maria Eleonora was not included in the regency government during the minority of her daughter, as the council of the state did not consider her suitable as regent. The king had never actually left any instructions that she should not be included in the case of a minor regency, but they supported their grounds for excluding her by the claim that the late king had said to them that she should never be entrusted with matters of state, though he never left any papers to confirm this. When she was informed that the regency government had been formed in May 1633 and that she had been excluded from it, Maria Eleonora was reportedly offended, and pointed out that her late mother-in-law, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp, had served as regent during the minority of her late spouse. In reply, however, the representative of the regency council, Gabriel Gustafsson Oxenstierna, responded that her information of the regency of queen dowager Christina was highly exaggerated, and that Sweden actually had no tradition to include queen dowagers in minor regencies. This was in fact a lie: not only had the queen dowager Christina in fact been regent, but king Gustav I of Sweden had proclaimed his queen Margaret Leijonhufvud regent in case of a minor regency in 1544, and John III of Sweden had provided for such a regency for both his first queen, Catherine Jagiellon, as well as for his second, Gunilla Bielke. Maria Eleonora, however, accepted the response, and declared that she would satisfied to entrust politics to others and to be in control of the custody of her daughter.\n", "In 1633 Maria Eleonora returned to Sweden with the embalmed body of her husband. In Nyköping, 7-year-old Queen Christina came in solemn procession to the ship to receive her mother. Later she wrote: \"I embraced the queen my mother, she drowned me with her tears and practically smothered me in her arms.\" For more than a year Maria Eleonora condemned Christina to a mourning seclusion in rooms draped with black and lit by candles day and night, from which every ray of light was excluded. She made her daughter sleep with her in a bed over which her father's heart was hung in a golden casket. Things were made worse by Maria Eleonora's continual weeping. Christina, who also was somewhat malformed with one shoulder higher than the other, also detested her mother's dwarfs and buffoons. She became seriously ill; an ulcer appeared on her left breast, causing her terrible pain and a high fever until it burst. In the summer of 1634 the funeral procession finally wound its way to Stockholm. Queen Christina later wrote about her mother: \"She carried out her role of mourning to perfection.\"\n", "Maria Eleonora had plunged into a prolonged period of emotional dysregulation due to grief. She found it more difficult than ever to conceal her dislike of Swedish \"rocks and mountains, the freezing air, and all the rest of it\". During the rest of her life she preserved the memory of her husband, weeping for hours and even days on end. When the regency council tried to separate Christina from her mother, Maria Eleonora wept and protested so bitterly that nothing was done.\n", "Section::::Relationship with Queen Christina.\n", "In 1636 Maria Eleonora was taken to Gripsholm castle and officially lost her parental rights to her daughter, because at times she was completely out of her mind. In 1639 a letter written by her and intended for Sweden's archenemy, the King Christian IV of Denmark, was intercepted. After a summons, Maria Eleonora appeared at her daughter's court in a flood of tears in the summer of 1640. Queen Christina, 13 years old, reasoned with her mother and dissuaded her from taking up residence at Nyköping near Denmark. Afterwards, Maria Eleonora returned to Gripsholm. To undertake one of her periodic fasts, she retired to the seclusion of her own apartment, accompanied by only one of her ladies-in-waiting, Anna Sofia von Bülow. Maria Eleonora wrote regularly to her daughter Christina. She and her German court wanted to leave their exile at Gripsholm castle. Christina replied tactfully, knowing that the Council would not permit the queen mother any leave. Eventually her mother asked to leave Sweden altogether. Christina invited her to Stockholm, attempting to persuade her to stay in the country. At night the two ladies let themselves down from a window and were rowed in a boat to the other side of the nearby lake, where a carriage was waiting for them. They drove to Nyköping, where they boarded a Danish ship. King Christian IV had intended the ship to take her home to Brandenburg, but she convinced the captain to bring her to Denmark instead. She was well received by the Danish king, but Maria Eleonora wanted to go home to Brandenburg. The electoral prince there demanded financial compensation from Sweden, where on the contrary the Council expected to withdraw her appanage as well as her properties. Finally the teenage Christina succeeded in negotiating a certain alimony for her mother, adding to this from her own purse.\n", "In Denmark, Maria Eleonora became the guest of King Christian IV. The Elector George William refused to receive his sister in Brandenburg, so Maria Eleonora had to wait until his death in December that year before her nephew gave her permission to visit Brandenburg. Still, the new Elector insisted that Sweden should provide for his aunt's upkeep. She received a small pension of 30,000 écus a year. After a while Maria Eleonora surprisingly started to long for Sweden, and in 1648 she returned. Queen Christina went to meet her mother's ship. It was delayed by a storm and the young queen slept in the open for two nights and contracted a fever, which kept her in bed for some days. In October 1650 Maria Eleonora attended her daughter's postponed coronation ceremony. Christina then bought the newly erected castle \"Makalös\" (\"Unequalled\") for her, close to the royal castle in Stockholm. It would have been enormously expensive, but Christina never paid. Instead she handed it back in 1652.\n", "In June 1654, Christina shocked everyone when she decided to abdicate in favour of her cousin Charles Gustav. Maria Eleonora had grave doubts about her daughter's abdication and its possible effect upon her own finances. Christina and Charles Gustav visited her at Nyköping in April 1654 and promised the Queen Dowager that she would be provided for. Christina abdicated June 5, 1654. Maria Eleonora died in March 1655. At that time, ex-Queen Christina was living in Brussels; she converted to Catholicism in December 1655.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Biography of Maria Eleonore of Brandenburg\n", "BULLET::::- ThePeerage entry on Maria Eleonore\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Swedish queen 1620", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q233319", "wikidata_label": "Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg", "wikipedia_title": "Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20158, "parentid": 896770883, "revid": 906351542, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-15T08:36:19Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maria%20Eleonora%20of%20Brandenburg&oldid=906351542" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Milwaukee Brewers\n", "The Milwaukee Brewers are an American professional baseball team based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The Brewers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) Central division. The team is named for the city's association with the brewing industry. Since 2001, the Brewers have played their home games at Miller Park, which has a seating capacity of 41,900.\n", "The team was founded in 1969 as the Seattle Pilots, an expansion team of the American League (AL), in Seattle, Washington. The Pilots played their home games at Sick's Stadium. After only one season, the team relocated to Milwaukee, becoming known as the Brewers and playing their home games at Milwaukee County Stadium. In , the Brewers joined the National League. They are the only franchise to play in four divisions since the advent of divisional play in Major League Baseball in 1969. They are also one of two current MLB franchises to switch leagues in their history, the other one being the Houston Astros. \n", "The team's only World Series appearance came in . After winning the ALCS against the California Angels, the Brewers faced off against the St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series, losing 4–3. In 2011, the Brewers defeated the Arizona Diamondbacks to win the NLDS 3–2, but lost in the NLCS to the eventual World Series champion Cardinals 4–2.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Originating as an expansion team in 1969, in Seattle, Washington, as the Seattle Pilots, the club played for one season in the American League West Division before being acquired in bankruptcy court by Bud Selig, who then moved the team to Milwaukee. They would continue to play in the West Division for two more years. Before the beginning of the 1972 season the Brewers agreed to switch over to the American League East to make room for the Texas Rangers who had relocated from Washington. Beginning in 1994, due to divisional re-alignment, the Brewers moved to the newly created American League Central division. In all, the Brewers were part of the American League from their creation in 1969 through the 1997 season, after which they moved to the National League Central Division. Milwaukee had previously been a National League city when its team was the Milwaukee Braves (1953–1965).\n", "In 1981, Milwaukee won the American League East Division in the second half of the strike-shortened season. In the playoffs, they lost the divisional series to the New York Yankees, three games to two.\n", "In 1982, Milwaukee won the American League East Division and the American League Pennant, earning their only World Series appearance to date as the Brewers. In the Series, they lost to the St. Louis Cardinals four games to three.\n", "In 1998, the Brewers changed leagues, going from the American League to the National League. They were put in the then recently created NL Central. \n", "In 2008, for the first time in the 26 years since their World Series appearance, the Brewers advanced to postseason play by winning the National League wild card. They were eliminated in the National League Division Series by the eventual World Series champion Philadelphia Phillies.\n", "On September 23, 2011, the Milwaukee Brewers clinched their first division title in 29 years. They won the National League Division Series in five games over the Arizona Diamondbacks, but lost the National League Championship Series to the eventual World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals in six games.\n", "In 2018, the Brewers clinched a spot in the post-season for the first time since 2011 with a 2–1 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals on September 26, 2018.\n", "On September 29, they tied with the Cubs for first place in the National League Central, with a record of 95–67; at the end of the day on September 30, the Cubs and Brewers were still tied. This tie was broken on October 1st, when the Brewers defeated the Cubs 3–1 in the NL Central tiebreaker to improve to 96–67 and win the division by one game. They went on to defeat the Colorado Rockies 3–0 to win the NLDS, but in the following NLCS, they lost out to the Los Angeles Dodgers in 7 games.\n", "Section::::Team uniforms.\n", "Section::::Team uniforms.:Uniforms.\n", "Section::::Team uniforms.:Uniforms.:1970–77.\n", "The first Brewers uniforms were \"hand-me-downs\" from the Seattle Pilots. Because the move to Milwaukee received final approval less than a week before the start of the season, there was no time to order new uniforms. Selig had originally planned to change the Brewers' colors to navy blue and red in honor of the minor league American Association's Milwaukee Brewers, but was forced to simply remove the Seattle markings from the Pilots' blue-and-gold uniforms and sew \"BREWERS\" on the front. However, the outline of the Pilots' logo remained visible. The uniforms had unique striping on the sleeves left over from the Pilots days. The cap was an updated version of the Milwaukee Braves cap in blue and yellow. Ultimately, it was decided to keep blue and gold as the team colors, and they have remained so ever since.\n", "The Brewers finally got their own flannel design in 1971. This design was essentially the same as the one used in 1970, but with blue and yellow piping on the sleeves and collar. In 1972, the Brewers entered the double-knit era with uniforms based upon their flannels: all white with \"BREWERS\" on the front and blue and yellow trim on the sleeves, neck, waistband and down the side of the pants. This is the uniform that Hank Aaron wore with the club in his final seasons and that Robin Yount wore in his first. During this period, the logo of the club was the Beer Barrel Man, which had been used by the previous minor league Brewers since at least the 1940s. The Brewers mascot, Bernie Brewer (a man with a large yellow mustache wearing a Brewers hat) was introduced in 1973.\n", "Section::::Team uniforms.:Uniforms.:1978–93.\n", "The Brewers unveiled new uniforms for the 1978 season. The uniforms featured pinstripes with a solid blue collar and waistband. The road uniforms continued to be powder blue, but for the first time the city name, \"MIlwaukee\", graced the chest in an upward slant. In addition, this season saw the introduction of the logo that was to define the club: \"M\" and \"B\" in the shape of a baseball glove. The logo was designed by Tom Meindel, an art history student at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. The home cap was solid blue, and the road cap was blue with a yellow front panel. Additionally, their batting helmets had a white front panel. The club wore these uniforms in their pennant-winning season of 1982. Only minor changes were made until 1990; the color of the road uniforms changed to gray in 1986, while the blue-yellow-blue road cap and white-paneled batting helmets were abandoned at the same time.\n", "In 1990, the Brewers made significant modifications to their uniforms, switching from pullover to button-down jerseys (the last American League team to do so). Their individual uniforms showed other changes as well; at home, the blue piping was removed and the block lettered \"BREWERS\" was changed to a script version similar to the script used on road uniforms, while those outfits had their piping changed from blue-yellow-blue to blue-yellow. The road jerseys were the first uniforms in franchise history to feature player names on the back; names were added to the home jerseys beginning in 1993.\n", "Section::::Team uniforms.:Uniforms.:1994–99.\n", "In 1994, in collaboration with the Brewers celebrating their 25th year in Milwaukee, the team did a radical makeover of their uniforms. The ball-in-glove logo was removed and replaced with a stylized interlocking \"M\" and \"B\" set on a pair of crossed bats and a diamond background. The royal blue changed to navy blue, while the yellow changed to a metallic gold. Forest green was added as a third color. The jerseys swapped pinstripes for retro-themed piping around the collar, buttons, and sleeves, following a trend that was popular in the 1990s. The uniforms' lettering had the same style of letters as the new cap logo with heavily stylized \"BREWERS\" lettering on the home jerseys and \"MILWAUKEE\" on the road grays. For the first time, an alternative jersey was introduced. It was navy blue with the home \"BREWERS\" lettering on the front and featured the Brewers' logo on the lower left side. The caps featured the interlocking \"MB\" logo (without the bats or diamond) on both the home and away versions. The home cap was completely navy blue, while the away cap featured a navy blue crown and a forest green bill.\n", "In 1997, the uniforms were slightly modified, with the main logo being removed from the caps and replaced with an \"M\". All navy caps were worn with both the home and away uniforms; the home hats featured a white \"M\" and the road caps had a gold \"M.\" The green socks that had previously been worn on the road were changed to navy blue. The blue alternate jersey placed the player's number on the lower left side instead of the logo.\n", "Section::::Team uniforms.:Uniforms.:2000–present.\n", "Before the 2000 season, to coincide with the anticipated opening of Miller Park, the Brewers changed their uniforms again. The block letters on the front were replaced with \"Brewers\" in a flowing script, and green was removed as the third color. The cap logo was a script \"M\", similar in style to the Miller logo, with a head of barley underlining it, symbolizing Milwaukee's beer-making industry. The home uniforms also featured a patch on the left sleeve consisting of the cap logo with a gold outline of the state of Wisconsin behind it, showing the Brewers statewide appeal. The road uniforms were grey and featured the same script \"Brewers\" on the front, with a simple patch on the left sleeve bearing a script \"Milwaukee\". There was also an alternate navy blue jersey that had the same features as the home jersey.\n", "Although the uniforms were supposed to debut with the opening of Miller Park, the Big Blue crane collapse in July 1999, which cost the lives of three workers and caused damage to the first base side of the stadium, delayed the opening of Miller Park for one year, so the uniforms actually debuted at Milwaukee County Stadium in the ballpark's final year.\n", "In 2006, the Brewers introduced Retro Sundays, when the Brewers would wear uniforms featuring the \"ball-in-glove\" logo. The uniforms are similar to the uniforms worn from 1978 to 1989, but with some modern modifications, such as the uniforms having a button-down front instead of being a pullover jersey, displaying players' last names on the backs of the jerseys, and a \"ball-in-glove\" logo patch on the left sleeve. In 2007, the Retro day was changed from Sunday to Friday, though they may also be worn outside of those days if a starting pitcher chooses the retro uniforms to wear during his start. In 2010, the Brewers debuted a new alternate road jersey which, like the other alternate jersey, is navy blue, but bears a script \"Milwaukee\" on the front. In 2013, a gold alternate jersey with \"Brewers\" on the front was introduced, as well.\n", "During the off-season before the 2013 season, the Brewers allowed fans to design their own Milwaukee Brewers uniforms. Three finalists were chosen, which fans were given the opportunity to vote for their favorite through the Brewers website. The winning uniform was designed by Ben Peters of Richfield, Minnesota, and was worn by the Brewers for two spring training games.\n", "In 2016, the Brewers replaced their road navy and home gold alternates with a new navy alternate jersey. The uniform is similar to the previous road navy alternate but with yellow replacing gold as the trim color, and is paired with a navy cap featuring the \"ball-and-glove\" logo. Since 2017, both alternate navy uniforms are used regardless of home or road games.\n", "Section::::Achievements.\n", "Section::::Achievements.:Awards.\n", "Four Brewers have won MVP awards during their career with the team. While in the American League, Rollie Fingers won the award in 1981, and Robin Yount received the honor in 1982 and 1989. Ryan Braun won the National League MVP award in 2011, and Christian Yelich received the honor in 2018. Two pitchers have won the Cy Young Award in the American League. Rollie Fingers won in 1981, and Pete Vuckovich won in 1982. Two players have been named Rookie of the Year. Pat Listach won the American League's award in 1992, and Ryan Braun won the National League award in 2007.\n", "Christian Yelich won the National League Batting title in 2018.The batting title was the first in Milwaukee Brewers history.\n", "Section::::Achievements.:Hall of Famers.\n", "The following inducted members of the Baseball Hall of Fame spent some or all of their careers with the Brewers.\n", "Section::::Achievements.:Retired numbers.\n", "In addition to the six numbers retired by the Brewers, the number 50 has been placed in the Brewers' Ring of Honor for Bob Uecker and his half-century in baseball.\n", "Section::::Achievements.:Retired numbers.:Out of circulation, but not retired.\n", "BULLET::::- 17: Has not been issued since Jim Gantner's retirement in 1992. The only time it was issued after 1992 was from 1996 to 1997 when he returned as first base coach.\n", "Section::::Franchise leaders.\n", "Section::::Franchise leaders.:Career leaders.\n", "\"Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; R = Runs; H = Hits; RBI = Runs batted in; HR = Home runs; * = current Brewers player\"\n", "All records updated on November 6th, 2018\n", "Section::::Team managers.\n", "Through  seasons of play, the Brewers franchise has employed 18 managers. The records and accomplishments of the last five Brewers' managers are shown below.\n", "Section::::Radio and television.\n", "The Brewers' flagship radio station is WTMJ (620 AM/103.3 FM). Bob Uecker, a winner of the Ford C. Frick Award from the Baseball Hall of Fame, joined the Brewers in 1970, when the team moved from Seattle, and has been there ever since. Alongside Uecker are Jeff Levering and Lane Grindle. Levering joined the team's radio broadcast in 2015 as a fill-in for Uecker on select road games and Grindle joined the team in 2016, replacing Joe Block, who had left to join the Pittsburgh Pirates after the 2015 season. Block replaced Cory Provus who had left to become the Minnesota Twins lead broadcaster on radio after the 2011 season. Provus, formerly of WGN radio in Chicago, replaced Jim Powell, who left Milwaukee for the Atlanta Braves radio network. Powell in turn replaced Pat Hughes, who departed to do play-by-play for the Cubs on WGN in 1996. The Brewers radio broadcasts usually feature a 2-2-2-1-2 format where Uecker does solo play-by-play for the first, middle and last 2 innings, while Levering does innings 3-4 and 7, and both doing analysis throughout and varied presentation for extra innings games. Starting with the 2014 season Uecker cut back on the number of road games he works due to health concerns, mainly involving West Coast trips and distant road games in Colorado and Atlanta; Block handled the play-by-play, with former Brewer and Met Darryl Hamilton on color for the first series at Atlanta.\n", "Select daytime home games were formerly broadcast in Spanish over Waukesha-licensed ESPN Deportes Radio affiliate WRRD (1510), with Jaime Cano serving as play-by-play announcer. In 2017 the station was purchased by another party which instituted an English-language talk format, effectively ending that arrangement.\n", "Most of the team's television broadcasts are aired on Fox Sports Wisconsin. Brian Anderson, who has worked on The Golf Channel, took over as the Brewers' play-by-play announcer for the 2007 season. He replaced Daron Sutton, who joined the Arizona Diamondbacks. The color commentator is Bill Schroeder, a former major league catcher who played six of his eight seasons for the Brewers. As of 2014 Schroeder is in his 20th season as the Brewers' color commentator. The 2010 season was the first year where all of Fox Sports Wisconsin's games were broadcast in high definition. Anderson (who also is a part of TBS playoff coverage) also provided play-by-play for the 2011 NLCS due to Ernie Johnson stepping aside for the year due to a medical situation with his son. Since 2014, as Anderson's Turner Sports duties have increased along with the addition of NCAA college basketball and NBA on TNT play-by-play duties, Wisconsin Badgers football and men's college basketball radio announcer Matt Lepay has served as play-by-play man on days when Anderson has other assignments for Turner Sports.\n", "From 2007–2011, the Brewers and FSN Wisconsin subcontracted to Weigel Broadcasting a package of 15 games and one spring training game over-the-air on WMLW-CA (then-Channel 41/58.2) in Milwaukee each season with FSN Wisconsin producing the telecasts and Weigel selling air time for each of those games and additional games added depending on weather postponements and pennant race standings (WMLW-CA games would air on the outstate FSN Wisconsin network for the remainder of the state). The deal was ended before the 2012 season in order to facilitate full-season HD coverage on FSN Wisconsin and distribution complications, along with the addition of a \"Plus\" channel for Milwaukee Bucks play-by-play conflict situations. Weigel continues to air a few Sunday home broadcasts per year with Spanish language play-by-play on Telemundo affiliate WYTU-LD (Channels 63/58.4), which produces their own broadcasts using FSN's camera positions with Hector Molina on play-by-play and bilingual WDJT sports anchor Kevin Holden on color.\n", "Five of the six major network television stations in Milwaukee, along with WMLW-CA, have carried game broadcasts over the years, with WTMJ-TV being the original broadcaster in the 1970s. WVTV carried the team for the bulk of the 1980s and early 1990s, with WCGV-TV following from 1994 until 2004, and WISN-TV carrying select Sunday games at the beginning of the 2000s. WITI is the only station not to have carried local coverage of the team through its history (though former WITI sports anchor and current Bucks play-by-play man Jim Paschke was the team's TV announcer during its time with WVTV and portions of WCGV's coverage contract), although it has aired national games from CBS and Fox involving the Brewers through the years.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Milwaukee Brewers at ESPN\n", "BULLET::::- Milwaukee Brewers at FOX Sports\n" ] }

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{ "description": "baseball team and Major League Baseball franchise in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q848103", "wikidata_label": "Milwaukee Brewers", "wikipedia_title": "Milwaukee Brewers", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Brew Crew", "Brewers", "Seattle Pilots", "Pilots" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20152, "parentid": 907599203, "revid": 907599244, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-24T00:41:31Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Milwaukee%20Brewers&oldid=907599244" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Mammoth\n", "A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus, one of the many genera that make up the order of trunked mammals called proboscideans. The various species of mammoth were commonly equipped with long, curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair. They lived from the Pliocene epoch (from around 5 million years ago) into the Holocene at about 4,000 years ago, and various species existed in Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America. They were members of the family Elephantidae, which also contains the two genera of modern elephants and their ancestors.\n", "The oldest representative of \"Mammuthus\", the South African mammoth (\"M. subplanifrons\"), appeared around 5 million years ago during the early Pliocene in what is now southern and eastern Africa. Descendant species of these mammoths moved north and continued to propagate into numerous subsequent species, eventually covering most of Eurasia before extending into the Americas at least 600,000 years ago. The last species to emerge, the woolly mammoth (\"M. primigenius\"), developed about 400,000 years ago in East Asia, with some surviving on Russia's Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean until as recently as roughly 3,700 to 4,000 years ago, still extant during the construction of the Great Pyramid of ancient Egypt.\n", "Section::::Evolution.\n", "The earliest known proboscideans, the clade that contains the elephants, existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea area. The closest relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians and the hyraxes. The family Elephantidae is known to have existed six million years ago in Africa, and includes the living elephants and the mammoths. Among many now extinct clades, the mastodon is only a distant relative of the mammoths, and part of the separate Mammutidae family, which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved.\n", "The following cladogram shows the placement of the genus \"Mammuthus\" among other proboscideans, based on hyoid characteristics:\n", "Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities, it is possible to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus through morphological studies. Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges on their molars; the primitive species had few ridges, and the amount increased gradually as new species evolved and replaced the former ones. At the same time, the crowns of the teeth became longer, and the skulls become higher from top to bottom and shorter from the back to the front over time to accommodate this.\n", "The first known members of the genus \"Mammuthus\" are the African species \"Mammuthus subplanifrons\" from the Pliocene and \"Mammuthus africanavus\" from the Pleistocene. The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms. Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago; the earliest known type has been named \"M. rumanus\", which spread across Europe and China. Only its molars are known, which show it had 8–10 enamel ridges. A population evolved 12–14 ridges and split off from and replaced the earlier type, becoming \"M. meridionalis\". In turn, this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth, \"M. trogontherii\", with 18–20 ridges, which evolved in East Asia ca. 1 million years ago. Mammoths derived from \"M. trogontherii\" evolved molars with 26 ridges 200,000 years ago in Siberia, and became the woolly mammoth, \"M. primigenius\". The Columbian mammoth, \"M. columbi\", evolved from a population of \"M. trogontherii\" that had entered North America. A 2011 genetic study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths. This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring. It also suggested that a North American form known as \"\"M. jeffersonii\"\" may be a hybrid between the two species.\n", "By the late Pleistocene, mammoths in continental Eurasia had undergone a major transformation, including a shortening and heightening of the cranium and mandible, increase in molar hypsodonty index, increase in plate number, and thinning of dental enamel. Due to this change in physical appearance, it became customary to group European mammoths separately into distinguishable clusters:\n", "BULLET::::1. Early Pleistocene – \"Mammuthus meridionalis\"\n", "BULLET::::2. Middle Pleistocene – \"Mammuthus trogontherii\"\n", "BULLET::::3. Late Pleistocene – \"Mammuthus primigenius\"\n", "There is speculation as to what caused this variation within the three chronospecies. Variations in environment, climate change, and migration surely played roles in the evolutionary process of the mammoths. Take \"M. primigenius\" for example: Woolly mammoths lived in opened grassland biomes. The cool steppe-tundra of the Northern Hemisphere was the ideal place for mammoths to thrive because of the resources it supplied. With occasional warmings during the ice age, climate would change the landscape, and resources available to the mammoths altered accordingly.\n", "Section::::Etymology and early observations.\n", "The word \"mammoth\" was first used in Europe during the early 17th century, when referring to \"maimanto\" tusks discovered in Siberia. John Bell, who was on the Ob River in 1722, said that mammoth tusks were well known in the area. They were called \"mammon's horn\" and were often found in washed-out river banks. Some local people claimed to have seen a living mammoth, but they only came out at night and always disappeared under water when detected. He bought one and presented it to Hans Sloan who pronounced it an elephant's tooth.\n", "The folklore of some native peoples of Siberia, who would routinely find mammoth bones, and sometimes frozen mammoth bodies, in eroding river banks, had various interesting explanations for these finds. Among the Khanty people of the Irtysh River basin, a belief existed that the mammoth was some kind of a water spirit. According to other Khanty, the mammoth was a creature that lived underground, burrowing its tunnels as it went, and would die if it accidentally came to the surface.\n", "The concept of the mammoth as an underground creature was known to the Chinese, who received some mammoth ivory from the Siberian natives; accordingly, the creature was known in China as \"yǐn shǔ\" 隐鼠, \"the hidden rodent\".\n", "Thomas Jefferson, who famously had a keen interest in paleontology, is partially responsible for transforming the word \"mammoth\" from a noun describing the prehistoric elephant to an adjective describing anything of surprisingly large size. The first recorded use of the word as an adjective was in a description of a large wheel of cheese (the \"Cheshire Mammoth Cheese\") given to Jefferson in 1802.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Like their modern relatives, mammoths were quite large. The largest known species reached heights in the region of at the shoulder and weights of up to , while exceptionally large males may have exceeded . However, most species of mammoth were only about as large as a modern Asian elephant (which are about 2.5 m to 3 m high at the shoulder, and rarely exceeding 5 tonnes). Both sexes bore tusks. A first, small set appeared at about the age of six months, and these were replaced at about 18 months by the permanent set. Growth of the permanent set was at a rate of about per year.\n", "Based on studies of their close relatives, the modern elephants, mammoths probably had a gestation period of 22 months, resulting in a single calf being born. Their social structure was probably the same as that of African and Asian elephants, with females living in herds headed by a matriarch, whilst bulls lived solitary lives or formed loose groups after sexual maturity.\n", "Scientists discovered and studied the remains of a mammoth calf, and found that fat greatly influenced its form, and enabled it to store large amounts of nutrients necessary for survival in temperatures as low as . The fat also allowed the mammoths to increase their muscle mass, allowing the mammoths to fight against enemies and live longer.\n", "Section::::Diet.\n", "Depending on the species or race of mammoth, the diet differed somewhat depending on location, although all mammoths ate similar things. For the Columbian mammoth, \"M. columbi\", the diet was mainly grazing. American Columbian mammoths fed primarily on cacti leaves, trees, and shrubs. These assumptions were based on mammoth feces and mammoth teeth. Mammoths, like modern day elephants, have hypsodont molars. These features also allowed mammoths to live an expansive life because of the availability of grasses and trees.\n", "For the Mongochen mammoth, its diet consisted of herbs, grasses, larch, and shrubs, and possibly alder. These inferences were made through the observation of mammoth feces, which scientists observed contained non-arboreal pollen and moss spores.\n", "European mammoths had a major diet of C3 carbon fixation plants. This was determined by examining the isotopic data from the European mammoth teeth. \n", "The arctic tundra and steppe where the mammoths lived appears to have been dominated by forbs, not grass. There were richer in protein and easier to digest than grasses and wooden plants, which came to dominate the areas when the climate became wetter and warmer. This could have been a major contributor to why the arctic megafauna went extinct.\n", "The Yamal baby mammoth Lyuba, found in 2007 in the Yamal Peninsula in Western Siberia, suggests that baby mammoths, as do modern baby elephants, ate the dung of adult animals. The evidence to show this is that the dentition (teeth) of the baby mammoth had not yet fully developed to chew grass. Furthermore, there was an abundance of ascospores of coprophilous fungi from the pollen spectrum of the baby's mother. Coprophilous fungi are fungi that grow on animal dung and disperse spores in nearby vegetation, which the baby mammoth would then consume. Spores might have gotten into its stomach while grazing for the first few times. Coprophagy may be an adaptation, serving to populate the infant's gut with the needed microbiome for digestion.\n", "Mammoths alive in the Arctic during the Last Glacial Maximum consumed mainly forbs, such as \"Artemisia\"; graminoids were only a minor part of their diet.\n", "Section::::Extinction.\n", "The woolly mammoth (\"M. primigenius\") was the last species of the genus. Most populations of the woolly mammoth in North America and Eurasia, as well as all the Columbian mammoths (\"M. columbi\") in North America, died out around the time of the last glacial retreat, as part of a mass extinction of megafauna in northern Eurasia and the Americas. Until recently, the last woolly mammoths were generally assumed to have vanished from Europe and southern Siberia about 12,000 years ago, but new findings show some were still present there about 10,000 years ago. Slightly later, the woolly mammoths also disappeared from continental northern Siberia. A small population survived on St. Paul Island, Alaska, up until 3750 BC, and the small mammoths of Wrangel Island survived until 1650 BC. Recent research of sediments in Alaska indicates mammoths survived on the American mainland until 10,000 years ago.\n", "A definitive explanation for their extinction has yet to be agreed upon. The warming trend (Holocene) that occurred 12,000 years ago, accompanied by a glacial retreat and rising sea levels, has been suggested as a contributing factor. Forests replaced open woodlands and grasslands across the continent. The available habitat would have been reduced for some megafaunal species, such as the mammoth. However, such climate changes were nothing new; numerous had occurred previously within the ice age of the last several million years without producing comparable megafaunal extinctions, so climate alone is unlikely to have played a decisive role. The spread of advanced human hunters through northern Eurasia and the Americas around the time of the extinctions, however, was a new development, and thus might have contributed significantly.\n", "Whether the general mammoth population died out for climatic reasons or due to overhunting by humans is controversial. During the transition from the Late Pleistocene epoch to the Holocene epoch, there was shrinkage of the distribution of the mammoth because progressive warming at the end of the Pleistocene epoch changed the mammoth's environment. The mammoth steppe was a periglacial landscape with rich herb and grass vegetation that disappeared along with the mammoth because of environmental changes in the climate. Mammoths had moved to isolated spots in Eurasia, where they disappeared completely. Also, it is thought that Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic human hunters might have affected the size of the last mammoth populations in Europe. There is evidence to suggest that humans did cause the mammoth extinction, although there is no definitive proof. It was found that humans living south of a mammoth steppe learned to adapt themselves to the harsher climates north of the steppe, where mammoths resided. It was concluded that if humans could survive the harsh north climate of that particular mammoth steppe then it was possible humans could hunt (and eventually extinguish) mammoths everywhere. Another hypothesis suggests mammoths fell victim to an infectious disease.\n", "A combination of climate change and hunting by humans may be a possible explanation for their extinction. \"Homo erectus\" is known to have consumed mammoth meat as early as 1.8 million years ago, though this may mean only successful scavenging, rather than actual hunting. Later humans show greater evidence for hunting mammoths; mammoth bones at a 50,000-year-old site in South Britain suggest that Neanderthals butchered the animals, while various sites in Eastern Europe dating from 15,000 to 44,000 years old suggest humans (probably \"Homo sapiens\") built dwellings using mammoth bones (the age of some of the earlier structures suggests that Neanderthals began the practice). However, the American Institute of Biological Sciences notes that bones of dead elephants, left on the ground and subsequently trampled by other elephants, tend to bear marks resembling butchery marks, which have allegedly been misinterpreted as such by archaeologists.\n", "Many hypotheses also seek to explain the regional extinction of mammoths in specific areas. Scientists have speculated that the mammoths of Saint Paul Island, an isolated enclave where mammoths survived until about 8,000 years ago, died out as the island shrank by 80–90% when sea levels rose, eventually making it too small to support a viable population. Similarly, genome sequences of the Wrangel Island mammoths indicate a sharp decline in genetic diversity, though the extent to which this played a role in their extinction is still unclear. Another hypothesis, said to be the cause of mammoth extinction in Siberia, comes from the idea that many may have drowned. While traveling to the Northern River, many of these mammoths broke through the ice and drowned. This also explains bones remains in the Arctic Coast and islands of the New Siberian Group.\n", "Dwarfing occurred with the pygmy mammoth on the outer Channel Islands of California, but at an earlier period. Those animals were very likely killed by early Paleo-Native Americans, and habitat loss caused by a rising sea level that split Santa Rosae into the outer Channel Islands.\n", "Section::::Extinction.:Mammoth-elephant hybrid.\n", "An estimated 150 million mammoths are buried in the frozen Siberian tundra. One proposed scientific use of this preserved genetic material, is to recreate living mammoths. This has long been discussed theoretically but has only recently become the subject of formal effort due to advances in molecular biology techniques and cloning of mammals.\n", "According to one research team, a mammoth cannot be recreated, but they will try to eventually grow in an \"artificial womb\" a hybrid elephant with some woolly mammoth traits. Comparative genomics shows that the mammoth genome matches 99% of the elephant genome, so some researchers aim to engineer an elephant with some mammoth genes that code for the external appearance and traits of a mammoth. The outcome would be an elephant-mammoth hybrid with no more than 1% mammoth genes. And now separate projects are working on gradually adding mammoth genes to elephant cells \"in vitro\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Genesis 2.0\", a documentary\n", "BULLET::::- Ivory trade\n", "BULLET::::- La Brea tar pits\n", "BULLET::::- List of mammoths\n", "BULLET::::- Mammoth Site, Hot Springs\n", "BULLET::::- Niederweningen Mammoth Museum\n", "BULLET::::- Pleistocene Park\n", "BULLET::::- Waco Mammoth National Monument\n" ] }

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{ "description": "extinct genus of mammals", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q36715", "wikidata_label": "Mammuthus", "wikipedia_title": "Mammoth", "aliases": { "alias": [ "the mammoth genus" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Marienburg\n", "Marienburg may refer to:\n", "Section::::Historical German names.\n", "BULLET::::- Ordensburg Marienburg (Malbork Castle), the large brick castle built by the Teutonic Knights\n", "BULLET::::- Malbork, Poland, site of the Ordensburg Marienburg, formerly Marienburg (Royal Prussia/Crown of the Kingdom of Poland 1466-1772), Marienburg in Westpreußen and during World War II (1773-1945), Nazi Stalag XX-B (prisoner-of-war camp) for enlisted men\n", "BULLET::::- Alūksne, Latvia\n", "BULLET::::- Feldioara, Romania\n", "Section::::Places.\n", "Section::::Places.:Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg Castle, Ostalbkreis, a castle in Niederalfingen near Aalen, Germany\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg Castle, Hanover, a castle in Hanover district, residence of the Prince of Hanover\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg Castle, Hildesheim, a castle in Hildesheim, Lower Saxony\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg Castle, Leutesdorf, Germany, a small baroque castle in Rhineland-Palatinate.\n", "BULLET::::- Köln-Marienburg, a district of Rodenkirchen in the city of Cologne\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg (Mosel), a former Augustinian monastery built near the ruins of a Roman fortress in Zell an der Mosel near Trier, Germany\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg, Bishopric of Würzburg, a fortress on the River Main, just opposite Würzburg, was sacked by Gustavus Adolphus in 1631.\n", "Section::::Places.:Elsewhere.\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg, Papua New Guinea - a town in the East Sepik province of Papua New Guinea\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg, Suriname - a village and former sugar plantation in Suriname\n", "Section::::Places.:Fictional places.\n", "BULLET::::- Marienburg (Warhammer), a fictional city in the Warhammer Fantasy world\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Siege of Marienburg (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Treaty of Marienburg\n", "BULLET::::- Marienberg\n", "BULLET::::- Marienborg, summer residence of Denmark's Prime Minister\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "MOO (programming language)\n", "The MOO programming language is a relatively simple programming language used to support the MOO Server. It is dynamically typed and uses a prototype-based object-oriented system, with syntax roughly derived from the Algol school of programming languages.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Stephen White authored the first MOO Server and language in 1990 using C. Over the course of the year, Pavel Curtis joined the project, releasing the first version of the LambdaMOO Server. LambdaMOO is run and maintained entirely on a volunteer basis, and now has its own SourceForge project. Although the last packaged release was in 2000, development is still active in the project's CVS.\n", "White describes MOO as \"a mishmash of c-like operators and ada-like control structures, combined with prototype-style single-inheritance.\"\n", "Section::::Features.\n", "The language has explicit exception handling control flow, as well as traditional looping constructs. A verb and property hierarchy provides default values to prototype objects, with over-riding values lower in the hierarchy. This hierarchy of objects is maintained through delegation to an object's \"parent\" property, resulting in a form of single inheritance. Special security-related attributes of objects, verbs, and properties include ownership, and read, write and execute flags. MOO programs are byte-code compiled, with implicit decompilation when editing, providing a canonical form of programs.\n", "MOO programs are orthogonally persistent through periodic checkpoints. Objects are identified by a unique integer identifier. Unused program data is eliminated through automatic garbage collection (implemented by reference counting). However, MOO objects themselves are not garbage collected and are manually deleted by their owners or superusers (aka wizards) through a process called 'recycling.'\n", "MOO is explicitly a multi-user system and programs (verbs) are contributed by any number of connected users. A distinction is made between the 'driver' (runtime) and 'core' (programs written in the MOO language.) The vast majority of the functionality of a running MOO is handled 'in-core.'\n", "The runtime supports multi-tasking using a retribution based time slicing method. Verbs run with exclusive access to the database, so no explicit locking is necessary to maintain synchronization. Simple TCP/IP messaging (telnet compatible) is used to communicate with client sockets, each of which is identified with a 'player' in the Virtual reality representation system.\n", "The language supports weak references to objects by number, and to properties and verbs through strings. Built-in functions to retrieve lists of properties and verbs exist, giving the language runtime facilities for reflection. The server also contains support for wildcard verb matching, so the same code can easily be used to handle multiple commands with similar names and functions.\n", "Available sequence types in MOO are lists and strings. Both support random access, as well as head and tail operations similar to those available in Lisp. All operations on lists and strings are non-destructive, and all non-object datatypes are immutable. Built-in functions and libraries allow lists to also be used as associative arrays and ordered and unordered sets.\n", "Section::::Syntax.\n", "Section::::Syntax.:Control Structures.\n", "MOO has a very basic set of control structures, with for-in-list being the only \"fancy\" feature.\n", "Section::::Example Programs.\n", "The classic Hello World Program can be written in MOO as:\n", "A more interesting example:\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- MOO (game system)\n", "BULLET::::- LPC (programming language)\n", "BULLET::::- Pike (programming language)\n", "BULLET::::- Linden Scripting Language (LSL)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "programming language used to support the MOO Server", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q6717087", "wikidata_label": "MOO", "wikipedia_title": "MOO (programming language)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Manx language\n", "Manx (native name or , pronounced or or ), also known as Manx Gaelic, and also historically spelled Manks, is a member of the Goidelic (Gaelic) language branch of the Celtic languages of the Indo-European language family, that was spoken as a first language by the Manx people on the Isle of Man until the death of the last native speaker, Ned Maddrell, in 1974. Despite this, the language has never fallen completely out of use, with a minority having some knowledge of it; in addition, Manx still has a role as an important part of the island's culture and heritage. Manx has been the subject of language revival efforts with estimates, in 2015, of around 1,800 people with varying levels of second language conversational ability. Since the late 20th century, Manx has become more visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts and a bilingual primary school. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was well-recorded; for example, the Bible had been translated into Manx, and audio recordings had been made of native speakers.\n", "Section::::Names of the language.\n", "Section::::Names of the language.:In Manx.\n", "In Manx, the language is called \"Gaelg\" or \"Gailck\" (pronounced \"gilk\" or \"gilg\" or \"gelg\" with hard Gs), a word which shares the same etymology as the word \"Gaelic\", borrowed from Northern Irish. The sister languages of Irish and Scottish Gaelic use \"Gaeilge\" (dialect variants Gaoluinn, Gaedhlag, Gaelge and Gaelic) and \"Gàidhlig\", respectively, for their languages. As with Irish and Scottish, the form with the definite article is frequently used in Manx, e.g. \"y Ghaelg\" or \"y Ghailck\" (Irish \"an Ghaeilge\", Scottish \"a' Ghàidhlig\").\n", "To distinguish it from the two other forms of Gaelic, the phrases \"Gaelg\"/\"Gailck Vannin\" (Gaelic of Mann) and \"Gaelg\"/\"Gailck Vanninnagh\" (Manx Gaelic) also are used. In addition, the nickname \"Çhengey ny Mayrey\" (the mother tongue/tongue of the mother, lit. the mother's tongue) is occasionally used.\n", "Section::::Names of the language.:In English.\n", "The language is usually referred to in English as \"Manx\". The term \"Manx Gaelic\" is often used, for example when discussing the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) or to avoid confusion with Anglo-Manx, the form of English spoken on the island. Scottish Gaelic is often referred to in English as simply \"Gaelic\", but this is less common with Manx and Irish.\n", "A feature of Anglo-Manx deriving from Gaelic is the use of the definite article, e.g. \"the Manx\", \"the Gaelic\", in ways not generally seen in standard English.\n", "The word \"Manx\" is frequently spelled \"Manks\" in historical sources, particularly those written by natives of the island; the word means \"Mannish\", and originates from the Old Norse \"Mannisk\". The name of the island, Man, is frequently spelled \"Mann\". It is sometimes accompanied by a footnote explaining that it is a two-syllable word, with the stress on the first syllable, \"MAN-en\". The island is named after the Irish god Manannán mac Lir, thus \"Ellan Vannin\" (Irish \"Oileán Mhannanáin\") 'Mannanán's Island'.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Manx is a Goidelic language, closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. On the whole it is partially mutually intelligible with these, and native speakers of one find it easy to gain passive, and even spoken, competency in the other two.\n", "The earliest known language of the Isle of Man was a form of Brythonic (like modern Welsh, Cornish and Breton). However, the basis of the modern Manx language is Primitive Irish (like modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic). The island lends its name to \"Manannán\", the Brythonic and Gaelic sea god who is said in myth to have once ruled the island. Primitive Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin script and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts, but there are no extant examples from the Isle of Man.\n", "On the Isle of Man, the transition from Manx Brythonic to Old Irish (or Manx Gaelic) may have been gradual and appears to have occurred after speakers of Primitive Irish settled on the Isle of Man, in large numbers, from about the 5th century AD. Their influence is evident in a change of language in Ogham inscriptions on Man.\n", "It is possible that Old Irish did not survive the conquest and domination of the island by Norse-speaking Vikings, so that modern Manx language may represent a later, revived form (derived from Middle Irish). During the 8th century AD, the Isle of Man, like the people in coastal areas of Scotland and Ireland, was significantly influenced by Norse speakers. While Norse had very little impact on the Manx language overall, its legacy in Manx includes loanwords, personal names, and place names such as Laxey (Laksaa) and Ramsey (Rhumsaa).\n", "By the 10th century, Middle Irish had emerged and was spoken throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.\n", "During the later Middle Ages, the Isle of Man fell increasingly under the influence of England, and from then on the English language has been the chief external factor in the development of Manx. Beginning in 1405, Manx experienced even more English influence under the rule of Sir John Stanley. As contact between Manx speakers and Gaelic speakers from Scotland and Ireland declined, the language diverged further from its related neighbours.\n", "In the 17th century, some university students left the Isle of Man to attend school in England. At the same time, teaching in English was required in schools founded by governor Isaac Barrow. Barrow also promoted the use of English in churches; he considered that it was a superior language for reading the Bible; however, because the majority of ministers were monolingual Manx speakers, his views had little practical impact.\n", "Thomas Wilson began his tenure as Bishop of Mann in 1698 and was succeeded by Mark Hildesley. Both men held positive views of Manx; Wilson was the first person to publish a book in Manx, a translation of \"The Principles and Duties of Christianity\" (\"Coyrie Sodjey\"), and Hildesley successfully promoted the use of Manx as the language of instruction in schools. The New Testament was first published in Manx in 1767. In the late 18th century, nearly every school was teaching in English. This decline continued into the 19th century, as English gradually became the primary language spoken on the Isle of Man.\n", "In 1848, J. G. Cumming wrote, \"there are ... few persons (perhaps none of the young) who speak no English.\" Henry Jenner estimated in 1874 that about 30% of the population habitually spoke Manx (12,340 out of a population of 41,084). According to official census figures, 9.1% of the population claimed to speak Manx in 1901; in 1921 the percentage was only 1.1%. Since the language was used by so few people, it had low linguistic \"prestige\", and parents tended to not teach Manx to their children, thinking it would be useless to them compared with English.\n", "Section::::Revival.\n", "Following the decline in the use of Manx during the nineteenth century, (The Manx Language Society) was founded in 1899. By the middle of the twentieth century, only a few elderly native speakers remained (the last of them, Ned Maddrell, died on December 27, 1974), but by then a scholarly revival had begun and a few people had started teaching it in schools. The Manx Language Unit was formed in 1992, consisting of three members and headed by Manx Language Officer Brian Stowell, a language enthusiast and fluent speaker, \"which was put in charge of all aspects of Manx language teaching and accreditation in schools.\" This led to an increased interest in studying the Manx language and encouraged a renewed sense of ethnic identity. The revival of Manx has been aided by the recording work done in the twentieth century by researchers. Most notably, the Irish Folklore Commission was sent in with recording equipment in 1948 by Éamon de Valera. Also important in preserving the Manx language was work conducted by the late Brian Stowell, who is considered personally responsible for the current revival of the Manx language. The Manx Language Strategy was released in 2017, outlining a five-year plan for the language's continued revitalisation. Culture Vannin employs a Manx Language Development Officer (Manx: \"Yn Greinneyder\") to encourage and facilitate the use of the language.\n", "In 2009, UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger declared Manx an extinct language, despite the presence of hundreds of speakers on the Isle of Man. Since then, UNESCO's classification of the language has changed to \"critically endangered\".\n", "In the 2011 census, 1,823 out of 80,398 Isle of Man residents, or 2.27% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx, an increase of 134 people from the 2001 census. These were spread roughly uniformly over the island: in Douglas 566 people professed an ability to speak, read or write Manx; 179 in Peel, 146 in Onchan, and 149 in Ramsey.\n", "Traditional Manx given names are once again becoming common on the island, especially \"Moirrey\" and \"Voirrey\" (Mary, properly pronounced similarly to the Scottish \"Moira\", but often mispronounced as \"Moiree/Voiree\" when used as a given name by non-Manx speakers), \"Illiam\" (William), \"Orry\" (from the Manx king Godred Crovan of Norse origin), \"Breeshey\" (also \"Breesha\") (Bridget), \"Aalish\" (also \"Ealish\") (Alice), \"Juan\" (Jack), \"Ean\" (Ian), \"Joney\" (John), \"Fenella\" (Fionnuala), \"Pherick\" (Patrick) and \"Freya\" (from the Norse goddess) remain popular.\n", "Section::::Literature.\n", "Because Manx has never had a large number of speakers, it has never been practical to produce large amounts of written literature. However, a body of oral literature did exist. The \"Fianna\" tales and others like them are known, including the Manx ballad \"Fin as Oshin\", commemorating Finn MacCool and Ossian. With the coming of Protestantism, Manx spoken tales slowly disappeared, while a tradition of \"carvals\" - religious songs or carols - developed with religious sanction.\n", "As far as is known, there was no distinctively Manx written literature before the Reformation. By that time, any presumed literary link with Ireland and Scotland, such as through Irish-trained priests, had been lost. The first published literature in Manx was \"The Principles and Duties of Christianity (Coyrie Sodjey)\", translated by Bishop of Man Thomas Wilson.\n", "The Book of Common Prayer was translated by John Phillips, the Welsh-born Bishop of Sodor and Man (1605–33). The early Manx script has some similarities with orthographical systems found occasionally in Scotland and in Ireland for the transliteration of Gaelic, such as the Book of the Dean of Lismore, as well as some extensive texts based on English and Scottish English orthographical practices of the time. Little secular Manx literature has been preserved.\n", "The New Testament was first published in 1767. When the Anglican church authorities started to produce written literature in the Manx language in the 18th century, the system developed by John Philips was further \"anglicised\"; the one feature retained from Welsh orthography was the use of to represent schwa (e.g. \"horse\" and \"help\" as well as (e.g. \"knowledge\"), though it is also used to represent , as in English (e.g. \"John\" (vocative), \"fish\").\n", "Other works produced in the 18th and 19th century include catechisms, hymn books and religious tracts. A translation of \"Paradise Lost\" was made in 1796.\n", "A considerable amount of secular literature has been produced in the 20th and 21st centuries as part of the language revival. In 2006, the first full-length novel in Manx, \"Dunveryssyn yn Tooder-Folley\" (\"The Vampire Murders\") was published by Brian Stowell, after being serialised in the press. There is an increasing amount of literature available in the language, and recent publications include Manx versions of the \"Gruffalo\" and \"Gruffalo's Child\".\n", "Section::::Official recognition.\n", "Manx is not officially recognised by any national or regional government, although its contribution to Manx culture and tradition is acknowledged by some governmental and non-governmental bodies. For example:\n", "The Standing Orders of the House of Keys provide that: \"The proceedings of the House shall be in English; but if a Member at any point pronounces a customary term or sentence in Manx Gaelic or any other language, the Speaker may call upon the Member for a translation.\" An example was at the sitting on 12 February 2019, when an MHK used the expression \"boghtnid\", stated to mean \"nonsense\".\n", "Manx is used in the annual Tynwald ceremony and Manx words are used in official Tynwald publications.\n", "For the purpose of strengthening its contribution to local culture and community, Manx is recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and in the framework of the British-Irish Council.\n", "Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools. The lessons are optional and instruction is provided by the Department of Education's Manx Language Team which teach up to A Level standard.\n", "The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh, a primary school at St John's, has 67 children, as of September 2016, who receive nearly all of their education through the medium of the language. Children who have attended the school have the opportunity to receive some of their secondary education through the language at Queen Elizabeth II High School in Peel.\n", "The playgroup organisation Mooinjer Veggey, which operates the , runs a series of preschool groups that introduce the language.\n", "Section::::Learning the language.\n", "There are an increasing number of resources available for those wanting to learn the language. The Manx Language Development Officer for Culture Vannin manages the Learnmanx.com website which has a wide variety of resources. These include mobile apps a new podcast in Manx, the 1000 words-in-Manx challenge and the Video-a-day in Manx series.\n", "The most recent development on the adult language front is the creation of a new on-line course, Say Something in Manx which has been created in conjunction with the Say Something in Welsh \n", "It is hoped that this will be the main way on-line learners will access the language from now on.\n", "2016 also saw the launch of a new dictionary for learners published by Culture Vannin \n", "Section::::Learning the language.:Media.\n", "Two weekly programmes in Manx are available on medium wave on Manx Radio: \"Traa dy liooar\" on Monday and \"Jamys Jeheiney\" on Friday. The news in Manx is available on-line from Manx Radio, who have three other weekly programmes that use the language: \"Clare ny Gael\"; \"Shiaght Laa\" and \"Moghrey Jedoonee\".\n", "The \"Isle of Man Examiner\" has a monthly bilingual column in Manx.\n", "The first film to be made in Manx – the 22-minute-long \"Ny Kirree fo Niaghtey\" (The Sheep [plural] Under the Snow) – premiered in 1983 and was entered for the 5th Celtic Film and Television Festival in Cardiff in 1984. It was directed by Shorys Y Creayrie (George Broderick) for Foillan Films of Laxey, and is about the background to an early 18th-century folk song. In 2013, a short film, Solace in Wicca, was produced with financial assistance from Culture Vannin, CinemaNX and Isle of Man Film. A series of short cartoons about the life of Cuchulain which were produced by BBC Northern Ireland are available as are a series of cartoons on Manx mythology. Most significant is a 13-part DVD series Manx translation of the award-winning series \"Friends and Heroes\".\n", "Section::::Learning the language.:Signage.\n", "Bilingual road, street, village and town boundary signs are common throughout the Isle of Man. All other road signs are in English only.\n", "Business signage in Manx is gradually being introduced but is not mandated by law.\n", "Section::::Learning the language.:The Manx Bible.\n", "The Bible was first produced in Manx by a group of Anglican clergymen on the island. The Gospel of Matthew was printed in 1748. The four Gospels were produced in 1763 and Conaant Noa nyn Jiarn as Saualtagh Yeesey Creest (the New Testament of our Lord & Saviour Jesus Christ) in 1767 by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK). In 1772 the Old Testament was translated from Hebrew and printed, together with the Books of Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) from the Apocrypha. Yn Vible Casherick (The Holy Bible) of the Old and New Testaments was published as one book by the SPCK in 1775. The bicentenary was celebrated on the Isle of Man in 1975 and included a set of stamps from the Isle of Man Post Office.\n", "This 1775 edition effectively fixed the modern orthography of Manx Gaelic, which has changed little since. Jenner claims that some bowdlerisation had occurred in the translation, e.g. the occupation of Rahab the prostitute is rendered as \"ben-oast\", a hostess or female inn-keeper.\n", "There was a translation of the Psalmyn Ghavid (Psalms of David) in metre in Manx by the Rev John Clague, vicar of Rushen, which was printed with the Book of Common Prayer of 1768. Bishop Hildesley required that these Metrical Psalms were to be sung in churches. These were reprinted by the Manx Language Society in 1905.\n", "The British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) published the Conaant Noa (New Testament) in 1810 and reprinted it in 1824. Yn Vible Casherick (the Holy Bible) of the Old Testament and New Testament (without the two books of the Apocrypha) was first printed as a whole in 1819. BFBS last printed anything on paper in Manx in 1936 when it reprinted Noo Ean (the Gospel of St John); this was reprinted by Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh (The Manx Gaelic Society) in 1968. The Manx Bible was republished by Shearwater Press in July 1979 as Bible Chasherick yn Lught Thie (Manx Family Bible), which was a reproduction of the BFBS 1819 Bible.\n", "Since 2014 the BFBS 1936 Manx Gospel of John has been available online on YouVersion and Bibles.org.\n", "Section::::Learning the language.:Church.\n", "Manx was used in some churches into the late 19th century. Although church services in Manx were once fairly common, they occur infrequently now. Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh, the Manx Language Society, hold an annual Christmas Service at locations around the island.\n", "Section::::Classification and dialects.\n", "Manx is one of the three descendants of Old Irish (via Middle Irish and early Modern Gaelic), and is closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. It shares a number of developments in phonology, vocabulary and grammar with Irish and Scottish Gaelic (in some cases only with dialects of these) and shows a number of unique changes. There are two attested dialects of Manx, Northern Manx and Southern Manx. A third dialect may have existed in-between, around Douglas.\n", "Manx shares with Scottish Gaelic the partial loss of contrastive palatalisation of labial consonants; thus while in Irish the velarised consonants contrast phonemically with palatalised , in Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the phonemic contrast has been lost to some extent. A consequence of this phonemic merger is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final (spelled \"-(a)ibh\", \"-(a)imh\" in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with (\"-(e)abh\", \"-(e)amh\") in Manx; both have become , spelled \"-oo\" or \"-u(e)\". Examples include (\"to stand\"; Irish ), (\"religion\"; Irish ), (\"fainting\"; Early Modern Irish , lit. \"in clouds\"), and (\"on you (plural)\"; Irish ).\n", "Medial and final *bh and *mh have become and in general in Manx, thus \"shiu\" 'you PL', Scottish and Irish Gaelic \"sibh\" (\"siph\" in Northern Irish, \"sib\" in South Connacht Irish; Lewis Gàidhlig has the variant \"siù\", besides the more general \"sibh\"), -bh in final consonant clusters, e.g. Manx \"sharroo\" 'bitter', Scottish \"searbh\" , Northern and Western Irish \"searbh\" , Southern Irish \"searbh\" , between vowels, e.g. Manx \"awin\" 'river' , Scottish \"abhainn\" , Irish \"abhainn\" , word-finally in monosyllables, e.g. Manx \"laaue\" 'hand', Scottish \"làmh\" , Northern Irish , Western Irish \"lámh\" , Southern Irish , at the end of stressed syllables (see further below), as in \"sourey\" 'summer', Scotland and Ireland \"samhradh\", Scottish , Northern Irish , Western and Southern Irish . In all this Manx is most like Northern Irish. Rare retentions of the older pronunciation of \"bh\" include \"Divlyn\", \"Divlin\" 'Dublin', Middle Irish \"Duibhlinn\" , also written \"Duibhlinn\" in Modern Irish and Scots Gaelic.\n", "Moreover, similarly to Munster Irish, historical \"bh\" and \"mh\" (nasalised ) tend to be lost in the middle or at the end of a word in Manx, either with compensatory lengthening or vocalisation as u resulting in diphthongisation with the preceding vowel. For example, Manx (\"winter\") and (\"mountains\") correspond to Irish and (Southern Irish dialect spelling and pronunciation \"gíre\" () and \"sléte\" ()). Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs before velarised consonants (spelled \"ao\" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to in many words, as in (\"carpenter\") and (\"narrow\") (spelled and in Irish and Scottish, and pronounced virtually the same in Munster).\n", "Like western and northern dialects of Irish (cf. Irish phonology) and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed the historical consonant clusters to . For example, Middle Irish (\"mockery\") and (\"women\") have become and respectively in Manx. The affrication of to is also common to Manx, northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic.\n", "Also like northern and western dialects of Irish, as well as like southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Arran, Kintyre), the unstressed word-final syllable of Middle Irish (spelled \"-(a)idh\" and \"-(a)igh\") has developed to in Manx, where it is spelled \"-ee\", as in (\"buy\"; cf. Irish ) and (\"apparatus\"; cf. Gaelic ).\n", "Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic is that rather than appears in unstressed syllables before (in Manx spelling, \"agh\"), for example (\"straight\") (Irish ), (\"to remember\") (Gaelic ).\n", "Like southern and western varieties of Irish and northern varieties of Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of Ulster Irish and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before the Old Irish fortis and lenis sonorants. For example, (\"children\") , (\"brown\") , (\"butter\") correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic , , and respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in western and southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the Outer Hebrides and Skye, thus western Irish , Southern Irish/Northern Scottish , , ), but short vowels and 'long' consonants in northern Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, , and .\n", "Another similarity with southern Irish is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed , spelled \"-(e)adh\" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. In nouns (including verbal nouns), this became in Manx, as it did in southern Irish, e.g. (\"war\") , (\"to praise\") ; cf. Irish and , pronounced and in southern Irish. In finite verb forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) became in Manx, as in southern Irish, e.g. (\"would praise\"), cf. Irish , pronounced in southern Irish.\n", "Linguistic analysis of the last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of dialectal differences between the northern and the southern parts of the island. Northern Manx is reflected by speakers from towns and villages from Maughold in the northeast of the island to Peel on the west coast. Southern Manx is used by speakers from the Sheading of Rushen. It is possible that written Manx represents a 'midlands' dialect of Douglas and surrounding areas.\n", "In Southern Manx, older \"á\" and in some cases \"ó\" have become . In Northern Manx the same happens, but \"á\" sometimes remains as well. For example, (\"day\", cf. Irish ) is in the south but or in the north. Old \"ó\" is always in both dialects, e.g. (\"young\", cf. Irish ) is in both dialects. In many words before \"rt\", \"rd\" and \"rg\", and in one or two other words \"á\", lengthened \"a\" and \"ó\" have become /œ:/, as in \"paayrt\" 'part' /pœ:rt/, \"ard\" 'high' /œ:rd/, \"jiarg\" 'red' /dʒœ:rg/, \"argid\" 'money, silver' /œ:rgid/ and \"aarey\" 'gold GEN' /œ:rə/.\n", "In Northern Manx, older \"(e)a\" before \"nn\" in the same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a monophthong. For example, (\"head\", cf. Irish ) is in the north but in the south.\n", "Words with \"ua\" and in some cases \"ao\" in Irish and Scottish are spelled with \"eay\" in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound is , while in Southern Manx it is , , or . For example, (\"wind\", cf. Irish ) is in the north and in the south, while (\"coal\", cf. Irish ) is in the north and , , or in the south.\n", "In both the north and the south, there is a tendency to insert a short sound before a word-final in monosyllabic words, as in for (\"whole\") and for (\"woman\"). This phenomenon is known as pre-occlusion. In Southern Manx, however, there is pre-occlusion of before and of before , as in for (\"walking\") and for (\"ship\"). These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the north. Preocclusion of before , on the other hand, is more common in the north, as in (\"heavy\"), which is in the north but or in the south. This feature is also found in Cornish.\n", "Southern Manx tends to lose word-initial before , while Northern Manx usually preserves it, e.g. (\"glen\") is in the north and in the south, and (\"knee\") is in the north and in the south.\n", "Section::::Phrases.\n", "Some simple conversational words and phrases:\n", "Section::::Orthography.\n", "The Manx orthography is unlike that of Irish and Scottish Gaelic, both of which use similar spelling systems derived from written Early Modern Irish, which was language of the educated Gaelic elite of both Ireland and Scotland (where it was called Classical Gaelic) until the mid-19th century. In general, these orthographies retain spelling and derivation from older Gaelic, which means that there is not in a one-to-one system. Both systems use only 18 letters to represent around 50 phonemes. While Manx in effect uses the English spelling system, except for and , the 24 letters used in its orthography likewise do not cover a similar range of phonemes, and therefore many digraphs and trigraphs are used.\n", "The Manx orthography was developed by people who were unaware of traditional Gaelic orthography, as they had learned literacy in Welsh and English (the initial development in the 16th century), then only English (later developments). Therefore, the orthography is based on early Modern English pronunciation, and to a small extent Welsh, rather than from a pan-Gaelic point of view. The result is an inconsistent and only partially phonemic spelling system, in a similar way as spelling in English. T. F. O'Rahilly expressed the opinion that Gaelic in the Isle of Man was saddled with an inadequate spelling which is neither traditional nor phonetic; if the traditional Gaelic orthography had been preserved, the close kinship that exists between Manx Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic would be obvious to all at first sight.\n", "There is no evidence of Gaelic script having been used on the island.\n", "Section::::Orthography.:Cedilla.\n", "Manx uses relatively few diacritics, but a cedilla is often (but not exclusively) used to differentiate between the two pronunciations of \"ch\":\n", "BULLET::::- \"Çhiarn\" (), meaning \"lord\", is pronounced with the palato-alveolar affricate , as in the English \"church\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Chamoo\" (), meaning \"nor\" or \"neither\", is pronounced with the velar fricative , as in the Scottish pronunciation of the word \"loch\" (), a sound which is commonly represented by \"gh\" at the ends of words in Manx (as it often is in the English of Ireland).\n", "Section::::Orthography.:Examples.\n", "The following examples are taken from Broderick 1984–86, 1:178–79 and 1:350–53. The first example is from a speaker of Northern Manx, the second from Ned Maddrell, a speaker of Southern Manx.\n", "Section::::Orthography.:Examples.:Gaelic versions of the Lord's Prayer.\n", "The Lord's Prayer has been translated into all the Goidelic tongues. Although the wordings are not completely cognate, they demonstrate the different orthographies.\n", "Section::::Phonology.\n", "Section::::Phonology.:Consonants.\n", "The consonant phonemes of Manx are as follows:\n", "The voiceless plosives are pronounced with aspiration. The dental, postalveolar and palato-velar plosives are affricated to in many contexts.\n", "Manx has an optional process of lenition of plosives between vowels, whereby voiced plosives and voiceless fricatives become voiced fricatives and voiceless plosives become either voiced plosives or voiced fricatives. This process introduces the allophones to the series of voiced fricatives in Manx. The voiced fricative may be further lenited to , and may disappear altogether. Examples include:\n", "BULLET::::- Voiceless plosive to voiced plosive\n", "BULLET::::- : \"flag, rag\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"sin\"\n", "BULLET::::- Voiceless plosive to voiced fricative\n", "BULLET::::- : \"cup\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"boat\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"tooth\"\n", "BULLET::::- Voiced plosive to voiced fricative\n", "BULLET::::- : \"horse\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"face\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"prayer\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"stick\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"born\"\n", "BULLET::::- Voiceless fricative to voiced fricative\n", "BULLET::::- or : \"married\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"stand\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"easy\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"beginning\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"live\"\n", "BULLET::::- ∅: \"past\"\n", "Another optional process of Manx phonology is pre-occlusion, the insertion of a very short plosive consonant before a sonorant consonant. In Manx, this applies to stressed monosyllabic words (i.e. words one syllable long). The inserted consonant is homorganic with the following sonorant, which means it has the same place of articulation. Long vowels are often shortened before pre-occluded sounds. Examples include:\n", "BULLET::::- : \"heavy\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"head\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"birds\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"ship\"\n", "BULLET::::- : \"walking\"\n", "The trill is realised as a one- or two-contact flap at the beginning of syllable, and as a stronger trill when preceded by another consonant in the same syllable. At the end of a syllable, can be pronounced either as a strong trill or, more frequently, as a weak fricative , which may vocalise to a nonsyllabic or disappear altogether. This vocalisation may be due to the influence of Manx English, which is itself a non-rhotic accent. Examples of the pronunciation of include:\n", "BULLET::::- \"snare\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"bread\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"big\"\n", "Section::::Phonology.:Vowels.\n", "The vowel phonemes of Manx are as follows:\n", "The status of and as separate phonemes is debatable, but is suggested by the allophony of certain words such as \"is\", \"women\", and so on. An alternative analysis is that Manx has the following system, where the vowels and have allophones ranging from through to . As with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there is a large amount of vowel allophony, such as that of . This depends mainly on the 'broad' and 'slender' status of the neighbouring consonants:\n", "When stressed, is realised as .\n", "Manx has a relatively large number of diphthongs, all of them falling:\n", "Section::::Phonology.:Stress.\n", "Stress generally falls on the first syllable of a word in Manx, but in many cases, stress is attracted to a long vowel in the second syllable. Examples include:\n", "BULLET::::- \"sprite\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"busy\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"royal\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"advantage\"\n", "Section::::Morphology.\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Initial consonant mutations.\n", "Like all modern Celtic languages, Manx shows initial consonant mutations, which are processes by which the initial consonant of a word is altered according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment. Manx has two mutations: lenition and eclipsis, found on nouns and verbs in a variety of environments; adjectives can undergo lenition but not eclipsis. In the late spoken language of the 20th century the system was breaking down, with speakers frequently failing to use mutation in environments where it was called for, and occasionally using it in environments where it was not called for.\n", "In the corpus of the late spoken language, there is also one example of the eclipsis (nasalisation) of : the sentence (\"I have found the lamb\"), where \"ng\" is pronounced . However, probably this was a mis-transcription; the verbal noun in this case is not \"get, fetch\", but rather \"find\".\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Nouns.\n", "Manx nouns fall into one of two genders, masculine or feminine. Nouns are inflected for number. The plural is formed in a variety of ways, most commonly by addition of the suffix , but also by vowel change, changing to or or by adding other endings. There is usually no inflection for case, except in a minority of nouns that have a distinct genitive singular form, which is formed in various ways. (Most common is the addition of the suffix \"-ey\" to feminine nouns.) Historical genitive singulars are often encountered in compounds even when they are no longer productive forms; for example \"cowhouse\" uses the old genitive of \"cattle\". There are also traces of a dative singular in set phrases such as \"on foot\", contrasting with nominative and genitive (cf. \"footwear\", \"football, soccer, rugby\").\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Adjectives.\n", "Certain adjectives have plural as well as singular forms (through the addition \"-ey\" ), although the use of the singular adjective with a plural noun is usual. Most adjectives end in \"-agh\" and form their comparative/superlative form by replacing this with \"-ee\" , e.g. \"atçhimagh\" \"terrible\" becomes \"atçhimee\", giving \"ny s'atçhimee\" \"more terrible\" and \"s'atçhimee\" \"most terrible\". As in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, the comparative-superlative is commonly marked by the copula verb \"s\" (\"is\") in the present, and \"by\" in the past; the superlative is often shown by the word \"nys\" /nis/, from Middle Irish \"ní as\" \"thing that is\" (cf. Irish \"níos\", past \"ní ba\"). A number of adjectives form their comparative/superlative irregularly:\n", "The comparative/superlative can also be formed using \"more\" with the positive form e.g. = .\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Pronouns.\n", "In common with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, in addition to its regular personal pronouns, Manx has also a series used for emphasis. Under certain phonological circumstances, these can be used as unemphatic pronouns, e.g. \"you were not\" is as sounds too similar to \"they/he/she was not\".\n", "Notice the only difference between the masculine and feminine third person singular possessive pronouns is the initial sound change, namely lenition and h-prefixing, they cause, e.g. \"her laptop\", \"his laptop\", \"e ooh\" \"his egg\", \"e hooh\" \"her egg\".\n", "An alternative to using the possessive pronouns is to precede a noun with the definite article and follow it with the inflected form of \"at\" to show the person, e.g. \"my house\" (literally \"the house at me\") instead of \"my house\". This is especially useful in the plural, where all persons share one possessive pronoun, e.g. \"their house\", as opposed to \"our/your/their house\".\n", "1. Causes lenition.\n", "2. Causes eclipsis.\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Verbs.\n", "Manx verbs generally form their finite forms by means of periphrasis: inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs \"to be\" or \"to do\" are combined with the verbal noun of the main verb. Only the future, conditional, preterite, and imperative can be formed directly by inflecting the main verb, but even in these tenses, the periphrastic formation is more common in Late Spoken Manx. Examples:\n", "The future and conditional tenses (and in some irregular verbs, the preterite) make a distinction between \"independent\" and \"dependent\" forms. Independent forms are used when the verb is not preceded by any particle; dependent forms are used when a particle (e.g. \"not\") does precede the verb. For example, \"you will lose\" is with the independent form (\"will lose\"), while \"you will not lose\" is with the dependent form (which has undergone eclipsis to after ). Similarly \"they went\" is with the independent form (\"went\"), while \"they did not go\" is with the dependent form . This contrast is inherited from Old Irish, which shows such pairs as (\"(s)he carries\") vs. (\"(s)he does not carry\"), and is found in Scottish Gaelic as well, e.g. (\"will take\") vs. (\"will not take\"). In Modern Irish, the distinction is found only in irregular verbs (e.g. (\"saw\") vs. (\"did not see\").\n", "The fully inflected forms of the regular verb \"to throw\" are as follows. In addition to the forms below, a past participle may be formed using : \"thrown\".\n", "1. First person singular, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant\n", "2. First person plural, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant\n", "3. Used with all other persons, meaning an accompanying subject must be stated, e.g. \"he will throw\", \"they will throw\"\n", "There are a few peculiarities when a verb begins with a vowel, i.e. the addition of in the preterite and in the future and conditional dependent. Below is the conjugation of \"to grow\".\n", "1. may also be spelt when pronounced i.e. before a slender vowel, e.g. \"ate\" can be either or .\n", "These peculiarties extend to verbs begins with f, e.g. \"to leave\".\n", "1. Again, may also be spelt where appropriate.\n", "A number of verbs are irregular in their inflection. \n", "1. Future relative: \n", "2. Future relative: \n", "The most common and most irregular verb in Manx is \"to be\", often used as an auxiliary verb. In addition to the usual inflected tenses, also has a present tense. The full conjugation of \"to be\" is as follows.\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Adverbs.\n", "Manx adverbs can be formed from adjectives by means of the word ( Middle Irish \"go\" \"with, until\"), e.g. \"good\", \"well\" (CF. Irish \"maith\", \"go maith\", Gaelic \"math\", \"gu maith\"); \"cheerful\", \"cheerfully\". This is not used when preceded by such words as \"too\" and \"very\" or followed by \"enough\", e.g. \"very good, very well\", \"cheerful(ly) enough\". The prepositional phrase for \"home(wards)\" is formed with \"to\" and the noun \"place, town, homestead\" to give , Cf. Irish \"abhaile\", older \"do bhaile\", whereas the noun \"house, home\" can be used unchanged to convey the same meaning.\n", "The language has a number of adverbs corresponding to English \"up\" and \"down\", the meaning of which depend upon such things as motion or lack thereof and starting point in relation to the speaker.\n", "Examples of practical usage are \"There's a man down the street\" and \"I'm going down the street\", \"Climb up (towards me)\" and \"Climb up (away from me)\".\n", "Section::::Morphology.:Prepositions.\n", "Like the other Insular Celtic languages, Manx has so-called inflected prepositions, contractions of a preposition with a pronominal direct object, as the following common prepositions show. Note the sometimes identical form of the uninflected preposition and its third person singular masculine inflected form.\n", "In addition to the above \"simple\" prepositions, Manx has a number of prepositional phrases based on a noun; being based on nouns, the possessive personal pronouns are used to refer to what would in English be pronominal prepositional objects. This also happens in English phrases such as \"for my sake\".\n", "Alternative conjugation patterns are sometimes found with these more complex prepositions using inflected prepositions, e.g. for \"concerning me\", \"for our sake\" instead of \"for our/your/their sake\".\n", "Section::::Syntax.\n", "Like most Insular Celtic languages, Manx uses verb–subject–object word order: the inflected verb of a sentence precedes the subject, which itself precedes the direct object. However, as noted above, most finite verbs are formed periphrastically, using an auxiliary verb in conjunction with the verbal noun. In this case, only the auxiliary verb precedes the subject, while the verbal noun comes after the subject. The auxiliary verb may be a modal verb rather than a form of (\"be\") or (\"do\"). Particles like the negative (\"not\") precede the inflected verb. Examples:\n", "When the auxiliary verb is a form of (\"do\"), the direct object precedes the verbal noun and is connected to it with the particle :\n", "As in Irish (cf. Irish syntax#The forms meaning \"to be\"), there are two ways of expressing \"to be\" in Manx: with the substantive verb , and with the copula. The substantive verb is used when the predicate is an adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase. Examples:\n", "Where the predicate is a noun, it must be converted to a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition (\"in\") + possessive pronoun (agreeing with the subject) in order for the substantive verb to be grammatical:\n", "Otherwise, the copula is used when the predicate is a noun. The copula itself takes the form or in the present tense, but it is often omitted in affirmative statements:\n", "In questions and negative sentences, the present tense of the copula is :\n", "Section::::Vocabulary.\n", "Manx vocabulary is predominantly of Goidelic origin, derived from Old Irish and closely related to words in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. However, Manx itself, as well as the languages from which it is derived, borrowed words from other languages as well, especially Latin, Old Norse, French (particularly Anglo-Norman), and English (both Middle English and Modern English).\n", "The following table shows a selection of nouns from the Swadesh list and indicates their pronunciations and etymologies.\n", "See Celtic Swadesh lists for the complete list in all the Celtic languages.\n", "Section::::Vocabulary.:Loanwords.\n", "Foreign loanwords are primarily Norse and English, with a smaller number coming from French. Some examples of Norse loanwords are \"garey\" (\"garden\", from \"garðr\", \"enclosure\") and \"sker\" meaning a sea rock (from \"sker\", compare with \"skjær\" and \"sker\"). Examples of French loanwords are \"danjeyr\" (\"danger\", from \"danger\") and \"vondeish\" (\"advantage\", from \"avantage\").\n", "English loanwords were common in late (pre-revival) Manx, e.g. \"boy\" (\"boy\"), \"badjer\" (\"badger\"), rather than the more usual Gaelic \"guilley\" and \"brock\". Henry Jenner, on asking someone what he was doing, was told \"Ta mee smokal pipe\" (\"I am smoking a pipe\"), and that \"[he] certainly considered that he was talking Manx, and not English, in saying it.\" In more recent years, there has been a reaction against such borrowing, resulting in coinages for technical vocabulary. Despite this, calques exist in Manx, not necessarily obvious to its speakers.\n", "Some religious terms come ultimately from Latin, Greek and Hebrew, e.g. \"casherick\" (holy), from the Latin \"consecrātus\"; \"mooinjer\" (people) from the Latin \"monasterium\" (originally a monastery; \"agglish\" (church) from the Greek \"ἐκκλησία\" (\"ekklesia\", literally meaning assembly) and \"abb\" (abbot) from the Hebrew \"אבא\" (\"abba\", meaning \"father\"). These did not necessarily come directly into Manx, but via Old Irish. In more recent times, \"ulpan\" has been borrowed from modern Hebrew. Many Irish and English loanwords also have a classical origin, e.g. \"çhellveeish\" (Irish \"teilefís\") and \"çhellvane\" meaning television and telephone respectively. Foreign language words (usually known via English) are used occasionally especially for ethnic food, e.g. chorizo, spaghetti.\n", "To fill gaps in recorded Manx vocabulary, revivalists have referred to modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic for words and inspiration.\n", "Going in the other direction, Manx Gaelic has influenced Manx English (Anglo-Manx). Common words and phrases in Anglo-Manx originating in the language include \"tholtan\" (the \"th\" is pronounced as a \"t\") meaning a ruined farmhouse, \"quaaltagh\" meaning a first-foot, \"keeill\" meaning a church (especially an old one), \"cammag\", \"traa-dy-liooar\" meaning \"time enough\", and Tynwald (\"tinvaal\"), which is ultimately of Norse origin, but comes via Manx. It is suggested that the House of Keys takes its name from \"Kiare as Feed\" (four and twenty), which is the number of its sitting members.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Cornish, another revived Celtic language.\n", "BULLET::::- Irish language revival\n", "BULLET::::- List of Celtic-language media\n", "BULLET::::- List of revived languages\n", "BULLET::::- List of television channels in Celtic languages\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Percentage of resident population with a knowledge of Manx Gaelic \n", "BULLET::::- A bit of Manx Gaelic history\n", "BULLET::::- Manx language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot\n", "BULLET::::- Information about the language\n", "BULLET::::- isle-of-man.com language section\n", "BULLET::::- Manx dictionaries via Multidict\n", "BULLET::::- Online Manx Lessons with MP3 recordings\n", "BULLET::::- Bilingual Bible in Manx and English by the Manx Language Project\n", "BULLET::::- Manx: Bringing a language back from the dead\n", "BULLET::::- Media article about the Manx revival\n", "BULLET::::- Manx free online course\n" ] }

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"Celtic%20language", "Gaelic%20revival", "List%20of%20Celtic-language%20media", "List%20of%20revived%20languages", "List%20of%20television%20channels%20in%20Celtic%20languages", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20081201160833/http%3A//www.gov.im/lib/docs/treasury/economic/census/manxmap.pdf", "http%3A//www.iomtoday.co.im/skeealnygaelgey/A-bit-of-Manx-Gaelic.4239436.jp", "http%3A//www.omniglot.com/writing/manx.htm", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20050312132027/http%3A//www.gaelg.iofm.net/EMENU.html", "http%3A//www.isle-of-man.com/manxnotebook/history/manks/", "http%3A//multidict.net/multidict/%3Fsl%3Dgv", "http%3A//www.learnmanx.com", "http%3A//www.mannin.info/MHF/index2.htm", "https%3A//www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21242667", "https%3A//www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man", "https%3A//ai.glossika.com/language/learn-manx" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", 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{ "description": "Celtic language spoken on the Isle of Man", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q12175", "wikidata_label": "Manx", "wikipedia_title": "Manx language", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Manx Gaelic", "Manks language", "Manx language", "Gaelg", "Gaelic", "gv", "Manks" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20143, "parentid": 908551101, "revid": 908778027, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-31T22:31:36Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manx%20language&oldid=908778027" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Mariner 4\n", "Mariner 4 (together with Mariner 3 known as Mariner–Mars 1964) was the fourth in a series of spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode. It was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth. Launched on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world, largely changed the scientific community's view of life on Mars. Other mission objectives were to perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of Mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration. On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated.\n", "Section::::Spacecraft and subsystems.\n", "The Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame, 127 cm across a diagonal and 45.7 cm high. Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with an end-to-end span of 6.88 meters, including solar pressure vanes which extended from the ends. A 116.8 cm diameter high-gain parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well. An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a seven-foot, four inch (223.5 cm) tall mast next to the high-gain antenna. The overall height of the spacecraft was 2.89 meters. The octagonal frame housed the electronic equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system, and attitude control gas supplies and regulators.\n", "The scientific instruments included:\n", "BULLET::::- A helium magnetometer, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna, to measure the magnitude and other characteristics of the interplanetary and planetary magnetic fields.\n", "BULLET::::- An ionization chamber/Geiger counter, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna nearer the body of the spacecraft, to measure the charged-particle intensity and distribution in interplanetary space and in the vicinity of Mars.\n", "BULLET::::- A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the solar direction, to measure the intensity and direction of low-energy particles.\n", "BULLET::::- A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in anti-solar direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons and alpha particles.\n", "BULLET::::- A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, to measure the very low energy charged particle flux from the Sun.\n", "BULLET::::- A cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction of cosmic dust.\n", "BULLET::::- A television camera, mounted on a scan platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft, to obtain closeup pictures of the surface of Mars. This subsystem consisted of 4 parts, a Cassegrain telescope with a 1.05° by 1.05° field of view, a shutter and red/green filter assembly with 0.08s and 0.20s exposure times, a slow scan vidicon tube which translated the optical image into an electrical video signal, and the electronic systems required to convert the analogue signal into a digital bitstream for transmission.\n", "The electric power for the instruments and the radio transmitter of Mariner 4 was supplied by 28,224 solar cells contained in the four 176 x 90 cm solar panels, which could provide 310 watts at the distance of Mars. A rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup. Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a four-jet vane vector control motor, with thrust, installed on one of the sides of the octagonal structure. The space probe's attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros. Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of 0.65 square meter (seven ft²), were attached to the tips of the solar panels. Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and a sensor for either the Earth, Mars, or the star Canopus, depending on the time in its spaceflight. Mariner 4 was the first space probe that needed a star for a navigational reference object, since earlier missions, which remained near either the Earth, the Moon, or the planet Venus, had sighted onto either the bright face of the home planet or the brightly lit target. During this flight, both the Earth and Mars would be too dim to lock onto. Another bright source at a wide angle away from the Sun was needed and Canopus filled this requirement. Subsequently, Canopus was used as a reference point in many following missions.\n", "The telecommunications equipment on Mariner 4 consisted of dual S-band transmitters (with either a seven-watt triode cavity amplifier or a ten watt traveling-wave tube amplifier) and a single radio receiver which together could send and receive data via the low- and high-gain antennas at 8⅓ or 33⅓ bits per second. Data could also be stored onto a magnetic tape recorder with a capacity of 5.24 million bits for later transmission. All electronic operations were controlled by a command subsystem which could process any of 29 direct command words or three quantitative word commands for mid-course maneuvers. The central computer and sequencer operated stored time-sequence commands using a 38.4 kHz synchronization frequency as a time reference. Temperature control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers mounted on six of the electronics assemblies, plus multilayer insulating blankets, polished aluminum shields, and surface treatments. Other measurements that could be made included:\n", "BULLET::::- Radio occultation\n", "BULLET::::- Celestial mechanics based on precision tracking\n", "Section::::Mission profile.\n", "Section::::Mission profile.:Launch.\n", "After Mariner 3 was a total loss due to failure of the payload shroud to jettison, JPL engineers suggested that there had been a malfunction caused during separation of the metal fairing exterior from the fiberglass inner lining due to pressure differences between the inner and outer part of the shroud and that this could have caused the spring-loaded separation mechanism to become tangled and fail to detach properly.\n", "Testing at JPL confirmed this failure mode and an effort was made to develop a new, all-metal fairing. The downside of this was that the new fairing would be significantly heavier and reduce the Atlas-Agena's lift capacity. Convair and Lockheed-Martin had to make several performance enhancements to the booster to wring more power out of it. Despite fears that the work could not be completed before the 1964 Mars window closed, the new shroud was ready by November.\n", "After launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12, the protective shroud covering Mariner 4 was jettisoned and the Agena-D/Mariner 4 combination separated from the Atlas-D booster at 14:27:23 UTC on November 28, 1964. The Agena's first burn took place from 14:28:14 to 14:30:38. The initial burn put the spacecraft into an Earth parking orbit and the second burn from 15:02:53 to 15:04:28 injected the craft into a Mars transfer orbit. Mariner 4 separated from the Agena at 15:07:09 and began cruise mode operations. The solar panels deployed and the scan platform was unlatched at 15:15:00. Sun acquisition occurred 16 minutes later.\n", "Section::::Mission profile.:Lock on Canopus.\n", "After Sun acquisition, the Canopus star tracker went searching for Canopus. The star tracker was set to respond to any object more than one-eighth as, and less than eight times as bright as Canopus. Including Canopus, there were seven such objects visible to the sensor. It took more than a day of \"star-hopping\" to find Canopus, as the sensor locked on to other stars instead: a stray light pattern from the near Earth, Alderamin, Regulus, Naos, and Gamma Velorum were acquired before Canopus.\n", "A consistent problem that plagued the spacecraft during the early portion of its mission was that roll error signal transients would occur frequently and on occasion would cause loss of the Canopus star lock. The first attempt at a midcourse maneuver was aborted by a loss of lock shortly after the gyros began spinup. Canopus lock was lost six times within a period of less than three weeks after launch and each time a sequence of radio commands would be required to reacquire the star. After a study of the problem, the investigators concluded that the behavior was due to small dust particles that were being released from the spacecraft by some means and were drifting through the star sensor field-of-view. Sunlight scattered from the particles then appeared as illumination equivalent to that from a bright star. This would cause a roll error transient as the object passed through the field-of-view while the sensor was locked onto Canopus. When the object was bright enough that it exceeded the high gate limits at eight times the Canopus intensity, the spacecraft would automatically disacquire Canopus and initiate a roll search for a new star. Finally, a radio command was sent on December 17, 1964, that removed the high gate limit. There was no further loss of Canopus lock, although roll transients occurred 38 more times before encounter with Mars.\n", "Section::::Mission profile.:Midcourse maneuver.\n", "The 7½ month flight of Mariner 4 involved one midcourse maneuver on December 5, 1964. The maneuver was initially scheduled for December 4, but due to a loss of lock with Canopus, it was postponed. The maneuver was successfully completed on December 5; it consisted of a negative pitch turn of 39.16 degrees, a positive roll turn of 156.08 degrees, and a thrusting time of 20.07 seconds. The turns aimed the motor of the spacecraft back in the general direction of Earth, as the motor was initially pointed along the direction of flight. Both the pitch and roll changes were completed with better than 1% accuracy, the velocity change with about 2.5% accuracy. After the maneuver, Mariner 4 was on course for Mars as planned.\n", "Section::::Mission profile.:Mars flyby.\n", "The Mariner 4 spacecraft flew by Mars on July 14 and July 15, 1965. Its closest approach was 9,846 km from the Martian surface at 01:00:57 UT July 15, 1965 (8:00:57 p.m. EST July 14), its distance to Earth was 216  million km, its speed was 7 km/s relative to Mars, 1.7 km/s relative to Earth.\n", "Planetary science mode was turned on at 15:41:49 UT on July 14. The camera sequence started at 00:18:36 UT on July 15 (7:18:49 p.m. EST on July 14) and 21 pictures using alternate red and green filters, plus 21 lines of a 22nd picture were taken. The images covered a discontinuous swath of Mars starting near 40° N, 170° E, down to about 35° S, 200° E, and then across to the terminator at 50° S, 255° E, representing about 1% of the planet's surface. The images taken during the flyby were stored in the on-board tape recorder. At 02:19:11 UT Mariner 4 passed behind Mars as seen from Earth and the radio signal ceased. The signal was reacquired at 03:13:04 UT when the spacecraft reappeared. Cruise mode was then re-established. Transmission of the taped images to Earth began about 8.5 hours after signal reacquisition and continued until August 3. All images were transmitted twice to ensure no data was missing or corrupt. Each individual photograph took approximately six hours to be transmitted back to Earth.\n", "The spacecraft performed all programmed activities successfully and returned useful data from launch until 22:05:07 UT on October 1, 1965, when the long distance to Earth (309.2 million km) and the imprecise antenna orientation led to a temporary loss of communication with the spacecraft until 1967.\n", "Section::::Mission profile.:First image hand drawn.\n", "The on-board tape recorder used on Mariner 4 was a spare, not originally intended for the Mariner 4 flight. Between the failure of Mariner 3, the fact that the Mariner 4 recorder was a spare, and some error readings suggesting an issue with the tape-recorder, it was determined that the team would test the camera function definitively. This eventually led to the first digital image being hand-drawn. While waiting for the image data to be computer processed, the team used a pastel set from an art supply store to hand-color (paint-by-numbers style) a numerical printout of the raw pixels. The resulting image provided early verification that the camera was functioning. The hand-drawn image compared favorably with the processed image when it became available.\n", "Section::::Mission profile.:Micrometeoroid hits and end of communications.\n", "Data acquisition resumed in late 1967. The cosmic dust detector registered 17 hits in a 15-minute span on September 15, part of an apparent micrometeoroid shower that temporarily changed the spacecraft attitude and probably slightly damaged its thermal shield. Later it was speculated that Mariner 4 passed through debris of D/1895 Q1 (D/Swift), and even made a flyby of that comet's possibly shattered nucleus at 20 million kilometers.\n", "On December 7 the gas supply in the attitude control system was exhausted, and between December 10 and 11, a total of 83 micrometeoroid hits were recorded which caused perturbation of the spacecraft's attitude and degradation of the signal strength. On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated. The spacecraft is now derelict in an exterior heliocentric orbit.\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "The total data returned by the mission was 5.2 million bits (about 634 kB). All instruments operated successfully with the exception of a part of the ionization chamber, namely the Geiger–Müller tube, which failed in February 1965. In addition, the plasma probe had its performance degraded by a resistor failure on December 8, 1964, but experimenters were able to recalibrate the instrument and still interpret the data. The images returned showed a Moon-like cratered terrain, which scientists did not expect, although amateur astronomer Donald Cyr had predicted craters. Later missions showed that the craters were not typical for Mars, but only for the more ancient region imaged by Mariner 4. A surface atmospheric pressure of 4.1 to 7.0 millibars (410 to 700 pascals) and daytime temperatures of −100°C were estimated. No magnetic field or Martian radiation belts or, again surprisingly, surface water was detected.\n", "Bruce C. Murray used photographs from Mariner 4 to elucidate Mars' geologic history.\n", "Images of craters and measurements of a thin atmosphere—much thinner than expected—indicating a relatively inactive planet exposed to the harshness of space, generally dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on Mars. Life on Mars had been the subject of speculation and science fiction for centuries. If there was life on Mars, after Mariner 4 most concluded it would probably be smaller, simpler forms. Others concluded that a search for life on Earth at kilometer resolution, using several thousand photographs, did not reveal a sign of life on the vast majority of these photographs; thus, based on the 22 photographs taken by Mariner 4, one could not conclude there was no intelligent life on Mars.\n", "The solar wind was measured, and compared with simultaneous records from Mariner 5 which went to Venus.\n", "The total cost of the Mariner 4 mission is estimated at $83.2 million. Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately $554 million.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Exploration of Mars\n", "BULLET::::- List of missions to Mars\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner (crater)\n", "BULLET::::- Space exploration\n", "BULLET::::- Space probe\n", "BULLET::::- REX (New Horizons) (Radio occultation for atmosphere data at Pluto in 2015, on New Horizons spacecraft)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 4 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration\n", "BULLET::::- Space Flight Operations Plan Mariner Mars '64 (PDF)\n", "BULLET::::- Processed images and mosaics from the \"Mariner 4\" mission to Mars\n", "BULLET::::- Ted Stryk's Mariner 4 page\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 4 photos\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Robotic spacecraft sent by NASA to Mars", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q203805", "wikidata_label": "Mariner 4", "wikipedia_title": "Mariner 4", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20175, "parentid": 906187123, "revid": 906197194, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-14T08:42:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%204&oldid=906197194" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Mariner program\n", "The Mariner program was a 10-mission program conducted by the American space agency NASA in conjunction with Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The program launched a series of robotic interplanetary probes, from 1962 to 1973, designed to investigate Mars, Venus and Mercury. The program included a number of firsts, including the first planetary flyby, the first planetary orbiter, and the first gravity assist maneuver.\n", "Of the ten vehicles in the Mariner series, seven were successful, forming the starting point for many subsequent NASA/JPL space probe programs. The planned Mariner Jupiter-Saturn vehicles were adapted into the Voyager program, while the Viking program orbiters were enlarged versions of the Mariner 9 spacecraft. Later Mariner-based spacecraft include the Magellan probe and the Galileo probe, while the second-generation Mariner Mark II series evolved into the Cassini–Huygens probe.\n", "The total cost of the Mariner program was approximately $554 million.\n", "The name of the Mariner program was decided in \"May 1960-at the suggestion of Edgar M. Cortright\" to have the \"planetary mission probes ... patterned after nautical terms, to convey 'the impression of travel to great distances and remote lands.'\" That \"decision was the basis for naming Mariner, Ranger, Surveyor, and Viking probes.\"\n", "Section::::Basic layout.\n", "All Mariner spacecraft were based on a hexagonal or octagonal \"bus\", which housed all of the electronics, and to which all components were attached, such as antennae, cameras, propulsion, and power sources. Mariner 2 was based on the Ranger Lunar probe. All of the Mariners launched after Mariner 2 had four solar panels for power, except for Mariner 10, which had two. Additionally, all except Mariner 1, Mariner 2 and Mariner 5 had TV cameras.\n", "The first five Mariners were launched on Atlas-Agena rockets, while the last five used the Atlas-Centaur. All Mariner-based probes after Mariner 10 used the Titan IIIE, Titan IV unmanned rockets or the Space Shuttle with a solid-fueled Inertial Upper Stage and multiple planetary flybys.\n", "Mariners:\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 1\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 2\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 3\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 4\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 5\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 6\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 7\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 8\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 9\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 10\n", "Section::::Mariners 1 and 2.\n", "Mariner 1 (P-37) and Mariner 2 (P-38) were two deep-space probes making up NASA's Mariner-R project. The primary goal of the project was to develop and launch two spacecraft sequentially to the near vicinity of Venus, receive communications from the spacecraft and to perform radiometric temperature measurements of the planet. A secondary objective was to make interplanetary magnetic field and/or particle measurements on the way to, and in the vicinity of, Venus. Mariner 1 (designated Mariner R-1) was launched on July 22, 1962, but was destroyed approximately 5 minutes after liftoff by the Air Force Range Safety Officer when its malfunctioning Atlas-Agena rocket went off course. Mariner 2 (designated Mariner R-2) was launched on August 27, 1962, sending it on a 3½-month flight to Venus. The mission was a success, and Mariner 2 became the first spacecraft to have flown by another planet.\n", "BULLET::::- Mission: Venus flyby\n", "BULLET::::- weight: 203 kg (446 lb)\n", "BULLET::::- Sensors: microwave and infrared radiometers, cosmic dust, solar plasma and high-energy radiation, magnetic fields\n", "Status:\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 1 – Destroyed shortly after liftoff.\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 2 – Defunct after successful mission, occupies a heliocentric orbit.\n", "Section::::Mariners 3 and 4.\n", " Sisterships Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were Mars flyby missions.\n", "Mariner 3 was lost when the launch vehicle's nose fairing failed to jettison.\n", "Mariner 4, launched on November 28, 1964, was the first successful flyby of the planet Mars and gave the first glimpse of Mars at close range.\n", "BULLET::::- Mission: Mars flyby\n", "BULLET::::- Mass: 261 kg (575 lb)\n", "BULLET::::- Sensors: camera with digital tape recorder (about 20 pictures), cosmic dust, solar plasma, trapped radiation, cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanics\n", "Status:\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 3 – Malfunctioned. Derelict in heliocentric orbit.\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 4 – Communications lost after bombardment by micrometeoroids. Derelict in heliocentric orbit.\n", "Section::::Mariner 5.\n", "The Mariner 5 spacecraft was launched to Venus on June 14, 1967 and arrived in the vicinity of the planet in October 1967. It carried a complement of experiments to probe Venus' atmosphere with radio waves, scan its brightness in ultraviolet light, and sample the solar particles and magnetic field fluctuations above the planet.\n", "BULLET::::- Mission: Venus flyby\n", "BULLET::::- Mass: 245 kg (540 lb)\n", "BULLET::::- Sensors: ultraviolet photometer, cosmic dust, solar plasma, trapped radiation, cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanics\n", "Status:\n", "Mariner 5 – Defunct. Now in Heliocentric orbit.\n", "Section::::Mariners 6 and 7.\n", "Mariners 6 and 7 were identical teammates in a two-spacecraft mission to Mars. Mariner 6 was launched on February 24, 1969, followed by Mariner 7 on March 21, 1969. They flew over the equator and southern hemisphere of the planet Mars. \n", "BULLET::::- Mission: Mars flybys\n", "BULLET::::- Mass 413 kg (908 lb)\n", "BULLET::::- Sensors: wide- and narrow-angle cameras with digital tape recorder, infrared spectrometer and radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, radio occultation and celestial mechanics.\n", "Status:\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 6 – Defunct. Now in a Heliocentric orbit.\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 7 – Defunct. Now in a Heliocentric orbit.\n", "Section::::Mariners 8 and 9.\n", "Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 were identical sister craft designed to map the Martian surface simultaneously, but Mariner 8 was lost in a launch vehicle failure. Mariner 9 was launched in May 1971 and became the first artificial satellite of Mars. It entered Martian orbit in November 1971 and began photographing the surface and analyzing the atmosphere with its infrared and ultraviolet instruments. \n", "BULLET::::- Mission: orbit Mars\n", "BULLET::::- Mass 998 kg (2,200 lb)\n", "BULLET::::- Sensors: wide- and narrow-angle cameras with digital tape recorder, infrared spectrometer and radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, radio occultation and celestial mechanics\n", "Status:\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 8 – Destroyed in a launch vehicle failure.\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner 9 – Shut off. In Areocentric (Mars) orbit until at least 2022 when it is projected to fall out of orbit and into the Martian atmosphere.\n", "Section::::Mariner 10.\n", "The Mariner 10 spacecraft launched on November 3, 1973 and was the first to use a gravity assist trajectory, accelerating as it entered the gravitational influence of Venus, then being flung by the planet's gravity onto a slightly different course to reach Mercury. It was also the first spacecraft to encounter two planets at close range, and for 33 years the only spacecraft to photograph Mercury in closeup.\n", "BULLET::::- Mission: plasma, charged particles, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanics\n", "Status: Mariner 10 – Defunct. Now in a Heliocentric orbit.\n", "Section::::Mariner Jupiter-Saturn.\n", "Mariner Jupiter-Saturn was approved in 1972 after the cancellation of the Grand Tour program, which proposed visiting all the outer planets with multiple spacecraft. The Mariner Jupiter-Saturn program proposed two Mariner-derived probes that would perform a scaled back mission involving flybys of only the two gas giants, though designers at JPL built the craft with the intention that further encounters past Saturn would be an option. Trajectories were chosen to allow one probe to visit Jupiter and Saturn first, and perform a flyby of Saturn's moon Titan to gather information about the moon's substantial atmosphere. The other probe would arrive at Jupiter and Saturn later, and its trajectory would enable it to continue on to Uranus and Neptune assuming the first probe accomplished all its objectives, or be redirected to perform a Titan flyby if necessary. The program's name was changed to Voyager just before launch in 1977, and after Voyager 1 successfully completed its Titan encounter, Voyager 2 went on to visit the two ice giants.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner Mark II\n", "BULLET::::- Mariner (crater)\n", "BULLET::::- Pioneer program\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Krimigis\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 20174, "parentid": 904327819, "revid": 904327844, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-01T12:30:50Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariner%20program&oldid=904327844" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Motorcycle sport\n", "Motorcycle sport is a broad field that encompasses all sporting aspects of motorcycling. The disciplines are not all races or timed-speed events, as several disciplines test a competitor's various riding skills.\n", "Section::::Motorcycle racing.\n", "Motorcycle racing (also known as moto racing and motorbike racing) is a motorcycle sport involving racing motorcycles. Motorcycle racing can be divided into two categories, tarmac-based road disciplines and off-road.\n", "Section::::Track racing.\n", "Track racing is a motorcycle sport where teams or individuals race opponents around an oval track. There are differing variants, with each variant racing on a different surface type.\n", "Section::::Rally.\n", "A road rally is a navigation event on public roads whereby competitors must visit a number of checkpoints in diverse geographical locations while still obeying road traffic laws (not to be confused with car rallies such as WRC).\n", "Section::::Speedway.\n", "Speedway is a motorcycle sport in which the motorcycles have one gear and no brakes.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Land speed.\n", "Land speed is where a single rider accelerates over a 1 to long straight track (usually on dry lake beds) and is timed for top speed through a trap at the end of the run. The rider must exceed the previous top speed record for that class or type of bike for their name to be placed on the record books. See— for an example.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Enduro.\n", "Enduro is not exactly racing, because the main objective is to traverse a series of checkpoints, arriving exactly \"on time\" in accordance with your beginning time and the time it is supposed to take to arrive at each checkpoint. The courses are usually run over thick wooded terrain, sometimes with large obstacles such as logs, ditches, and sudden drops.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Freestyle Motocross.\n", "A competition based upon points for acrobatic ability on an MX bike over jumps.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Trials.\n", "Known in the US as Observed Trials, it is not racing, but a sport nevertheless. Trials is a test of skill on a motorcycle whereby the rider attempts to traverse an observed section without placing a foot on the ground (and traditionally, although not always, without ceasing forward motion). The winner is the rider with the least penalty points.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Trials.:Time and observation.\n", "Time and observation trials are trials with a time limit. The person who completes the route the quickest sets the \"standard time\" and all other competitors must finish within a certain amount of time of the standard time to be counted as a finisher (they received penalty points for every minute after the quickest finisher). This is combined with the penalty points accrued from the observed sections to arrive at a winner, who is not alway the quickest rider or the rider who lost the less marks on observation but the rider who balanced these competing demands the best. One of the most famous time and observation trials is the \"Scott\" trial held annually in North Yorkshire.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Trials.:Indoor trials.\n", "Indoor trials held in stadiums (not necessarily with a roof) which by their very nature use man-made artificial sections in contrast to outdoor trials which rely heavily on the natural terrain.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Trials.:Long distance trials.\n", "Long Distance Trials (often shortened to 'LDT') in the UK are events for road-registered motorcycles. A course of typically 80 to 120 miles is plotted by the organiser, taking in roads, lanes and Byways Open to All Traffic (known as BOATs). The event is not a race and riders are required to follow the course by using a RoadBook compiled by the organiser.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Motorcycle Gymkhana.\n", "Similar to car Autocross, Motorcycle Gymkhana is a motorcycle time trial sport round cones on a paved area. The winner is the competitor who completes the course in the shortest time. Time penalties are incurred by putting a foot down, hitting a cone, or going outside the designated area.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Motoball (Motorcycle Polo).\n", "Similar to football, but all players (except goalkeepers) are riding motorcycles, and the ball is much bigger. Motorcycle Polo first began as an officially organized sport in the mid-1930s. In France, there are organized motoball competitions, and the sport was included in the inaugural Goodwill Games.\n", "Section::::Other Motorcycle sports.:Hill Climbs.\n", "In the United States the completions are usually held on off-road courses, where one competitor at a time attempts to ride up a very steep hill, often 45 degrees or more. In some cases, few riders actually complete the course and results are judged on the distance that they manage to achieve. Of those that do complete the course, the rider to reach the top with the shortest elapsed time wins. The motorcycle of choice in the early decades was the Harley-Davidson 45 cubic inch model due to its high torque at low rpms, similar to farm engines. For years the national competitions was held at Mount Garfield near Muskegon, Michigan.\n", "In other countries, notably the United Kingdom, completions mostly take place on tarmac courses, occasionally closed public roads, with the machines used for competition being similar to those used for other road disciplines.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Sanctioning bodies\n", "BULLET::::- Fédération Internationale de Motocyclismo (FIM) - World governing body\n", "BULLET::::- Motorcycling Australia (MA)- Australian Governing Body\n", "BULLET::::- Auto Cycle Union - UK governing body\n", "BULLET::::- American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) - US governing body\n", "BULLET::::- Motorcycle Federation of Japan (MFJ) - Japan governing body\n", "BULLET::::- Motosport South Africa (MSA) - South African governing body\n", "BULLET::::- Federation Francaise de moto (FFM) - French governing body\n", "BULLET::::- MCUI Southern Centre - \"governing body of motor cycle sport in Leinster, Munster and Connacht\" (i.e., Republic of Ireland)\n", "BULLET::::- Championship Cup Series - Sanctioning body for Sportsman Level motorcycle road racing in the United States\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 20185, "parentid": 881924857, "revid": 881928503, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-02-05T18:37:46Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motorcycle%20sport&oldid=881928503" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Minnesota Vikings\n", "The Minnesota Vikings are a professional American football team based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Vikings joined the National Football League (NFL) as an expansion team in 1960, and first took the field for the 1961 season. The team competes in the National Football Conference (NFC) North division.\n", "During the 1960s, the Vikings' record was typical for an expansion franchise, but improved over the course of the decade, resulting in a Central Division title in 1968. In 1969, their dominant defense led to the Vikings' league championship, the last NFL championship prior to the merger of the NFL with the AFL.\n", "The team plays its home games at U.S. Bank Stadium in the Downtown East section of Minneapolis.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Professional football in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area (the \"Twin Cities\") began with the Minneapolis Marines/Red Jackets, an NFL team that played intermittently in the 1920s and 1930s. However, a new professional team in the area did not surface again until August 1959, when Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H.P. Skoglund, and Max Winter were awarded a franchise in the new American Football League (AFL). Five months later, in January 1960, after significant pressure from the NFL, the ownership group, along with Bernard H. Ridder Jr., reneged on its agreement with the AFL and then was awarded the National Football League's 14th franchise, with play to begin in 1961. Ole Haugsrud was added to the NFL team ownership because, in the 1920s, when he sold his Duluth Eskimos team back to the league, the agreement allowed him 10 percent of any future Minnesota team. Coincidentally or not, the teams from Ole Haugsrud's high school, Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin, were also called the Vikings and also had a similar purple-and-yellow uniform design and color scheme.\n", "From the team's first season in 1961 to 1981, the team called Metropolitan Stadium in suburban Bloomington home. The Vikings conducted summer training camp at Bemidji State University from 1961 to 1965. In 1966, the team moved to their training camp to Minnesota State University in Mankato. The training camp at Minnesota State was one of the longest continuously running training camp events in the NFL and is remembered as part of the golden era history of the team. The Vikings played their home games at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis from 1982 to 2013. The Vikings played their last game at the Metrodome on December 29, 2013, defeating the Detroit Lions 14–13 to end the season.\n", "Since the team's first season in 1961, the Vikings have had one of the highest winning percentages in the NFL. As of 2017, they have won at least three games in every season except in 1962, and are one of only six NFL teams to win at least 15 games in a regular season. The Vikings have won one NFL Championship, in 1969, before the league's merger with the American Football League (AFL). Since the league merger in 1970, they have qualified for the playoffs 27 times, third-most in the league. The team has played in Super Bowls IV, VIII, IX, and XI, though failing to win any of them. In addition, they have lost in their last six NFC Championship Game appearances since 1978. The team currently has 14 members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.\n", "Section::::History.:1960s.\n", "The team was officially named the Minnesota Vikings on September 27, 1960; the name is partly meant to reflect Minnesota's place as a center of Scandinavian American culture. From the start, the Vikings embraced an energetic marketing program that produced first-year season ticket sales of nearly 26,000 and an average home attendance of 34,586, about 85 percent of Metropolitan Stadium's capacity of 40,800. Eventually, the capacity of Met Stadium was increased to 47,900. Bert Rose, former public relations director for the Los Angeles Rams, was appointed the team's first general manager. The search for the first head coach saw the team court then-Northwestern University head coach Ara Parseghian, who, according to \"Minneapolis Star\" writer Jim Klobuchar—the Vikings' first beat reporter for that newspaper—visited team management in the Twin Cities under the condition that his visit was to be kept secret from his current employer. His cover was blown by local columnist Sid Hartman, who reported the visit and forced Parseghian to issue denials. Philadelphia Eagles assistant Nick Skorich and a man with Minnesota ties who was working in the CFL, Bud Grant, were also candidates until a different Eagle, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin, was hired on January 18, 1961. Van Brocklin had just finished his career as a player on a high note, having defeated the Green Bay Packers in the 1960 NFL Championship Game.\n", "As a new franchise, the Vikings had the first overall selection in the 1961 NFL Draft, and they picked running back Tommy Mason of Tulane. They also took a young quarterback from the University of Georgia named Fran Tarkenton in the third round. Notable veterans acquired in the offseason were George Shaw and Hugh McElhenny. The Vikings won their first regular season game, defeating the Chicago Bears 37–13 on Opening Day 1961; Tarkenton came off the bench to throw four touchdown passes and run for another to lead the upset. Reality set in as the expansion team lost its next seven games on their way to a 3–11 record. The losing continued throughout much of the 1960s as the Vikings had a combined record of 32 wins, 59 losses, and 7 ties in their first seven seasons with only one winning season (8–5–1 in 1964).\n", "On March 7, 1967, quarterback Fran Tarkenton was traded to the New York Giants for a first-round and second-round draft choice in 1967, a first-round choice in 1968 and a second-round choice in 1969. With the picks, Minnesota selected Clinton Jones and Bob Grim in 1967, Ron Yary in 1968 and Ed White in 1969. On March 10, 1967 the Vikings hired new head coach Bud Grant to replace Van Brocklin, who had resigned on February 11, 1967. Grant came to the Vikings from the Canadian Football League as head coach for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, whom he led to four Grey Cup Championships in 10 years. Replacing Tarkenton at quarterback was eight-year CFL veteran and Grey Cup champion Joe Kapp. During the late 1960s, the Vikings built a powerful defense known as the Purple People Eaters, led by Alan Page, Carl Eller, Gary Larsen, and Jim Marshall. In 1968, that stingy defense earned the Vikings their first Central Division title and their first playoff berth.\n", "In 1969, the Vikings secured a 12–2 record. The team had 12 straight regular-season victories after a season-opening loss to the New York Giants, which was the longest single-season winning streak in 35 years. The Vikings defeated the Cleveland Browns 27–7 in the last pre-merger NFL Championship Game on January 4, 1970, at Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings became the first modern NFL expansion team to win an NFL Championship Game, and earned a berth in Super Bowl IV; however, the heavily favored Vikings lost that game to the Kansas City Chiefs, 23–7. The team MVP that season was Joe Kapp, who threw for seven touchdowns against the Baltimore Colts – still an all-time NFL record; however, Kapp refused to accept the award, stating, \"There is not one most valuable Viking... there are 40 most valuable Vikings!\"\n", "Section::::History.:1970s.\n", "The team continued to dominate in 1970 (moving into the newly-formed NFC Central) and 1971, reaching the playoffs behind the stubborn \"Purple People Eaters\" defensive line. In 1971, Alan Page won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award given by the Associated Press. He was the first defensive player to win the award.\n", "On January 27, 1972, the Vikings traded Norm Snead, Bob Grim, Vince Clements and first-round draft picks in 1972 and 1973 to the New York Giants to reacquire the popular Fran Tarkenton. While the acquisitions of Tarkenton and wide receiver John Gilliam improved the passing attack, the running game was inconsistent and the Vikings finished with a disappointing 7–7 record. The Vikings addressed the problem by drafting running back Chuck Foreman with their first pick in the 1973 Draft. Co-owner Bill Boyer died on February 19, 1973 and was replaced on the team's board of directors by his son-in-law Jack Steele.\n", "The Vikings won their first nine games of 1973 and finished the season with a 12–2 record. They then advanced to their second Super Bowl in franchise history, Super Bowl VIII, against the Miami Dolphins at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas; however, the Dolphins prevailed, 24–7.\n", "The Vikings won the Central Division again in 1974 with a 10–4 record. In the playoffs they built on their cold weather reputation, defeating both the St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Rams in frozen Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings played in their second straight Super Bowl, Super Bowl IX (3rd overall), losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 16–6, at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 12, 1975.\n", "Led by Tarkenton and running back Chuck Foreman, the 1975 Vikings got off to a 10–0 start and easily won another division title. However, the Vikings lost to the Dallas Cowboys in the , 17–14, on a controversial touchdown pass from the Cowboys' quarterback Roger Staubach to wide receiver Drew Pearson that became known as the Hail Mary. The touchdown was controversial because many felt that Pearson pushed off on Vikings defensive back Nate Wright, committing pass interference. As the Metropolitan Stadium crowd was stunned to learn that no penalty was called, debris was thrown on the field for several minutes. A Corby's Whiskey bottle struck game official Armen Terzian, rendering him unconscious.\n", "The Vikings played in Super Bowl XI, their third Super Bowl (fourth overall) in four years, against the Oakland Raiders at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, on January 9, 1977. The Vikings, however, lost 32–14.\n", "In 1977, the Vikings again won the Central Division with a 9–5 record and advanced to their 4th NFC Championship Game in 5 years, but were defeated by the eventual Super Bowl Champion Cowboys, 23–6, at Texas Stadium.\n", "By 1978, age was taking its toll on the Vikings, but they still made the playoffs with an 8–7–1 record. There was no more playoff magic as the Rams finally defeated the Vikings, 34–10 in Los Angeles after having lost in their previous four playoff matchups (in 1969, '74, '76 and '77). Quarterback Fran Tarkenton retired following the season holding league passer records in attempts (6,467), completions (3,686), yards (47,003), and touchdowns (342).\n", "In December 1979, ground was broken for construction of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis.\n", "Section::::History.:1980s.\n", "On May 15, 1981, the Vikings moved into a new facility in suburban Eden Prairie that housed the team's offices, locker room and practice fields. The complex was named \"Winter Park\" after Max Winter, one of the Vikings' founders, who served as the team's president from 1965 to 1987. The Vikings played their final game at Metropolitan Stadium on December 20 to conclude the 1981 NFL season by losing to the Kansas City Chiefs, 10–6.\n", "The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982 in a game Minnesota won, 7–3. The first touchdown in the new facility was scored by Joe Senser on an 11-yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular-season game in the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay, 17–10. Rickey Young scored the first regular-season touchdown in the facility on a 3-yard run in the 2nd quarter. That year the defense led by Joey Browner began a dominant 10-year run as a premier NFL defensive back. The Vikings beat the St. Louis Cardinals 28-10 on August 6, 1983 at Wembley Stadium in London in the very first international game in the NFL.\n", "On January 27, 1984, Bud Grant retired as head coach of the Vikings. With a career regular-season record of 151–87–5 (.632) in 17 seasons with Minnesota, Grant led the franchise to 12 playoff appearances, 11 division titles, and four Super Bowls. Les Steckel, who was an offensive assistant with the Vikings for 5 seasons, was then named the 3rd head coach in franchise history. Steckel, who came to the Vikings in 1979 after working as an assistant with the 49ers, was the youngest head coach in the NFL in 1984 at age 38. However, the Vikings lost a franchise-worst 13 games. After the season Steckel was fired, and on December 18, 1984, Bud Grant came out of retirement and was rehired as the head coach of the Vikings.\n", "On January 6, 1986, following the 1985 season, Bud Grant re-retired, this time permanently, as head coach of the Vikings. At the time of his retirement he was the 6th winningest coach in NFL history with 168 career wins, including playoffs. In 18 seasons, he led the Vikings to a 158–96–5 regular season record. Longtime Vikings assistant coach Jerry Burns was named the fourth head coach in team history on January 7, 1986. He served as the Vikings' offensive coordinator from 1968 to 1985, when the team won 11 division titles and played in four Super Bowls. In his first season, the Vikings, led by the NFL Comeback Player of the Year Tommy Kramer, went 9–7, their first winning record in four years. On August 2, 1986, Fran Tarkenton was the first player who played the majority of his career with the Vikings to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.\n", "Following the strike-shortened 1987 season, the 8–7 Vikings, who had finished 8–4 in regular games but 0–3 using strike-replacement players, pulled two upsets in the playoffs. They defeated the 12–3 New Orleans Saints 44–10 at the Louisiana Superdome in the Wild Card game. The following week, in the Divisional Playoff game, they beat the 13–2 San Francisco 49ers 36–24 at Candlestick Park. During that game, Anthony Carter set the all-time record for most receiving yards in a playoff game with 227 yards. The Vikings played the Washington Redskins in the NFC Championship Game on January 17, 1988, at RFK Stadium. Trailing 17–10, the Vikings drove to the Redskins' 6-yard line with a little over a minute left in the game, but failed to get the ball into the end zone. The Vikings' hopes of a Super Bowl ended when Darrin Nelson dropped a pass from Wade Wilson on fourth down at the goal line.\n", "On October 12, 1989, the Vikings acquired Herschel Walker from Dallas. The final result of the trade gave the Vikings Walker, third-round choice Mike Jones, fifth-round choice Reggie Thornton and 10th-round choice Pat Newman in 1990 and a third-round choice Jake Reed in 1991. Dallas received Issiac Holt, David Howard, Darrin Nelson, Jesse Solomon, Alex Stewart, a first-, second- and a sixth-round choice in 1990, first- and second-round choices in 1991 and a first-, second- and third-round choice in 1992. Two of those selections turned into Emmitt Smith and Darren Woodson. Walker's performance fell short of expectations in his three seasons with the Vikings, while the Cowboys rode their draft picks to three Super Bowl victories in the early-to-mid-1990s.\n", "Section::::History.:1990s.\n", "On December 3, 1991, Jerry Burns announced his retirement effective at the end of the 1991 season. In six seasons as Head Coach of the Vikings, Burns compiled a career record of 52–43 (.547). He also led Minnesota to three playoff appearances, including a division title and an NFC Championship Game. Dennis Green was later named the fifth head coach in team history, after turning around a struggling Stanford University football program as head coach from 1989 to 1991. In his 10 seasons as the coach of the Vikings, Green won four NFC Central division titles, had eight playoff appearances, two NFC Championship Game appearances and an all-time record of 97–62. The Vikings therefore had the fifth highest winning percentage among all NFL teams during the regular season in the 1990s.\n", "Section::::History.:1990s.:1998.\n", "1998 was a year to remember for the franchise. With a spectacular offense led by quarterback Randall Cunningham (who replaced an injured Brad Johnson), running back Robert Smith, veteran wide receiver Cris Carter, and explosive rookie Randy Moss, the Vikings set a then-NFL record by scoring a total of 556 points, never scoring fewer than 24 in a game. The Vikings finished the season 15–1, their only loss was to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 27–24 in Week 9. In the playoffs, the Vikings rolled past the Arizona Cardinals 41–21, and came into the Metrodome heavily favored for their NFC title showdown with the Atlanta Falcons, who had gone 14–2 in the regular season. After kicker Gary Anderson, who had just completed the first perfect regular season in NFL history (not missing a single extra point or field goal attempt the entire year), missed a 38-yard field goal attempt with just over 2 minutes remaining, the Falcons' ensuing drive tied the game. This led to a controversial decision by head coach Dennis Green to run out the clock and let the game go to overtime. Though the Vikings won the coin toss, Atlanta went on to win it 30–27 in overtime on Morten Andersen's 38-yard field goal. The Vikings became the first 15–1 team to fail to reach the Super Bowl. The Falcons lost Super Bowl XXXIII to John Elway and the Denver Broncos.\n", "Section::::History.:1990s.:1999.\n", "Cunningham resumed duties again in 1999, but after a lukewarm 2–4 start, Jeff George replaced him as starting quarterback. He finished the season with an 8–2 record, and led the Vikings into the postseason once again, with an overall team record of 10–6. Minnesota beat Dallas in the Wild Card game 27–10, and faced playoff newcomer Kurt Warner and the St. Louis Rams in the Divisional matchup. The game was a shootout that Minnesota led 17–14 at halftime, but the Rams outscored Minnesota 35–20 in the second half to win 49–37. St. Louis would go on to win Super Bowl XXXIV.\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.\n", "The Vikings entered the decade by winning the divisional championship and an appearance in the NFC Championship game, where they were defeated 41-0 by the New York Giants. The following season, they struggled by posting a 5–11 record in 2001. The team would make the playoffs again in 2004, but would not win a divisional title again until 2008. Since the merger, the 2000s became the decade with the fewest playoff berths for the franchise.\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.:2000.\n", "In 2000, the Vikings went 11–5. The Vikings were 11–2 after 14 weeks, but slumped briefly, losing their last three to the Rams, Packers and Colts while starting quarterback Daunte Culpepper was hampered by injury. Nonetheless, the Vikings made the playoffs for the fifth straight year. After easily beating the Saints in the Divisional game 34–16, they traveled to New York City to face the Giants in the NFC Championship Game. Though they were the road team, the Vikings were favored to win the game (since most considered their 11–2 record with Culpepper more indicative than their 0–3 record when he was out); instead, the Vikings were defeated 41–0, their worst defeat in playoff history. Robert Smith, who ran for 1,521 yards that season, retired at the end of the year after only playing eight NFL seasons.\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.:2001–2005.\n", "In 2001, after a disappointing 5–11 season, the Vikings bought out the contract of Dennis Green, despite his successful coaching tenure with the team. Mike Tice coached the final game of 2001, losing to the Ravens 19–3. Tice was named the permanent coach after the season, but he would not lead the Vikings back to the playoffs until 2004. In 2002, as part of the league's realignment with the addition of the Houston Texans, the Vikings and their other traditional NFC Central rivals became part of the newly-formed NFC North.\n", "During the 2003 season, the Vikings came close to getting into the playoffs. However, the Arizona Cardinals completed a game-winning touchdown on 4th-and-28 with 0:00 left, knocking the Vikings out of the playoffs. The moment of Arizona's touchdown was actually the first moment the entire season in which the Vikings hadn't led their division. The Vikings became the second team in football history to miss the playoffs after getting off to a 6–0 start, following the 1978 Washington Redskins.\n", "In 2004, Daunte Culpepper amassed MVP-like statistics, throwing for 4,717 passing yards (leading the NFL), 39 passing touchdowns (a Viking record), and 5,123 total yards (an NFL record). In the wild card game, the Vikings the rival Green Bay Packers in their first-ever playoff meeting, 31–17. In doing so, the Vikings became the second team in NFL history to have a .500 record (8–8) in the regular season and win a playoff game (The St. Louis Rams did the same thing only a day earlier). In the divisional round, the Vikings by the eventual NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles.\n", "On March 2, 2005, Vikings wide receiver Randy Moss was traded to the Oakland Raiders for linebacker Napoleon Harris and the Raiders' first round draft pick. After struggling to a disappointing 2–5 start to the 2005 season, Vikings lost quarterback Daunte Culpepper to a season-ending knee injury. This injury was a very significant part to this Minnesota Vikings team due to the fact they also lost Moss. The dynamic duo from years earlier were now gone and a new leader would eventually emerge. The Vikings finished the 2005 season with a 9–7 record. However, this season would be more notable for off-the-field events. In October, 17 team members were part of a party of about 90 that went out on a pleasure cruise on local Lake Minnetonka. The incident erupted into scandal when media reported that a number of the players had performed sex acts and that prostitutes had been flown in. Four players were ultimately charged with misdemeanors related to the party.\n", "Mike Tice was let go after the 2005 season and was replaced by Brad Childress. This was one of many significant front office moves made by the new ownership team, led by Zygi Wilf.\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.:2006–2008.\n", "Minnesota began the 2006 season 4–2 (with Childress becoming the first Vikings coach to start his career 2–0), but finished the year at 6–10, receiving the 7th pick in the NFL Draft; with it, the Vikings selected Adrian Peterson out of the University of Oklahoma.\n", "Peterson's first career touchdown was a 60-yard screen pass against the Atlanta Falcons in his first career game. When the Vikings played the Chicago Bears in Week 6, Peterson broke the record for single game All-Purpose (rushing, receiving, kick returning) yards (361 total yards, 224 rushing). In Week 9, Peterson broke the NFL single game rushing record set by Jamal Lewis in 2003 by rushing for 296 yards against the San Diego Chargers. Despite a strong push in the middle of the season, winning five straight games, the Vikings lost their final two games to finish the season at 8–8 and missed the playoffs.\n", "In Week 13 of the 2008 season against the Bears, Gus Frerotte hooked up with Bernard Berrian and set the record for longest play in franchise history with a 99-yard touchdown pass. In the 2009 season, Adrian Peterson led the NFL with 1760 rushing yards, breaking the franchise record. The Vikings clinched the NFC North championship for the first time after defeating the New York Giants 20–19 in Week 17, when kicker Ryan Longwell made the game-winning field goal. Peterson had 19 carries for 109 yards and added a touchdown during the game.\n", "On January 4, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Philadelphia Eagles for the Wild Card round, their first home playoff game in eight years. The Eagles led the Viking 16–14 at halftime and, coming off a 44–6 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, went on to defeat the Vikings 26–14. The Eagles would go on to defeat the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants in the Divisional round, only to lose to the Arizona Cardinals in the NFC Championship Game.\n", "Since 2006, the Vikings have been known especially for their strong run defense (#1 in the NFL in 2006, 2007, and 2008; they are the first NFL team to accomplish this since the AFL–NFL merger in 1970), anchored by the Williams Wall consisting of defensive tackle Kevin Williams and nose tackle Pat Williams (no relation). With the addition of sack-leader Jared Allen in 2008, the dominant front four began being called by several nicknames, including \"Thunder and Plunder\" and \"Shock and AWE\" (an acronym of their surname initials).\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.:2009–2010.\n", "On August 18, 2009, after months of speculation and negotiations, twice-retired veteran quarterback Brett Favre, who until 2007 had played 16 years for division archrival Green Bay Packers, signed a two-year, $25 million deal with the Vikings.\n", "On October 5, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Green Bay Packers as Favre played his former team for the first time. With a 30–23 victory on Monday Night Football, the Vikings moved to a 4–0 record. Favre became the first quarterback in NFL history to defeat all 32 current teams as a starter. Over 21.8 million viewers tuned in to watch the game, beating the previous record for a cable television program set by a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys in 2008 (18.6 million viewers).\n", "The Vikings beat the New York Giants, 44–7, in Week 17 to help the team clinch the second seed in the conference and a first round-bye with an Eagles loss later that same day. The Vikings ended the regular season with a 12–4 record, their best record since 2000 and the first 11-plus win season since their record-setting 1998 campaign. The Vikings played the Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round on January 17, 2010, and won the game by a score of 34–3, advancing the Vikings to the NFC Championship game, the ninth in franchise history. This would also be the first NFC Championship game for the team since the 2000 season. Minnesota would travel to New Orleans the following week to face the top-seeded Saints in the first conference championship game held at the Superdome. Despite out-gaining the Saints on offense by nearly a twofold margin, the Vikings were severely hindered by five turnovers, including a Favre interception in the final minute of the fourth quarter in Saints territory. They were ousted in overtime, 31–28, as the Saints won the coin toss and kicked a 40-yard field goal on the first possession of overtime.\n", "In the first week of the 2010 NFL regular season, the Vikings played the defending Super Bowl champions, the New Orleans Saints. The Vikings lost 14–9. In Week 2, the Vikings played the Miami Dolphins and lost 14–10. The Vikings defeated the Detroit Lions 24–10 in the third week of the season. After a week four bye-week, the Vikings received star wide receiver Randy Moss in a trade with the New England Patriots. Even with the addition of Moss, the Vikings lost to the New York Jets 29–20 in Week 5. The Vikings won a crucial victory against another struggling team in the form of the Dallas Cowboys 24–21, but in Week 7 the Vikings lost to the arch-rival Green Bay Packers 28–24. In Week 9, the Vikings played the Arizona Cardinals at home and won 27–24 in overtime, coming back from a 24–10 deficit in the final four minutes of regulation. Favre threw for a career-high 446 passing yards. The Vikings then went on to face the Chicago Bears, but were defeated, and then went on to be blown out 31–3 at home by the Packers the following game. Head coach Brad Childress was fired the following Monday. With Leslie Frazier filling in for the fired Childress, the Vikings won two games in a row. One against the Washington Redskins on the road, and a blowout win over the Buffalo Bills at home.\n", "After a winter storm dropped nearly 17 inches of snow in the Minneapolis/St Paul area the Saturday before the Vikings December 12 home game versus the New York Giants and 30 mph gusts drove snow removers off the dome's roof overnight, several panels were damaged as the weight of the snow caused the roof to collapse. After viewing the damage, Vikings management and the NFL decided to move the game to Monday and play it at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. Because of on-going repairs to the roof of the Metrodome, the Vikings played their December 20 game versus the Chicago Bears at TCF Bank Stadium. Favre threw the final touchdown pass of his career (to Percy Harvin) in this game. The game was played 29 years to the day after the last outdoor game at old Met Stadium. On December 26, the NFL announced that the game versus the Philadelphia Eagles was being postponed to Tuesday, December 28, 2010 because of blizzard conditions. This marks the third consecutive venue or date change for a Vikings game and was the first NFL game played on a Tuesday since 1964. The Vikings proceeded to upset the dynamic Eagles offense, led by a resurgent Michael Vick, 24–14 with rookie Joe Webb at the helm. The Vikings finished the season 6–10 with a 20–13 loss against the Detroit Lions.\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.:2011–2013.\n", "The 2010–11 season was a step down for the Minnesota Vikings. After coming within a few plays of Super Bowl XLIV, Minnesota ended the 2010 season with a 6–10 record and a last place finish in the NFC North for the first time since 1990. During the season, the Vikings had many distractions, including trading for Randy Moss and then waiving him only a month later, Brett Favre's NFL investigation for allegedly sending inappropriate text messages to Jets' employee Jenn Sterger while he was with the team in 2008, the Metrodome's collapse and resulting venue changes, and finally head coach Brad Childress' firing on November 22 following a 31–3 loss at the hands of the rival Green Bay Packers.\n", "After serving as the interim head coach for the final six games of the season (finishing with a 3–3 record), defensive coordinator Leslie Frazier was officially named the head coach on January 3, 2011, after signing a three-year contract. On January 17, Brett Favre retired for the third, and officially last, time, leaving the team in search for a long term replacement at the quarterback position. Wasting no time after being appointed head coach, Frazier began to restructure the team's coaching staff, including letting go of offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and hiring Mike Singletary as linebackers coach and Bill Musgrave as the new offensive coordinator. Their first round draft pick was Christian Ponder, a quarterback from Florida State University. The team finished with a 3–13 record, tied with the 1984 Vikings for the second worst record in franchise history.\n", "During the 2012 NFL Draft, the team selected USC lineman Matt Kalil with the 4th overall pick after a trade with the Cleveland Browns, and Notre Dame safety Harrison Smith in the first round. Both players were instrumental in helping the Vikings reach the playoffs for the 27th time in franchise history, as was fellow draftee, sixth-round selection Blair Walsh. After beating the Packers in the final game of 2012 to reach the playoffs as the NFC's sixth seed, the Vikings lost 24–10 to the Packers in the rematch at Lambeau Field in the Wild Card round. The team was forced to play backup Joe Webb during the game after Ponder was sidelined due to an arm injury sustained from the previous week. Peterson was later named the league's MVP, after rushing for 2,097 yards, the second most rushing yards in a season in NFL history.\n", "In the 2013 season, the Vikings finished with five wins, ten losses, and one tie, with no road wins. Notable moments include acquired free agent Matt Cassel outplaying Christian Ponder at the quarterback position and the defense allowing a league-worst 480 points, coming within four points of matching the franchise's worst set in 1984. This was also the last season played at the Metrodome as a new stadium deal was reached. Leslie Frazier was fired after the regular season ended.\n", "Section::::History.:2000s.:2014–present.\n", "The team hired former Cincinnati Bengals defensive coordinator Mike Zimmer to replace Leslie Frazier as head coach on January 16, 2014. Former Cleveland Browns offensive coordinator Norv Turner replaced Bill Musgrave, and George Edwards replaced Alan Williams as defensive coordinator. In the 2014 NFL Draft, the Vikings selected Anthony Barr, a linebacker out of UCLA, and Teddy Bridgewater, a quarterback out of the University of Louisville. Bridgewater would later lose the starting job to Matt Cassel only to become the starter for the Vikings when Cassel was lost to a season-ending foot injury in week 3. Star running back Adrian Peterson only played in one regular season game due to his ongoing child abuse trial, with NFL commissioner Roger Goodell placing Peterson on the Commissioner's Exempt List indefinitely. On April 16, 2015, the league released a statement issuing Peterson's reinstatement to occur on April 17, 2015. The Vikings concluded their season with seven wins and nine losses, winning only one game against a divisional opponent, although Bridgewater set a franchise record for wins by a rookie starting quarterback. On January 3, 2016, the Vikings beat divisional rival Green Bay 20–13 to win the NFC North for the first time since 2009. The Vikings, led by their top 5 defense, ended the 2015 season with an 11–5 record, and a #3 seed in the playoffs. However, they lost to the Seattle Seahawks 10–9 after Blair Walsh missed a 27-yard field goal in the third coldest game in NFL playoff history.\n", "The Vikings were responsible for a historic milestone in the late rounds of the 2016 NFL draft. Their sixth-round selection, German wide receiver Moritz Böhringer, was the first European player ever to be drafted by an NFL team without having previously played at any level in North America.\n", "After Teddy Bridgewater went down with a knee injury in the preseason of 2016, the Vikings traded their 2017 first round pick and a conditional fourth round pick to the Philadelphia Eagles for quarterback Sam Bradford, who threw for 20 touchdowns, 5 interceptions, 3,877 yards, and led the Vikings to an 8-8 season. Following the knee injury, the Vikings declined to pick up the 5th year option for Teddy Bridgewater. Running back Adrian Peterson went down to injury in Week 2 against the Green Bay Packers with a torn meniscus and was placed on the Injured Reserve until Week 15. On February 28, 2017, the Vikings announced they would not exercise Peterson's 2017 contract option which made him a free agent. Had they exercised the option, Peterson would be owed $18 million for the 2017 season. On April 25, 2017, the New Orleans Saints signed Peterson to a 2-year, $7 million contract, ending his tenure with the Vikings since his debut in 2007 as a rookie. He holds several Vikings records including most career rushing touchdowns, career rushing yards, and most rushing yards in a season.\n", "In the summer of 2017, the Vikings ownership announced they would end the 52-year annual tradition of summer training camp in Mankato, Minnesota at Minnesota State University, Mankato as they built a large new headquarters building, training facility and area property development in Eagan, Minnesota on the site of the former Northwest Airlines offices completed in the spring of 2018 in time for the 2018 summer training camp that July.\n", "The Vikings won the NFC North for the second time in three years in 2017, finishing with a 13–3 record that saw them go into the playoffs as the number 2 seed in the NFC. In the divisional round, they came up against the New Orleans Saints. With less than 10 seconds remaining in the game and trailing by a single point, the Vikings lined up on 3rd-and-10 on their own 39-yard line. Quarterback Case Keenum threw the ball to wide receiver Stefon Diggs inside field goal range near the right sideline, giving the receiver a chance to get out of bounds with just enough time for a game-winning field goal attempt; however, safety Marcus Williams missed his attempted tackle, allowing Diggs to run down the sideline unopposed for the first walk-off game-winning touchdown in NFL playoff history. On KFAN 100.3, radio announcer Paul Allen called the play the 'Minneapolis Miracle'. The Vikings went on to the NFC Championship for the opportunity to play in Super Bowl LII in their own stadium, only to lose 38–7 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Philadelphia Eagles.\n", "Section::::Logo and uniforms.\n", "The Vikings' trademark horned helmet and purple-and-gold uniforms were designed by Los Angeles Examiner cartoonist Karl Hubenthal. Bert Rose and Norm Van Brocklin both knew Hubenthal from their days with the Los Angeles Rams organization. Hubenthal also designed the original Norseman logo.\n", "From the team's debut in 1961 to 1995, the Vikings' logos and uniforms essentially remained the same. Reflecting Minnesota's Scandinavian cultural heritage, one of the team's two primary logos consists of a profile of a blond Norseman, while the other consists of a white Viking horn.\n", "The team's helmet is purple with a Viking horn logo on each side. Each horn is outlined in gold. The horn logo was slightly revised in 2006. The original uniform design consisted of white pants, gold trim, and either purple or white jerseys. From 1962 to 1964, the Vikings wore purple pants with their white jerseys (The Vikings, with their new uniform, still wear, on occasion, purple pants with yellow and white trim). In a design that was unique among American football teams, the white jerseys had a completely different stripe pattern, which was over the shoulders, than the purple ones, which was around the sleeve cuff. These unique shoulder stripes on the white jerseys did not appear until 1969, the year they went to their first Super Bowl. There have also been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the color of the face mask from gray to white in 1980, and then to purple in 1985. In addition, the Norseman logo was added to the sleeves in 1996, and the purple jersey stripes were toned down with that change; the \"TV numbers\", previously located on the jersey sleeves, moved up to the shoulders as well that year. The Vikings continued to wear black shoes until Les Steckel became head coach in 1984; they were the last NFL team to make the change from black to white shoes. In 2006, the team returned to black shoes for first time since the 1983 season.\n", "The Vikings tweaked their Norseman logo, which involved updating the shading, altering the shape and base of the horns, thickening the mustache and face, making the gold tones brighter, and shortening the braid. The new logo was unveiled on February 14, 2013. On March 28, the team reported that new uniforms will be unveiled on April 25.\n", "On April 25, 2013, the Minnesota Vikings unveiled the club's new uniforms during its annual NFL Draft party.\n", "From 1969 through 1973, the Vikings had an alternate purple jersey without stripes for warm-weather games.\n", "The team's uniforms were redesigned in 2006, the first significant change in the franchise's 46-year history. Although the team colors remained the same, trim lines were added to the outside shoulders and sleeves, and the sides of the jerseys and pants. In addition the horn on the helmet was slightly more defined. Included in the new design are both white and purple pants, the purple pants have not been regularly used since 2007, but resurfaced twice in 2010.\n", "The team wore black armbands for the last four games in 1978 in memory of Jack \"Jocko\" Nelson, an assistant coach who died during the season. In 1985 the team wore a 25 years patch on their jerseys. In 1989, they wore a \"40 for 60\" patch honoring the 1969 NFL championship team. They wore a 35 years patch in 1995, 40 years in 2000 and 45 years in 2005. They also wore patches in 1999 for assistant coach Chip Myers who died in the offseason and in 2001 for Korey Stringer. The Vikings, like other teams, wore NFL 50th and 75th anniversary patches in 1969 and 1994.\n", "Section::::Logo and uniforms.:All-purple uniforms.\n", "In the 1960s the Vikings wore purple pants with road white jerseys. On October 11, 1964 the Vikings played the Detroit Lions at Metropolitan Stadium and the Lions mistakenly only brought their white jerseys to Minnesota. Both teams started the game in white, but by the second quarter the Vikings were able to obtain their purple tops. The Vikings changed jerseys on the sidelines during the 2nd quarter, finishing the game in purple jerseys and purple pants. It wasn't until 43 years later, on December 17, 2007 (a Monday Night Football game versus the Chicago Bears) that the Vikings again donned both purple jerseys and purple pants—the first time the Vikings wore all-purple intentionally. Three years later, the Vikings played the November 7, 2010 home game against the Arizona Cardinals in the all-purple uniform.\n", "The NFL introduced \"Color Rush\" uniforms for all 32 teams in the 2016 season, specifically for \"Thursday Night Football\" games. The Vikings had an all-purple uniform with gold numbers and stripes on the pants, which made its only appearance in Week 13 at home to the Dallas Cowboys.\n", "Section::::Mascots.\n", "Section::::Mascots.:Current mascot.\n", "After several failed attempts at developing an official team-owned mascot, the Vikings finally introduced Viktor the Viking during the 2007 Vikings' season. Team officials had long indicated that they were after a mascot concept that would primarily appeal to the team's younger fan base. Viktor the Viking, a muscle-bound, blond-haired and mustachioed character, wears a Vikings' #1 jersey and an oversized Vikings helmet with protruding horns and a small yellow nose guard.\n", "Section::::Mascots.:Historic mascots.\n", "From 1970 to 1992, Hub Meeds dressed as a Viking and served as the team mascot. Meeds asked to become the mascot after being accidentally let onto the field by security during Super Bowl IV.\n", "From 1994 to 2015, the team mascot was Ragnar (played by Joseph Juranitch) and was based on the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok. Juranitch admits to being somewhat of an eccentric—he holds the current world record for fastest time shaving a beard with an axe, but hasn't shaved his beard since he won the Ragnar job among 3,000 applicants. Ragnar drove onto the field at the beginning of a game dressed in Viking garb, on a motorcycle, while a cheerleader used to ride a snowmobile. Although never one to shy away from confrontations with opposing players, notably Chad \"Ochocinco\" Johnson, he had a soft spot for Brett Favre while the quarterback started for the rival Green Bay Packers. In 2015, the Vikings announced that they were not able to reach a new contract agreement with Juranitch which he wanted $20,000 per game, and released him.\n", "Another mascot associated with the Vikings was \"Vikadontis Rex\", a purple foam dinosaur. Vikadontis was the official mascot of the Minnesota Vikings Children's Fund and took part in the 1995 Celebrity Mascot Olympics. Vikadontis was retired starting with the 2000 season. The team also had an NFL Huddles mascot in the mid-1980s, (somewhat similar to Viktor the Viking). Krazy George was also employed as a cheerleader from 1982 to 1985.\n", "Section::::Traditions.\n", "Section::::Traditions.:Fight song.\n", "\"Skol, Vikings\" is the fight song of the Minnesota Vikings. It was introduced around the time the team was founded in 1961. It is always played whenever the team scores a touchdown, field goal or safety, at the end of each half, and upon victory.\n", "The song \"Purple and Gold\" was recorded in 2010 by Minneapolis native Prince to be used as a fight song for the Minnesota Vikings.\n", "Section::::Traditions.:Rivals.\n", "Due to geographic and cultural proximity, the Vikings' foremost rival is the Green Bay Packers. Some sources cite this rivalry as the biggest overall in the NFC North apart from the Packers-Bears rivalry (which dates back several more decades, i.e. to 1920).\n", "Section::::Traditions.:Helga hats.\n", "Vikings fans are known to dress up in \"Helga hats\", purple hats with white horns and blonde braids, mimicking the helmets popularly believed to have been worn by Viking warriors. The original Helga Hats are still hand assembled in the Twin Cities area.\n", "Section::::Traditions.:Vikings horn.\n", "During home games, the Vikings' Gjallarhorn is loudly played and sounds often after the team has made a big play, gets a first down, or scores a touchdown. The team often also uses the horn during its pre-game ceremonies. In addition, a flash cannon fires upon Vikings touchdowns.\n", "Section::::Traditions.:Skol Chant.\n", "The \"Skol Chant\" is a cheer that is used in U.S. Bank Stadium for Minnesota Viking games. It consists of fans raising their hands above their heads, and yelling, \"Skol\", at the beat of a drum.\n", "The Skol Chant is a slightly modified take on the Viking War Cry, originally developed and used at the Icelandic National Soccer team's games. Similar takes on Iceland’s war chant have also been adopted by football and rugby teams in Australia, Scotland, and France.\n", "Without wanting to be called a thief, the Vikings reached out to the Icelandic national football team directly. \"And they said, 'Oh yeah, we know the Vikings. Everyone in Iceland is a Vikings fan,'\". \"They were totally on board with the Vikings using the chant”, said Bryan Harper, vice president of content and production for the Vikings.\n", "The Vikings teamed up with a pair of Iceland's own, Aron Gunnarsson and Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson, to come up with a modified version of the chant to introduce to the new U.S Bank Stadium.\n", "Section::::Players.\n", "Section::::Players.:Retired numbers.\n", "BULLET::::- posthumous\n", "Section::::Players.:Pro Football Hall of Famers.\n", "\"italics\" = played only a minor portion of their career with the Vikings, and are recognized primarily based upon achievements with other teams\n", "Section::::Players.:25th Anniversary Team (1985).\n", "BULLET::::- Fran Tarkenton QB, #10\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Brown RB, #30\n", "BULLET::::- Chuck Foreman RB, #44\n", "BULLET::::- Ahmad Rashād WR, #28\n", "BULLET::::- Sammy White WR, #85\n", "BULLET::::- Stu Voigt TE, #83\n", "BULLET::::- Ron Yary T, #73\n", "BULLET::::- Grady Alderman T, #67\n", "BULLET::::- Ed White G, #62\n", "BULLET::::- Milt Sunde G, #64\n", "BULLET::::- Mick Tingelhoff C, #53\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Marshall DE, #70\n", "BULLET::::- Alan Page DT, #88\n", "BULLET::::- Gary Larsen DT, #77\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Eller DE, #81\n", "BULLET::::- Matt Blair OLB, #59\n", "BULLET::::- Scott Studwell ILB, #55\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Siemon ILB, #50\n", "BULLET::::- Roy Winston OLB, #60\n", "BULLET::::- Bobby Bryant CB, #20\n", "BULLET::::- Ed Sharockman CB, #45\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Krause S, #22\n", "BULLET::::- Karl Kassulke S, #29\n", "BULLET::::- Fred Cox K, #14\n", "BULLET::::- Greg Coleman P, #8\n", "BULLET::::- Bud Grant HC\n", "Section::::Players.:40th Anniversary Team (2000).\n", "BULLET::::- Fran Tarkenton QB, #10\n", "BULLET::::- Chuck Foreman RB, #44\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Smith RB, #26\n", "BULLET::::- Ahmad Rashād WR, #28\n", "BULLET::::- Cris Carter WR, #80\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Jordan TE, #83\n", "BULLET::::- Ron Yary OT, #73\n", "BULLET::::- Randall McDaniel OG, #64\n", "BULLET::::- Mick Tingelhoff C, #53\n", "BULLET::::- Ed White OG, #62\n", "BULLET::::- Tim Irwin OT, #76\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Marshall DE, #70\n", "BULLET::::- Alan Page DT, #88\n", "BULLET::::- John Randle DT, #93\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Eller DE, #81\n", "BULLET::::- Matt Blair LB, #59\n", "BULLET::::- Scott Studwell LB, #55\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Siemon LB, #50\n", "BULLET::::- Bobby Bryant CB, #20\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Lee CB, #39\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Krause S, #22\n", "BULLET::::- Joey Browner S, #47\n", "BULLET::::- Greg Coleman P, #8\n", "BULLET::::- Fred Cox K, #14\n", "BULLET::::- Darrin Nelson KR, #20\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Brown ST, #30\n", "Section::::Players.:50 Greatest Vikings (2010).\n", "In connection with the team's 50th anniversary, the Vikings announced a group of 50 top players on December 19, 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- Grady Alderman OT, #67\n", "BULLET::::- Jared Allen DE, #69\n", "BULLET::::- Matt Birk C, #75/78\n", "BULLET::::- Matt Blair LB, #59\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Brown RB, #30\n", "BULLET::::- Joey Browner S, #47\n", "BULLET::::- Bobby Bryant CB, #20\n", "BULLET::::- Anthony Carter WR, #81\n", "BULLET::::- Cris Carter WR, #80\n", "BULLET::::- Fred Cox K, #14\n", "BULLET::::- Daunte Culpepper QB, #11\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Doleman DE/LB, #56\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Eller DE, #81\n", "BULLET::::- Chuck Foreman RB, #44\n", "BULLET::::- John Gilliam WR, #42\n", "BULLET::::- Bud Grant Coach\n", "BULLET::::- Wally Hilgenberg LB, #58\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Hutchinson G #76\n", "BULLET::::- Tim Irwin OT, #76\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Jordan TE, #83\n", "BULLET::::- Tommy Kramer QB, #9\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Krause S, #22\n", "BULLET::::- Gary Larsen DT, #77\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Lee CB, #39\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Marshall DE, #70\n", "BULLET::::- Randall McDaniel G, #64\n", "BULLET::::- Keith Millard DT, #75\n", "BULLET::::- Randy Moss WR, #84\n", "BULLET::::- Dave Osborn RB, #41\n", "BULLET::::- Alan Page DT, #88\n", "BULLET::::- Adrian Peterson RB, #28\n", "BULLET::::- John Randle DT, #93\n", "BULLET::::- Ahmad Rashād WR, #28\n", "BULLET::::- Ed Sharockman CB, #45\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Siemon LB, #50\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Smith RB, #20/26\n", "BULLET::::- Scott Studwell LB, #55\n", "BULLET::::- Doug Sutherland DT, #69\n", "BULLET::::- Fran Tarkenton QB, #10\n", "BULLET::::- Henry Thomas DT, #97\n", "BULLET::::- Mick Tingelhoff C, #53\n", "BULLET::::- Stu Voigt TE, #83\n", "BULLET::::- Gene Washington WR, #84\n", "BULLET::::- Ed White G, #62\n", "BULLET::::- Sammy White WR, #85\n", "BULLET::::- Kevin Williams DT, #93\n", "BULLET::::- Antoine Winfield CB, #26\n", "BULLET::::- Roy Winston LB, #60\n", "BULLET::::- Ron Yary OT, #73\n", "BULLET::::- Gary Zimmerman OT, #65\n", "Section::::Players.:All Mall of America Field Team (2013).\n", "Offense\n", "BULLET::::- QB – #11 Daunte Culpepper, 1999–2005\n", "BULLET::::- RB – #28 Adrian Peterson, 2007–2013\n", "BULLET::::- RB – #26 Robert Smith, 1993–2000\n", "BULLET::::- WR – #81 Anthony Carter, 1985–1993\n", "BULLET::::- WR – #80 Cris Carter, 1990–2001\n", "BULLET::::- WR – #84 Randy Moss, 1998–2004, 2010\n", "BULLET::::- TE – #83 Steve Jordan, 1982–1994\n", "BULLET::::- OT – #76 Tim Irwin, 1981–1993\n", "BULLET::::- OT – #65 Gary Zimmerman, 1986–1992\n", "BULLET::::- OG – #76 Steve Hutchinson, 2006–2011\n", "BULLET::::- OG – #64 Randall McDaniel, 1988–1999\n", "BULLET::::- C – #78 Matt Birk, 1998–2008\n", "Defense\n", "BULLET::::- DE – #69 Jared Allen, 2008–2013\n", "BULLET::::- DE – #56 Chris Doleman, 1985–1993, 1999\n", "BULLET::::- DT – #93 John Randle, 1990–2000\n", "BULLET::::- DT – #93 Kevin Williams, 2003–2013\n", "BULLET::::- LB – #52 Chad Greenway, 2006–2013\n", "BULLET::::- LB – #58 Ed McDaniel, 1992–2001\n", "BULLET::::- LB – #55 Scott Studwell, 1977–1990\n", "BULLET::::- CB – #39 Carl Lee, 1983–1993\n", "BULLET::::- CB – #26 Antoine Winfield, 2004–2012\n", "BULLET::::- S – #24 Robert Griffith, 1994–2001\n", "BULLET::::- S – #47 Joey Browner, 1983–1991\n", "Special teams\n", "BULLET::::- K – #8 Ryan Longwell, 2006–2011\n", "BULLET::::- P – #5/#4 Chris Kluwe, 2005–2012\n", "BULLET::::- KR – #12 Percy Harvin (WR), 2009–2012\n", "BULLET::::- ST – #81 Chris Walsh (WR), 1994–2002\n", "Head Coach\n", "BULLET::::- HC – Dennis Green, 1992–2001\n", "Section::::Radio and television.\n", "The Vikings' flagship radio station is KFXN-FM (100.3), which uses the branding \"KFAN\" based on its former calls on 1130 AM before a format flip between the AM and FM stations before the 2011 season; 1130 AM also continues to broadcast game play-by-play as KTLK.\n", "The games are also heard on the \"KFAN Radio Network\" in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as well as many other outlets. Paul Allen has been the play-by-play announcer since the 2002 NFL season with Pete Bercich filling in as analyst, who began his first season in 2007.\n", "Telecasts of preseason games not shown on national networks are aired on KMSP (Channel 9) in the Twin Cities with a simulcast of KFAN's radio broadcast while Fox Sports North shows a tape delay later.\n", "Section::::Radio and television.:Radio affiliates.\n", "Section::::Radio and television.:Radio affiliates.:Wisconsin.\n", "Source:\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Pro Football Hall of Fame\n", "BULLET::::- List of Minnesota Vikings seasons\n", "BULLET::::- List of Minnesota Vikings starting quarterbacks\n", "BULLET::::- List of Minnesota Vikings head coaches\n", "BULLET::::- List of Minnesota Vikings first-round draft picks\n", "BULLET::::- Minnesota Vikings draft history\n", "BULLET::::- List of Minnesota Vikings broadcasters\n" ] }

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{ "description": "National Football League team", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q221150", "wikidata_label": "Minnesota Vikings", "wikipedia_title": "Minnesota Vikings", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Vikes", "Vikings" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20134, "parentid": 903647882, "revid": 905844859, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-11T20:32:42Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minnesota%20Vikings&oldid=905844859" }

{ "paragraph": [ "MIPS architecture\n", "MIPS (Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipelined Stages) is a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) instruction set architecture (ISA) developed by MIPS Computer Systems, now MIPS Technologies, based in the United States.\n", "There are multiple versions of MIPS: including MIPS I, II, III, IV, and V; as well as five releases of MIPS32/64 (for 32- and 64-bit implementations, respectively). The early MIPS architectures were 32-bit only; 64-bit versions were developed later. As of April 2017, the current version of MIPS is MIPS32/64 Release 6. MIPS32/64 primarily differs from MIPS I–V by defining the privileged kernel mode System Control Coprocessor in addition to the user mode architecture.\n", "Computer architecture courses in universities and technical schools often study the MIPS architecture. The architecture greatly influenced later RISC architectures such as Alpha.\n", "As of April 2017, MIPS processors are used in embedded systems such as residential gateways and routers. Originally, MIPS was designed for general-purpose computing. During the 1980s and 1990s, MIPS processors for personal, workstation, and server computers were used by many companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation, MIPS Computer Systems, NEC, Pyramid Technology, SiCortex, Siemens Nixdorf, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers. Historically, video game consoles such as the Nintendo 64, Sony PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and PlayStation Portable used MIPS processors. MIPS processors also used to be popular in supercomputers during the 1990s, but all such systems have dropped off the TOP500 list. These uses were complemented by embedded applications at first, but during the 1990s, MIPS became a major presence in the embedded processor market, and by the 2000s, most MIPS processors were for these applications. In the mid- to late-1990s, it was estimated that one in three RISC microprocessors produced was a MIPS processor.\n", "MIPS is a modular architecture supporting up to four coprocessors (CP0/1/2/3). In MIPS terminology, CP0 is the System Control Coprocessor (an essential part of the processor that is implementation-defined in MIPS I–V), CP1 is an optional floating-point unit (FPU) and CP2/3 are optional implementation-defined coprocessors (MIPS III removed CP3 and reused its opcodes for other purposes). For example, in the PlayStation video game console, CP2 is the Geometry Transformation Engine (GTE), which accelerates the processing of geometry in 3D computer graphics.\n", "The MIPS architecture has several optional extensions. MIPS-3D which is a simple set of floating-point SIMD instructions dedicated to common 3D tasks, MDMX (MaDMaX) which is a more extensive integer SIMD instruction set using the 64-bit floating-point registers, MIPS16e which adds compression to the instruction stream to make programs take up less room, and MIPS MT, which adds multithreading capability.\n", "In December 2018, Wave Computing, the new owner of the MIPS architecture (see MIPS Technologies), announced that MIPS ISA will be open-sourced in a program dubbed the MIPS Open initiative. The program being planned for 2019 is intended to open up access to the most recent versions of both the 32-bit and 64-bit designs making them available without any licensing or royalty fees as well as granting participants licenses to existing MIPS patents.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.\n", "The first version of the MIPS architecture was designed by MIPS Computer Systems for its R2000 microprocessor, the first MIPS implementation. Both MIPS and the R2000 were introduced together in 1985. When MIPS II was introduced, \"MIPS\" was renamed \"MIPS I\" to distinguish it from the new version.\n", "MIPS is a load/store architecture (also known as a \"register-register architecture\"); except for the load/store instructions used to access memory, all instructions operate on the registers.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:Registers.\n", "MIPS I has thirty-two 32-bit general-purpose registers (GPR). Register $0 is hardwired to zero and writes to it are discarded. Register $31 is the link register. For integer multiplication and division instructions, which run asynchronously from other instructions, a pair of 32-bit registers, \"HI\" and \"LO\", are provided. There is a small set of instructions for copying data between the general-purpose registers and the HI/LO registers.\n", "The program counter has 32 bits. The two low-order bits always contain zero since MIPS I instructions are 32 bits long and are aligned to their natural word boundaries.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:Instruction formats.\n", "Instructions are divided into three types: R, I and J. Every instruction starts with a 6-bit opcode. In addition to the opcode, R-type instructions specify three registers, a shift amount field, and a function field; I-type instructions specify two registers and a 16-bit immediate value; J-type instructions follow the opcode with a 26-bit jump target.\n", "The following are the three formats used for the core instruction set:\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.:Loads and stores.\n", "MIPS I has instructions that load and store 8-bit bytes, 16-bit halfwords, and 32-bit words. Only one addressing mode is supported: base + displacement. Since MIPS I is a 32-bit architecture, loading quantities fewer than 32 bits requires the datum to be either signed- or zero-extended to 32 bits. The load instructions suffixed by \"unsigned\" perform zero extension; otherwise sign extension is performed. Load instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and write the result to another GPR (rt). Store instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and the store data from another GPR (rt). All load and store instructions compute the memory address by summing the base with the sign-extended 16-bit immediate. MIPS I requires all memory accesses to be aligned to their natural word boundaries, otherwise an exception is signaled. To support efficient unaligned memory accesses, there are load/store word instructions suffixed by \"left\" or \"right\". All load instructions are followed by a load delay slot. The instruction in the load delay slot cannot use the data loaded by the load instruction. The load delay slot can be filled with an instruction that is not dependent on the load; a nop is substituted if such an instruction cannot be found.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.:ALU.\n", "MIPS I has instructions to perform addition and subtraction. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs (rs and rt), and write the result to a third GPR (rd). Alternatively, addition can source one of the operands from a 16-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits). The instructions for addition and subtraction have two variants: by default, an exception is signaled if the result overflows; instructions with the \"unsigned\" suffix do not signal an exception. The overflow check interprets the result as a 32-bit two's complement integer.\n", "MIPS I has instructions to perform bitwise logical AND, OR, XOR, and NOR. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs and write the result to a third GPR. The AND, OR, and XOR instructions can alternatively source one of the operands from a 16-bit immediate (which is zero-extended to 32 bits).\n", "The Set on \"relation\" instructions write one or zero to the destination register if the specified relation is true or false. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs or one GPR and a 16-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits), and write the result to a third GPR. By default, the operands are interpreted as signed integers. The variants of these instructions that are suffixed with \"unsigned\" interpret the operands as unsigned integers (even those that source an operand from the sign-extended 16-bit immediate).\n", "The Load Immediate Upper instruction copies the 16-bit immediate into the high-order 16 bits of a GPR. It is used in conjunction with the Or Immediate instruction to load a 32-bit immediate into a register.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.:Shifts.\n", "MIPS I has instructions to perform left and right logical shifts and right arithmetic shifts. The operand is obtained from a GPR (rt), and the result is written to another GPR (rd). The shift distance is obtained from either a GPR (rs) or a 5-bit \"shift amount\" (the \"sa\" field).\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.:Multiplication and division.\n", "MIPS I has instructions for signed and unsigned integer multiplication and division. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs and write their results to a pair of 32-bit registers called HI and LO, since they may execute separately from (and concurrently with) the other CPU instructions. For multiplication, the high- and low-order halves of the 64-bit product is written to HI and LO (respectively). For division, the quotient is written to LO and the remainder to HI. To access the results, a pair of instructions (Move from HI and Move from LO) is provided to copy the contents of HI or LO to a GPR. These instructions are interlocked: reads of HI and LO do not proceed past an unfinished arithmetic instruction that will write to HI and LO. Another pair of instructions (Move to HI or Move to LO) copies the contents of a GPR to HI and LO. These instructions are used to restore HI and LO to their original state after exception handling. Instructions that read HI or LO must be separated by two instructions that do not write to HI or LO.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.:Jump and branch.\n", "All MIPS I control flow instructions are followed by a branch delay slot. Unless the branch delay slot is filled by an instruction performing useful work, an nop is substituted. MIPS I branch instructions compare the contents of a GPR (rs) against zero or another GPR (rt) as signed integers and branch if the specified condition is true. Control is transferred to the address computed by shifting the 16-bit offset left by two bits, sign-extending the 18-bit result, and adding the 32-bit sign-extended result to the sum of the program counter (instruction address) and 8. Jumps have two versions: absolute and register-indirect. Absolute jumps (\"Jump\" and \"Jump and Link\") compute the address control is transferred to by shifting the 26-bit instr_index left by two bits and concatenating the 28-bit result with the four high-order bits of the address of the instruction in the branch delay slot. Register-indirect jumps transfer control to the instruction at the address sourced from a GPR (rs). The address sourced from the GPR must be word-aligned, else an exception is signaled after the instruction in the branch delay slot is executed. Branch and jump instructions that link (except for \"Jump and Link Register\") save the return address to GPR 31. The \"Jump and Link Register\" instruction permits the return address to be saved to any writable GPR.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:CPU instructions.:Exception.\n", "MIPS I has two instructions for software to signal an exception: System Call and Breakpoint. System Call is used by user mode software to make kernel calls; and Breakpoint is used to transfer control to a debugger via the kernel's exception handler. Both instructions have a 20-bit Code field that can contain operating environment-specific information for the exception handler.\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:FPU instructions.\n", "MIPS has 32 floating-point registers. Two registers are paired for double precision numbers. Odd numbered registers cannot be used for arithmetic or branching, just as part of a double precision register pair, resulting in 16 usable registers for most instructions (moves/copies and loads/stores were not affected).\n", "Section::::MIPS I.:FPU instructions.:Arithmetic.\n", "Single precision is denoted by the .s suffix, while double precision is denoted by the .d suffix.\n", "Section::::MIPS II.\n", "MIPS II removed the load delay slot and added several sets of instructions. For shared-memory multiprocessing, the \"Synchronize Shared Memory\", \"Load Linked Word\", and \"Store Conditional Word\" instructions were added. A set of Trap-on-Condition instructions were added. These instructions caused an exception if the evaluated condition is true. All existing branch instructions were given \"branch-likely\" versions that executed the instruction in the branch delay slot only if the branch is taken. These instructions improve performance in certain cases by allowing useful instructions to fill the branch delay slot. Doubleword load and store instructions for COP1–3 were added. Consistent with other memory access instructions, these loads and stores required the doubleword to be naturally aligned.\n", "The instruction set for the floating point coprocessor also had several instructions added to it. An IEEE 754-compliant floating-point square root instruction was added. It supported both single- and double-precision operands. A set of instructions that converted single- and double-precision floating-point numbers to 32-bit words were added. These complemented the existing conversion instructions by allowing the IEEE rounding mode to be specified by the instruction instead of the Floating Point Control and Status Register.\n", "MIPS Computer Systems' R6000 microprocessor (1989) is the first MIPS II implementation. Designed for servers, the R6000 was fabricated and sold by Bipolar Integrated Technology, but was a commercial failure. During the mid-1990s, many new 32-bit MIPS processors for embedded systems were MIPS II implementations because the introduction of the 64-bit MIPS III architecture in 1991 left MIPS II as the newest 32-bit MIPS architecture until MIPS32 was introduced in 1999.A\n", "Section::::MIPS III.\n", "MIPS III is a backwards-compatible extension of MIPS II that added support for 64-bit memory addressing and integer operations. The 64-bit data type is called a doubleword, and MIPS III extended the general-purpose registers, HI/LO registers, and program counter to 64 bits to support it. New instructions were added to load and store doublewords, to perform integer addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and shift operations on them, and to move doubleword between the GPRs and HI/LO registers. Existing instructions originally defined to operate on 32-bit words were redefined, where necessary, to sign-extend the 32-bit results to permit words and doublewords to be treated identically by most instructions. Among those instructions redefined was \"Load Word\". In MIPS III it sign-extends words to 64 bits. To complement \"Load Word\", a version that zero-extends was added.\n", "The R instruction format's inability to specify the full shift distance for 64-bit shifts (its 5-bit shift amount field is too narrow to specify the shift distance for doublewords) required MIPS III to provide three 64-bit versions of each MIPS I shift instruction. The first version is a 64-bit version of the original shift instructions, used to specify constant shift distances of 0–31 bits. The second version is similar to the first, but adds 32 the shift amount field's value so that constant shift distances of 32–64 bits can be specified. The third version obtains the shift distance from the six low-order bits of a GPR.\n", "MIPS III added a \"supervisor\" privilege level in between the existing kernel and user privilege levels. This feature only affected the implementation-defined System Control Processor (Coprocessor 0).\n", "MIPS III removed the Coprocessor 3 (CP3) support instructions, and reused its opcodes for the new doubleword instructions. The remaining coprocessors gained instructions to move doublewords between coprocessor registers and the GPRs. The floating general registers (FGRs) were extended to 64 bits and the requirement for instructions to use even-numbered register only was removed. This is incompatible with earlier versions of the architecture; a bit in the floating-point control/status register is used to operate the MIPS III floating-point unit (FPU) in a MIPS I- and II-compatible mode. The floating-point control registers were not extended for compatibility. The only new floating-point instructions added were those to copy doublewords between the CPU and FPU convert single- and double-precision floating-point numbers into doubleword integers and vice versa.\n", "MIPS Computer Systems' R4000 microprocessor (1991) was the first MIPS III implementation. It was designed for use in personal, workstation, and server computers. MIPS Computer Systems aggressively promoted the MIPS architecture and R4000, establishing the Advanced Computing Environment (ACE) consortium to advance its Advanced RISC Computing (ARC) standard, which aimed to establish MIPS as the dominant personal computing platform. ARC found little success in personal computers, but the R4000 (and the R4400 derivative) were widely used in workstation and server computers, especially by its largest user, Silicon Graphics. Other uses of the R4000 included high-end embedded systems and supercomputers.\n", "MIPS III was eventually implemented by a number of embedded microprocessors. Quantum Effect Design's R4600 (1993) and its derivatives was widely used in high-end embedded systems and low-end workstations and servers. MIPS Technologies' R4200 (1994), was designed for embedded systems, laptop, and personal computers. A derivative, the R4300i, fabricated by NEC Electronics, was used in the Nintendo 64 game console. The Nintendo 64, along with the PlayStation, were among the highest volume users of MIPS architecture processors in the mid-1990s.\n", "Section::::MIPS IV.\n", "MIPS IV is the fourth version of the architecture. It is a superset of MIPS III and is compatible with all existing versions of MIPS. MIPS IV was designed to mainly improve floating-point (FP) performance. To improve access to operands, an indexed addressing mode (base + index, both sourced from GPRs) for FP loads and stores was added, as were prefetch instructions for performing memory prefetching and specifying cache hints (these supported both the base + offset and base + index addressing modes).\n", "MIPS IV added several features to improve instruction-level parallelism. To alleviate the bottleneck caused by a single condition bit, seven condition code bits were added to the floating-point control and status register, bringing the total to eight. FP comparison and branch instructions were redefined so they could specify which condition bit was written or read (respectively); and the delay slot in between an FP branch that read the condition bit written to by a prior FP comparison was removed. Support for partial predication was added in the form of conditional move instructions for both GPRs and FPRs; and an implementation could choose between having precise or imprecise exceptions for IEEE 754 traps.\n", "MIPS IV added several new FP arithmetic instructions for both single- and double-precision FPNs: fused-multiply add or subtract, reciprocal, and reciprocal square-root. The FP fused-multiply add or subtract instructions perform either one or two roundings (it is implementation-defined), to exceed or meet IEEE 754 accuracy requirements (respectively). The FP reciprocal and reciprocal square-root instructions do not comply with IEEE 754 accuracy requirements, and produce results that differ from the required accuracy by one or two units of last place (it is implementation defined). These instructions serve applications where instruction latency is more important than accuracy.\n", "The first MIPS IV implementation was the MIPS Technologies R8000 microprocessor chipset (1994). The design of the R8000 began at Silicon Graphics, Inc. and it was only used in high-end workstations and servers for scientific and technical applications where high performance on large floating-point workloads was important. Later implementations were the MIPS Technologies R10000 (1996) and the Quantum Effect Devices R5000 (1996) and RM7000 (1998). The R10000, fabricated and sold by NEC Electronics and Toshiba, and its derivatives were used by NEC, Pyramid Technology, Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Tandem Computers (among others) in workstations, servers, and supercomputers. The R5000 and R7000 found use in high-end embedded systems, personal computers, and low-end workstations and servers. A derivative of the R5000 from Toshiba, the R5900, was used in Sony Computer Entertainment's Emotion Engine, which powered its PlayStation 2 game console.\n", "Section::::MIPS V.\n", "Announced on October 21, 1996 at the Microprocessor Forum 1996 alongside the MIPS Digital Media Extensions (MDMX) extension, MIPS V was designed to improve the performance of 3D graphics transformations. In the mid-1990s, a major use of non-embedded MIPS microprocessors were graphics workstations from SGI. MIPS V was completed by the integer-only MDMX extension to provide a complete system for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications.\n", "MIPS V implementations were never introduced. On May 12, 1997, SGI announced the \"H1\" (\"Beast\") and \"H2\" (\"Capitan\") microprocessors. The former was to have been the first MIPS V implementation, and was due to be introduced in the first half of 1999. The \"H1\" and \"H2\" projects were later combined and were eventually canceled in 1998. While there have not been any MIPS V implementations, MIPS64 Release 1 (1999) was based on MIPS V and retains all of its features as an optional Coprocessor 1 (FPU) feature called Paired-Single.\n", "MIPS V added a new data type, the Paired Single (PS), which consisted of two single-precision (32-bit) floating-point numbers stored in the existing 64-bit floating-point registers. Variants of existing floating-point instructions for arithmetic, compare and conditional move were added to operate on this data type in a SIMD fashion. New instructions were added for loading, rearranging and converting PS data. It was the first instruction set to exploit floating-point SIMD with existing resources.\n", "Section::::MIPS32/MIPS64.\n", "When MIPS Technologies was spun-out of Silicon Graphics in 1998, it refocused on the embedded market. Up to MIPS V, each successive version was a strict superset of the previous version, but this property was found to be a problem, and the architecture definition was changed to define a 32-bit and a 64-bit architecture: MIPS32 and MIPS64. Both were introduced in 1999. MIPS32 is based on MIPS II with some additional features from MIPS III, MIPS IV, and MIPS V; MIPS64 is based on MIPS V. NEC, Toshiba and SiByte (later acquired by Broadcom) each obtained licenses for MIPS64 as soon as it was announced. Philips, LSI Logic, IDT, Raza Microelectronics, Inc., Cavium, Loongson Technology and Ingenic Semiconductor have since joined them.\n", "Section::::MIPS32/MIPS64.:MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 1.\n", "The first release of MIPS32, based on MIPS II, added conditional moves, prefetch instructions, and other features from the R4000 and R5000 families of 64-bit processors. The first release of MIPS64 adds a MIPS32 mode to run 32-bit code. The MUL and MADD (multiply-add) instructions, previously available in some implementations, were added to the MIPS32 and MIPS64 specifications, as were cache control instructions.\n", "Section::::MIPS32/MIPS64.:MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 5.\n", "Announced on December 6, 2012. Release 4 was skipped because the number four is perceived as unlucky in many Asian cultures.\n", "Section::::MIPS32/MIPS64.:MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 6.\n", "MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 6 in 2014 added the following:\n", "BULLET::::- a new family of branches with no delay slot:\n", "BULLET::::- unconditional branches (BC) and branch-and-link (BALC) with a 26-bit offset,\n", "BULLET::::- conditional branch on zero/non-zero with a 21-bit offset,\n", "BULLET::::- full set of signed and unsigned conditional branches compare between two registers (e.g. BGTUC) or a register against zero (e.g. BGTZC),\n", "BULLET::::- full set of branch-and-link which compare a register against zero (e.g. BGTZALC).\n", "BULLET::::- index jump instructions with no delay slot designed to support large absolute addresses.\n", "BULLET::::- instructions to load 16-bit immediates at bit position 16, 32 or 48, allowing to easily generate large constants.\n", "BULLET::::- PC-relative load instructions, as well as address generation with large (PC-relative) offsets.\n", "BULLET::::- bit-reversal and byte-alignment instructions (previously only available with the DSP extension).\n", "BULLET::::- multiply and divide instructions redefined so that they use a single register for their result).\n", "BULLET::::- instructions generating truth values now generate all zeroes or all ones instead of just clearing/setting the 0-bit,\n", "BULLET::::- instructions using a truth value now only interpret all-zeroes as false instead of just looking at the 0-bit.\n", "Removed infrequently used instructions:\n", "BULLET::::- some conditional moves\n", "BULLET::::- \"branch likely\" instructions (deprecated in previous releases).\n", "BULLET::::- integer overflow trapping instructions with 16-bit immediate\n", "BULLET::::- integer accumulator instructions (together HI/LO registers, moved to the DSP Application-Specific Extension)\n", "BULLET::::- unaligned load instructions (LWL and LWR), (requiring that most ordinary loads and stores support misaligned access, possibly via trapping and with the addition of a new instruction (BALIGN))\n", "Reorganized the instruction encoding, freeing space for future expansions.\n", "Section::::microMIPS.\n", "The microMIPS32/64 architectures are supersets of the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures (respectively) designed to replace the MIPS16e ASE. A disadvantage of MIPS16e is that it requires a mode switch before any of its 16-bit instructions can be processed. microMIPS adds versions of the most-frequently used 32-bit instructions that are encoded as 16-bit instructions. This allows programs to intermix 16- and 32-bit instructions without having to switch modes. microMIPS was introduced alongside of MIPS32/64 Release 3, and each subsequent release of MIPS32/64 has a corresponding microMIPS32/64 version. A processor may implement microMIPS32/64 or both microMIPS32/64 and its corresponding MIPS32/64 subset. Starting with MIPS32/64 Release 6, support for MIPS16e ended, and microMIPS is the only form of code compression in MIPS.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.\n", "The base MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures can be supplemented with a number of optional architectural extensions, which are collectively referred to as \"application-specific extensions\" (ASEs). These ASEs provide features that improve the efficiency and performance of certain workloads, such as digital signal processing.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS MCU.\n", "Enhancements for microcontroller applications. The MCU ASE (application-specific extension) has been developed to extend the interrupt controller support, reduce the interrupt latency and enhance the I/O peripheral control function typically required in microcontroller system designs.\n", "BULLET::::- Separate priority and vector generation\n", "BULLET::::- Supports up to 256 interrupts in EIC (External Interrupt Controller) mode and eight hardware interrupt pins\n", "BULLET::::- Provides 16-bit vector offset address\n", "BULLET::::- Pre-fetching of the interrupt exception vector\n", "BULLET::::- Automated Interrupt Prologue – adds hardware to save and update system status before the interrupt handling routine\n", "BULLET::::- Automated Interrupt Epilogue – restores the system state previously stored in the stack for returning from the interrupt.\n", "BULLET::::- Interrupt Chaining – supports the service of pending interrupts without the need to exit the initial interrupt routine, saving the cycles required to store and restore multiple active interrupts\n", "BULLET::::- Supports speculative pre-fetching of the interrupt vector address. Reduces the number of interrupt service cycles by overlapping memory accesses with pipeline flushes and exception prioritization\n", "BULLET::::- Includes atomic bit set/clear instructions which enables bits within an I/O register that are normally used to monitor or control external peripheral functions to be modified without interruption, ensuring the action is performed securely.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS16.\n", "MIPS16 is an Application-Specific Extension for MIPS I through to V designed by LSI Logic and MIPS Technologies, announced on October 21, 1996 alongside its first implementation, the LSI Logic TinyRISC processor. MIPS16 was subsequently licensed by NEC Electronics, Philips Semiconductors, and Toshiba (among others); and implemented as an extension to the MIPS I, II, an III architectures. MIPS16 decreases the size of application by up to 40% by using 16-bit instructions instead of 32-bit instructions' and also improves power efficiency, the instruction cache hit rate, and is equivalent in performance to its base architecture. It is supported by hardware and software development tools from MIPS Technologies and other providers.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS16.:MIPS16e.\n", "MIPS16e is an improved version of MIPS16 first supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 Release 1.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS16.:MIPS16e2.\n", "MIPS16e2 is an improved version of MIPS16 that is supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 (up to Release 5). Release 6 replaced it with microMIPS.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS DSP.\n", "The DSP ASE is an optional extension to the MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 2 and newer instruction sets which can be used to accelerate a large range of \"media\" computations—particularly audio and video. The DSP module comprises a set of instructions and state in the integer pipeline and requires minimal additional logic to implement in MIPS processor cores. Revision 2 of the ASE was introduced in the second half of 2006. This revision adds extra instructions to the original ASE, but is otherwise backwards-compatible with it.\n", "Unlike the bulk of the MIPS architecture, it's a fairly irregular set of operations, many chosen for a particular relevance to some key algorithm.\n", "Its main novel features (vs original MIPS32):\n", "BULLET::::- Saturating arithmetic (when a calculation overflows, deliver the representable number closest to the non-overflowed answer).\n", "BULLET::::- Fixed-point arithmetic on signed 32- and 16-bit fixed-point fractions with a range of -1 to +1 (these are widely called \"Q31\" and \"Q15\").\n", "BULLET::::- The existing integer multiplication and multiply-accumulate instructions, which deliver results into a double-size accumulator (called \"hi/lo\" and 64 bits on MIPS32 CPUs). The DSP ASE adds three more accumulators, and some different flavours of multiply-accumulate.\n", "BULLET::::- SIMD instructions operating on 4 x unsigned bytes or 2 x 16-bit values packed into a 32-bit register (the 64-bit variant of the DSP ASE supports larger vectors, too).\n", "BULLET::::- SIMD operations are basic arithmetic, shifts and some multiply-accumulate type operations.\n", "To make use of MIPS DSP ASE, you may:\n", "BULLET::::- Hand-code in assembly language, which is the most time-consuming method of utilizing the MIPS DSP ASE, but can produce code with the highest performance.\n", "BULLET::::- Use asm macros supported by GCC that produce DSP instructions directly from C code.\n", "BULLET::::- Use intrinsics supported by GCC for the MIPS DSP ASE.\n", "BULLET::::- Use fixed-point data types and operators in C supported by GCC. The MIPS DSP ASE is the only processor architecture that supports fixed-point data types in a general-purpose processor.\n", "BULLET::::- Use auto-vectorization supported by GCC for loops via the optimization option codice_1. The advantage of auto-vectorization is that the compiler can recognize scalar variables (which can be integer, fixed-point, or floating-point types) in order to utilize SIMD instructions automatically. In the ideal case, when auto-vectorization is used, there is no need to use SIMD variables explicitly.\n", "Linux 2.6.12-rc5 starting 2005-05-31 adds support for the DSP ASE. Note that to actually make use of the DSP ASE a toolchain which support this is required. GCC already has support for DSP and DSPr2.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS SIMD architecture.\n", "Instruction set extensions designed to accelerate multimedia.\n", "BULLET::::- 32 vector registers of 16 x 8-bit, 8 x 16-bit, 4 x 32-bit, and 2 x 64 bit vector elements\n", "BULLET::::- Efficient vector parallel arithmetic operations on integer, fixed-point and floating-point data\n", "BULLET::::- Operations on absolute value operands\n", "BULLET::::- Rounding and saturation options available\n", "BULLET::::- Full precision multiply and multiply-add\n", "BULLET::::- Conversions between integer, floating-point, and fixed-point data\n", "BULLET::::- Complete set of vector-level compare and branch instructions with no condition flag\n", "BULLET::::- Vector (1D) and array (2D) shuffle operations\n", "BULLET::::- Typed load and store instructions for endian-independent operation\n", "BULLET::::- IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic 754-2008 compliant\n", "BULLET::::- Element precise floating-point exception signaling\n", "BULLET::::- Pre-defined scalable extensions for chips with more gates/transistors\n", "BULLET::::- Accelerates compute-intensive applications in conjunction with leveraging generic compiler support\n", "BULLET::::- Software-programmable solution for consumer electronics applications or functions not covered by dedicated hardware\n", "BULLET::::- Emerging data mining, feature extraction, image and video processing, and human-computer interaction applications\n", "BULLET::::- High-performance scientific computing\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS virtualization.\n", "Hardware supported virtualization technology.\n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS multi-threading.\n", "Each multi-threaded MIPS core can support up to two VPEs (Virtual Processing Elements) which share a single pipeline as well as other hardware resources. However, since each VPE includes a complete copy of the processor state as seen by the software system, each VPE appears as a complete standalone processor to an SMP Linux operating system. For more fine-grained thread processing applications, each VPE is capable of supporting up to nine TCs allocated across two VPEs. The TCs share a common execution unit but each has its own program counter and core register files so that each can handle a thread from the software.\n", "The MIPS MT architecture also allows the allocation of processor cycles to threads, and sets the relative thread priorities with an optional Quality of Service (QoS) manager block. This enables two prioritization mechanisms that determine the flow of information across the bus. The first mechanism allows the user to prioritize one thread over another. The second mechanism is used to allocate a specified ratio of the cycles to specific threads over time. The combined use of both mechanisms allows effective allocation of bandwidth to the set of threads, and better control of latencies. In real-time systems, system-level determinism is very critical, and the QoS block facilitates improvement of the predictability of a system. Hardware designers of advanced systems may replace the standard QoS block provided by MIPS Technologies with one that is specifically tuned for their application.\n", "Single-threaded microprocessors today waste many cycles while waiting to access memory, considerably limiting system performance. The use of multi-threading masks the effect of memory latency by increasing processor utilization. As one thread stalls, additional threads are instantly fed into the pipeline and executed, resulting in a significant gain in application throughput. Users can allocate dedicated processing bandwidth to real-time tasks resulting in a guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). MIPS’ MT technology constantly monitors the progress of threads and dynamically takes corrective actions to meet or exceed the real-time requirements. A processor pipeline can achieve 80-90% utilization by switching threads during data-dependent stalls or cache misses. All of this leads to an improved mobile device user experience, as responsiveness is greatly increased. \n", "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:SmartMIPS.\n", "SmartMIPS is an Application-Specific Extension (ASE) designed by Gemplus International and MIPS Technologies to improve performance and reduce memory consumption for smart card software. It is supported by MIPS32 only, since smart cards do not require the capabilities of MIPS64 processors. Few smart cards use SmartMIPS.\n", "Section::::Simulators.\n", "Open Virtual Platforms (OVP) includes the freely available for non-commercial use simulator OVPsim, a library of models of processors, peripherals and platforms, and APIs which enable users to develop their own models. The models in the library are open source, written in C, and include the MIPS 4K, 24K, 34K, 74K, 1004K, 1074K, M14K, microAptiv, interAptiv, proAptiv 32-bit cores and the MIPS 64-bit 5K range of cores. These models are created and maintained by Imperas and in partnership with MIPS Technologies have been tested and assigned the MIPS-Verified (tm) mark. Sample MIPS-based platforms include both bare metal environments and platforms for booting unmodified Linux binary images. These platforms–emulators are available as source or binaries and are fast, free for non-commercial usage, and are easy to use. OVPsim is developed and maintained by Imperas and is very fast (hundreds of million of instructions per second), and built to handle multicore homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures and systems.\n", "There is a freely available MIPS32 simulator (earlier versions simulated only the R2000/R3000) called SPIM for use in education. EduMIPS64 is a GPL graphical cross-platform MIPS64 CPU simulator, written in Java/Swing. It supports a wide subset of the MIPS64 ISA and allows the user to graphically see what happens in the pipeline when an assembly program is run by the CPU.\n", "MARS is another GUI-based MIPS emulator designed for use in education, specifically for use with Hennessy's \"Computer Organization and Design\".\n", "WebMIPS is a browser-based MIPS simulator with visual representation of a generic, pipelined processor. This simulator is quite useful for register tracking during step by step execution.\n", "More advanced free emulators are available from the GXemul (formerly known as the mips64emul project) and QEMU projects. These emulate the various MIPS III and IV microprocessors in addition to entire computer systems which use them.\n", "Commercial simulators are available especially for the embedded use of MIPS processors, for example Wind River Simics (MIPS 4Kc and 5Kc, PMC RM9000, QED RM7000, Broadcom/Netlogic ec4400, Cavium Octeon I), Imperas (all MIPS32 and MIPS64 cores), VaST Systems (R3000, R4000), and CoWare (the MIPS4KE, MIPS24K, MIPS25Kf and MIPS34K).\n", "WepSIM is a browser-based simulator where a subset of MIPS instructions are micro-programmed. This simulator is very useful in order to learn how a CPU works (microprogramming, MIPS routines, traps, interruptions, system calls, etc.).\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- DLX, a very similar architecture designed by John L. Hennessy (MIPS' architect) for teaching purposes\n", "BULLET::::- List of MIPS architecture processors\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS architecture processors\n", "BULLET::::- Pipeline (computing)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS Processors\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS Open\n", "BULLET::::- prpl Foundation (a non-profit foundation founded by Imagination Technologies to support the MIPS platform)\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS Architecture history diagram\n", "BULLET::::- Online MIPS emulator\n", "BULLET::::- MIPS Instructions - MIPS Instruction Set\n" ] }

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{ "description": "instruction set architecture", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q527464", "wikidata_label": "MIPS", "wikipedia_title": "MIPS architecture", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages", "MIPS Architecture" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "March 12\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "BULLET::::- 538 – Vitiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving the city in the hands of the victorious Byzantine general, Belisarius\n", "BULLET::::- 1550 – Several hundred Spanish and indigenous troops under the command of Pedro de Valdivia defeat an army of 60,000 Mapuche at the Battle of Penco during the Arauco War in present-day Chile.\n", "BULLET::::- 1622 – Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier, founders of the Society of Jesus, are canonized by the Roman Catholic Church.\n", "BULLET::::- 1672 – Robert Holmes attacks a Dutch trade convoy, the Smyrna fleet, beginning the \"Rampjaar\".\n", "BULLET::::- 1689 – The Williamite War in Ireland begins.\n", "BULLET::::- 1811 – Peninsular War: A day after a successful rearguard action, French Marshal Michel Ney once again successfully delayed the pursuing Anglo-Portuguese force at the Battle of Redinha.\n", "BULLET::::- 1864 – American Civil War: The Red River Campaign begins as a US Navy fleet of 13 Ironclads and 7 Gunboats and other support ships enter the Red River.\n", "BULLET::::- 1881 – Andrew Watson makes his Scotland debut as the world's first black international football player and captain.\n", "BULLET::::- 1885 – Tonkin Campaign: France captures the citadel of Bắc Ninh.\n", "BULLET::::- 1894 – Coca-Cola is bottled and sold for the first time in Vicksburg, Mississippi, by local soda fountain operator Joseph A. Biedenharn.\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – The Girl Guides (later renamed the Girl Scouts of the USA) are founded in the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- 1913 – Canberra Day: The future capital of Australia is officially named Canberra. (Melbourne remains temporary capital until 1927 while the new capital is still under construction.)\n", "BULLET::::- 1918 – Moscow becomes the capital of Russia again after Saint Petersburg held this status for 215 years.\n", "BULLET::::- 1920 – The Kapp Putsch begins when the Marinebrigade Ehrhardt is ordered to march on Berlin.\n", "BULLET::::- 1921 – İstiklâl Marşı is adopted in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan form the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – In California, the St. Francis Dam fails; the resulting floods kill 431 people.\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – Mahatma Gandhi begins the \"Salt March\", a 200-mile march to the sea to protest the British monopoly on salt in India.\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Great Depression: Franklin D. Roosevelt addresses the nation for the first time as President of the United States. This is also the first of his \"fireside chats\".\n", "BULLET::::- 1934 – Konstantin Päts and General Johan Laidoner stage a coup in Estonia, and ban all political parties.\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – \"Anschluss:\" German troops occupy and absorb Austria.\n", "BULLET::::- 1940 – Winter War: Finland signs the Moscow Peace Treaty with the Soviet Union, ceding almost all of Finnish Karelia. Finnish troops and the remaining population are immediately evacuated.\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – World War II: Pacific War: The Battle of Java ends with an ABDACOM surrender to the Japanese Empire in Bandung, West Java, Dutch East Indies.\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – Italian occupation of Greece: The Italian occupying forces abandon the town of Karditsa to the partisans. On the same day, an Italian motorized column razes the village of Tsaritsani, burning 360 of its 600 houses and shooting 40 civilians.\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Cold War: The Truman Doctrine is proclaimed to help stem the spread of Communism.\n", "BULLET::::- 1950 – The Llandow air disaster occurs near Sigingstone, Wales, in which 80 people die when their aircraft crashed, making it the world's deadliest air disaster at the time.\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – First winter ascent of the North Face of the Eiger.\n", "BULLET::::- 1967 – Suharto takes power from Sukarno when the MPRS inaugurate him as Acting President of Indonesia.\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Mauritius achieves independence from the United Kingdom.\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – The March 12 Memorandum is sent to the Suleyman Demirel government of Turkey and the government resigns.\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Mauritius becomes a republic while remaining a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Several bombs explode in Mumbai, India, killing about 300 and injuring hundreds more.\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – North Korea nuclear weapons program: North Korea says that it plans to withdraw from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and refuses to allow inspectors access to its nuclear sites.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – The Church of England ordains its first female priests.\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – Former Warsaw Pact members the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland join NATO.\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Zoran Đinđić, Prime Minister of Serbia, is assassinated in Belgrade.\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – WHO officially release global warning on pandemic SARS disease.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 – The President of South Korea, Roh Moo-hyun, is impeached by its National Assembly: The first such impeachment in the nation's history.\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 – Financier Bernard Madoff pleads guilty in New York to scamming $18 billion, the largest in Wall Street's history.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 – A reactor at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant melts and explodes and releases radioactivity into the atmosphere a day after Japan's earthquake.\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – A gas explosion in the New York City neighborhood of East Harlem kills eight and injures 70 others.\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 – In the House of Commons, the revised EU Withdrawal Bill was rejected by a margin of 149 votes.\n", "Section::::Births.\n", "BULLET::::- 1096 – Canute Lavard, Danish prince (d. 1131)\n", "BULLET::::- 1270 – Charles, Count of Valois (d. 1325)\n", "BULLET::::- 1386 – Ashikaga Yoshimochi, Japanese shōgun (d. 1428)\n", "BULLET::::- 1475 – Luca Gaurico, Italian astrologer (d. 1558)\n", "BULLET::::- 1476 – Anna Jagiellon, Duchess of Pomerania, Polish princess (d. 1503)\n", "BULLET::::- 1479 – Giuliano de' Medici, Duke of Nemours (d. 1516)\n", "BULLET::::- 1500 – Reginald Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1558)\n", "BULLET::::- 1501 – Pietro Andrea Mattioli, Italian scientist (d. 1577)\n", "BULLET::::- 1515 – Caspar Othmayr, German Lutheran pastor and composer (d. 1553)\n", "BULLET::::- 1573 – Agnes Hedwig of Anhalt, Duchess of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Plön (d. 1616)\n", "BULLET::::- 1607 – Paul Gerhardt, German poet and composer (d. 1676)\n", "BULLET::::- 1613 – André Le Nôtre, French gardener and architect (d. 1700)\n", "BULLET::::- 1626 – John Aubrey, English historian and philosopher (d. 1697)\n", "BULLET::::- 1637 – Anne Hyde, Duchess of York and Albany (d. 1671)\n", "BULLET::::- 1647 – Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie, French general (d. 1727)\n", "BULLET::::- 1672 – Richard Steele, Irish-Welsh journalist and politician (d. 1729)\n", "BULLET::::- 1685 – George Berkeley, Irish bishop and philosopher (d. 1753)\n", "BULLET::::- 1701 – Johann Friedrich Cotta, German Lutheran theologian (d. 1779)\n", "BULLET::::- 1710 – Thomas Arne, English composer (d. 1778)\n", "BULLET::::- 1735 – François-Emmanuel Guignard, comte de Saint-Priest, French politician and diplomat (d. 1821)\n", "BULLET::::- 1753 – Jean Denis, French politician, lawyer, jurist, journalist, and historian (d. 1827)\n", "BULLET::::- 1756 – Avram Mrazović, Serbian writer, translator, pedagogue and Senator (d. 1826)\n", "BULLET::::- 1766 – Claudius Buchanan, Scottish theologian (d. 1815)\n", "BULLET::::- 1766 – Francisco Javier de Cienfuegos y Jovellanos, Spanish bishop and cardinal (d. 1847)\n", "BULLET::::- 1774 – Johann Caspar Horner, Swiss physicist, mathematician and astronomer (d. 1834)\n", "BULLET::::- 1781 – Frederica of Baden (d. 1826)\n", "BULLET::::- 1784 – William Buckland, English geologist and paleontologist; Dean of Westminster (d. 1856)\n", "BULLET::::- 1785 – Clemens Maria Franz von Bönninghausen, Dutch and Prussian lawyer (d. 1864)\n", "BULLET::::- 1795 – William Lyon Mackenzie, Scottish-Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Mayor of Toronto (d. 1861)\n", "BULLET::::- 1795 – George Tyler Wood, American military officer and politician (d. 1858)\n", "BULLET::::- 1806 – Jane Pierce, American wife of Franklin Pierce, 15th First Lady of the United States (d. 1863)\n", "BULLET::::- 1807 – James Abbott, Indian Army officer (d. 1896)\n", "BULLET::::- 1807 – Albert Mackey, American medical doctor and author (d. 1881)\n", "BULLET::::- 1812 – Ignacio Comonfort, Mexican politician and soldier (d. 1863)\n", "BULLET::::- 1815 – Louis-Jules Trochu, French military leader and politician (d. 1896)\n", "BULLET::::- 1821 – John Abbott, Canadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1893)\n", "BULLET::::- 1821 – Medo Pucić, Croatian writer and politician (d. 1882)\n", "BULLET::::- 1823 – Katsu Kaishū, Japanese statesman (d. 1899)\n", "BULLET::::- 1824 – Gustav Kirchhoff, Russian-German physicist and academic (d. 1887)\n", "BULLET::::- 1831 – Joseph Gérard, French Roman Catholic priest (d. 1914)\n", "BULLET::::- 1832 – Charles Boycott, English farmer and agent (d. 1897)\n", "BULLET::::- 1832 – Jean Alfred Fournier, French dermatologist (d. 1914)\n", "BULLET::::- 1834 – Hilary A. Herbert, Secretary of the Navy (d. 1919)\n", "BULLET::::- 1835 – Gregorio Maria Aguirre y Garcia, Archbishop of Toledo and Primate of Spain\n", "BULLET::::- 1835 – Simon Newcomb, Canadian-American astronomer and mathematician (d. 1909)\n", "BULLET::::- 1837 – Alexandre Guilmant, French organist and composer (d. 1911)\n", "BULLET::::- 1838 – William Henry Perkin, English chemist and academic (d. 1907)\n", "BULLET::::- 1843 – Gabriel Tarde, French sociologist and criminologist (d. 1904)\n", "BULLET::::- 1845 – William Douglas-Hamilton, Scottish nobleman (d. 1895)\n", "BULLET::::- 1848 – Cyrill Kistler, German composer (d. 1907)\n", "BULLET::::- 1851 – Charles Chamberland, French microbiologist (d. 1908)\n", "BULLET::::- 1852 – Richard Altmann, German pathologist and histologist (d. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1857 – William V. Ranous, American actor and director (d. 1915)\n", "BULLET::::- 1857 – Andreas Voss, German botanist and horticulturist (d. 1924)\n", "BULLET::::- 1858 – Adolph Ochs, American publisher (d. 1935)\n", "BULLET::::- 1859 – Ernesto Cesàro, Italian mathematician (d. 1906)\n", "BULLET::::- 1860 – Salvatore Di Giacomo, Italian poet, songwriter, playwright and fascist intellectual (d. 1934)\n", "BULLET::::- 1860 – Eric Stenbock, Estonian poet and author (d. 1895)\n", "BULLET::::- 1863 – Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian soldier, journalist, poet, and playwright (d. 1938)\n", "BULLET::::- 1863 – Carl Holsøe, Danish artist (d. 1935)\n", "BULLET::::- 1863 – Vladimir Vernadsky, Russian mineralogist and chemist (d. 1945)\n", "BULLET::::- 1864 – W. H. R. Rivers, English anthropologist, neurologist, ethnologist, and psychiatrist (d. 1922)\n", "BULLET::::- 1864 – Alice Tegnér, Swedish organist and composer (d. 1943)\n", "BULLET::::- 1867 – Raul Brandão, Portuguese writer and journalist (d. 1930)\n", "BULLET::::- 1869 – George Forbes, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1947)\n", "BULLET::::- 1874 – Edmund Eysler, Austrian composer (d. 1949)\n", "BULLET::::- 1877 – Wilhelm Frick, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of the Interior (d. 1946)\n", "BULLET::::- 1878 – Musa Ćazim Ćatić, Bosnian poet (d. 1915)\n", "BULLET::::- 1878 – Gemma Galgani, Italian mystic and saint (d. 1903)\n", "BULLET::::- 1880 – Henry Drysdale Dakin, English-American chemist and academic (d. 1952)\n", "BULLET::::- 1881 – Gunnar Nordström, Finnish physicist and academic (d. 1923)\n", "BULLET::::- 1881 – Pavel Janák, Czech architect (d. 1956)\n", "BULLET::::- 1881 – Väinö Tanner, Finnish politician of Social Democratic Party of Finland (d. 1966)\n", "BULLET::::- 1882 – Erwin Baker, American motorcycle and automobile racing driver (d. 1960)\n", "BULLET::::- 1882 – Carlos Blanco Galindo, Bolivian politician (d. 1943)\n", "BULLET::::- 1883 – Max Braun, American tug of war medalist (d. 1967)\n", "BULLET::::- 1883 – Sándor Jávorka, Hungarian botanist (d. 1961)\n", "BULLET::::- 1885 – Mario Sironi, Italian artist (d. 1961)\n", "BULLET::::- 1886 – Henri Gagnebin, Swiss composer (d. 1977)\n", "BULLET::::- 1888 – Walter Hermann Bucher, German-American geologist and paleontologist (d. 1965)\n", "BULLET::::- 1888 – Hans Knappertsbusch, German conductor (d. 1965)\n", "BULLET::::- 1888 – Florence Lee, American actress (d. 1962)\n", "BULLET::::- 1888 – Erich Rothacker, German philosopher (d. 1965)\n", "BULLET::::- 1889 – Idris of Libya (d. 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- 1890 – Vaslav Nijinsky, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1950)\n", "BULLET::::- 1890 – Evert Taube, Swedish singer-songwriter and lute player (d. 1976))\n", "BULLET::::- 1893 – Jean Brochard, French actor (d. 1972)\n", "BULLET::::- 1894 – Yoshiki Hayama, Japanese author (d. 1945)\n", "BULLET::::- 1895 – William C. Lee, American general (d. 1948)\n", "BULLET::::- 1896 – Jesse Fuller, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1976)\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 – Tian Han, Chinese playwright (d. 1968)\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 – Luitpold Steidle, German army officer and politician (d. 1984)\n", "BULLET::::- 1899 – Ramón Muttis, Argentine footballer (d. 1955)\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 – Rinus van den Berge, Dutch athlete (d. 1972)\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 – Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, 19th President of Colombia (d. 1975)\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – Max Gordon, Village Vanguard jazz club founder (d. 1989)\n", "BULLET::::- 1904 – Lyudmila Keldysh, Russian mathematician (d. 1976)\n", "BULLET::::- 1904 – Bodo Uhse, German writer, journalist and political activist (d. 1963)\n", "BULLET::::- 1905 – Takashi Shimura, Japanese actor (d. 1982)\n", "BULLET::::- 1907 – Ricardo Faccio, Uruguayan-Italian footballer (d. 1970)\n", "BULLET::::- 1907 – Dorrit Hoffleit, American astronomer and academic (d. 2007)\n", "BULLET::::- 1908 – Rita Angus, New Zealand painter (d. 1970)\n", "BULLET::::- 1908 – David Marshall, Singaporean lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Singapore (d. 1995)\n", "BULLET::::- 1909 – Petras Cvirka, Lithuanian author (d. 1947)\n", "BULLET::::- 1910 – Masayoshi Ōhira, Japanese politician, 68th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1980)\n", "BULLET::::- 1910 – László Lékai, Archbishop of Esztergom and Cardinal (d. 1986)\n", "BULLET::::- 1911 – Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, Mexican academic and politician, 49th President of Mexico (d. 1979)\n", "BULLET::::- 1911 – Manyi Kiss, Hungarian actress (d. 1971)\n", "BULLET::::- 1911 – William Patrick Stuart-Houston, nephew of Adolf Hitler (d. 1987)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – Ghazi of Iraq, King of The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq (d. 1939)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – César Benavides, Chilean Army general (d. 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – Irving Layton, Romanian-Canadian poet and academic (d. 2006)\n", "BULLET::::- 1913 – Yashwantrao Chavan, Indian politician, 5th Deputy Prime Minister of India (d. 1984)\n", "BULLET::::- 1913 – Ace Gruenig, American basketball player (d. 1958)\n", "BULLET::::- 1913 – Agathe von Trapp, Hungarian-American singer and author (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – Julia Lennon, mother of John Lennon (d. 1958)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – Frank Soo, English footballer and manager (d. 1991)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Saifuddin Azizi, first chairman of Xinjiang of the People's Republic of China (d. 2003)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Alberto Burri, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1995)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Bruno Knežević, Croatian footballer (d. 1982)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Jiří Mucha, Czech journalist (d. 1991)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – László Fejes Tóth, Hungarian mathematician (d. 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- 1917 – Leonard Chess, American record company executive, co-founder of Chess Records (d. 1969)\n", "BULLET::::- 1917 – Millard Kaufman, American author and screenwriter (d. 2009)\n", "BULLET::::- 1917 – Googie Withers, Indian-Australian actress (d. 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- 1918 – Pádraig Faulkner, Irish Fianna Fáil politician (d. 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- 1918 – Elaine de Kooning, American painter and academic (d. 1989)\n", "BULLET::::- 1920 – Roland Fraïssé, French mathematical logician (d. 2008)\n", "BULLET::::- 1921 – Gianni Agnelli, Italian businessman (d. 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- 1921 – Gordon MacRae, American actor and singer (d. 1986)\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – Jack Kerouac, American author and poet (d. 1969)\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – Lane Kirkland, American sailor and union leader (d. 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923 – Hjalmar Andersen, Norwegian speed skater and cyclist (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923 – Norbert Brainin, Austrian violinist (d. 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923 – Wally Schirra, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2007)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923 – Mae Young, American wrestler (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1924 – Valerio Bacigalupo, Italian goalkeeper (d. 1949)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Louison Bobet, French cyclist (d. 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Georges Delerue, French pianist and composer (d. 1992)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Leo Esaki, Japanese physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Harry Harrison, American author and illustrator (d. 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – George Ariyoshi, American lawyer and politician, 3rd Governor of Hawaii\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – Arthur A. Hartman, American career diplomat (d. 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – John Clellon Holmes, American author and professor (d. 1988)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – David Nadien, American violinist (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927 – Raúl Alfonsín, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 46th President of Argentina (d. 2009)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927 – Emmett Leith, professor of electrical engineering and co-inventor of three-dimensional holography (d. 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927 – Gajo Petrović, Yugoslavian theorist (d. 1993)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927 – Sudharmono, 5th Vice President of Indonesia (d. 2006)\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – Edward Albee, American director and playwright (d. 2016)\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – Werner Krolikowski, former East German political official\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – Aldemaro Romero, Venezuelan pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2007)\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – Antony Acland, British former diplomat and Provost of Eton College\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – Win Tin, Burmese journalist and politician, co-founded the National League for Democracy (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1931 – Józef Tischner, Polish priest and philosopher (d. 2000)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – Bob Houbregs, Canadian basketball player (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – Andrew Young, American pastor and politician, 14th United States Ambassador to the United Nations\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Myrna Fahey, American actress (d. 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Barbara Feldon, American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Niède Guidon, Brazilian archeologist\n", "BULLET::::- 1934 – Francisco J. Ayala, Spanish-American evolutionary biologist and philosopher\n", "BULLET::::- 1935 – Valentyna Shevchenko, Ukrainian politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – Virginia Hamilton, American children's books author (d. 2002)\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – Michał Heller, Polish professor of philosophy\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – Eddie Sutton, American basketball player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1937 – Zoltán Horvath, Hungarian sabre fencer\n", "BULLET::::- 1937 – Zurab Sotkilava, Georgian operatic tenor (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – Vladimir Msryan, Armenian actor, (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – Johnny Rutherford, American race car driver and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – Juan Horacio Suárez, Argentine bishop\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Jude Milhon, American hacker and author (d. 2003)\n", "BULLET::::- 1940 – Al Jarreau, American singer (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1940 – Grigori Gorin, Soviet/Russian playwright (d. 2000)\n", "BULLET::::- 1941 – Josip Skoblar, former Croatian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – Stanislav Galić, Bosnian soldier and commander\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – Ratko Mladić, Serbian general\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Erwin Mueller, former American basketball player (d. 2018)\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Dean Cundey, American cinematographer and film director\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Ludo Martens, Belgian Communist political activist (d. 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Liza Minnelli, American actress, singer and dancer\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Frank Welker, American voice actor and singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Peter Harry Carstensen, German educator and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Jan-Erik Enestam, Finland-Swedish politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – David Rigert, Soviet Olympic weightlifter\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Mitt Romney, American businessman and politician, 70th Governor of Massachusetts\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Virginia Bottomley, Scottish social worker and politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Sandra Brown, American author\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Kent Conrad, American politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – James Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – Yuri Balashov, Russian chess grandmaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – Rob Cohen, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1950 – Javier Clemente, Spanish footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1952 – Boris Anatolyevich Gavrilov, Russian football player and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1952 – Julius Carry, American actor (d. 2008)\n", "BULLET::::- 1952 – André Comte-Sponville, French philosopher\n", "BULLET::::- 1952 – Yasuhiko Okudera, former Japanese footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1953 – Ron Jeremy, American pornographic actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1953 – Pavel Pinigin, former Soviet wrestler and Olympic champion\n", "BULLET::::- 1954 – Inese Galante, Latvian soprano\n", "BULLET::::- 1954 – Anish Kapoor, Indian-English sculptor\n", "BULLET::::- 1955 – Wang Yang, Chinese politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Ove Aunli, former Norwegian cross-country skier\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Stanisław Bobak, Polish ski jumper (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Jost Gippert, German linguist, Caucasiologist and author\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Steve Harris, English bass player and songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – László Kiss, Hungarian football player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Lesley Manville, English actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Dale Murphy, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Pim Verbeek, Dutch football manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Patrick Battiston, French footballer and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Marlon Jackson, American singer-songwriter and dancer\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Andrey Lopatov, Soviet basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1958 – Phil Anderson, English-Australian cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Milorad Dodik, Bosnian Serb politician and president of Republika Srpska\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Kenji Fukaya, Japanese mathematician\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Luenell, American comedian and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Hermann Parzinger, German historian\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Michael Walter, German luger (d. 2016)\n", "BULLET::::- 1960 – Jason Beghe, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1960 – Minoru Niihara, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player\n", "BULLET::::- 1960 – Courtney B. Vance, American actor and painter\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Titus Welliver, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 – Julia Campbell, American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 – Andreas Köpke, former German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 – Chris Sanders, American illustrator and voice actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 – Darryl Strawberry, American baseball player and minister\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – John Andretti, American race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Candy Costie, American swimmer\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Joaquim Cruz, Brazilian runner and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Reiner Gies, German boxer\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Ian Holloway, English footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Farahnaz Pahlavi, eldest daughter of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Paul Way, English golfer\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Dieter Eckstein, retired German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Umirzak Shukeyev, Kazakh chairman of Samruk-Kazyna\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Rolands Bulders, Latvian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Steve Finley, American baseball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Ivari Padar, former Minister of Finance and Minister of Agriculture of the Estonian Social Democratic Party\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Liza Umarova, Chechen singer and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – David Daniels, American countertenor\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Suleyman Kerimov, Russian businessman, investor, philanthropist and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Grant Long, American basketball player and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1967 – Jenny Erpenbeck, German writer and opera director\n", "BULLET::::- 1967 – Julio Dely Valdés, Panamanian footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Dylan Carlson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Tammy Duckworth, Thai-American colonel, pilot, and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Aaron Eckhart, American actor and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Jason Lively, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – Graham Coxon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – Aleksandr Shmarko, Russian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – Jake Tapper, American journalist and author\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Karen Bradley, British politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Dave Eggers, American author and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Mathias Gronberg, Swedish golfer\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Roy Khan, Norwegian singer-songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Rex Walters, American basketball player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – Isaiah Rider, American basketball player and rapper\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – Ogün Sanlısoy, Turkish rock musician\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – Dragutin Topić, Serbian high jumper\n", "BULLET::::- 1972 – Doron Sheffer, Israeli basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – María Adánez, Spanish actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Charles Akonnor, former Ghanaian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Walid Badir, former Israeli footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Matt Barela, American wrestler and actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Scarlet Ortiz, Venezuelan actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Lisa Werlinder, Swedish actress and jazz musician/singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Nicolae Grigore, former Romanian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Edgaras Jankauskas, former Lithuanian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Srđan Pecelj, Bosnian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1976 – Deron Quint, American ice hockey defenseman\n", "BULLET::::- 1976 – Zhao Wei, Chinese actress, film director, producer and pop singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Michelle Burgher, track and field athlete\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Ramiro Corrales, American soccer player\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Amdy Faye, former Senegalese footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Brent Johnson, American ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Casey Mears, American race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Marco Ferreira, Portuguese footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Claudio Sanchez, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Arina Tanemura, Japanese author and illustrator\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Rhys Coiro, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Pete Doherty, English musician, songwriter, actor, poet, writer, and artist\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Jamie Dwyer, Australian field hockey player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Gerard López, former Spanish footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Mike Mago, Dutch DJ, music producer and record label owner\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Ben Sandford, New Zealand skeleton racer\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Tim Wieskötter, German sprint canoer\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Edwin Villafuerte, Ecuadorian goalkeeper\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Liu Xuan, Chinese gymnast\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Césinha, Brazilian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Becky Holliday, American pole vaulter\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Jens Mouris, Dutch cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Douglas Murray, Swedish ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Kenta Kobayashi, Japanese wrestler and kick-boxer\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Chiwa Saitō, Japanese voice actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Katarina Srebotnik, Slovenian tennis player\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Holly Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Lili Bordán, Hungarian-American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Samm Levine, American actor and comedian\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Ilya Nikulin, Russian ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Hisato Satō, Japanese footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Yūto Satō, Japanese footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Tobias Schweinsteiger, German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Atif Aslam, Pakistani singer and actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Shreya Ghoshal, Indian singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Jaimie Alexander, American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Macarena Aguilar, Spanish handballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Marco Bonanomi, Italian racing driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Aleksandr Bukharov, Russian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Choi Cheol-han, South Korean Go player\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Ed Clancy, English track and road cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Andriy Tovt, Ukrainian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Martynas Andriuškevičius, Lithuanian basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Campbell Best, Cook Islands footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Oleh Dopilka, Ukrainian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Danny Jones, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Ben Offereins, Australian runner\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – František Rajtoral, Czech footballer (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Manuele Boaro, Italian cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Jessica Hardy, American swimmer\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Maxwell Holt, American volleyball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Teimour Radjabov, Azerbaijani chess player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Chris Seitz, American soccer player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Vadim Shipachyov, Russian ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Pablo Velázquez, Paraguayan footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Sebastian Brendel, German canoe racer\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Kostas Mitroglou, Greek footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Cristian Chagas Tarouco, Brazilian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Jordan Adéoti, French footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Vytautas Černiauskas, Lithuanian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Tyler Clary, former American swimmer\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Richard Eckersley, English footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Nathan Haas, Australian cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Chen Jianghua, Chinese basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Siim Luts, Estonian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Lawrence Clarke, English hurdler\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Alexander Kröckel, German skeleton racer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Irakli Kvekveskiri, Georgian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Dawid Kubacki, Polish ski jumper\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Matias Myttynen, Finnish ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Ilija Nestorovski, Macedonian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Milena Raičević, Montenegrin handballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Mikko Sumusalo, Finnish footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Felix Kroos, German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Niclas Heimann, German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Hanna Pysmenska, Ukrainian diver\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Leandro Fernandez, Argentine footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Daniele Baselli, Italian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Jordan Ferri, French footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Ciara Mageean, Irish middle-distance runner\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Jiří Skalák, Czech footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Shehu Abdullahi, Nigerian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Amjad Attwan, Iraqi footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Alex Bellemare, Canadian skier\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Anton Shramchenko, Belarusian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – Jerami Grant, American basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – Katie Archibald, Scottish track cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – Christina Grimmie, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016)\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 – Sehrou Guirassy, French footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 – Karim Hafez, Egyptian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 – Robert Murić, Croatian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Dean Henderson, English footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Allan Saint-Maximin, French footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Felipe Vizeu, Brazilian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1998 – Alina Müller, Swiss ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1998 – Daniel Samohin, Israeli figure skater\n", "BULLET::::- 1998 – Elizaveta Ukolova, Czech figure skater\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – Sakura Oda, Japanese pop singer\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Malina Weissman, American child actress and model\n", "Section::::Deaths.\n", "BULLET::::- 417 – Innocent I, pope of the Catholic Church\n", "BULLET::::- 604 – Gregory I, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 540)\n", "BULLET::::- 951 – Ælfheah the Bald, bishop of Winchester\n", "BULLET::::- 969 – Mu Zong, emperor of the Liao Dynasty (b. 931)\n", "BULLET::::- 1022 – Symeon the New Theologian, Byzantine monk (b. 949)\n", "BULLET::::- 1289 – Demetrius II, king of Georgia (b. 1259)\n", "BULLET::::- 1316 – Stefan Dragutin, king of Serbia (b. 1253)\n", "BULLET::::- 1374 – Go-Kōgon, Japanese emperor (b. 1338)\n", "BULLET::::- 1496 – Johann Heynlin, German humanist scholar (b. c. 1425)\n", "BULLET::::- 1507 – Cesare Borgia, Italian cardinal (b. 1475)\n", "BULLET::::- 1539 – Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English diplomat and politician (b.1477)\n", "BULLET::::- 1608 – Kōriki Kiyonaga, Japanese daimyō (b. 1530)\n", "BULLET::::- 1628 – John Bull, English organist and composer (b. 1562)\n", "BULLET::::- 1648 – Tirso de Molina, Spanish monk and poet (b. 1571)\n", "BULLET::::- 1681 – Frans van Mieris the Elder, Dutch painter (b. 1635)\n", "BULLET::::- 1699 – Peder Griffenfeld, Danish politician (b. 1635)\n", "BULLET::::- 1703 – Aubrey de Vere, 20th Earl of Oxford, English jurist and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Essex (b. 1627)\n", "BULLET::::- 1731 – Ernest August, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (b. 1660)\n", "BULLET::::- 1790 – András Hadik, Hungarian field marshal (b. 1710)\n", "BULLET::::- 1820 – Alexander Mackenzie, Scottish explorer and politician (b. 1764)\n", "BULLET::::- 1832 – Friedrich Kuhlau, German-Danish pianist and composer (b. 1786)\n", "BULLET::::- 1858 – William James Blacklock, English-Scottish painter (b. 1816)\n", "BULLET::::- 1872 – Zeng Guofan, Chinese general and politician, Viceroy of Liangjiang (b. 1811)\n", "BULLET::::- 1894 – Illarion Pryanishnikov, Russian painter (b. 1840)\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 – Zachris Topelius, Finnish-Swedish journalist, historian, and author (b. 1818)\n", "BULLET::::- 1909 – Joseph Petrosino, American police officer (b. 1860)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – George Westinghouse, American engineer and businessman (b. 1846)\n", "BULLET::::- 1916 – Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Austrian author (b. 1830)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Sun Yat-sen, Chinese physician and politician, 1st President of the Republic of China (b. 1866)\n", "BULLET::::- 1929 – Asa Griggs Candler, American businessman and politician, 44th Mayor of Atlanta (b. 1851)\n", "BULLET::::- 1929 – William Turner Dannat, American painter (b. 1853)\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – William George Barker, Canadian colonel and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1894)\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – Alois Jirásek, Czech author and playwright (b. 1851)\n", "BULLET::::- 1935 – Mihajlo Pupin, Serbian-American physicist and chemist (b. 1858)\n", "BULLET::::- 1937 – Jenő Hubay, Hungarian violinist and composer (b. 1858)\n", "BULLET::::- 1937 – Charles-Marie Widor, French organist and composer (b. 1844)\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – Robert Bosch, German engineer and businessman, founded Robert Bosch GmbH (b. 1861)\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – William Henry Bragg, English physicist, chemist, and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862)\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor (b. 1869)\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – Friedrich Fromm, German general (b. 1888)\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Ferenc Szálasi, Hungarian soldier and politician, Head of State of Hungary (b. 1897)\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Winston Churchill, American author and playwright (b. 1871)\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – Wilhelm Steinkopf, German chemist (b. 1879)\n", "BULLET::::- 1954 – Marianne Weber, German sociologist and suffragist (b. 1870)\n", "BULLET::::- 1955 – Charlie Parker, American saxophonist and composer (b. 1920)\n", "BULLET::::- 1955 – Theodor Plievier, German author best known for his anti-war novel (b. 1892)\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Bolesław Bierut, Polish Communist leader (b. 1892)\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Josephine Hull, American actress (b. 1877)\n", "BULLET::::- 1960 – Kshitimohan Sen, Indian historian, author, and academic (b. 1880)\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Arthur Grimsdell, English footballer and cricketer (b. 1894)\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Abbās al-Aqqād, Egyptian journalist, poet and literary critic (b. 1889)\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – Eugene Lindsay Opie, American physician and pathologist (b. 1873)\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Frankie Frisch, American baseball player and manager (b. 1898)\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – George D. Sax, American banker and businessman (b. 1904)\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Nader Jahanbani, Iranian general and pilot (b. 1928)\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Arnold Ridley, English actor and playwright (b. 1896)\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Eugene Ormandy, Hungarian-American violinist and conductor (b. 1899)\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Woody Hayes, American football player and coach (b. 1913)\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Maurice Evans, English-American actor (b. 1901)\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Jakob Gimpel, Polish concert pianist and educator (b. 1906)\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Ragnar Granit, Finnish-Swedish neuroscientist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – William Heinesen, Faroese author, poet, and author (b. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Hans G. Kresse, Dutch cartoonist (b. 1921)\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Lucy M. Lewis, American potter (b. 1890)\n", "BULLET::::- 1998 – Beatrice Wood, American painter and potter (b. 1893)\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – Yehudi Menuhin, American-Swiss violinist and conductor (b. 1916)\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 – Aleksandar Nikolić, Yugoslav basketball coach (b. 1924)\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 – Morton Downey Jr., American singer-songwriter, actor, and talk show host (b. 1933)\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 – Robert Ludlum, American author (b. 1927)\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 – Victor Westhoff, Dutch botanist and academic (b. 1916)\n", "BULLET::::- 2002 – Spyros Kyprianou, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Cyprus (b. 1932)\n", "BULLET::::- 2002 – Jean-Paul Riopelle, Canadian painter and sculptor (b. 1923)\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Zoran Đinđić, Serbian philosopher and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Serbia (b. 1952)\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Howard Fast, American novelist and screenwriter (b. 1914)\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Lynne Thigpen, American actress and singer (b. 1948)\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 – Milton Resnick, Russian-American painter (b. 1917)\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 – Bill Cameron, Canadian journalist and producer (b. 1943)\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 – Stavros Kouyioumtzis, Greek composer (b. 1932)\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 – Victor Sokolov, Russian-American priest and journalist (b. 1947)\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 – Arnold Drake, American author and screenwriter (b. 1924)\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 – Jorge Guinzburg, Argentinian journalist and producer (b. 1949)\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 – Lazare Ponticelli, Italian-French soldier and supercentenarian (b. 1897)\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 – Miguel Delibes, Spanish journalist and author (b. 1920)\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 – Olive Dickason, Canadian historian and journalist (b. 1920)\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 – Nilla Pizzi, Italian singer (b. 1919)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Samuel Glazer, American businessman, co-founded Mr. Coffee (b. 1923)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Dick Harter, American basketball player and coach (b. 1930)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Michael Hossack, American drummer (b. 1946)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Friedhelm Konietzka, German-Swiss footballer and manager (b. 1938)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – George Burditt, American lawyer and politician (b. 1921)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Clive Burr, English drummer and songwriter (b. 1957)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Michael Grigsby, English director and producer (b. 1936)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Ganesh Pyne, Indian painter and illustrator (b. 1937)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – Věra Chytilová, Czech actress, director, and screenwriter (b. 1929)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – George Donaldson, Scottish singer-songwriter (b. 1968)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – Paul C. Donnelly, American scientist and engineer (b. 1923)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – Ola L. Mize, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1931)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – José Policarpo, Portuguese cardinal (b. 1936)\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 – Willie Barrow, American minister and activist (b. 1924)\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 – Michael Graves, American architect and academic, designed the Portland Building and the Humana Building (b. 1934)\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 – Ada Jafri, Pakistani poet and author (b. 1924)\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 – Terry Pratchett, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (b. 1948)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Rafiq Azad, Bangladeshi poet and author (b. 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Felix Ibru, Nigerian architect and politician, Governor of Delta State (b. 1935)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Lloyd Shapley, American mathematician and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1923)\n", "Section::::Holidays and observances.\n", "BULLET::::- Arbor Day (China)\n", "BULLET::::- Arbor Day (Taiwan)\n", "BULLET::::- Tree Day (Republic of North Macedonia)\n", "BULLET::::- Aztec New Year\n", "BULLET::::- Christian feast day:\n", "BULLET::::- Alphege\n", "BULLET::::- Bernard of Carinola (or of Capua)\n", "BULLET::::- Gorgonius, Peter Cubicularius and Dorotheus of Nicomedia\n", "BULLET::::- Mura (McFeredach)\n", "BULLET::::- Nicodemus of Mammola\n", "BULLET::::- Fina\n", "BULLET::::- Luigi Orione\n", "BULLET::::- Maximilian of Tebessa\n", "BULLET::::- Nicodemus of Mammola\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Aurelian\n", "BULLET::::- Pope Gregory I (Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic Church, and Anglican Communion)\n", "BULLET::::- Symeon the New Theologian\n", "BULLET::::- Theophanes the Confessor\n", "BULLET::::- March 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n", "BULLET::::- Girl Scout Birthday (United States)\n", "BULLET::::- National Day (Mauritius)\n", "BULLET::::- World Day Against Cyber Censorship (requested by Reporters Without Borders and Amnesty International in 2009)\n", "BULLET::::- Youth Day (Zambia)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- BBC: On This Day\n", "BULLET::::- Today in Canadian History\n" ] }

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33, 93, 16, 36, 16, 36, 16, 33, 16, 33, 35, 16, 34, 16, 33, 16, 34, 16, 35, 16, 33, 16, 38, 16, 33, 16, 32, 16, 34, 16, 32, 16, 33, 16, 30, 16, 32, 16, 31, 16, 32, 90, 35, 16, 33, 32, 16, 32, 16, 33, 16, 37, 16, 36, 32, 34, 16, 35, 91, 37, 16, 31, 97, 30, 32, 16, 33, 16, 31, 39, 16, 33, 16, 31, 16, 34, 36, 16, 33, 16, 33, 30, 16, 32, 77, 30, 34, 38, 16, 33, 29, 34, 30, 16, 33, 35, 35, 30, 64, 33, 16, 32, 33, 98, 122, 28, 34, 16, 29, 29, 89, 32, 83, 29, 30, 20, 49, 26, 31, 19, 45, 68, 29, 32, 16, 24, 33, 32, 25, 26, 51, 76, 100, 37, 36, 49, 31, 46, 36, 46, 86, 112, 30, 28, 37 ], "text": [ "538", "Vitiges", "king", "Ostrogoths", "siege of Rome", "Ravenna", "Byzantine", "Belisarius", "1550", "Spanish", "Pedro de Valdivia", "Mapuche", "Battle of Penco", "Arauco War", "Chile", "1622", "Ignatius of Loyola", "Francis Xavier", "Society of Jesus", "Roman Catholic Church", "1672", "Robert Holmes", "Rampjaar", "1689", "Williamite War in Ireland", "1811", "Peninsular War", "rearguard", "French Marshal", "Michel Ney", "Portuguese", "Battle of Redinha", "1864", "American Civil War", "Red River Campaign", "US Navy", "Ironclad", "Gunboat", "Red River", "1881", "Andrew Watson", "Scotland", "black", "football", "captain", "1885", "Tonkin Campaign", "France", "captures", "Bắc Ninh", "1894", "Coca-Cola", "Vicksburg, Mississippi", "Joseph A. Biedenharn", "1912", "Girl Guides", "Girl Scouts of the USA", "1913", "Canberra Day", "Australia", "Canberra", "Melbourne", "1927", "1918", "Moscow", "Russia", "Saint Petersburg", "1920", "Kapp Putsch", "Marinebrigade Ehrhardt", "1921", "İstiklâl Marşı", "Grand National Assembly of Turkey", "1922", "Armenia", "Georgia", "Azerbaijan", "Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic", "1928", "California", "St. Francis Dam", "1930", "Mahatma Gandhi", "Salt March", "British", "India", "1933", "Great Depression", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "President of the United States", "fireside chats", "1934", "Konstantin Päts", "Johan Laidoner", "Estonia", "1938", "Anschluss", "German", "Austria", "1940", "Winter War", "Finland", "Moscow Peace Treaty", "Soviet Union", "Finnish Karelia", "1942", "World War II", "Pacific War", "Battle of Java", "ABDACOM", "Japanese Empire", "Bandung", "West Java", "Dutch East Indies", "1943", "Italian occupation of Greece", "Karditsa", "Tsaritsani", "1947", "Cold War", "Truman Doctrine", "Communism", "1950", "Llandow air disaster", "Sigingstone", "Wales", "1961", "North Face of the Eiger", "1967", "Suharto", "Sukarno", "MPRS", "Acting President", "Indonesia", "1968", "Mauritius", "United Kingdom", "1971", "March 12 Memorandum", "Suleyman Demirel", "Turkey", "1992", "Mauritius", "republic", "Commonwealth of Nations", "1993", "bombs explode", "Mumbai, India", "North Korea nuclear weapons program", "North Korea", "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons", "1994", "Church of England", "female priest", "1999", "Warsaw Pact", "Czech Republic", "Hungary", "Poland", "NATO", "2003", "Zoran Đinđić", "Prime Minister", "Serbia", "assassinated", "Belgrade", "WHO", "pandemic", "SARS", "2004", "President of South Korea", "Roh Moo-hyun", "National Assembly", "impeachment", "2009", "Bernard Madoff", "Wall Street", "2011", "Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant", "earthquake", "2014", "gas explosion", "New York City", "East Harlem", "2019", "EU Withdrawal Bill", "1096", "Canute Lavard", "1270", "Charles, Count of Valois", "1386", "Ashikaga Yoshimochi", "1475", "Luca Gaurico", "1476", "Anna Jagiellon, Duchess of Pomerania", "1479", "Giuliano de' Medici, Duke of Nemours", "1500", "Reginald Pole", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "1501", "Pietro Andrea Mattioli", "1515", "Caspar Othmayr", "1573", "Agnes Hedwig of Anhalt", "1607", "Paul Gerhardt", "1613", "André Le Nôtre", "1626", "John Aubrey", "1637", "Anne Hyde", "Duchess of York", "Albany", "1647", "Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie", "1672", "Richard Steele", "1685", "George Berkeley", "1701", "Johann Friedrich Cotta", "1710", "Thomas Arne", "1735", "François-Emmanuel Guignard, comte de Saint-Priest", "1753", "Jean Denis", "1756", "Avram Mrazović", "1766", "Claudius Buchanan", "Francisco Javier de Cienfuegos y Jovellanos", "1774", "Johann Caspar Horner", "1781", "Frederica of Baden", "1784", "William Buckland", "Dean of Westminster", "1785", "Clemens Maria Franz von Bönninghausen", "1795", "William Lyon Mackenzie", "Mayor of Toronto", "George Tyler Wood", "1806", "Jane Pierce", "Franklin Pierce", "First Lady of the United States", "1807", "James Abbott", "Albert Mackey", "1812", "Ignacio Comonfort", "1815", "Louis-Jules Trochu", "1821", "John Abbott", "Prime Minister of Canada", "Medo Pucić", "1823", "Katsu Kaishū", "1824", "Gustav Kirchhoff", "1831", "Joseph Gérard", "1832", "Charles Boycott", "Jean Alfred Fournier", "1834", "Hilary A. Herbert", "Secretary of the Navy", "1835", "Gregorio Maria Aguirre y Garcia", "Archbishop of Toledo", "Primate of Spain", "Simon Newcomb", "1837", "Alexandre Guilmant", "1838", "William Henry Perkin", "1843", "Gabriel Tarde", "1845", "William Douglas-Hamilton", "1848", "Cyrill Kistler", "1851", "Charles Chamberland", "1852", "Richard Altmann", "1857", "William V. Ranous", "Andreas Voss", "Adolph Ochs", "1859", "Ernesto Cesàro", "1860", "Salvatore Di Giacomo", "Eric Stenbock", "1863", "Gabriele D'Annunzio", "Carl Holsøe", "Vladimir Vernadsky", "1864", "W. H. R. Rivers", "Alice Tegnér", "1867", "Raul Brandão", "1869", "George Forbes", "Prime Minister of New Zealand", "1874", "Edmund Eysler", "1877", "Wilhelm Frick", "German Federal Minister of the Interior", "1878", "Musa Ćazim Ćatić", "Gemma Galgani", "1880", "Henry Drysdale Dakin", "1881", "Gunnar Nordström", "Pavel Janák", "Väinö Tanner", "Social Democratic Party of Finland", "1882", "Erwin Baker", "Carlos Blanco Galindo", "1883", "Max Braun", "Sándor Jávorka", "1885", "Mario Sironi", "Henri Gagnebin", "1888", "Walter Hermann Bucher", "Hans Knappertsbusch", "Florence Lee", "Erich Rothacker", "1889", "Idris of Libya", "1890", "Vaslav Nijinsky", "Evert Taube", "1893", "Jean Brochard", "1894", "Yoshiki Hayama", "1895", "William C. Lee", "1896", "Jesse Fuller", "1898", "Tian Han", "Luitpold Steidle", "1899", "Ramón Muttis", "1900", "Rinus van den Berge", "Gustavo Rojas Pinilla", "1903", "Max Gordon", "1904", "Lyudmila Keldysh", "Bodo Uhse", "1905", "Takashi Shimura", "1907", "Ricardo Faccio", "Dorrit Hoffleit", "1908", "Rita Angus", "David Marshall", "Chief Minister of Singapore", "1909", "Petras Cvirka", "1910", "Masayoshi Ōhira", "Prime Minister of Japan", "László Lékai", "1911", "Gustavo Díaz Ordaz", "President of Mexico", "Manyi Kiss", "William Patrick Stuart-Houston", "Adolf Hitler", "1912", "Ghazi of Iraq", "César Benavides", "Irving Layton", "1913", "Yashwantrao Chavan", "Deputy Prime Minister of India", "Ace Gruenig", "Agathe von Trapp", "1914", "Julia Lennon", "John Lennon", "Frank Soo", "1915", "Saifuddin Azizi", "Xinjiang", "People's Republic of China", "Alberto Burri", "Bruno Knežević", "Jiří Mucha", "László Fejes Tóth", "1917", "Leonard Chess", "Chess Records", "Millard Kaufman", "Googie Withers", "1918", "Pádraig Faulkner", "Fianna Fáil", "Elaine de Kooning", "1920", "Roland Fraïssé", "1921", "Gianni Agnelli", "Gordon MacRae", "1922", "Jack Kerouac", "Lane Kirkland", "1923", "Hjalmar Andersen", "Norbert Brainin", "Wally Schirra", "Mae Young", "1924", "Valerio Bacigalupo", "1925", "Louison Bobet", "Georges Delerue", "Leo Esaki", "Nobel Prize", "Harry Harrison", "1926", "George Ariyoshi", "Governor of Hawaii", "Arthur A. Hartman", "John Clellon Holmes", "David Nadien", "1927", "Raúl Alfonsín", "President of Argentina", "Emmett Leith", "Gajo Petrović", "Sudharmono", "1928", "Edward Albee", "Werner Krolikowski", "Aldemaro Romero", "1930", "Antony Acland", "Eton College", "Win Tin", "National League for Democracy", "1931", "Józef Tischner", "1932", "Bob Houbregs", "Andrew Young", "United States Ambassador to the United Nations", "1933", "Myrna Fahey", "Barbara Feldon", "Niède Guidon", "1934", "Francisco J. Ayala", "1935", "Valentyna Shevchenko", "1936", "Virginia Hamilton", "Michał Heller", "Eddie Sutton", "1937", "Zoltán Horvath", "Zurab Sotkilava", "1938", "Vladimir Msryan", "Johnny Rutherford", "Juan Horacio Suárez", "1939", "Jude Milhon", "1940", "Al Jarreau", "Grigori Gorin", "1941", "Josip Skoblar", "1943", "Stanislav Galić", "Ratko Mladić", "1944", "Erwin Mueller", "1946", "Dean Cundey", "Ludo Martens", "Liza Minnelli", "Frank Welker", "1947", "Peter Harry Carstensen", "Jan-Erik Enestam", "David Rigert", "Mitt Romney", "Governor of Massachusetts", "1948", "Virginia Bottomley", "Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport", "Sandra Brown", "Kent Conrad", "James Taylor", "1949", "Yuri Balashov", "Rob Cohen", "1950", "Javier Clemente", "1952", "Boris Anatolyevich Gavrilov", "Julius Carry", "André Comte-Sponville", "Yasuhiko Okudera", "1953", "Ron Jeremy", "Pavel Pinigin", "1954", "Inese Galante", "Anish Kapoor", "1955", "Wang Yang", "1956", "Ove Aunli", "Stanisław Bobak", "Jost Gippert", "Steve Harris", "László Kiss", "Lesley Manville", "Dale Murphy", "Pim Verbeek", "1957", "Patrick Battiston", "Marlon Jackson", "Andrey Lopatov", "1958", "Phil Anderson", "1959", "Milorad Dodik", "Bosnian Serb", "Republika Srpska", "Kenji Fukaya", "Luenell", "Hermann Parzinger", "Michael Walter", "1960", "Jason Beghe", "Minoru Niihara", "Courtney B. Vance", "1961", "Titus Welliver", "1962", "Julia Campbell", "Andreas Köpke", "Chris Sanders", "Darryl Strawberry", "1963", "John Andretti", "Candy Costie", "Joaquim Cruz", "Reiner Gies", "Ian Holloway", "Farahnaz Pahlavi", "Mohammad Reza Pahlavi", "Paul Way", "1964", "Dieter Eckstein", "Umirzak Shukeyev", "Samruk-Kazyna", "1965", "Rolands Bulders", "Steve Finley", "Ivari Padar", "Estonian Social Democratic Party", "Liza Umarova", "1966", "David Daniels", "Suleyman Kerimov", "Grant Long", "1967", "Jenny Erpenbeck", "Julio Dely Valdés", "1968", "Dylan Carlson", "Tammy Duckworth", "Aaron Eckhart", "Jason Lively", "1969", "Graham Coxon", "Aleksandr Shmarko", "Jake Tapper", "1970", "Karen Bradley", "Dave Eggers", "Mathias Gronberg", "Roy Khan", "Rex Walters", "1971", "Isaiah Rider", "Ogün Sanlısoy", "Dragutin Topić", "1972", "Doron Sheffer", "1974", "María Adánez", "1974", "Charles Akonnor", "Walid Badir", "Matt Barela", "Scarlet Ortiz", "Lisa Werlinder", "1975", "Nicolae Grigore", "Edgaras Jankauskas", "Srđan Pecelj", "1976", "Deron Quint", "Zhao Wei", "1977", "Michelle Burgher", "1977", "Ramiro Corrales", "Amdy Faye", "Brent Johnson", "1978", "Casey Mears", "Marco Ferreira", "Claudio Sanchez", "Arina Tanemura", "1979", "Rhys Coiro", "Pete Doherty", "Jamie Dwyer", "Gerard López", "Mike Mago", "Ben Sandford", "Tim Wieskötter", "Edwin Villafuerte", "Liu Xuan", "1980", "Césinha", "1980", "Becky Holliday", "Jens Mouris", "Douglas Murray", "1981", "Kenta Kobayashi", "Chiwa Saitō", "Katarina Srebotnik", "Holly Williams", "1982", "Lili Bordán", "Samm Levine", "Ilya Nikulin", "Hisato Satō", "Yūto Satō", "Tobias Schweinsteiger", "1983", "Atif Aslam", "1984", "Shreya Ghoshal", "Jaimie Alexander", "1985", "Macarena Aguilar", "Marco Bonanomi", "Aleksandr Bukharov", "Choi Cheol-han", "Ed Clancy", "Andriy Tovt", "1986", "Martynas Andriuškevičius", "Campbell Best", "Oleh Dopilka", "Danny Jones", "Ben Offereins", "František Rajtoral", "1987", "Manuele Boaro", "Jessica Hardy", "Maxwell Holt", "Teimour Radjabov", "Chris Seitz", "Vadim Shipachyov", "Pablo Velázquez", "1988", "Sebastian Brendel", "Kostas Mitroglou", "Cristian Chagas Tarouco", "1989", "Jordan Adéoti", "Vytautas Černiauskas", "Tyler Clary", "Richard Eckersley", "Nathan Haas", "Chen Jianghua", "Siim Luts", "1990", "Lawrence Clarke", "Alexander Kröckel", "Irakli Kvekveskiri", "Dawid Kubacki", "Matias Myttynen", "Ilija Nestorovski", "Milena Raičević", "Mikko Sumusalo", "1991", "Felix Kroos", "Niclas Heimann", "Hanna Pysmenska", "Leandro Fernandez", "1992", "Daniele Baselli", "Jordan Ferri", "Ciara Mageean", "Jiří Skalák", "1993", "Shehu Abdullahi", "Amjad Attwan", "Alex Bellemare", "Anton Shramchenko", "1994", "Jerami Grant", "Katie Archibald", "Christina Grimmie", "1996", "Sehrou Guirassy", "Karim Hafez", "Robert Murić", "1997", "Dean Henderson", "Allan Saint-Maximin", "Felipe Vizeu", "1998", "Alina Müller", "Daniel Samohin", "Elizaveta Ukolova", "1999", "Sakura Oda", "2003", "Malina Weissman", "417", "Innocent I", "604", "Gregory I", "951", "Ælfheah the Bald", "969", "Mu Zong", "1022", "Symeon the New Theologian", "1289", "Demetrius II", "1316", "Stefan Dragutin", "1374", "Go-Kōgon", "1496", "Johann Heynlin", "1507", "Cesare Borgia", "1539", "Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire", "1477", "1608", "Kōriki Kiyonaga", "1628", "John Bull", "1648", "Tirso de Molina", "1681", "Frans van Mieris the Elder", "1699", "Peder Griffenfeld", "1703", "Aubrey de Vere, 20th Earl of Oxford", "Lord Lieutenant of Essex", "1731", "Ernest August, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg", "1790", "András Hadik", "1820", "Alexander Mackenzie", "1832", "Friedrich Kuhlau", "1858", "William James Blacklock", "1872", "Zeng Guofan", "Viceroy of Liangjiang", "1894", "Illarion Pryanishnikov", "1898", "Zachris Topelius", "1909", "Joseph Petrosino", "1914", "George Westinghouse", "1916", "Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach", "1925", "Sun Yat-sen", "President of the Republic of China", "1929", "Asa Griggs Candler", "Mayor of Atlanta", "William Turner Dannat", "1930", "William George Barker", "Victoria Cross", "Alois Jirásek", "1935", "Mihajlo Pupin", "1937", "Jenő Hubay", "Charles-Marie Widor", "1942", "Robert Bosch", "Robert Bosch GmbH", "William Henry Bragg", "Nobel Prize", "1943", "Gustav Vigeland", "1945", "Friedrich Fromm", "1946", "Ferenc Szálasi", "Head of State of Hungary", "1947", "Winston Churchill", "1949", "Wilhelm Steinkopf", "1954", "Marianne Weber", "1955", "Charlie Parker", "Theodor Plievier", "1956", "Bolesław Bierut", "1957", "Josephine Hull", "1960", "Kshitimohan Sen", "1963", "Arthur Grimsdell", "1964", "Abbās al-Aqqād", "1971", "Eugene Lindsay Opie", "1973", "Frankie Frisch", "1974", "George D. Sax", "1979", "Nader Jahanbani", "1984", "Arnold Ridley", "1985", "Eugene Ormandy", "1987", "Woody Hayes", "1989", "Maurice Evans", "1989", "Jakob Gimpel", "1991", "Ragnar Granit", "Nobel Prize", "William Heinesen", "1992", "Hans G. Kresse", "Lucy M. Lewis", "1998", "Beatrice Wood", "1999", "Yehudi Menuhin", "2000", "Aleksandar Nikolić", "2001", "Morton Downey Jr.", "Robert Ludlum", "Victor Westhoff", "2002", "Spyros Kyprianou", "President of Cyprus", "Jean-Paul Riopelle", "2003", "Zoran Đinđić", "Prime Minister of Serbia", "Howard Fast", "Lynne Thigpen", "2004", "Milton Resnick", "2005", "Bill Cameron", "Stavros Kouyioumtzis", "2006", "Victor Sokolov", "2007", "Arnold Drake", "2008", "Jorge Guinzburg", "Lazare Ponticelli", "2010", "Miguel Delibes", "2011", "Olive Dickason", "Nilla Pizzi", "2012", "Samuel Glazer", "Mr. Coffee", "Dick Harter", "Michael Hossack", "Friedhelm Konietzka", "2013", "George Burditt", "Clive Burr", "Michael Grigsby", "Ganesh Pyne", "2014", "Věra Chytilová", "George Donaldson", "Paul C. Donnelly", "Ola L. 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"Harry%20Harrison%20%28writer%29", "1926", "George%20Ariyoshi", "Governor%20of%20Hawaii", "Arthur%20A.%20Hartman", "John%20Clellon%20Holmes", "David%20Nadien", "1927", "Ra%C3%BAl%20Alfons%C3%ADn", "President%20of%20Argentina", "Emmett%20Leith", "Gajo%20Petrovi%C4%87", "Sudharmono", "1928", "Edward%20Albee", "Werner%20Krolikowski", "Aldemaro%20Romero", "1930", "Antony%20Acland", "Eton%20College", "Win%20Tin", "National%20League%20for%20Democracy", "1931", "J%C3%B3zef%20Tischner", "1932", "Bob%20Houbregs", "Andrew%20Young", "United%20States%20Ambassador%20to%20the%20United%20Nations", "1933", "Myrna%20Fahey", "Barbara%20Feldon", "Ni%C3%A8de%20Guidon", "1934", "Francisco%20J.%20Ayala", "1935", "Valentyna%20Shevchenko%20%28politician%29", "1936", "Virginia%20Hamilton", "Micha%C5%82%20Heller", "Eddie%20Sutton", "1937", "Zolt%C3%A1n%20Horv%C3%A1th%20%28fencer%29", "Zurab%20Sotkilava", "1938", "Vladimir%20Msryan", "Johnny%20Rutherford", "Juan%20Horacio%20Su%C3%A1rez", "1939", "Jude%20Milhon", "1940", "Al%20Jarreau", "Grigori%20Gorin", "1941", "Josip%20Skoblar", "1943", "Stanislav%20Gali%C4%87", "Ratko%20Mladi%C4%87", "1944", "Erwin%20Mueller", "1946", "Dean%20Cundey", "Ludo%20Martens", "Liza%20Minnelli", "Frank%20Welker", "1947", "Peter%20Harry%20Carstensen", "Jan-Erik%20Enestam", "David%20Rigert", "Mitt%20Romney", "Governor%20of%20Massachusetts", "1948", "Virginia%20Bottomley", "Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Culture%2C%20Media%20and%20Sport", "Sandra%20Brown", "Kent%20Conrad", "James%20Taylor", "1949", "Yuri%20Balashov", "Rob%20Cohen", "1950", "Javier%20Clemente", "1952", "Boris%20Anatolyevich%20Gavrilov", "Julius%20Carry", "Andr%C3%A9%20Comte-Sponville", "Yasuhiko%20Okudera", "1953", "Ron%20Jeremy", "Pavel%20Pinigin", "1954", "Inese%20Galante", "Anish%20Kapoor", "1955", "Wang%20Yang%20%28politician%29", "1956", "Ove%20Aunli", "Stanis%C5%82aw%20Bobak", "Jost%20Gippert", "Steve%20Harris%20%28musician%29", "L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3%20Kiss%20%28footballer%29", "Lesley%20Manville", "Dale%20Murphy", "Pim%20Verbeek", "1957", "Patrick%20Battiston", "Marlon%20Jackson", "Andrey%20Lopatov", "1958", "Phil%20Anderson%20%28cyclist%29", "1959", "Milorad%20Dodik", "Bosnian%20Serb", "Republika%20Srpska", "Kenji%20Fukaya", "Luenell", "Hermann%20Parzinger", "Michael%20Walter%20%28luger%29", "1960", "Jason%20Beghe", "Minoru%20Niihara", "Courtney%20B.%20Vance", "1961", "Titus%20Welliver", "1962", "Julia%20Campbell", "Andreas%20K%C3%B6pke", "Chris%20Sanders", "Darryl%20Strawberry", "1963", "John%20Andretti", "Candy%20Costie", "Joaquim%20Cruz", "Reiner%20Gies", "Ian%20Holloway", "Farahnaz%20Pahlavi", "Mohammad%20Reza%20Pahlavi", "Paul%20Way", "1964", "Dieter%20Eckstein", "Umirzak%20Shukeyev", "Samruk-Kazyna", "1965", "Rolands%20Bulders", "Steve%20Finley", "Ivari%20Padar", "Estonian%20Social%20Democratic%20Party", "Liza%20Umarova", "1966", "David%20Daniels%20%28countertenor%29", "Suleyman%20Kerimov", "Grant%20Long", "1967", "Jenny%20Erpenbeck", "Julio%20Dely%20Vald%C3%A9s", "1968", "Dylan%20Carlson", "Tammy%20Duckworth", "Aaron%20Eckhart", "Jason%20Lively", "1969", "Graham%20Coxon", "Aleksandr%20Shmarko", "Jake%20Tapper", "1970", "Karen%20Bradley", "Dave%20Eggers", "Mathias%20Gronberg", "Roy%20Khan", "Rex%20Walters", "1971", "Isaiah%20Rider", "Og%C3%BCn%20Sanl%C4%B1soy", "Dragutin%20Topi%C4%87", "1972", "Doron%20Sheffer", "1974", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Ad%C3%A1nez", "1974", "Charles%20Akonnor", "Walid%20Badir", "Matt%20Barela", "Scarlet%20Ortiz", "Lisa%20Werlinder", "1975", "Nicolae%20Grigore%20%28footballer%2C%20born%201975%29", "Edgaras%20Jankauskas", "Sr%C4%91an%20Pecelj", "1976", "Deron%20Quint", "Zhao%20Wei", "1977", "Michelle%20Burgher", "1977", "Ramiro%20Corrales", "Amdy%20Faye", "Brent%20Johnson", "1978", "Casey%20Mears", "Marco%20Ferreira", "Claudio%20Sanchez", "Arina%20Tanemura", "1979", "Rhys%20Coiro", "Pete%20Doherty", "Jamie%20Dwyer", "Gerard%20L%C3%B3pez", "Mike%20Mago", "Ben%20Sandford", "Tim%20Wiesk%C3%B6tter", "Edwin%20Villafuerte", "Liu%20Xuan%20%28gymnast%29", "1980", "C%C3%A9sinha", "1980", "Becky%20Holliday", "Jens%20Mouris", "Douglas%20Murray%20%28ice%20hockey%29", "1981", "Hideo%20Itami", "Chiwa%20Sait%C5%8D", "Katarina%20Srebotnik", "Holly%20Williams", "1982", "Lili%20Bord%C3%A1n", "Samm%20Levine", "Ilya%20Nikulin", "Hisato%20Sat%C5%8D", "Y%C5%ABto%20Sat%C5%8D", "Tobias%20Schweinsteiger", "1983", "Atif%20Aslam", "1984", "Shreya%20Ghoshal", "Jaimie%20Alexander", "1985", "Macarena%20Aguilar", "Marco%20Bonanomi", "Aleksandr%20Bukharov", "Choi%20Cheol-han", "Ed%20Clancy", "Andriy%20Tovt", "1986", "Martynas%20Andriu%C5%A1kevi%C4%8Dius", "Campbell%20Best", "Oleh%20Dopilka", "Danny%20Jones", "Ben%20Offereins", "Franti%C5%A1ek%20Rajtoral", "1987", "Manuele%20Boaro", "Jessica%20Hardy", "Maxwell%20Holt", "Teimour%20Radjabov", "Chris%20Seitz", "Vadim%20Shipachyov", "Pablo%20Vel%C3%A1zquez", "1988", "Sebastian%20Brendel", "Kostas%20Mitroglou", "Cristian%20Chagas%20Tarouco", "1989", "Jordan%20Ad%C3%A9oti", "Vytautas%20%C4%8Cerniauskas", "Tyler%20Clary", "Richard%20Eckersley%20%28footballer%29", "Nathan%20Haas", "Chen%20Jianghua", "Siim%20Luts", "1990", "Lawrence%20Clarke%20%28athlete%29", "Alexander%20Kr%C3%B6ckel", "Irakli%20Kvekveskiri", "Dawid%20Kubacki", "Matias%20Myttynen", "Ilija%20Nestorovski", "Milena%20Rai%C4%8Devi%C4%87", "Mikko%20Sumusalo", "1991", "Felix%20Kroos", "Niclas%20Heimann", "Hanna%20Pysmenska", "Leandro%20Fern%C3%A1ndez%20%28footballer%2C%20born%201991%29", "1992", "Daniele%20Baselli", "Jordan%20Ferri", "Ciara%20Mageean", "Ji%C5%99%C3%AD%20Skal%C3%A1k", "1993", "Shehu%20Abdullahi", "Amjad%20Attwan", "Alex%20Bellemare", "Anton%20Shramchenko", "1994", "Jerami%20Grant", "Katie%20Archibald", "Christina%20Grimmie", "1996", "Sehrou%20Guirassy", "Karim%20Hafez", "Robert%20Muri%C4%87", "1997", "Dean%20Henderson", "Allan%20Saint-Maximin", "Felipe%20Vizeu", "1998", "Alina%20M%C3%BCller", "Daniel%20Samohin", "Elizaveta%20Ukolova", "1999", "Sakura%20Oda", "2003", "Malina%20Weissman", "417", "Pope%20Innocent%20I", "604", "Pope%20Gregory%20I", "951", "%C3%86lfheah%20the%20Bald", "969", "Emperor%20Muzong%20of%20Liao", "1022", "Symeon%20the%20New%20Theologian", "1289", "Demetrius%20II%20of%20Georgia", "1316", "Stefan%20Dragutin", "1374", "Emperor%20Go-K%C5%8Dgon", "1496", "Johann%20Heynlin", "1507", "Cesare%20Borgia", "1539", "Thomas%20Boleyn%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Wiltshire", "1477", "1608", "K%C5%8Driki%20Kiyonaga", "1628", "John%20Bull%20%28composer%29", "1648", "Tirso%20de%20Molina", "1681", "Frans%20van%20Mieris%20the%20Elder", "1699", "Peder%20Griffenfeld", "1703", "Aubrey%20de%20Vere%2C%2020th%20Earl%20of%20Oxford", "Lord%20Lieutenant%20of%20Essex", "1731", "Ernest%20August%2C%20Duke%20of%20Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg", "1790", "Andr%C3%A1s%20Hadik", "1820", "Alexander%20Mackenzie%20%28explorer%29", "1832", "Friedrich%20Kuhlau", "1858", "William%20James%20Blacklock", "1872", "Zeng%20Guofan", "Viceroy%20of%20Liangjiang", "1894", "Illarion%20Pryanishnikov", "1898", "Zachris%20Topelius", "1909", "Joseph%20Petrosino", "1914", "George%20Westinghouse", "1916", "Marie%20von%20Ebner-Eschenbach", "1925", "Sun%20Yat-sen", "List%20of%20Presidents%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20China", "1929", "Asa%20Griggs%20Candler", "List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Atlanta", "William%20Turner%20Dannat", "1930", "William%20George%20Barker", "Victoria%20Cross", "Alois%20Jir%C3%A1sek", "1935", "Mihajlo%20Pupin", "1937", "Jen%C5%91%20Hubay", "Charles-Marie%20Widor", "1942", "Robert%20Bosch", "Robert%20Bosch%20GmbH", "William%20Henry%20Bragg", "Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Physics", "1943", "Gustav%20Vigeland", "1945", "Friedrich%20Fromm", "1946", "Ferenc%20Sz%C3%A1lasi", "List%20of%20heads%20of%20state%20of%20Hungary", "1947", "Winston%20Churchill%20%28novelist%29", "1949", "Wilhelm%20Steinkopf", "1954", "Marianne%20Weber", "1955", "Charlie%20Parker", "Theodor%20Plievier", "1956", "Boles%C5%82aw%20Bierut", "1957", "Josephine%20Hull", "1960", "Kshitimohan%20Sen", "1963", "Arthur%20Grimsdell", "1964", "Abb%C4%81s%20al-Aqq%C4%81d", "1971", "Eugene%20Lindsay%20Opie", "1973", "Frankie%20Frisch", "1974", "George%20D.%20Sax", "1979", "Nader%20Jahanbani", "1984", "Arnold%20Ridley", "1985", "Eugene%20Ormandy", "1987", "Woody%20Hayes", "1989", "Maurice%20Evans%20%28actor%29", "1989", "Jakob%20Gimpel", "1991", "Ragnar%20Granit", "Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Physiology%20or%20Medicine", "William%20Heinesen", "1992", "Hans%20G.%20Kresse", "Lucy%20M.%20Lewis", "1998", "Beatrice%20Wood", "1999", "Yehudi%20Menuhin", "2000", "Aleksandar%20Nikoli%C4%87", "2001", "Morton%20Downey%20Jr.", "Robert%20Ludlum", "Victor%20Westhoff", "2002", "Spyros%20Kyprianou", "President%20of%20Cyprus", "Jean-Paul%20Riopelle", "2003", "Zoran%20%C4%90in%C4%91i%C4%87", "Prime%20Minister%20of%20Serbia", "Howard%20Fast", "Lynne%20Thigpen", "2004", "Milton%20Resnick", "2005", "Bill%20Cameron%20%28journalist%29", "Stavros%20Kouyioumtzis", "2006", "Victor%20Sokolov", "2007", "Arnold%20Drake", "2008", "Jorge%20Guinzburg", "Lazare%20Ponticelli", "2010", "Miguel%20Delibes", "2011", "Olive%20Dickason", "Nilla%20Pizzi", "2012", "Samuel%20Glazer", "Mr.%20Coffee", "Dick%20Harter", "Michael%20Hossack", "Friedhelm%20Konietzka", "2013", "George%20Burditt%20%28lawyer%29", "Clive%20Burr", "Michael%20Grigsby", "Ganesh%20Pyne", "2014", "V%C4%9Bra%20Chytilov%C3%A1", "George%20Donaldson%20%28musician%29", "Paul%20C.%20Donnelly", "Ola%20L.%20Mize", "Medal%20of%20Honor", "Jos%C3%A9%20Policarpo", "2015", "Willie%20Barrow", "Michael%20Graves", "Portland%20Building", "Humana%20Building", "Ada%20Jafri", "Terry%20Pratchett", "2016", "Rafiq%20Azad", "Felix%20Ibru", "List%20of%20Governors%20of%20Delta%20State", "Lloyd%20Shapley", "Nobel%20Memorial%20Prize%20in%20Economic%20Sciences", "Arbor%20Day%23China", "Arbor%20Day%23Taiwan", "Arbor%20Day%23Republic%20of%20Macedonia", "Republic%20of%20Macedonia", "Aztec%20New%20Year", "Calendar%20of%20saints", "%C3%86lfheah%20the%20Bald", 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{ "description": "date", "enwikiquote_title": "March 12", "wikidata_id": "Q2402", "wikidata_label": "March 12", "wikipedia_title": "March 12", "aliases": { "alias": [ "12 March", "March 12th", "12th of March", "Mar 12" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20197, "parentid": 900045426, "revid": 900311197, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-04T20:13:32Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=March%2012&oldid=900311197" }

{ "paragraph": [ "March 10\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "BULLET::::- 241 BC – First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates: The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing the First Punic War to an end.\n", "BULLET::::- 298 – Roman Emperor Maximian concludes his campaign in North Africa against the Berbers, and makes a triumphal entry into Carthage.\n", "BULLET::::- 947 – The Later Han is founded by Liu Zhiyuan. He declares himself emperor and establishes the capital in Bian, present-day Kaifeng.\n", "BULLET::::- 1607 – Susenyos I defeats the combined armies of Yaqob and Abuna Petros II at the Battle of Gol in Gojjam, making him Emperor of Ethiopia.\n", "BULLET::::- 1629 – Charles I dissolves the Parliament of England, beginning the eleven-year period known as the Personal Rule.\n", "BULLET::::- 1735 – An agreement between Nader Shah and Russia is signed near Ganja, Azerbaijan and Russian troops are withdrawn from Baku.\n", "BULLET::::- 1762 – French Huguenot Jean Calas, who had been wrongly convicted of killing his son, dies after being tortured by authorities; the event inspired Voltaire to begin a campaign for religious tolerance and legal reform.\n", "BULLET::::- 1804 – Louisiana Purchase: In St. Louis, Missouri, a formal ceremony is conducted to transfer ownership of the Louisiana Territory from France to the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- 1814 – Emperor Napoleon I is defeated at the Battle of Laon in France.\n", "BULLET::::- 1816 – Crossing of the Andes: A group of royalist scouts are captured during the Action of Juncalito.\n", "BULLET::::- 1830 – The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army is created.\n", "BULLET::::- 1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is ratified by the United States Senate, ending the Mexican–American War.\n", "BULLET::::- 1861 – El Hadj Umar Tall seizes the city of Ségou, destroying the Bamana Empire of Mali.\n", "BULLET::::- 1865 – Amy Spain, American slave, is executed for stealing from her owner; believed to have been the last legal execution of a female slave in America.\n", "BULLET::::- 1873 – The first Azerbaijani play \"The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lenkaran\" prepared by Akhundov was performed by Hassan-bey Zardabi and dramatist and Najaf-bey Vezirov.\n", "BULLET::::- 1876 – The first successful test of a telephone is made by Alexander Graham Bell.\n", "BULLET::::- 1891 – Almon Strowger, an undertaker in Topeka, Kansas, patents the Strowger switch, a device which led to the automation of telephone circuit switching.\n", "BULLET::::- 1906 – The Courrières mine disaster, Europe's worst ever, kills 1099 miners in northern France.\n", "BULLET::::- 1909 – By signing the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, Thailand relinquishes its sovereignty over the Malay states of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu, which become British protectorates.\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – World War I: The Battle of Neuve Chapelle begins. This is the first large-scale operation by the British Army in the war.\n", "BULLET::::- 1916 – The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and the British official Henry McMahon concerning the Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire ends.\n", "BULLET::::- 1917 – Some provinces and cities in the Philippines are incorporated due to the ratification of Act No. 2711 or the Administrative Code of the Philippines.\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – Mahatma Gandhi is arrested in India, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years in prison, only to be released after nearly two years for an appendicitis operation.\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – The 6.4 Long Beach earthquake affects the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (\"Severe\"), leaving 115–120 people dead, and causing an estimated $40 million in damage.\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Greek Civil War: The Political Committee of National Liberation is established in Greece by the National Liberation Front.\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – World War II: The U.S. Army Air Force firebombs Tokyo, and the resulting conflagration kills more than 100,000 people, mostly civilians.\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – Mildred Gillars (\"Axis Sally\") is convicted of treason.\n", "BULLET::::- 1952 – Fulgencio Batista leads a successful coup in Cuba and appoints himself as the \"provisional president\".\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Tibetan uprising: Fearing an abduction attempt by China, thousands of Tibetans surround the Dalai Lama's palace to prevent his removal.\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Military Prime Minister of South Vietnam Nguyễn Cao Kỳ sacked rival General Nguyễn Chánh Thi, precipitating large-scale civil and military dissension in parts of the nation.\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Vietnam War: Battle of Lima Site 85, concluding the 11th with largest single ground combat loss of United States Air Force members (12) during that war.\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – In Memphis, Tennessee, James Earl Ray pleads guilty to assassinating Martin Luther King, Jr. He later unsuccessfully attempts to recant.\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Vietnam War: Captain Ernest Medina is charged by the U.S. military with My Lai war crimes.\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Vietnam War: Ho Chi Minh Campaign: North Vietnamese troops attack Ban Mê Thuột in the South on their way to capturing Saigon in the final push for victory over South Vietnam.\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Astronomers discover the rings of Uranus.\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – In Haiti, Prosper Avril is ousted 18 months after seizing power in a coup.\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 – The Nasdaq Composite stock market index peaks at 5132.52, signaling the beginning of the end of the dot-com boom.\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 – The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter arrives at Mars.\n", "BULLET::::- 2017 – The impeachment of President Park Geun-hye of South Korea in response to a major political scandal is unanimously upheld by the country's Constitutional Court, ending her presidency.\n", "Section::::Births.\n", "BULLET::::- 852 – Qian Liu, Chinese warlord and king (d. 932)\n", "BULLET::::- 1415 – Vasily II, Grand Prince of Moscow (d. 1462)\n", "BULLET::::- 1430 – Oliviero Carafa, Catholic cardinal (d. 1511)\n", "BULLET::::- 1452 – Ferdinand II, king of Castile and León (d. 1516)\n", "BULLET::::- 1503 – Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1564)\n", "BULLET::::- 1536 – Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, English politician, Earl Marshal of the United Kingdom (d. 1572)\n", "BULLET::::- 1549 – Francis Solanus, Spanish missionary and saint (d. 1610)\n", "BULLET::::- 1590 – Dietrich Reinkingk, German lawyer and politician (d. 1664)\n", "BULLET::::- 1604 – Johann Rudolf Glauber, German-Dutch alchemist and chemist (d. 1670)\n", "BULLET::::- 1607 – Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton, English statesman (d. 1667)\n", "BULLET::::- 1628 – François Girardon, French sculptor (d. 1715)\n", "BULLET::::- 1628 – Marcello Malpighi, Italian physician and biologist (d. 1694)\n", "BULLET::::- 1652 – Giacomo Serpotta, Italian Rococo sculptor (d. 1732)\n", "BULLET::::- 1653 – John Benbow, Royal Navy admiral (d. 1702)\n", "BULLET::::- 1709 – Georg Wilhelm Steller, German botanist, zoologist, physician, and explorer (d. 1746)\n", "BULLET::::- 1745 – John Gunby, American general (d. 1807)\n", "BULLET::::- 1749 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian-American priest and poet (d. 1838)\n", "BULLET::::- 1769 – Joseph Williamson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1840)\n", "BULLET::::- 1772 – Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, German poet and critic (d. 1829)\n", "BULLET::::- 1777 – Louis Hersent, French painter (d. 1860)\n", "BULLET::::- 1787 – Francisco de Paula Martínez de la Rosa y Berdejo, Spanish playwright and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1862)\n", "BULLET::::- 1787 – William Etty, English painter and academic (d. 1849)\n", "BULLET::::- 1788 – Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff, German author, poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1857)\n", "BULLET::::- 1788 – Edward Hodges Baily, English sculptor (d. 1867)\n", "BULLET::::- 1789 – Manuel de la Peña y Peña, Mexican lawyer and 20th President (1847) (d. 1850)\n", "BULLET::::- 1795 – Joseph Légaré, Canadian painter and glazier, artist, seigneur and political figure (d. 1855)\n", "BULLET::::- 1810 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish poet and lawyer (d. 1886)\n", "BULLET::::- 1844 – Pablo de Sarasate, Spanish violinist and composer (d. 1908)\n", "BULLET::::- 1844 – Marie Euphrosyne Spartali, British Pre-Raphaelite painter (d. 1927)\n", "BULLET::::- 1845 – Alexander III of Russia (d. 1894)\n", "BULLET::::- 1846 – Edward Baker Lincoln, American son of Abraham Lincoln (d. 1850)\n", "BULLET::::- 1849 – Hallie Quinn Brown, African-American educator, writer and activist (d. 1949)\n", "BULLET::::- 1850 – Spencer Gore, English tennis player and cricketer (d. 1906)\n", "BULLET::::- 1853 – Thomas Mackenzie, Scottish-New Zealand cartographer and politician, 18th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1930)\n", "BULLET::::- 1864 – Ādams Alksnis, Latvian painter (d. 1897)\n", "BULLET::::- 1867 – Hector Guimard, French-American architect, designed the La Bluette (d. 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- 1867 – Lillian Wald, American nurse, humanitarian, and author, founded the Henry Street Settlement (d. 1940)\n", "BULLET::::- 1870 – David Riazanov, Russian theorist and politician (d. 1938)\n", "BULLET::::- 1873 – Jakob Wassermann, German-Austrian soldier and author (d. 1934)\n", "BULLET::::- 1876 – Edvard Eriksen, Danish-Icelandic sculptor and woodcarver (d. 1959)\n", "BULLET::::- 1876 – Anna Hyatt Huntington, American sculptor (d. 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- 1881 – Jessie Boswell, English painter (d. 1956)\n", "BULLET::::- 1885 – Tamara Karsavina, Russian-English ballerina and educator (d. 1978)\n", "BULLET::::- 1888 – Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (d. 1961)\n", "BULLET::::- 1889 – Toshitsugu Takamatsu, Japanese martial artist and educator (d. 1972)\n", "BULLET::::- 1890 – Gakuryō Nakamura, Japanese painter and designer (d. 1969)\n", "BULLET::::- 1890 – Albert Ogilvie, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1939)\n", "BULLET::::- 1891 – Sam Jaffe, American actor and engineer (d. 1984)\n", "BULLET::::- 1892 – Arthur Honegger, French-Swiss composer and educator (d. 1955)\n", "BULLET::::- 1892 – Gregory La Cava, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1952)\n", "BULLET::::- 1896 – Frederick Coulton Waugh, British cartoonist, painter, teacher and author (d. 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 – Violet Brown, Jamaican supercentenarian, oldest Jamaican ever (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 – Pandelis Pouliopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician (d. 1943)\n", "BULLET::::- 1901 – Michel Seuphor, Belgian painter (d. 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (d. 1931)\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – Clare Boothe Luce, American playwright, journalist, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (d. 1987)\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – Edward Bawden, British artist and illustrator (d. 1989)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – Chandler Harper, American golfer (d. 2004)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – K. P. Ratnam, Sri Lankan academic and politician (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Harry Bertoia, Italian-American sculptor and furniture designer (d. 1978)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Joža Horvat, Croatian writer (d. 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- 1916 – Davie Fulton, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 2000)\n", "BULLET::::- 1917 – David Hare, American Surrealist artist, sculptor, photographer and painter (d. 1992)\n", "BULLET::::- 1918 – Günther Rall, German general and pilot (d. 2009)\n", "BULLET::::- 1919 – Marion Hutton, American singer and actress (d. 1987)\n", "BULLET::::- 1920 – Alfred Peet, Dutch-American businessman, founded Peet's Coffee & Tea (d. 2007)\n", "BULLET::::- 1920 – Boris Vian, French author and playwright (d. 1959)\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – Kiyoshi Yamashita, Japanese painter (d. 1971)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923 – Val Logsdon Fitch, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- 1924 – Judith Jones, literary and cookbook editor (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Bob Lanier, American lawyer, banker, and politician, 58th Mayor of Houston (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – Marques Haynes, American basketball player (d. 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927 – Claude Laydu, Belgian-French actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927 – Paul Wunderlich, German painter, sculptor and graphic artist (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – Sara Montiel, Spanish actress (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – James Earl Ray, American criminal; assassin of Martin Luther King Jr. (d. 1998)\n", "BULLET::::- 1929 – Sam Steiger, American journalist and politician (d. 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – Sándor Iharos, Hungarian runner (d. 1996)\n", "BULLET::::- 1931 – Georges Dor, Canadian author, playwright, and composer (d. 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – Marcia Falkender, Baroness Falkender, English politician (d. 2019)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – Udupi Ramachandra Rao, Indian physicist and engineer (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Perunchithiranar, Tamil poet (d. 1995)\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Elizabeth Azcona Cranwell, Argentinian poet and translator (d. 2004)\n", "BULLET::::- 1934 – Gergely Kulcsár, Hungarian javelin thrower and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1935 – Graham Farmer, Australian footballer and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – Sepp Blatter, Swiss businessman\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – Alfredo Zitarrosa, Uruguayan singer-songwriter and journalist (d. 1989)\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – Norman Blake, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – Ieronymos II of Athens, Greek archbishop\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Asghar Ali Engineer, Indian activist and author (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Hugh Johnson, English author and critic\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Irina Press, Ukrainian-Russian hurdler and pentathlete (d. 2004)\n", "BULLET::::- 1940 – Chuck Norris, American actor, producer, and martial artist\n", "BULLET::::- 1940 – David Rabe, American playwright and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – Peter Berresford Ellis, English historian and author\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Gail North-Saunders, Bahamian historian, archivist, and author who established the Bahamian National Archives\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – Katharine Houghton, American actress and playwright\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – Madhavrao Scindia, Indian politician, Indian Minister of Railways (d. 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Gérard Garouste, French contemporary artist\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Mike Hollands, Australian animator and director, founded Act3animation\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Jim Valvano, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993)\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Kim Campbell, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Prime Minister of Canada\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Tom Scholz, American rock musician (Boston), songwriter, inventor, and engineer\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Austin Carr, American basketball player and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – Bill Buxton, Canadian computer scientist and academic\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – Barbara Corcoran, American businesswoman and television personality\n", "BULLET::::- 1952 – Morgan Tsvangirai, Zimbabwean politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Zimbabwe (d. 2018)\n", "BULLET::::- 1953 – Paul Haggis, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1954 – Didier Barbelivien, French singer-songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1955 – Toshio Suzuki, Japanese race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Robert Llewellyn, English actor, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Larry Myricks, American long jumper and sprinter\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Osama bin Laden, Saudi Arabian terrorist, founded al-Qaeda (d. 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- 1958 – Garth Crooks, English footballer and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1958 – Steve Howe, American baseball player (d. 2006)\n", "BULLET::::- 1958 – Sharon Stone, American actress and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Laurel Clark, American captain, physician, and astronaut (d. 2003)\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Bobby Petrino, American football player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 – Jasmine Guy, American actress, singer, and director\n", "BULLET::::- 1962 – Seiko Matsuda, Japanese singer-songwriter and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Jeff Ament, American bass player and songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Mexican diplomat and president (1930-1932) (b. 1877)\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Felipe Ramos, Mexican footballer and referee\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Rick Rubin, American record producer, founded Def Jam Recordings\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Neneh Cherry, Swedish singer-songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Jojo Lastimosa, Filipino basketball player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Nikola Mladenov, Macedonian journalist (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Toni Polster, Austrian footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Jillian Richardson, Canadian sprinter\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Rod Woodson, American football player, coach, and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Edie Brickell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Mike Timlin, American baseball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1967 – Omer Tarin, Pakistani-English poet and scholar\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Thio Li-ann, Singaporean lawyer and academic\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Pavel Srníček, Czech footballer and coach (d. 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Matt Barlow, American singer-songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – Jon Hamm, American actor and director\n", "BULLET::::- 1972 – Matt Kenseth, American race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1972 – Timbaland, American rapper and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Jason Croker, Australian rugby league player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Chris Sutton, English footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Mauricio Taricco, Argentinian footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Cristián de la Fuente, Chilean-American model, actor, and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Jamie Arnold, American-Israeli basketball player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1976 – Barbara Schett, Austrian tennis player and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Robin Thicke, American singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Camille, French singer-songwriter and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Neil Alexander, Scottish footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Benjamin Burnley, American musician Breaking Benjamin\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Lars Horntveth, Norwegian saxophonist and composer\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Samuel Eto'o, Cameroonian footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Ángel López, Spanish footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Steven Reid, English-Irish footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Kwame Brown, American basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Keke Wyatt, American singer-songwriter and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Étienne Boulay, Canadian football player\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Rafe Spall, English actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Janet Mock, American journalist, author, and activist\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Carrie Underwood, American singer-songwriter and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Ben May, English footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Olivia Wilde, American actress and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Lassana Diarra, French footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Casey Dienel, American singer-songwriter and pianist\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Martellus Bennett, American football player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Greg Eastwood, New Zealand rugby league player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Ebba Jungmark, Swedish high jumper\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Tuukka Rask, Finnish ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Liu Shishi, Chinese actress and ballerina\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Josh Hoffman, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Kang In-soo, South Korean singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Ivan Rakitić, Croatian football player, plays for FC Barcelona\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Emily Osment, American actress, singer, and songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Neeskens Kebano, French-born Congolese football player\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Jack Butland, English footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 – Zach LaVine, American basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 – Sergey Mozgov, Russian ice dancer\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Julia Barretto, Filipino actress and singer\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Belinda Bencic, Swiss tennis player\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – Max Bryant, Australian cricketer\n", "Section::::Deaths.\n", "BULLET::::- 483 – Pope Simplicius\n", "BULLET::::- 933 – Li Renfu, Chinese warlord and governor\n", "BULLET::::- 948 – Liu Zhiyuan, Shatuo founder of the Later Han dynasty (b. 895)\n", "BULLET::::- 1039 – Eudes, Duke of Gascony\n", "BULLET::::- 1222 – Johan Sverkersson, king of Sweden since 1216 (b. 1201)\n", "BULLET::::- 1289 – Maud de Lacy, Countess of Hertford and Gloucester, English noble (b. 1223)\n", "BULLET::::- 1291 – Arghun, Mongol ruler in Persia\n", "BULLET::::- 1315 – Agnes Blannbekin, Austrian mystic (b. c.1244)\n", "BULLET::::- 1391 – Tvrtko I of Bosnia (b. 1338)\n", "BULLET::::- 1476 – Richard West, 7th Baron De La Warr (b. 1430)\n", "BULLET::::- 1510 – Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg, Swiss priest and theologian (b. 1445)\n", "BULLET::::- 1513 – John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, English commander and politician, Lord High Constable of England (b. 1443)\n", "BULLET::::- 1527 – Nam Gon, Korean writer and prime minister (b. 1471)\n", "BULLET::::- 1528 – Balthasar Hübmaier, influential German/Moravian Anabaptist leader (b. 1480)\n", "BULLET::::- 1572 – William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester (b. c. 1483)\n", "BULLET::::- 1585 – Rembert Dodoens, Flemish physician and botanist (b. 1517)\n", "BULLET::::- 1588 – Theodor Zwinger, Swiss physician and scholar (b. 1533)\n", "BULLET::::- 1670 – Johann Rudolf Glauber, German-Dutch chemist and engineer (b. 1604)\n", "BULLET::::- 1682 – Jacob van Ruisdael, Dutch painter and etcher (b. 1628)\n", "BULLET::::- 1724 – Urban Hjärne, Swedish chemist, geologist, and physician (b. 1641)\n", "BULLET::::- 1776 – Élie Catherine Fréron, French author and critic (b. 1719)\n", "BULLET::::- 1792 – John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Scottish politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1713)\n", "BULLET::::- 1823 – George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith, Scottish admiral and politician (b. 1746)\n", "BULLET::::- 1826 – John Pinkerton, Scottish antiquarian, cartographer, author, numismatist and historian (b. 1758)\n", "BULLET::::- 1832 – Muzio Clementi, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1752)\n", "BULLET::::- 1861 – Taras Shevchenko, Ukrainian poet, playwright, and ethnographer (b. 1814)\n", "BULLET::::- 1872 – Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian journalist and politician (b. 1805)\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 – Marie-Eugénie de Jésus, French nun and saint, founded the Religious of the Assumption (b. 1817)\n", "BULLET::::- 1895 – Charles Frederick Worth, English-French fashion designer, founded the House of Worth (b. 1826)\n", "BULLET::::- 1897 – Savitribai Phule, Indian poet and activist (b. 1831)\n", "BULLET::::- 1910 – Karl Lueger, Austrian lawyer and politician Mayor of Vienna (b. 1844)\n", "BULLET::::- 1910 – Carl Reinecke, German pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1824)\n", "BULLET::::- 1913 – Harriet Tubman, American nurse and activist (b. 1820)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Myer Prinstein, Polish-American jumper and lawyer (b. 1878)\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – Misuzu Kaneko, Japanese poet and songwriter (b. 1903)\n", "BULLET::::- 1937 – Yevgeny Zamyatin, Russian journalist and author (b. 1884)\n", "BULLET::::- 1940 – Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian novelist and playwright (b. 1891)\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – Wilbur Scoville, American pharmacist and chemist (b. 1865)\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Zelda Fitzgerald, American author, poet, and dancer (b. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Jan Masaryk, Czech soldier and politician (b. 1886)\n", "BULLET::::- 1951 – Kijūrō Shidehara, Japanese lawyer and politician, 44th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1872)\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Archibald Frazer-Nash, English engineer, founded Frazer Nash (b. 1889)\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888)\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Frank O'Connor, Irish short story writer, novelist, and poet (b. 1903)\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – E. Power Biggs, English-American organist and composer (b. 1906)\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Minoru Shirota, Japanese physician and microbiologist, invented Yakult (b. 1899)\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Konstantin Chernenko, Russian soldier and politician, 8th Head of State of The Soviet Union (b. 1911)\n", "BULLET::::- 1985 – Bob Nieman, American baseball player and scout (b. 1927)\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Ray Milland, Welsh-American actor and director (b. 1905)\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Andy Gibb, Manx-Australian singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1958)\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Kermit Beahan, American colonel and pilot (b. 1918)\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Pat McDonald, Australian actress (b. 1921)\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Giorgos Zampetas, Greek bouzouki player and composer (b. 1925)\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 – Agepê, Brazilian singer/composer (b. 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 – Ross Hunter, American film producer (b. 1926)\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – LaVern Baker, American singer and actress (b. 1929)\n", "BULLET::::- 1998 – Lloyd Bridges, American actor and director (b. 1913)\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – Oswaldo Guayasamín, Ecuadorian painter and sculptor (b. 1919)\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 – Massimo Morsello, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1958)\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 – Renos Apostolidis, Greek philologist, author, and critic (b. 1924)\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 – Dave Allen, Irish-English comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1936)\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 – Anna Moffo, American soprano (b. 1932)\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 – Ernie Ladd, American football player and wrestler (b. 1938)\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 – Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, Egyptian scholar and academic (b. 1928)\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 – Corey Haim, Canadian actor (b. 1971)\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 – Bill Blackbeard, American author and illustrator (b. 1926)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Bert R. Bulkin, American engineer (b. 1929)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Jean Giraud, French author and illustrator (b. 1938)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Mykola Plaviuk, Ukrainian politician, President Ukrainian People's Republic in Exile (b. 1925)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Frank Sherwood Rowland, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Tan Boon Teik, Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (b. 1929)\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 – Richard Glatzer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1952)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Ken Adam, German-English production designer and art director (b. 1921)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Keith Emerson, English keyboard player and songwriter (b. 1944)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Roberto Perfumo, Argentinian footballer and sportscaster (b. 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Jovito Salonga, Filipino lawyer and politician, 14th President of the Senate of the Philippines (b. 1920)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Anita Brookner, English novelist and art historian (b. 1928)\n", "Section::::Holidays and observances.\n", "BULLET::::- Christian feast day:\n", "BULLET::::- Anastasia the Patrician\n", "BULLET::::- Attala\n", "BULLET::::- Harriet Tubman (Lutheran)\n", "BULLET::::- Himelin\n", "BULLET::::- John Ogilvie\n", "BULLET::::- Macarius of Jerusalem\n", "BULLET::::- Marie-Eugénie de Jésus\n", "BULLET::::- Pope Simplicius\n", "BULLET::::- Sojourner Truth (Lutheran)\n", "BULLET::::- March 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n", "BULLET::::- Harriet Tubman Day (United States of America)\n", "BULLET::::- Holocaust Remembrance Day (Bulgaria)\n", "BULLET::::- Hote Matsuri (Shiogama, Japan)\n", "BULLET::::- Mario Day (Globally)\n", "BULLET::::- National Women and Girls HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)\n", "BULLET::::- Tibetan Uprising Day (Tibetan independence movement)\n", "BULLET::::- Theatre Day (Azerbaijan)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- BBC: On This Day\n", "BULLET::::- Today in Canadian History\n" ] }

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16, 40, 16, 37, 16, 31, 16, 40, 16, 48, 107, 16, 57, 16, 33, 16, 33, 16, 35, 16, 35, 16, 41, 104, 16, 42, 103, 16, 35, 16, 30, 78, 16, 32, 16, 33, 16, 33, 16, 32, 16, 35, 16, 35, 16, 34, 16, 35, 16, 30, 16, 35, 97, 16, 40, 79, 16, 32, 75, 16, 33, 16, 33, 16, 33, 89, 16, 39, 110, 16, 29, 16, 30, 16, 28, 16, 32, 16, 31, 16, 35, 51, 16, 24, 60, 16, 30, 16, 31, 16, 32, 16, 37, 16, 35, 16, 36, 16, 29, 16, 29, 16, 29, 16, 42, 16, 29, 16, 34, 16, 33, 30, 33, 103, 41, 85, 32, 108, 16, 34, 16, 27, 32, 34, 33, 114, 33, 31, 35, 18, 26, 36, 19, 24, 33, 34, 27, 27, 37, 49, 30, 56, 37, 47, 24, 34, 41, 21, 31, 59, 74, 32, 63, 36, 28, 37 ], "text": [ "241 BC", "First Punic War", "Battle of the Aegates", "Romans", "Carthaginian", "298", "Maximian", "North Africa", "Berbers", "Carthage", "947", "Later Han", "Liu Zhiyuan", "Kaifeng", "1607", "Susenyos I", "Yaqob", "Abuna", "Gojjam", "Emperor of Ethiopia", "1629", "Charles I", "Parliament of England", "Personal Rule", "1735", "Nader Shah", "Ganja, Azerbaijan", "Baku", "1762", "Huguenot", "Jean Calas", "Voltaire", "1804", "Louisiana Purchase", "St. Louis, Missouri", "formal ceremony", "Louisiana Territory", "France", "United States", "1814", "Napoleon I", "Battle of Laon", "1816", "Crossing of the Andes", "Action of Juncalito", "1830", "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army", "1848", "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo", "United States Senate", "Mexican–American War", "1861", "El Hadj Umar Tall", "Ségou", "Bamana Empire", "Mali", "1865", "Amy Spain", "1873", "Hassan-bey Zardabi", "Najaf-bey Vezirov", "1876", "test of a telephone", "Alexander Graham Bell", "1891", "Almon Strowger", "Topeka, Kansas", "Strowger switch", "1906", "Courrières mine disaster", "1909", "Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909", "Thailand", "sovereignty", "Malay states", "Kedah", "Kelantan", "Perlis", "Terengganu", "British protectorates", "1915", "World War I", "Battle of Neuve Chapelle", "British Army", "1916", "McMahon–Hussein Correspondence", "Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca", "Henry McMahon", "Arab revolt", "Ottoman Empire", "1917", "provinces", "cities", "Philippines", "1922", "Mahatma Gandhi", "sedition", "appendicitis", "1933", "Long Beach earthquake", "Greater Los Angeles Area", "Mercalli intensity", "1944", "Greek Civil War", "Political Committee of National Liberation", "National Liberation Front", "1945", "World War II", "U.S. Army Air Force", "firebombs Tokyo", "conflagration", "1949", "Mildred Gillars", "Axis Sally", "treason", "1952", "Fulgencio Batista", "coup", "Cuba", "1959", "Tibetan uprising", "Tibetans", "Dalai Lama", "1966", "South Vietnam", "Nguyễn Cao Kỳ", "Nguyễn Chánh Thi", "large-scale civil and military dissension", "1968", "Vietnam War", "Battle of Lima Site 85", "1969", "Memphis, Tennessee", "James Earl Ray", "Martin Luther King, Jr", "1970", "Ernest Medina", "My Lai war crimes", "1975", "Ho Chi Minh Campaign", "North Vietnam", "attack Ban Mê Thuột", "Saigon", "1977", "rings of Uranus", "1990", "Haiti", "Prosper Avril", "coup", "2000", "Nasdaq Composite", "stock market index", "dot-com boom", "2006", "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter", "Mars", "2017", "impeachment", "President", "Park Geun-hye", "South Korea", "major political scandal", "Constitutional Court", "852", "Qian Liu", "1415", "Vasily II", "1430", "Oliviero Carafa", "1452", "Ferdinand II", "Castile", "León", "1503", "Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor", "1536", "Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk", "Earl Marshal of the United Kingdom", "1549", "Francis Solanus", "1590", "Dietrich Reinkingk", "1604", "Johann Rudolf Glauber", "1607", "Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton", "1628", "François Girardon", "Marcello Malpighi", "1652", "Giacomo Serpotta", "1653", "John Benbow", "1709", "Georg Wilhelm Steller", "1745", "John Gunby", "1749", "Lorenzo Da Ponte", "1769", "Joseph Williamson", "1772", "Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel", "1777", "Louis Hersent", "1787", "Francisco de Paula Martínez de la Rosa y Berdejo", "Prime Minister of Spain", "William Etty", "1788", "Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff", "Edward Hodges Baily", "1789", "Manuel de la Peña y Peña", "1795", "Joseph Légaré", "1810", "Samuel Ferguson", "1844", "Pablo de Sarasate", "Marie Euphrosyne Spartali", "1845", "Alexander III of Russia", "1846", "Edward Baker Lincoln", "Abraham Lincoln", "1849", "Hallie Quinn Brown", "1850", "Spencer Gore", "1853", "Thomas Mackenzie", "Prime Minister of New Zealand", "1864", "Ādams Alksnis", "1867", "Hector Guimard", "La Bluette", "Lillian Wald", "Henry Street Settlement", "1870", "David Riazanov", "1873", "Jakob Wassermann", "1876", "Edvard Eriksen", "Anna Hyatt Huntington", "1881", "Jessie Boswell", "1885", "Tamara Karsavina", "1888", "Barry Fitzgerald", "1889", "Toshitsugu Takamatsu", "1890", "Gakuryō Nakamura", "Albert Ogilvie", "Premier of Tasmania", "1891", "Sam Jaffe", "1892", "Arthur Honegger", "Gregory La Cava", "1896", "Frederick Coulton Waugh", "1900", "Violet Brown", "Pandelis Pouliopoulos", "1901", "Michel Seuphor", "1903", "Bix Beiderbecke", "Clare Boothe Luce", "United States Ambassador to Italy", "Edward Bawden", "1914", "Chandler Harper", "K. P. 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{ "description": "date", "enwikiquote_title": "March 10", "wikidata_id": "Q2397", "wikidata_label": "March 10", "wikipedia_title": "March 10", "aliases": { "alias": [ "10 March", "March 10th", "10th of March", "Mar 10" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20196, "parentid": 907858357, "revid": 907862191, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-25T19:34:56Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=March%2010&oldid=907862191" }

{ "paragraph": [ "March 14\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "BULLET::::- 44 BC – Casca and Cassius decide, on the night before the Assassination of Julius Caesar, that Mark Antony should live.\n", "BULLET::::- 313 – Emperor Jin Huaidi is executed by Liu Cong, ruler of the Xiongnu state (Han Zhao).\n", "BULLET::::- 1381 – Chioggia concludes an alliance with Zadar and Trogir against Venice, which becomes changed in 1412 in Šibenik.\n", "BULLET::::- 1489 – The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice.\n", "BULLET::::- 1590 – Battle of Ivry: Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots defeat the forces of the Catholic League under Charles, Duke of Mayenne during the French Wars of Religion.\n", "BULLET::::- 1647 – Thirty Years' War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm.\n", "BULLET::::- 1663 – Otto von Guericke completes his book on Vacuum.\n", "BULLET::::- 1757 – Admiral Sir John Byng is executed by firing squad aboard for breach of the Articles of War.\n", "BULLET::::- 1780 – American Revolutionary War: Spanish forces capture Fort Charlotte in Mobile, Alabama, the last British frontier post capable of threatening New Orleans in Spanish Louisiana.\n", "BULLET::::- 1782 – Battle of Wuchale: Emperor Tekle Giyorgis I pacifies a group of Oromo near Wuchale.\n", "BULLET::::- 1794 – Eli Whitney is granted a patent for the cotton gin.\n", "BULLET::::- 1885 – \"The Mikado\", a light opera by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, receives its first public performance in London.\n", "BULLET::::- 1900 – The Gold Standard Act is ratified, placing United States currency on the gold standard.\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – The Hay–Herrán Treaty, granting the United States the right to build the Panama Canal, is ratified by the United States Senate. The Senate of Colombia would later reject the treaty.\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is established by US President Theodore Roosevelt.\n", "BULLET::::- 1910 – Lakeview Gusher, the largest U.S. oil well gusher near Bakersfield, California, vents to atmosphere.\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – El Virilla train accident, Costa Rica: A train falls off a bridge over the Río Virilla between Heredia and Tibás. Two hundred forty-eight are killed and 93 wounded.\n", "BULLET::::- 1931 – \"Alam Ara\", India's first talking film, is released.\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – The first all-sound film version of \"Show Boat\" opens at Radio City Music Hall.\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Slovakia declares independence under German pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – Orvan Hess and John Bumstead became the first in the United States successfully to treat a patient, Anne Miller, using penicillin.\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – World War II: The Kraków Ghetto is \"liquidated\".\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – World War II: The R.A.F.'s first operational use of the Grand Slam bomb, Bielefeld, Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- 1951 – Korean War: For the second time, United Nations troops recapture Seoul.\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – USAF \"Broken Arrow\" nuclear weapon mishap in B-52 crash near Yuba City, Ca.\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – A jury in Dallas finds Jack Ruby guilty of killing Lee Harvey Oswald, the assumed assassin of John F. Kennedy.\n", "BULLET::::- 1967 – The body of U.S. President John F. Kennedy is moved to a permanent burial place at Arlington National Cemetery.\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – The Israel Defense Forces invade and occupies southern Lebanon in Operation Litani.\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – In China, a Hawker Siddeley Trident crashes into a factory near Beijing, killing 44 and injuring at least 200.\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – In Poland, LOT Flight 7 crashes during final approach near Warsaw, killing 87 people, including a 14-man American boxing team.\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – The South African government bombs the headquarters of the African National Congress in London.\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Johnson South Reef Skirmish: Chinese forces defeat Vietnamese forces in Johnson South Reef, disputed Spratly Islands.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – Timeline of Linux development: Linux kernel version 1.0.0 is released.\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 – Space exploration: Astronaut Norman Thagard becomes the first American astronaut to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle.\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 – Members of the Chadian military fail in an attempted coup d'état.\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 – The Left Front government of West Bengal sends at least 3,000 police to Nandigram in an attempt to break Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh Committee resistance there; the resulting clash leaves 14 dead.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 – A series of riots, protests, and demonstrations erupt in Lhasa and elsewhere in Tibet.\n", "BULLET::::- 2019 – Cyclone Idai has swept through Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe over the past few days, destroying almost everything in its path, causing devastating floods, killing and injuring thousands of people and ruining crops. More than 2.6 million people could be affected across the three countries, and the port city of Beira, which was hit on March 8 and is home to 500,000 people, is now an “island in the ocean”, almost completely cut off.\n", "Section::::Births.\n", "BULLET::::- 1415 – Wilhelm II, Count of Henneberg-Schleusingen (d. 1444)\n", "BULLET::::- 1418 – Philip II, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1492)\n", "BULLET::::- 1473 – Reinhard IV, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1512)\n", "BULLET::::- 1576 – Eric of Lorraine, Bishop of Verdun (d. 1623)\n", "BULLET::::- 1638 – Johann Georg Gichtel, German mystic (d. 1710)\n", "BULLET::::- 1665 – Giuseppe Crespi, Italian painter (d. 1747)\n", "BULLET::::- 1681 – Georg Philipp Telemann, German composer and theorist (d. 1767)\n", "BULLET::::- 1790 – Ludwig Emil Grimm, German painter and engraver (d. 1863)\n", "BULLET::::- 1800 – James Bogardus, American inventor and architect (d. 1874)\n", "BULLET::::- 1801 – Kristjan Jaak Peterson, Estonian poet (d. 1822)\n", "BULLET::::- 1804 – Johann Strauss I, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1849)\n", "BULLET::::- 1813 – Joseph P. Bradley, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1892)\n", "BULLET::::- 1820 – Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (d. 1878)\n", "BULLET::::- 1822 – Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies (d. 1889)\n", "BULLET::::- 1823 – Théodore de Banville, French poet and critic (d. 1891)\n", "BULLET::::- 1833 – Frederic Shields, English painter and illustrator (d. 1911)\n", "BULLET::::- 1833 – Lucy Hobbs Taylor, American dentist and educator (d. 1910)\n", "BULLET::::- 1835 – Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italian astronomer and historian (d. 1910)\n", "BULLET::::- 1836 – Isabella Beeton, English author of \"Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management\" (d. 1865)\n", "BULLET::::- 1837 – Charles Ammi Cutter, American librarian (d. 1903)\n", "BULLET::::- 1844 – Umberto I of Italy (d. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1844 – Arthur O'Shaughnessy, English poet and herpetologist (d. 1881)\n", "BULLET::::- 1847 – Castro Alves, Brazilian poet and playwright (d. 1871)\n", "BULLET::::- 1853 – Ferdinand Hodler, Swiss painter (d. 1918)\n", "BULLET::::- 1854 – Paul Ehrlich, German physician and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1915)\n", "BULLET::::- 1854 – John Lane, English publisher, co-founded The Bodley Head (d. 1925)\n", "BULLET::::- 1854 – Alexandru Macedonski, Romanian author and poet (d. 1920)\n", "BULLET::::- 1854 – Thomas R. Marshall, American lawyer and politician, 28th Vice President of the United States of America (d. 1925)\n", "BULLET::::- 1862 – Vilhelm Bjerknes, Norwegian physicist and meteorologist (d. 1951)\n", "BULLET::::- 1863 – Casey Jones, American engineer (d. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1866 – Alexey Troitsky, Russian composer and author (d. 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- 1868 – Emily Murphy, Canadian jurist, author, and activist (d. 1933)\n", "BULLET::::- 1869 – Algernon Blackwood, English author and playwright (d. 1951)\n", "BULLET::::- 1874 – Anton Philips, Dutch businessman, co-founded Philips Electronics (d. 1951)\n", "BULLET::::- 1879 – Albert Einstein, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)\n", "BULLET::::- 1880 – Princess Thyra of Denmark (d. 1945)\n", "BULLET::::- 1882 – Wacław Sierpiński, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1969)\n", "BULLET::::- 1885 – Gervais Raoul Lufbery, French-American soldier and pilot (d. 1918)\n", "BULLET::::- 1886 – Firmin Lambot, Belgian cyclist (d. 1964)\n", "BULLET::::- 1887 – Sylvia Beach, American-French publisher, founded Shakespeare and Company (d. 1962)\n", "BULLET::::- 1894 – Osa Johnson, American director and explorer (d. 1953)\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 – Arnold Chikobava, Georgian linguist and philologist (d. 1985)\n", "BULLET::::- 1898 – Reginald Marsh, French-American painter and illustrator (d. 1954)\n", "BULLET::::- 1899 – K. C. Irving, Canadian businessman, founded Irving Oil (d. 1992)\n", "BULLET::::- 1901 – Sid Atkinson, South African hurdler and long jumper (d. 1977)\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 – Adolph Gottlieb, American painter and sculptor (d. 1974)\n", "BULLET::::- 1904 – Doris Eaton Travis, American actress and dancer (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1905 – Raymond Aron, French journalist, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- 1906 – Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Turkish composer and educator (d. 1972)\n", "BULLET::::- 1906 – Fazıl Küçük, Cypriot journalist and politician (d. 1984)\n", "BULLET::::- 1908 – Ed Heinemann, American engineer (d. 1991)\n", "BULLET::::- 1908 – Maurice Merleau-Ponty, French philosopher and academic (d. 1961)\n", "BULLET::::- 1908 – Philip Conrad Vincent, English engineer and businessman, founded Vincent Motorcycles (d. 1979)\n", "BULLET::::- 1911 – Akira Yoshizawa, Japanese origamist (d. 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – Cliff Bastin, English footballer (d. 1991)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – Les Brown, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – W. Graham Claytor, Jr. American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1994)\n", "BULLET::::- 1912 – W. Willard Wirtz, American lawyer and politician, 10th United States Secretary of Labor (d. 2010)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – Lee Hays, American singer-songwriter (d. 1981)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – Bill Owen, English actor and songwriter (d. 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- 1914 – Lee Petty, American race car driver and businessman, founded Petty Enterprises (d. 2000)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915 – Alexander Brott, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- 1916 – Horton Foote, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2009)\n", "BULLET::::- 1917 – Alan Smith, English lieutenant and pilot (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1918 – Zoia Horn, American librarian (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1918 – Dennis Patrick, American actor and director (d. 2002)\n", "BULLET::::- 1919 – Max Shulman, American author and screenwriter (d. 1988)\n", "BULLET::::- 1920 – Hank Ketcham, American author and cartoonist, created \"Dennis the Menace\" (d. 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- 1920 – Dorothy Tyler-Odam, English high jumper (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1921 – S. Truett Cathy, American businessman, founded Chick-fil-A (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1921 – Ada Louise Huxtable, American author and critic (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – Les Baxter, American pianist and composer (d. 1996)\n", "BULLET::::- 1922 – China Zorrilla, Uruguayan actress, director, and producer (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923 – Diane Arbus, American photographer (d. 1971)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – William Clay Ford, Sr., American businessman (d. 2014)\n", "BULLET::::- 1925 – Joseph A. Unanue, American sergeant and businessman (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926 – François Morel, Canadian pianist, composer, conductor, and educator (d. 2018)\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – Frank Borman, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut\n", "BULLET::::- 1928 – Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Spanish environmentalist (d. 1980)\n", "BULLET::::- 1929 – Bob Goalby, American golfer\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – Mark Murphy, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – Naina Yeltsina, Russian wife of Boris Yeltsin, First Lady of Russia\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Michael Caine, English actor and author\n", "BULLET::::- 1933 – Quincy Jones, American singer-songwriter, trumpet player, and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1934 – Eugene Cernan, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2017)\n", "BULLET::::- 1934 – Paul Rader, American 15th General of The Salvation Army\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 – Bob Charles, New Zealand golfer\n", "BULLET::::- 1937 – Peter van der Merwe, South African cricketer and referee (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – Eleanor Bron, English actress and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 – John Gleeson, Australian cricketer (d. 2016)\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Pilar Bardem, Spanish actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Raymond J. Barry, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Bertrand Blier, French director and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Yves Boisset, French director and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1939 – Jan Crouch, American televangelist, co-founder of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (d. 2016)\n", "BULLET::::- 1941 – Wolfgang Petersen, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – Rita Tushingham, English actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 – Anita Morris, American actress and singer (d. 1994)\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Boris Brott, Canadian composer and conductor\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Václav Nedomanský, Czech ice hockey player and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Bobby Smith, English footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 – Tom Stannage, Australian historian and academic (d. 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – Jasper Carrott, English comedian, actor, and game show host\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – Michael Martin Murphey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 – Walter Parazaider, American saxophonist\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – William Lerach, American securities, class action attorney\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Wes Unseld, American basketball player, coach, and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Roy Budd, English pianist and composer (d. 1993)\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – William J. Jefferson, American lawyer and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1947 – Jona Lewie, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Tom Coburn, American physician and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Billy Crystal, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1948 – Theo Jansen, Dutch sculptor\n", "BULLET::::- 1950 – Rick Dees, American actor and radio host\n", "BULLET::::- 1951 – Jerry Greenfield, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Ben & Jerry's\n", "BULLET::::- 1953 – Nick Keir, Scottish singer-songwriter (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1954 – Brian Smith, Australian rugby league player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1955 – Jonathan Kaufer, American director and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Sean Mathias, Welsh actor, director, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Alexey Pajitnov, Russian video game designer and computer engineer, creator of Tetris\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 – Butch Wynegar, American baseball player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Jean van de Velde, Dutch director and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Tad Williams, American author\n", "BULLET::::- 1958 – Albert II, Prince of Monaco\n", "BULLET::::- 1958 – Francine Stock, English journalist and author\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Steve Byrnes, American sportscaster and producer (d. 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Laila Robins, American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 – Tamara Tunie, American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1960 – Heidi Hammel, American astronomer and academic\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Garry Jack, Australian rugby league player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Penny Johnson Jerald, American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Mike Lazaridis, Turkish–Canadian businessman and philanthropist, founded BlackBerry Limited\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Hiro Matsushita, Japanese race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Andrew Fleming, American director and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1963 – Bruce Reid, Australian cricketer and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 – Dario Bisso Sabàdin, Italian conductor and composer\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Kevin Brown, American baseball player and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Aamir Khan, Indian film actor, producer, and director\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Billy Sherwood, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Kevin Williamson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Jonas Elmer, Danish actor, director, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Elise Neal, American actress and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 – Gary Anthony Williams, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1967 – Jeremy Baumberg FRS Professor of Nanoscience at the University of Cambridge\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Megan Follows, Canadian-American actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – James Frain, English actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Serena Rees, English businesswoman, co-founded Agent Provocateur\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – Michael Bland, American drummer and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – Larry Johnson, American basketball player and actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 – Kristian Bush, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 – Charlie Elphicke, English lawyer and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1972 – Irom Chanu Sharmila, Indian poet and activist\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Rohit Shetty, Indian film director and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Ben Kennedy, Australian rugby player\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Santino Marella, Canadian-American wrestler and actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – Patrick Traverse, Canadian ice hockey player\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Rushanara Ali, Bangladeshi-English politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Steve Harper, English footballer and referee\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Dmitri Markov, Belarusian-Australian pole vaulter\n", "BULLET::::- 1976 – Daniel Gillies, Canadian-New Zealand actor, director, and screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- 1976 – Phil Vickery, English rugby player and sportscaster\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Vadims Fjodorovs, Latvian footballer and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Aki Hoshino, Japanese model and author\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Naoki Matsuda, Japanese footballer (d. 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Jeremy Paul, New Zealand-Australian rugby player\n", "BULLET::::- 1978 – Pieter van den Hoogenband, Dutch swimmer\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Nicolas Anelka, French footballer and manager\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Chris Klein, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Sead Ramović, German-Bosnian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 – Dan Sexbang, lead singer of NSP, American Internet Celebrity (2013-present)\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Aaron Brown, English footballer and coach\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Ben Herring, New Zealand rugby player\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – Bobby Jenks, American baseball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 – George Wilson, American football player\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Carlos Marinelli, Argentinian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – François Sterchele, Belgian footballer (d. 2008)\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Bakhtiyar Artayev, Kazakh boxer\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Taylor Hanson, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Anas Sarwar, Scottish dentist and politician\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Jin Sha, Chinese singer and actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Aric Almirola, American race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Liesel Pritzker Simmons, American actress and philanthropist\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Jamie Bell, English actor and dancer\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Elton Chigumbura, Zimbabwean cricketer\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Jessica Gallagher, Australian skier and cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Andy Taylor, English footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1987 – Robert Clark, American actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Stephen Curry, American basketball player\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Rico Freimuth, German decathlete\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Kevin Lacroix, Canadian race car driver\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Colby O'Donis, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Joe Allen, Welsh footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Tamás Kádár, Hungarian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Haru Kuroki, Japanese actress\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Kolbeinn Sigþórsson, Icelandic footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Emir Bekrić, Serbian hurdler\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Pat O'Hanlon, Australian rugby league player\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – László Szűcs, Hungarian footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Steven Zellner, German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 – Philipp Ziereis, German footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 – Ansel Elgort, American actor and DJ\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 – Batuhan Altıntaş, Turkish footballer\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Simone Biles, American gymnast\n", "Section::::Deaths.\n", "BULLET::::- 313 – Emperor Huai of Jin (b. 284)\n", "BULLET::::- 557 – Leobinus, bishop of Chartres\n", "BULLET::::- 757 – Li Lin, prince of the Tang dynasty\n", "BULLET::::- 840 – Einhard, Frankish scholar\n", "BULLET::::- 968 – Matilda of Ringelheim, Frankish queen and saint (b. 895)\n", "BULLET::::- 1397 – Henry VIII the Sparrow, Duke of Żagań–Głogów (b.c. 1357)\n", "BULLET::::- 1457 – The Jingtai Emperor, ruler of Ming China (b. 1428)\n", "BULLET::::- 1471 – Thomas Malory, English author and politician (b. 1405)\n", "BULLET::::- 1555 – John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford (b. 1485)\n", "BULLET::::- 1571 – John Sigismund Zápolya, Hungarian king (b. 1540)\n", "BULLET::::- 1632 – Tokugawa Hidetada, Japanese shōgun (b. 1579)\n", "BULLET::::- 1647 – Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (b. 1584)\n", "BULLET::::- 1648 – Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron, English general and politician (b. 1584)\n", "BULLET::::- 1696 – Jean Domat, French lawyer and jurist (b. 1625)\n", "BULLET::::- 1748 – George Wade, Irish field marshal and politician (b. 1673)\n", "BULLET::::- 1757 – John Byng, British admiral and politician, 11th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1704)\n", "BULLET::::- 1765 – Ayagawa Gorōji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 2nd Yokozuna (b. 1703)\n", "BULLET::::- 1791 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian and critic (b. 1725)\n", "BULLET::::- 1803 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, German poet (b. 1724)\n", "BULLET::::- 1805 – Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki, Polish-Lithuanian general (b. 1753)\n", "BULLET::::- 1811 – Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1735)\n", "BULLET::::- 1823 – Charles François Dumouriez, French general and politician, French Minister of War (b. 1739)\n", "BULLET::::- 1860 – Carl Ritter von Ghega, Italian engineer, designed the Semmering railway (b. 1802)\n", "BULLET::::- 1877 – Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentinian general and politician, 17th Governor of Buenos Aires Province (b. 1793)\n", "BULLET::::- 1883 – Karl Marx, German philosopher and theorist (b. 1818)\n", "BULLET::::- 1884 – Quintino Sella, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Finances (b. 1827)\n", "BULLET::::- 1921 – Larry McLean, Canadian-American baseball player (b. 1881)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932 – George Eastman, American inventor and businessman, founded Eastman Kodak (b. 1854)\n", "BULLET::::- 1942 – René Bull, Irish lieutenant and illustrator (b. 1872)\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Werner von Blomberg, German field marshal (b. 1878)\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 – John Callan O'Laughlin, American journalist and politician, 17th United States Assistant Secretary of State (b. 1873)\n", "BULLET::::- 1953 – Klement Gottwald, Czechoslovak Communist politician (b. 1896)\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 – Evagoras Pallikarides, Cypriot activist (b. 1938)\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 – Marion Jones Farquhar, American tennis player (b. 1879)\n", "BULLET::::- 1968 – Erwin Panofsky, German historian and academic (b. 1892)\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 – Ben Shahn, Lithuanian-American painter, illustrator, and educator (b. 1898)\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Howard H. Aiken, American computer scientist and engineer (b. 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – Chic Young, American cartoonist (b. 1901)\n", "BULLET::::- 1975 – Susan Hayward, American actress (b. 1917)\n", "BULLET::::- 1976 – Busby Berkeley, American director and choreographer (b. 1895)\n", "BULLET::::- 1977 – Fannie Lou Hamer, American activist and philanthropist (b. 1917)\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Indonesia (b. 1902)\n", "BULLET::::- 1980 – Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Spanish environmentalist (b. 1928)\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Maurice Ronet, French actor and director (b. 1927)\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Hovhannes Shiraz, Armenian poet (b. 1915)\n", "BULLET::::- 1989 – Zita of Bourbon-Parma, Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary (b. 1892)\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Howard Ashman, American playwright and composer (b. 1950)\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Margery Sharp, English author (b. 1905)\n", "BULLET::::- 1992 – Jean Poiret, French actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 – William Alfred Fowler, American physicist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 – Fred Zinnemann, Austrian-American director and producer (b. 1907)\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – Kirk Alyn, American actor (b. 1910)\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 – John Broome, American author (b. 1913)\n", "BULLET::::- 2002 – Cherry Wilder, New Zealand author and poet (b. 1930)\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Jack Goldstein, Canadian-American painter (b. 1945)\n", "BULLET::::- 2003 – Jean-Luc Lagardère, French engineer and businessman (b. 1928)\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 – Lennart Meri, Estonian director and politician, 2nd President of Estonia (b. 1929)\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 – Lucie Aubrac, French educator and activist (b. 1912)\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 – Chiara Lubich, Italian activist, co-founded the Focolare Movement (b. 1920)\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 – Peter Graves, American actor (b. 1926)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Pierre Schoendoerffer, French director and screenwriter (b. 1928)\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – Ċensu Tabone, Maltese general and politician, 4th President of Malta (b. 1913)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Jack Greene, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1930)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Aramais Sahakyan, Armenian poet and author (b. 1936)\n", "BULLET::::- 2013 – Ieng Sary, Vietnamese-Cambodian politician, Cambodian Minister for Foreign Affairs (b. 1925)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – Tony Benn, English pilot and politician, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom (b. 1925)\n", "BULLET::::- 2014 – Meir Har-Zion, Israeli commander (b. 1934)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – John W. Cahn, German-American metallurgist and academic (b. 1928)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Peter Maxwell Davies, English composer and conductor (b. 1934)\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – Suranimala Rajapaksha, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (b. 1949)\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 – Jim Bowen, English stand-up comedian and TV personality (b. 1937)\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 – Marielle Franco, Brazilian politician and human rights activist (b. 1979)\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 – Stephen Hawking, English physicist and author (b. 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 – Emily Nasrallah, Lebanese writer and women's rights activist. (b. 1931)\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 – Liam O'Flynn, Irish uileann piper (b. 1945)\n", "Section::::Holidays and observances.\n", "BULLET::::- Christian feast day:\n", "BULLET::::- Curetán (or Boniface)\n", "BULLET::::- Leobinus\n", "BULLET::::- Matilda of Ringelheim\n", "BULLET::::- March 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n", "BULLET::::- Constitution Day (Andorra)\n", "BULLET::::- Earliest day on which Lazarus Saturday can fall, while April 17 is the latest; observed on the day before Palm Sunday. (Eastern Orthodox Church)\n", "BULLET::::- Heroes' Day (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)\n", "BULLET::::- Mother Tongue Day (Estonia)\n", "BULLET::::- Nanakshahi New Year, first day of the month of Chet (Sikhism)\n", "BULLET::::- Pi Day\n", "BULLET::::- Summer Day (Albania)\n", "BULLET::::- White Day, complementary day of Valentine's Day when men give gifts to women (Japan and Korea)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- BBC: On This Day\n", "BULLET::::- Today in Canadian History\n" ] }

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30, 16, 28, 101, 16, 33, 75, 16, 39, 16, 47, 16, 45, 16, 56, 127, 16, 45, 100, 16, 40, 90, 16, 39, 115, 16, 28, 16, 33, 97, 16, 31, 16, 33, 91, 16, 28, 16, 38, 16, 41, 126, 16, 35, 16, 40, 16, 40, 16, 33, 16, 28, 16, 34, 29, 16, 32, 16, 33, 16, 35, 16, 33, 89, 47, 16, 32, 16, 35, 16, 40, 60, 16, 32, 32, 16, 30, 16, 40, 88, 16, 33, 16, 28, 30, 16, 32, 16, 33, 37, 16, 31, 91, 16, 31, 16, 32, 84, 16, 31, 16, 40, 31, 87, 16, 30, 35, 28, 101, 16, 28, 100, 32, 16, 31, 39, 40, 16, 28, 34, 34, 34, 31, 31, 33, 20, 33, 49, 38, 50, 129, 155, 23, 57, 29, 38, 31, 63, 72, 18, 22, 21, 59, 28, 37 ], "text": [ "44 BC", "Casca", "Cassius", "Assassination of Julius Caesar", "Mark Antony", "313", "Jin Huaidi", "Liu Cong", "Xiongnu", "Han Zhao", "1381", "Chioggia", "Zadar", "Trogir", "Venice", "Šibenik", "1489", "Cyprus", "Catherine Cornaro", "Venice", "1590", "Battle of Ivry", "Henry of Navarre", "Huguenot", "Catholic League", "Charles, Duke of Mayenne", "French Wars of Religion", "1647", "Thirty Years' War", "Bavaria", "Cologne", "Truce of Ulm", "1663", "Otto von Guericke", "Vacuum", "1757", "John Byng", "executed by firing squad", "Articles of War", "1780", "American Revolutionary War", "Spanish", "capture", "Fort Charlotte", "Mobile, Alabama", "New Orleans", "Spanish Louisiana", "1782", "Battle of Wuchale", "Tekle Giyorgis I", "Oromo", "Wuchale", "1794", "Eli Whitney", "patent", "cotton gin", "1885", "The Mikado", "W. S. Gilbert", "Arthur Sullivan", "1900", "Gold Standard Act", "United States currency", "gold standard", "1903", "Hay–Herrán Treaty", "Panama Canal", "United States Senate", "Senate of Colombia", "Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge", "Theodore Roosevelt", "1910", "Lakeview Gusher", "oil well gusher", "Bakersfield, California", "1926", "El Virilla train accident", "Costa Rica", "Heredia", "Tibás", "1931", "Alam Ara", "1936", "The first all-sound film version of \"Show Boat\"", "Radio City Music Hall", "1939", "Slovakia", "German", "1942", "Orvan Hess", "penicillin", "1943", "World War II", "Kraków Ghetto", "1945", "R.A.F.", "Grand Slam bomb", "Bielefeld", "1951", "Korean War", "United Nations", "Seoul", "1961", "USAF", "\"Broken Arrow\"", "B-52 crash near Yuba City, Ca", "1964", "Dallas", "Jack Ruby", "Lee Harvey Oswald", "John F. Kennedy", "1967", "John F. Kennedy", "permanent burial place", "Arlington National Cemetery", "1978", "Israel Defense Forces", "Lebanon", "Operation Litani", "1979", "Hawker Siddeley Trident", "1980", "LOT Flight 7", "final approach", "Warsaw", "boxing", "1982", "bombs", "African National Congress", "1988", "Johnson South Reef Skirmish", "Spratly Islands", "1994", "Timeline of Linux development", "Linux kernel", "1995", "Space exploration", "Norman Thagard", "astronaut", "2006", "Chad", "coup d'état", "2007", "Left Front", "West Bengal", "Nandigram", "Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh Committee", "resulting clash", "2008", "riots, protests, and demonstrations", "Lhasa", "Tibet", "2019", "Cyclone Idai", "1415", "Wilhelm II, Count of Henneberg-Schleusingen", "1418", "Philip II, Count of Nassau-Weilburg", "1473", "Reinhard IV, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg", "1576", "Eric of Lorraine", "1638", "Johann Georg Gichtel", "German mystic", "1665", "Giuseppe Crespi", "1681", "Georg Philipp Telemann", "1790", "Ludwig Emil Grimm", "1800", "James Bogardus", "1801", "Kristjan Jaak Peterson", "1804", "Johann Strauss I", "1813", "Joseph P. Bradley", "1820", "Victor Emmanuel II of Italy", "1822", "Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies", "1823", "Théodore de Banville", "1833", "Frederic Shields", "Lucy Hobbs Taylor", "1835", "Giovanni Schiaparelli", "1836", "Isabella Beeton", "Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management", "1837", "Charles Ammi Cutter", "1844", "Umberto I of Italy", "Arthur O'Shaughnessy", "1847", "Castro Alves", "1853", "Ferdinand Hodler", "1854", "Paul Ehrlich", "Nobel Prize", "John Lane", "The Bodley Head", "Alexandru Macedonski", "Thomas R. Marshall", "Vice President of the United States of America", "1862", "Vilhelm Bjerknes", "1863", "Casey Jones", "1866", "Alexey Troitsky", "1868", "Emily Murphy", "1869", "Algernon Blackwood", "1874", "Anton Philips", "Philips Electronics", "1879", "Albert Einstein", "Nobel Prize", "1880", "Princess Thyra of Denmark", "1882", "Wacław Sierpiński", "1885", "Gervais Raoul Lufbery", "1886", "Firmin Lambot", "1887", "Sylvia Beach", "Shakespeare and Company", "1894", "Osa Johnson", "1898", "Arnold Chikobava", "Reginald Marsh", "1899", "K. C. Irving", "Irving Oil", "1901", "Sid Atkinson", "1903", "Adolph Gottlieb", "1904", "Doris Eaton Travis", "1905", "Raymond Aron", "1906", "Ulvi Cemal Erkin", "Fazıl Küçük", "1908", "Ed Heinemann", "Maurice Merleau-Ponty", "Philip Conrad Vincent", "Vincent Motorcycles", "1911", "Akira Yoshizawa", "1912", "Cliff Bastin", "Les Brown", "W. Graham Claytor, Jr.", "United States Secretary of the Navy", "W. Willard Wirtz", "United States Secretary of Labor", "1914", "Lee Hays", "Bill Owen", "Lee Petty", "Petty Enterprises", "1915", "Alexander Brott", "1916", "Horton Foote", "1917", "Alan Smith", "1918", "Zoia Horn", "Dennis Patrick", "1919", "Max Shulman", "1920", "Hank Ketcham", "Dennis the Menace", "Dorothy Tyler-Odam", "1921", "S. Truett Cathy", "Chick-fil-A", "Ada Louise Huxtable", "1922", "Les Baxter", "China Zorrilla", "1923", "Diane Arbus", "1925", "William Clay Ford, Sr.", "Joseph A. Unanue", "1926", "François Morel", "1928", "Frank Borman", "Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente", "1929", "Bob Goalby", "1932", "Mark Murphy", "Naina Yeltsina", "Boris Yeltsin", "First Lady of Russia", "1933", "Michael Caine", "Quincy Jones", "1934", "Eugene Cernan", "Paul Rader", "General of The Salvation Army", "1936", "Bob Charles", "1937", "Peter van der Merwe", "1938", "Eleanor Bron", "John Gleeson", "1939", "Pilar Bardem", "Raymond J. Barry", "Bertrand Blier", "Yves Boisset", "Jan Crouch", "Trinity Broadcasting Network", "1941", "Wolfgang Petersen", "1942", "Rita Tushingham", "1943", "Anita Morris", "1944", "Boris Brott", "Václav Nedomanský", "Bobby Smith", "Tom Stannage", "1945", "Jasper Carrott", "Michael Martin Murphey", "Walter Parazaider", "1946", "William Lerach", "1946", "Wes Unseld", "1947", "Roy Budd", "William J. Jefferson", "Jona Lewie", "1948", "Tom Coburn", "Billy Crystal", "Theo Jansen", "1950", "Rick Dees", "1951", "Jerry Greenfield", "Ben & Jerry's", "1953", "Nick Keir", "1954", "Brian Smith", "1955", "Jonathan Kaufer", "1956", "Sean Mathias", "Alexey Pajitnov", "Tetris", "Butch Wynegar", "1957", "Jean van de Velde", "Tad Williams", "1958", "Albert II, Prince of Monaco", "Francine Stock", "1959", "Steve Byrnes", "Laila Robins", "Tamara Tunie", "1960", "Heidi Hammel", "1961", "Garry Jack", "Penny Johnson Jerald", "Mike Lazaridis", "BlackBerry Limited", "Hiro Matsushita", "1963", "Andrew Fleming", "Bruce Reid", "1964", "Dario Bisso Sabàdin", "1965", "Kevin Brown", "Aamir Khan", "Billy Sherwood", "Kevin Williamson", "1966", "Jonas Elmer", "Elise Neal", "Gary Anthony Williams", "1967", "Jeremy Baumberg", "FRS", "1968", "Megan Follows", "James Frain", "Serena Rees", "Agent Provocateur", "1969", "Michael Bland", "Larry Johnson", "1970", "Kristian Bush", "1971", "Charlie Elphicke", "1972", "Irom Chanu Sharmila", "1973", "Rohit Shetty", "1974", "Ben Kennedy", "Santino Marella", "Patrick Traverse", "1975", "Rushanara Ali", "Steve Harper", "Dmitri Markov", "1976", "Daniel Gillies", "Phil Vickery", "1977", "Vadims Fjodorovs", "Aki Hoshino", "Naoki Matsuda", "Jeremy Paul", "1978", "Pieter van den Hoogenband", "1979", "Nicolas Anelka", "Chris Klein", "Sead Ramović", "Dan Sexbang", "1980", "Aaron Brown", "Ben Herring", "1981", "Bobby Jenks", "George Wilson", "1982", "Carlos Marinelli", "François Sterchele", "1983", "Bakhtiyar Artayev", "Taylor Hanson", "Anas Sarwar", "Jin Sha", "1984", "Aric Almirola", "Liesel Pritzker Simmons", "1986", "Jamie Bell", "Elton Chigumbura", "Jessica Gallagher", "Andy Taylor", "1987", "Robert Clark", "1988", "Stephen Curry", "Rico Freimuth", "1989", "Kevin Lacroix", "Colby O'Donis", "1990", "Joe Allen", "Tamás Kádár", "Haru Kuroki", "Kolbeinn Sigþórsson", "1991", "Emir Bekrić", "Pat O'Hanlon", "László Szűcs", "Steven Zellner", "1993", "Philipp Ziereis", "1994", "Ansel Elgort", "1996", "Batuhan Altıntaş", "1997", "Simone Biles", "313", "Emperor Huai of Jin", "557", "Leobinus", "bishop of Chartres", "757", "Li Lin", "840", "Einhard", "968", "Matilda of Ringelheim", "1397", "Henry VIII the Sparrow", "1457", "Jingtai Emperor", "Ming China", "1471", "Thomas Malory", "1555", "John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford", "1571", "John Sigismund Zápolya", "1632", "Tokugawa Hidetada", "1647", "Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange", "1648", "Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron", "1696", "Jean Domat", "1748", "George Wade", "1757", "John Byng", "Commodore Governor of Newfoundland", "1765", "Ayagawa Gorōji", "Yokozuna", "1791", "Johann Salomo Semler", "1803", "Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock", "1805", "Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki", "1811", "Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "1823", "Charles François Dumouriez", "French Minister of War", "1860", "Carl Ritter von Ghega", "Semmering railway", "1877", "Juan Manuel de Rosas", "Governor of Buenos Aires Province", "1883", "Karl Marx", "1884", "Quintino Sella", "Italian Minister of Finances", "1921", "Larry McLean", "1932", "George Eastman", "Eastman Kodak", "1942", "René Bull", "1946", "Werner von Blomberg", "1949", "John Callan O'Laughlin", "United States Assistant Secretary of State", "1953", "Klement Gottwald", "1957", "Evagoras Pallikarides", "1965", "Marion Jones Farquhar", "1968", "Erwin Panofsky", "1969", "Ben Shahn", "1973", "Howard H. Aiken", "Chic Young", "1975", "Susan Hayward", "1976", "Busby Berkeley", "1977", "Fannie Lou Hamer", "1980", "Mohammad Hatta", "Prime Minister of Indonesia", "Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente", "1983", "Maurice Ronet", "1984", "Hovhannes Shiraz", "1989", "Zita of Bourbon-Parma", "Empress of Austria", "1991", "Howard Ashman", "Margery Sharp", "1992", "Jean Poiret", "1995", "William Alfred Fowler", "Nobel Prize", "1997", "Fred Zinnemann", "1999", "Kirk Alyn", "John Broome", "2002", "Cherry Wilder", "2003", "Jack Goldstein", "Jean-Luc Lagardère", "2006", "Lennart Meri", "President of Estonia", "2007", "Lucie Aubrac", "2008", "Chiara Lubich", "Focolare Movement", "2010", "Peter Graves", "2012", "Pierre Schoendoerffer", "Ċensu Tabone", "President of Malta", "2013", "Jack Greene", "Aramais Sahakyan", "Ieng Sary", "Cambodian Minister for Foreign Affairs", "2014", "Tony Benn", "Postmaster General of the United Kingdom", "Meir Har-Zion", "2016", "John W. Cahn", "Peter Maxwell Davies", "Suranimala Rajapaksha", "2018", "Jim Bowen", "Marielle Franco", "Stephen Hawking", "Emily Nasrallah", "Liam O'Flynn", "feast day", "Curetán (or Boniface)", "Leobinus", "Matilda of Ringelheim", "March 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Constitution Day (Andorra)", "Lazarus Saturday", "Palm Sunday", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Heroes' Day", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "Mother Tongue Day", "Estonia", "Nanakshahi New Year", "Chet", "Sikhism", "Pi Day", "Summer Day", "White Day", "Valentine's Day", "BBC: On This Day", "Today in Canadian History" ], "href": [ "44%20BC", "Servilius%20Casca", "Gaius%20Cassius%20Longinus", "Assassination%20of%20Julius%20Caesar", "Mark%20Antony", "313", "Emperor%20Huai%20of%20Jin", "Liu%20Cong%20%28Han%20Zhao%29", "Xiongnu", "Han%20Zhao", "1381", "Chioggia", "Zadar", "Trogir", "Venice", "%C5%A0ibenik", "1489", "Cyprus", "Catherine%20Cornaro", "Republic%20of%20Venice", "1590", "Battle%20of%20Ivry", "Henry%20IV%20of%20France", "Huguenot", "Catholic%20League%20%28French%29", "Charles%2C%20Duke%20of%20Mayenne", "French%20Wars%20of%20Religion", "1647", "Thirty%20Years%27%20War", "Bavaria", "Cologne", "Truce%20of%20Ulm%20%281647%29", "1663", "Otto%20von%20Guericke", "Vacuum", "1757", "John%20Byng", "executed%20by%20firing%20squad", "Articles%20of%20War", "1780", "American%20Revolutionary%20War", "Spanish%20Empire", "Battle%20of%20Fort%20Charlotte", "Fort%20Conde", "Mobile%2C%20Alabama", "New%20Orleans", "Spanish%20Louisiana", "1782", "Battle%20of%20Wuchale", "Tekle%20Giyorgis%20I", "Oromo%20people", "Wuchale", "1794", "Eli%20Whitney", "patent", "cotton%20gin", "1885", "The%20Mikado", "W.%20S.%20Gilbert", "Arthur%20Sullivan", "1900", "Gold%20Standard%20Act", "United%20States%20currency", "gold%20standard", "1903", "Hay%E2%80%93Herr%C3%A1n%20Treaty", "Panama%20Canal", "United%20States%20Senate", "Senate%20of%20Colombia", "Pelican%20Island%20National%20Wildlife%20Refuge", "Theodore%20Roosevelt", "1910", "Lakeview%20Gusher", "oil%20gusher", "Bakersfield%2C%20California", "1926", "El%20Virilla%20train%20accident", "Costa%20Rica", "Heredia%2C%20Costa%20Rica", "Tib%C3%A1s", "1931", "Alam%20Ara", "1936", "Show%20Boat%20%281936%20film%29", "Radio%20City%20Music%20Hall", "1939", "Slovak%20Republic%20%281939%E2%80%9345%29", "Nazi%20Germany", "1942", "Orvan%20Hess", "penicillin", "1943", "World%20War%20II", "Krak%C3%B3w%20Ghetto", "1945", "R.A.F.", "Grand%20Slam%20bomb", "Bielefeld", "1951", "Korean%20War", "United%20Nations", "Seoul", "1961", "USAF", "United%20States%20military%20nuclear%20incident%20terminology%23Broken%20Arrow", "1961%20Yuba%20City%20B-52%20crash", "1964", "Dallas", "Jack%20Ruby", "Lee%20Harvey%20Oswald", "John%20F.%20Kennedy", "1967", "John%20F.%20Kennedy", "John%20F.%20Kennedy%20Eternal%20Flame", "Arlington%20National%20Cemetery", "1978", "Israel%20Defense%20Forces", "Lebanon", "Operation%20Litani", "1979", "Hawker%20Siddeley%20Trident", "1980", "LOT%20Flight%207", "final%20approach%20%28aeronautics%29", "Warsaw", "boxing", "1982", "1982%20bombing%20of%20the%20African%20National%20Congress%20headquarters%20in%20London", "African%20National%20Congress", "1988", "Johnson%20South%20Reef%20Skirmish", "Spratly%20Islands", "1994", "Timeline%20of%20Linux%20development", "Linux%20kernel", "1995", "Space%20exploration", "Norman%20Thagard", "astronaut", "2006", "Chad", "2006%20Chadian%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat%20attempt", "2007", "Left%20Front%20%28West%20Bengal%29", "West%20Bengal", "Nandigram", "Bhumi%20Uchhed%20Pratirodh%20Committee", "Nandigram%20violence", "2008", "2008%20Tibetan%20unrest", "Lhasa%20%28prefecture-level%20city%29", "Tibet", "2019", "Cyclone%20Idai", "1415", "Wilhelm%20II%2C%20Count%20of%20Henneberg-Schleusingen", "1418", "Philip%20II%2C%20Count%20of%20Nassau-Weilburg", "1473", "Reinhard%20IV%2C%20Count%20of%20Hanau-M%C3%BCnzenberg", "1576", "Eric%20of%20Lorraine", "1638", "Johann%20Georg%20Gichtel", "German%20mystic", "1665", "Giuseppe%20Crespi", "1681", "Georg%20Philipp%20Telemann", "1790", "Ludwig%20Emil%20Grimm", "1800", "James%20Bogardus", "1801", "Kristjan%20Jaak%20Peterson", "1804", "Johann%20Strauss%20I", "1813", "Joseph%20P.%20Bradley", "1820", "Victor%20Emmanuel%20II%20of%20Italy", "1822", "Teresa%20Cristina%20of%20the%20Two%20Sicilies", "1823", "Th%C3%A9odore%20de%20Banville", "1833", "Frederic%20Shields", "Lucy%20Hobbs%20Taylor", "1835", "Giovanni%20Schiaparelli", "1836", "Isabella%20Beeton", "Mrs%20Beeton%27s%20Book%20of%20Household%20Management", "1837", "Charles%20Ammi%20Cutter", "1844", "Umberto%20I%20of%20Italy", "Arthur%20O%27Shaughnessy", "1847", "Castro%20Alves", "1853", "Ferdinand%20Hodler", "1854", "Paul%20Ehrlich", "Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Physiology%20or%20Medicine", "John%20Lane%20%28publisher%29", "The%20Bodley%20Head", "Alexandru%20Macedonski", "Thomas%20R.%20Marshall", "Vice%20President%20of%20the%20United%20States%20of%20America", "1862", "Vilhelm%20Bjerknes", "1863", "Casey%20Jones", "1866", "Alexey%20Troitsky", "1868", "Emily%20Murphy", "1869", "Algernon%20Blackwood", "1874", "Anton%20Philips", "Philips", "1879", "Albert%20Einstein", "Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Physics", "1880", "Princess%20Thyra%20of%20Denmark%20%281880%E2%80%931945%29", "1882", "Wac%C5%82aw%20Sierpi%C5%84ski", "1885", "Gervais%20Raoul%20Lufbery", "1886", "Firmin%20Lambot", "1887", "Sylvia%20Beach", "Shakespeare%20and%20Company%20%28bookstore%29", "1894", "Osa%20Johnson", "1898", "Arnold%20Chikobava", "Reginald%20Marsh%20%28artist%29", "1899", "K.%20C.%20Irving", "Irving%20Oil", "1901", "Sid%20Atkinson", "1903", "Adolph%20Gottlieb", "1904", "Doris%20Eaton%20Travis", "1905", "Raymond%20Aron", "1906", "Ulvi%20Cemal%20Erkin", "Faz%C4%B1l%20K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk", "1908", "Ed%20Heinemann", "Maurice%20Merleau-Ponty", "Phil%20Vincent", "Vincent%20Motorcycles", "1911", "Akira%20Yoshizawa", "1912", "Cliff%20Bastin", "Les%20Brown%20%28bandleader%29", "W.%20Graham%20Claytor%2C%20Jr.", "United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20the%20Navy", "W.%20Willard%20Wirtz", "United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20Labor", "1914", "Lee%20Hays", "Bill%20Owen%20%28actor%29", "Lee%20Petty", "Petty%20Enterprises", "1915", "Alexander%20Brott", "1916", "Horton%20Foote", "1917", "Alan%20Smith%20%28RAF%20officer%29", "1918", "Zoia%20Horn", "Dennis%20Patrick", "1919", "Max%20Shulman", "1920", "Hank%20Ketcham", "Dennis%20the%20Menace%20%28U.S.%20comics%29", "Dorothy%20Tyler-Odam", "1921", "S.%20Truett%20Cathy", "Chick-fil-A", "Ada%20Louise%20Huxtable", "1922", "Les%20Baxter", "China%20Zorrilla", "1923", "Diane%20Arbus", "1925", "William%20Clay%20Ford%2C%20Sr.", "Joseph%20A.%20Unanue", "1926", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Morel", "1928", "Frank%20Borman", "F%C3%A9lix%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20de%20la%20Fuente", "1929", "Bob%20Goalby", "1932", "Mark%20Murphy%20%28singer%29", "Naina%20Yeltsina", "Boris%20Yeltsin", "First%20Lady%20of%20Russia", "1933", "Michael%20Caine", "Quincy%20Jones", "1934", "Eugene%20Cernan", "Paul%20Rader", "General%20of%20The%20Salvation%20Army", "1936", "Bob%20Charles%20%28golfer%29", "1937", "Peter%20van%20der%20Merwe%20%28cricketer%29", "1938", "Eleanor%20Bron", "John%20Gleeson%20%28cricketer%29", "1939", "Pilar%20Bardem", "Raymond%20J.%20Barry", "Bertrand%20Blier", "Yves%20Boisset", "Jan%20Crouch", "Trinity%20Broadcasting%20Network", "1941", "Wolfgang%20Petersen", "1942", "Rita%20Tushingham", "1943", "Anita%20Morris", "1944", "Boris%20Brott", "V%C3%A1clav%20Nedomansk%C3%BD", "Bobby%20Smith%20%28footballer%2C%20born%201944%29", "Tom%20Stannage", "1945", "Jasper%20Carrott", "Michael%20Martin%20Murphey", "Walter%20Parazaider", "1946", "William%20Lerach", "1946", "Wes%20Unseld", "1947", "Roy%20Budd", "William%20J.%20Jefferson", "Jona%20Lewie", "1948", "Tom%20Coburn", "Billy%20Crystal", "Theo%20Jansen", "1950", "Rick%20Dees", "1951", "Jerry%20Greenfield", "Ben%20%26amp%3B%20Jerry%27s", "1953", "Nick%20Keir", "1954", "Brian%20Smith%20%28rugby%20league%2C%20born%201954%29", "1955", "Jonathan%20Kaufer", "1956", "Sean%20Mathias", "Alexey%20Pajitnov", "Tetris", "Butch%20Wynegar", "1957", "Jean%20van%20de%20Velde%20%28director%29", "Tad%20Williams", "1958", "Albert%20II%2C%20Prince%20of%20Monaco", "Francine%20Stock", "1959", "Steve%20Byrnes", "Laila%20Robins", "Tamara%20Tunie", "1960", "Heidi%20Hammel", "1961", "Garry%20Jack", "Penny%20Johnson%20Jerald", "Mike%20Lazaridis", "BlackBerry%20Limited", "Hiro%20Matsushita", "1963", "Andrew%20Fleming", "Bruce%20Reid", "1964", "Dario%20Bisso%20Sab%C3%A0din", "1965", "Kevin%20Brown%20%28right-handed%20pitcher%29", "Aamir%20Khan", "Billy%20Sherwood", "Kevin%20Williamson%20%28screenwriter%29", "1966", "Jonas%20Elmer%20%28director%29", "Elise%20Neal", "Gary%20Anthony%20Williams", "1967", "Jeremy%20Baumberg", "Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society", "1968", "Megan%20Follows", "James%20Frain", "Serena%20Rees", "Agent%20Provocateur%20%28lingerie%29", "1969", 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{ "description": "date", "enwikiquote_title": "March 14", "wikidata_id": "Q2404", "wikidata_label": "March 14", "wikipedia_title": "March 14", "aliases": { "alias": [ "14 March", "March 14th", "14th of March", "Mar 14" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Marina Tsvetaeva\n", "Marina Ivanovna Tsvetaeva (; 31 August 1941) was a Russian and Soviet poet. Her work is considered among some of the greatest in twentieth century Russian literature. She lived through and wrote of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Moscow famine that followed it. In an attempt to save her daughter Irina from starvation, she placed her in a state orphanage in 1919, where she died of hunger. Tsvetaeva left Russia in 1922 and lived with her family in increasing poverty in Paris, Berlin and Prague before returning to Moscow in 1939. Her husband Sergei Efron and her daughter Ariadna Efron (Alya) were arrested on espionage charges in 1941; her husband was executed. Tsvetaeva committed suicide in 1941. As a lyrical poet, her passion and daring linguistic experimentation mark her as a striking chronicler of her times and the depths of the human condition.\n", "Section::::Early years.\n", "Marina Tsvetaeva was born in Moscow, the daughter of Ivan Vladimirovich Tsvetaev, a professor of Fine Art at the University of Moscow, who later founded the Alexander III Museum of Fine Arts (known from 1937 as the Pushkin Museum). (The Tsvetayev family name evokes association with flowers – the Russian word цвет (\"tsvet\") means \"color\" or \"flower\".) Tsvetaeva's mother, , Ivan's second wife, was a concert pianist, highly literate, with German and Polish ancestry. Growing up in considerable material comfort, Tsvetaeva would later come to identify herself with the Polish aristocracy.\n", "Tsvetaeva's two half-siblings, Valeria and Andrei, were the children of Ivan's deceased first wife, Varvara Dmitrievna Ilovaiskaya, daughter of the historian Dmitry Ilovaisky. Tsvetaeva's only full sister, Anastasia, was born in 1894. The children quarrelled frequently and occasionally violently. There was considerable tension between Tsvetaeva's mother and Varvara's children, and Tsvetaeva's father maintained close contact with Varvara's family. Tsvetaeva's father was kind, but deeply wrapped up in his studies and distant from his family. He was also still deeply in love with his first wife; he would never get over her. Maria Tsvetaeva had had a love affair before her marriage, from which she never recovered. Maria Tsvetaeva disapproved of Marina's poetic inclination; she wanted her daughter to become a pianist, holding the opinion that her poetry was poor.\n", "In 1902 Tsvetaeva's mother contracted tuberculosis. A change in climate was believed to help cure the disease, and so the family travelled abroad until shortly before her death in 1906, when Tsvetaeva was 14. They lived for a while by the sea at Nervi, near Genoa. There, away from the rigid constraints of a bourgeois Muscovite life, Tsvetaeva was able for the first time to run free, climb cliffs, and vent her imagination in childhood games. There were many Russian \"émigré\" revolutionaries residing at that time in Nervi, who may have had some influence on the young Tsvetaeva.\n", "In June 1904 Tsvetaeva was sent to school in Lausanne. Changes in the Tsvetaev residence led to several changes in school, and during the course of her travels she acquired the Italian, French, and German languages. She gave up the strict musical studies that her mother had imposed and turned to poetry. She wrote \"With a mother like her, I had only one choice: to become a poet\".\n", "In 1908, aged 16, Tsvetaeva studied literary history at the Sorbonne. During this time, a major revolutionary change was occurring within Russian poetry: the flowering of the Russian symbolist movement, and this movement was to colour most of her later work. It was not the theory which was to attract her, but the poetry and the gravity which writers such as Andrei Bely and Alexander Blok were capable of generating. Her own first collection of poems, \"Vecherny Albom\" (\"Evening Album\"), self-published in 1910, promoted her considerable reputation as a poet. It was well received, although her early poetry was held to be insipid compared to her later work. It attracted the attention of the poet and critic Maximilian Voloshin, whom Tsvetaeva described after his death in \"A Living Word About a Living Man\". Voloshin came to see Tsvetaeva and soon became her friend and mentor.\n", "Section::::Family and career.\n", "She began spending time at Voloshin's home in the Black Sea resort of Koktebel (\"Blue Height\"), which was a well-known haven for writers, poets and artists. She became enamoured of the work of Alexander Blok and Anna Akhmatova, although she never met Blok and did not meet Akhmatova until the 1940s. Describing the Koktebel community, the \"émigré\" Viktoria Schweitzer wrote: \"Here inspiration was born.\" At Koktebel, Tsvetaeva met Sergei Yakovlevich Efron, a 17-year-old cadet in the Officers' Academy. She was 19, he 18: they fell in love and were married in 1912, the same year as her father's project, the Alexander III Museum of Fine Arts, was ceremonially opened, an event attended by Tsar Nicholas II. Tsvetaeva's love for Efron was intense; however, this did not preclude her from having affairs, including one with Osip Mandelstam, which she celebrated in a collection of poems called \"Mileposts\". At around the same time, she became involved in an affair with the poet Sophia Parnok, who was 7 years older than Tsvetaeva, an affair that caused her husband great grief. The two women fell deeply in love, and the relationship profoundly affected both women's writings. She deals with the ambiguous and tempestuous nature of this relationship in a cycle of poems which at times she called \"The Girlfriend\", and at other times \"The Mistake\". Tsvetaeva and her husband spent summers in the Crimea until the revolution, and had two daughters: Ariadna, or Alya (born 1912) and Irina (born 1917).\n", "In 1914, Efron volunteered for the front and by 1917 he was an officer stationed in Moscow with the 56th Reserve. Tsvetaeva was a close witness of the Russian Revolution, which she rejected. On trains, she came into contact with ordinary Russian people and was shocked by the mood of anger and violence. She wrote in her journal: \"In the air of the compartment hung only three axe-like words: bourgeois, Junkers, leeches.\" After the 1917 Revolution, Efron joined the White Army, and Marina returned to Moscow hoping to be reunited with her husband. She was trapped in Moscow for five years, where there was a terrible famine.\n", "She wrote six plays in verse and narrative poems. Between 1917 and 1922 she wrote the epic verse cycle \"Lebedinyi stan\" ('‘The Encampment of the Swans’') about the civil war, glorifying those who fought against the communists. The cycle of poems in the style of a diary or journal begins on the day of Tsar Nicholas II's abdication in March 1917, and ends late in 1920, when the anti-communist White Army was finally defeated. The 'swans' of the title refers to the volunteers in the White Army, in which her husband was fighting as an officer. In 1922 she published a long pro-imperial verse fairy tale, \"Tsar-devitsa\" (\"Tsar-Maiden\").\n", "The Moscow famine was to exact a toll on Tsvetaeva. With no immediate family to turn to, she had no way to support herself or her daughters. In 1919, she placed both her daughters in a state orphanage, mistakenly believing that they would be better fed there. Alya became ill, and Tsvetaeva removed her, but Irina died there of starvation in 1920. The child's death caused Tsvetaeva great grief and regret. In one letter, she wrote, \"God punished me.\" During these years, Tsvetaeva maintained a close and intense friendship with the actress Sofia Evgenievna Holliday, for whom she wrote a number of plays. Many years later, she would write the novella \"Povest o Sonechke\" about her relationship with Holliday.\n", "Section::::Exile.\n", "Section::::Exile.:Berlin and Prague.\n", "In May 1922, Tsvetaeva and Ariadna left Soviet Russia and were reunited with Efron in Berlin, whom she had thought had been killed by the Bolsheviks. There she published the collections \"Separation\", \"Poems to Blok\", and the poem \"The Tsar Maiden\", much of her poetry appeared in Moscow and Berlin, consolidating her reputation. In August 1922, the family moved to Prague. Living in unremitting poverty, unable to afford living accommodation in Prague itself, with Efron studying politics and sociology at the Charles University and living in hostels, Tsvetaeva and Ariadna found rooms in a village outside the city. She writes \"we are devoured by coal, gas, the milkman, the baker...the only meat we eat is horsemeat\". When offered an opportunity to earn money by reading her poetry, she describes having to beg a simple dress from a friend to replace the one she had been living in.\n", "Tsvetaeva began a passionate affair with , a former military officer, a liaison which became widely known throughout émigré circles. Efron was devastated. Her break-up with Rodziewicz in 1923 was almost certainly the inspiration for her \"The Poem of the End\" and \"The Poem of the Mountain\". At about the same time, Tsvetaeva began correspondence with poet Rainer Maria Rilke and novelist Boris Pasternak. Tsvetaeva and Pasternak were not to meet for nearly twenty years, but maintained friendship until Tsvetaeva's return to Russia.\n", "In summer 1924, Efron and Tsvetaeva left Prague for the suburbs, living for a while in Jíloviště, before moving on to Všenory, where Tsvetaeva completed \"The Poem of the End\", and was to conceive their son, Georgy, whom she was to later nickname 'Mur'. Tsvetaeva wanted to name him Boris (after Pasternak); Efron insisted on Georgy. He was to be a most difficult child but Tsvetaeva loved him obsessively. With Efron now rarely free from tuberculosis, their daughter Ariadna was relegated to the role of mother's helper and confidante, and consequently felt robbed of much of her childhood. In Berlin before settling in Paris, Tsvetaeva wrote some of her greatest verse, including \"Remeslo\" (\"Craft\", 1923) and \"Posle Rossii\" (\"After Russia\", 1928). Reflecting a life in poverty and exiled, the work holds great nostalgia for Russia and its folk history, while experimenting with verse forms.\n", "Section::::Exile.:Paris.\n", "In 1925, the family settled in Paris, where they would live for the next 14 years. At about this time Tsvetaeva contracted tuberculosis. Tsvetaeva received a small stipend from the Czechoslovak government, which gave financial support to artists and writers who had lived in Czechoslovakia. In addition, she tried to make whatever she could from readings and sales of her work. She turned more and more to writing prose because she found it made more money than poetry. Tsvetaeva did not feel at all at home in Paris's predominantly ex-bourgeois circle of Russian émigré writers. Although she had written passionately pro-'White' poems during the Revolution, her fellow émigrés thought that she was insufficiently anti-Soviet, and that her criticism of the Soviet régime was altogether too nebulous. She was particularly criticised for writing an admiring letter to the Soviet poet Vladimir Mayakovsky. In the wake of this letter, the émigré paper \"Posledniye Novosti\", to which Tsvetaeva had been a frequent contributor, refused point-blank to publish any more of her work. She found solace in her correspondence with other writers, including Boris Pasternak, Rainer Maria Rilke, the Czech poet Anna Tesková, the critics D. S. Mirsky and Aleksandr Bakhrakh, and the Georgian émigré princess Salomea Andronikova, who became her main source of financial support. Her poetry and critical prose of the time, including her autobiographical prose works of 1934–7, is of lasting literary importance. \"Consumed by the daily round\", resenting the domesticity that left her no time for solitude or writing, her émigré milieu regarded Tsvetaeva as a crude sort who ignored social graces. Describing her misery, she wrote to Tesková \"In Paris, with rare personal exceptions, everyone hates me, they write all sorts of nasty things, leave me out in all sorts of nasty ways, and so on\". To Pasternak she complained \"They don't like poetry and what am I apart from that, not poetry but that from which it is made. [I am] an inhospitable hostess. An young woman in an old dress.\" She began to look back at even the Prague times with nostalgia and resent her exiled state more deeply.\n", "Meanwhile, Tsvetaeva's husband was developing Soviet sympathies and was homesick for Russia. Eventually, he began working for the NKVD, the forerunner of the KGB. Alya shared his views, and increasingly turned against her mother. In 1937, she returned to the Soviet Union. Later that year, Efron too had to return to the USSR. The French police had implicated him in the murder of the former Soviet defector Ignace Reiss in September 1937, on a country lane near Lausanne, Switzerland. After Efron's escape, the police interrogated Tsvetaeva, but she seemed confused by their questions and ended up reading them some French translations of her poetry. The police concluded that she was deranged and knew nothing of the murder. Later it was learned that Efron possibly had also taken part in the assassination of Trotsky's son in 1936. Tsvetaeva does not seem to have known that her husband was a spy, nor the extent to which he was compromised. However, she was held responsible for his actions and was ostracised in Paris because of the implication that he was involved with the NKVD. World War II had made Europe as unsafe and hostile as the USSR. In 1939, she became lonely and alarmed by the rise of fascism, which she attacked in \"Stikhi k Chekhii\" (\"Verses to Czechia\" 1938–39).\n", "Section::::Last years: Return to the Soviet Union.\n", "In 1939, she and her son returned to Moscow, unaware of the reception she would receive. In Stalin's USSR, anyone who had lived abroad was suspect, as was anyone who had been among the intelligentsia before the Revolution. Tsvetaeva's sister had been arrested before Tsvetaeva's return; although Anastasia survived the Stalin years, the sisters never saw each other again. Tsvetaeva found that all doors had closed to her. She got bits of work translating poetry, but otherwise the established Soviet writers refused to help her, and chose to ignore her plight; Nikolai Aseev, who she had hoped would assist, shied away, fearful for his life and position.\n", "Efron and Alya were arrested for espionage. Alya's fiancé was actually an NKVD agent who had been assigned to spy on the family. Efron was shot in 1941; Alya served over eight years in prison. Both were exonerated after Stalin's death. In 1941, Tsvetaeva and her son were evacuated to Yelabuga (Elabuga), while most families of the Union of Soviet Writers were evacuated to Chistopol. Tsvetaeva had no means of support in Yelabuga, and on 24 August 1941 she left for Chistopol desperately seeking a job. On 26 August, Marina Tsvetaeva and poet Valentin Parnakh applied to the Soviet of Literature Fund asking for a job at the LitFund's canteen. Parnakh was accepted as a doorman, while Tsvetaeva's application for a permission to live in Chistopol was turned down and she had to return to Yelabuga on 28 August.\n", "On 31 August 1941, while living in Yelabuga, Tsvetaeva hanged herself. She left a note for her son Mur: \"Forgive me, but to go on would be worse. I am gravely ill, this is not me anymore. I love you passionately. Do understand that I could not live anymore. Tell Papa and Alya, if you ever see them, that I loved them to the last moment and explain to them that I found myself in a trap.\" According to book \"The Death of a Poet: The Last Days of Marina Tsvetaeva\", the local NKVD department tried to force Tsvetaeva to start working as their informant, which left her no choice other than to commit suicide.\n", "Tsvetaeva was buried in Yelabuga cemetery on 2 September 1941, but the exact location of her grave remains unknown.\n", "Her son Georgy volunteered to the Eastern Front of World War II and died in battle in 1944. Her daughter Ariadna spent 16 years in Soviet prison camps and exile and was released in 1955. Ariadna wrote a memoir of her family; an English-language edition was published in 2009. She died in 1975.\n", "In the town of Yelabuga, the Tsvetaeva house is now a museum and a monument stands to her. Much of her poetry was republished in the Soviet Union after 1961, and her passionate, articulate and precise work, with its daring linguistic experimentation, brought her increasing recognition as a major poet.\n", "A minor planet, 3511 Tsvetaeva, discovered in 1982 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina, is named after her.\n", "In 1989 in Gdynia, Poland, a special-purpose ship was built for the Russian Academy of Sciences and named Marina Tsvetaeva in her honor. From 2007, the ship served as a tourist vessel to the polar regions for Aurora Expeditions. In 2011 she was renamed and is currently operated by Oceanwide Expeditions as a tourist vessel in the polar regions.\n", "Section::::Work.\n", "Tsvetaeva's poetry was admired by poets such as Valery Bryusov, Maximilian Voloshin, Osip Mandelstam, Boris Pasternak, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Anna Akhmatova. Later, that recognition was also expressed by the poet Joseph Brodsky, pre-eminent among Tsvetaeva's champions. Tsvetaeva was primarily a lyrical poet, and her lyrical voice remains clearly audible in her narrative poetry. Brodsky said of her work: \"Represented on a graph, Tsvetaeva's work would exhibit a curve – or rather, a straight line – rising at almost a right angle because of her constant effort to raise the pitch a note higher, an idea higher (or, more precisely, an octave and a faith higher.) She always carried everything she has to say to its conceivable and expressible end. In both her poetry and her prose, nothing remains hanging or leaves a feeling of ambivalence. Tsvetaeva is the unique case in which the paramount spiritual experience of an epoch (for us, the sense of ambivalence, of contradictoriness in the nature of human existence) served not as the object of expression but as its means, by which it was transformed into the material of art.\" Critic Annie Finch describes the engaging, heart-felt nature of the work. \"Tsvetaeva is such a warm poet, so unbridled in her passion, so completely vulnerable in her love poetry, whether to her female lover Sofie Parnak, to Boris Pasternak. [...] Tsvetaeva throws her poetic brilliance on the altar of her heart’s experience with the faith of a true romantic, a priestess of lived emotion. And she stayed true to that faith to the tragic end of her life.\n", "Tsvetaeva's lyric poems fill ten collections; the uncollected lyrics would add at least another volume. Her first two collections indicate their subject matter in their titles: \"Evening Album\" (Vecherniy albom, 1910) and \"The Magic Lantern\" (Volshebnyi fonar, 1912). The poems are vignettes of a tranquil childhood and youth in a professorial, middle-class home in Moscow, and display considerable grasp of the formal elements of style. The full range of Tsvetaeva's talent developed quickly, and was undoubtedly influenced by the contacts she had made at Koktebel, and was made evident in two new collections: \"Mileposts\" (Versty, 1921) and \"Mileposts: Book One\" (Versty, Vypusk I, 1922).\n", "Three elements of Tsvetaeva's mature style emerge in the \"Mileposts\" collections. First, Tsvetaeva dates her poems and publishes them chronologically. The poems in \"Mileposts: Book One\", for example, were written in 1916 and resolve themselves as a versified journal. Secondly, there are cycles of poems which fall into a regular chronological sequence among the single poems, evidence that certain themes demanded further expression and development. One cycle announces the theme of \"Mileposts: Book One\" as a whole: the \"Poems of Moscow.\" Two other cycles are dedicated to poets, the \"Poems to Akhmatova\" and the \"Poems to Blok\", which again reappear in a separate volume, Poems to Blok (\"Stikhi k Bloku\", 1922). Thirdly, the \"Mileposts\" collections demonstrate the dramatic quality of Tsvetaeva's work, and her ability to assume the guise of multiple \"dramatis personae\" within them.\n", "The collection \"Separation\" (Razluka, 1922) was to contain Tsvetaeva's first long verse narrative, \"On a Red Steed\" (\"Na krasnom kone\"). The poem is a prologue to three more verse-narratives written between 1920 and 1922. All four narrative poems draw on folkloric plots. Tsvetaeva acknowledges her sources in the titles of the very long works, \"The Maiden Tsar: A Fairy-tale Poem\" (\"Tsar-devitsa: Poema-skazka\", 1922) and \"The Swain\", subtitled \"A Fairytale\" (\"Molodets: skazka\", 1924). The fourth folklore-style poem is \"Byways\" (\"Pereulochki\", published in 1923 in the collection \"Remeslo\"), and it is the first poem which may be deemed incomprehensible in that it is fundamentally a soundscape of language. The collection \"Psyche\" (\"Psikheya\", 1923) contains one of Tsvetaeva's best-known cycles \"Insomnia\" (Bessonnitsa) and the poem The Swans' Encampment (Lebedinyi stan, Stikhi 1917–1921, published in 1957) which celebrates the White Army.\n", "Section::::Work.:The topic of hell.\n", "Tsvetaeva was so infatuated by the subject that she was looking for the topic in other poets writings and even used their lines as a base for her narrative, for example:\n", "Section::::Work.:Emigrant.\n", "Subsequently, as an émigré, Tsvetaeva's last two collections of lyrics were published by émigré presses, \"Craft\" (\"Remeslo\", 1923) in Berlin and \"After Russia\" (\"Posle Rossii\", 1928) in Paris. There then followed the twenty-three lyrical \"Berlin\" poems, the pantheistic \"Trees\" (\"Derev'ya\"), \"Wires\" (\"Provoda\") and \"Pairs\" (\"Dvoe\"), and the tragic \"Poets\" (\"Poety\"). \"After Russia\" contains the poem \"In Praise of the Rich\", in which Tsvetaeva's oppositional tone is merged with her proclivity for ruthless satire.\n", "Section::::Work.:Eschatological topics.\n", "In 1924, Tsvetaeva wrote \"Poem of the End\", which details a walk around Prague and across its bridges; the walk is about the final walk she will take with her lover Konstantin Rodzevich. In it everything is foretold: in the first few lines (translated by Elaine Feinstein) the future is already written:\n", "Again, further poems foretell future developments. Principal among these is the voice of the classically oriented Tsvetaeva heard in cycles \"The Sibyl\", \"Phaedra\", and \"Ariadne\". Tsvetaeva's beloved, ill-starred heroines recur in two verse plays, \"Theseus-Ariadne\" (Tezei-Ariadna, 1927) and \"Phaedra\" (Fedra, 1928). These plays form the first two parts of an incomplete trilogy \"Aphrodite's Rage\".\n", "Section::::Work.:Satire.\n", "The satirist in Tsvetaeva plays second fiddle only to the poet-lyricist. Several satirical poems, moreover, are among Tsvetaeva's best-known works: \"The Train of Life\" (\"Poezd zhizni\") and \"The Floorcleaners' Song\" (\"Poloterskaya\"), both included in After Russia, and The Ratcatcher (Krysolov, 1925–1926), a long, folkloric narrative. The target of Tsvetaeva's satire is everything petty and petty bourgeois. Unleashed against such dull creature comforts is the vengeful, unearthly energy of workers both manual and creative. In her notebook, Tsvetaeva writes of \"The Floorcleaners' Song\": \"Overall movement: the floorcleaners ferret out a house's hidden things, they scrub a fire into the door... What do they flush out? Coziness, warmth, tidiness, order... Smells: incense, piety. Bygones. Yesterday... The growing force of their threat is far stronger than the climax.\" \"The Ratcatcher\" poem, which Tsvetaeva describes as a \"lyrical satire\", is loosely based on the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. The Ratcatcher, which is also known as The Pied Piper, is considered by some to be the finest of Tsvetaeva's work. It was also partially an act of \"homage\" to Heinrich Heine's poem \"Die Wanderratten\". The Ratcatcher appeared initially, in serial format, in the émigré journal \"\" in 1925–1926 whilst still being written. It was not to appear in the Soviet Union until after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1956. Its hero is the Pied Piper of Hamelin who saves a town from hordes of rats and then leads the town's children away too, in retribution for the citizens' ingratitude. As in the other folkloric narratives, The Ratcatcher's story line emerges indirectly through numerous speaking voices which shift from invective, to extended lyrical flights, to pathos.\n", "Tsvetaeva's last ten years of exile, from 1928 when \"After Russia\" appeared until her return in 1939 to the Soviet Union, were principally a \"prose decade\", though this would almost certainly be by dint of economic necessity rather than one of choice.\n", "Section::::Work.:Translators.\n", "Translators of Tsvetaeva's work into English include Elaine Feinstein and David McDuff. Nina Kossman translated many of Tsvetaeva's long (narrative) poems, as well as her lyrical poems; they are collected in two books, \"Poem of the End\" and \"In the Inmost Hour of the Soul\". J. Marin King translated a great deal of Tsvetaeva's prose into English, compiled in a book called \"A Captive Spirit\". Tsvetaeva scholar Angela Livingstone has translated a number of Tsvetaeva's essays on art and writing, compiled in a book called \"Art in the Light of Conscience\". Livingstone's translation of Tsvetaeva's \"The Ratcatcher\" was published as a separate book. Mary Jane White has translated the early cycle \"Miles\" in a book called \"Starry Sky to Starry Sky\", as well as Tsvetaeva's elegy for Rilke, \"New Year's\", (Adastra Press 16 Reservation Road, Easthampton, MA 01027 USA) and \"Poem of the End\" (The Hudson Review, Winter 2009; and in the anthology Poets Translate Poets, Syracuse U. Press 2013) and \"Poem of the Hill\", (New England Review, Summer 2008) and Tsvetaeva's 1914–1915 cycle of love poems to Sophia Parnok. In 2002, Yale University Press published Jamey Gambrell's translation of post-revolutionary prose, entitled \"Earthly Signs: Moscow Diaries, 1917–1922\", with notes on poetic and linguistic aspects of Tsvetaeva's prose, and endnotes for the text itself.\n", "Section::::Work.:Cultural influence.\n", "BULLET::::- 2017: \"Zerkalo\" (\"Mirror\"), American magazine in MN for the Russian-speaking readers. It was a special publication to the 125th Anniversary of the Russian poet Marina Tsvetaeva, where the article \"Marina Tsvetaeva in America\" was written by Dr. Uli Zislin, the founder and director of the Washington Museum of Russian Poetry and Music, Sep/Oct 2017.\n", "Section::::Work.:Music and songs.\n", "The Soviet composer Dmitri Shostakovich set six of Tsvetaeva's poems to music. Later the Russian-Tatar composer Sofia Gubaidulina wrote an \"Hommage à Marina Tsvetayeva\" featuring her poems. Her poem \"Mne Nravitsya...\" (\"I like that...\"), was performed by Alla Pugacheva in the film \"The Irony of Fate\". In 2003, the opera \"Marina: A Captive Spirit\", based on Tsvetaeva's life and work, premiered from American Opera Projects in New York with music by Deborah Drattell and libretto by poet Annie Finch. The production was directed by Anne Bogart and the part of Tsvetaeva was sung by Lauren Flanigan. The poetry by Tsvetaeva was set to music and frequently performed as songs by Elena Frolova, Larisa Novoseltseva, Zlata Razdolina and other Russian bards.\n", "Section::::Books of Tsvetaeva poetry in English translation.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marina Tsvetaeva: Selected Poems\", trans. Elaine Feinstein. (Oxford University Press, 1971)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Ratcatcher: A Lyrical Satire\", trans. Angela Livingstone (Northwestern University, 2000)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Captive Spirit: Selected Prose\", trans. J. Marin King (Vintage Books, 1994)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Earthly Signs: Moscow Diaries, 1917–1922\", ed. & trans. Jamey Gambrell (Yale University Press, 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- \" Poem of the End: Selected Narrative and Lyrical Poems \", trans. Nina Kossman (Ardis / Overlook, 1998, 2004)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Moscow in the Plague Year\", translated by Christopher Whyte (180 poems written between November 1918 and May 1920) (Archipelago Press, New York, 2014), 268pp, ISBN 978-1-935744-96-2\n", "BULLET::::- \"Milestones (1922),\" translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2015), 122p, ISBN 978-1-84861-416-1\n", "BULLET::::- \"After Russia: the First Notebook,\" translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2017), 141 pp, ISBN 978 1 84861 549 6\n", "BULLET::::- \"After Russia: The Second Notebook\", translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2018) 121 pp, ISBN 978 1 84861 551 9\n", "BULLET::::- \"In the Inmost hour of the Soul: Poems \", trans. Nina Kossman (Humana Press, 1989)\n", "BULLET::::- \" Black Earth\", trans. Elaine Feinstein (The Delos Press and The Menard Press, 1992) ISBN I-874320-00-4 and ISBN I-874320-05-5 (signed ed.)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Phaedra: a drama in verse; with New Year's Letter and other long poems\", trans. Angela Livingstone (Angel Classics, 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Starry Sky to Starry Sky (Miles)\", trans. Mary Jane White. (Holy Cow Press, 1988), (paper) and (cloth)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Poem of the End\" in \"From A Terrace In Prague, A Prague Poetry Anthology\", trans. Mary Jane White, ed. Stephan Delbos (Univerzita Karlova v Praze, 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- \"After Russia\", trans. Michael Nayden (Ardis, 1992).\n", "BULLET::::- \"To You – in 10 Decades\", trans. by Alexander Givental and Elysee Wilson-Egolf (Sumizdat 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marina Tsvetayeva: Selected Poems\", trans. David McDuff. (Bloodaxe Books, 1987)\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Schweitzer, Viktoria \"Tsvetaeva\" (1993)\n", "BULLET::::- Mandelstam, Nadezhda \"Hope Against Hope\"\n", "BULLET::::- Mandelstam, Nadezhda \"Hope Abandoned\"\n", "BULLET::::- Pasternak, Boris \"An Essay in Autobiography\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- . One of the most famous Tsvetaeva's poem performed by Alla Pugacheva. Another version \n", "BULLET::::- . Dramatic reading in English with artistic video. Includes download link.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marina Tsvetaeva, \"Poet of the extreme\"\" by Belinda Cooke from \"South\" magazine #31, April 2005. Republished online in the Poetry Library's Poetry Magazines site.\n", "BULLET::::- A small site dedicated to Tsvetaeva\n", "BULLET::::- Poetic translations into English\n", "BULLET::::- Marina Tsvetaeva biography at Carcanet Press, English language publisher of Tsvetaeva's \"Bride of Ice\" and \"\"Marina Tsvetaeva: Selected Poems\"\", translated by Elaine Feinstein.\n", "BULLET::::- Heritage of Marina Tsvetayeva, a resource in English with a more extensive version in Russian.\n", "BULLET::::- Тоска по родине / Nostalgia and four more poems from the book \"To You – in 10 Decades\", translated by Alexander Givental and Elysee Wilson-Egolf and provided by Sumizdat, the publisher.\n", "BULLET::::- \"She Means It When She Rhymes: \"Marina Tsvetaeva: Selected Poems\".\" Review from \"Thumbscrew\" #17, Winter 2000/1, of works translated by Elaine Feinstein.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Russian poet and writer", "enwikiquote_title": "Marina Tsvetaeva", "wikidata_id": "Q188526", "wikidata_label": "Marina Tsvetaeva", "wikipedia_title": "Marina Tsvetaeva", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Marina Ivanovna Tsvetayeva", "Marina Tsvetajeva" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro\n", "Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro (29 October 1819 – 30 March 1885) was a British classical scholar.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Munro was born at Elgin, Moray, Scotland, the illegitimate son of Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro of Novar by Penelope Forbes, and educated at Shrewsbury School, where he was one of Benjamin Hall Kennedy's first pupils. He went on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1838, becoming a scholar in 1840, second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly founded chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872.\n", "The great work on which his reputation rests is his edition of Lucretius, the fruit of many years' efforts (text only, 1 vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols, 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and his judgment unrivalled; and he studied archaeology, being a frequent traveller in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he published an improved text of \"Aetna\" with commentary, and in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by Charles William King. His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his \"Criticisms and Elucidations\" of Catullus (1878). He was a master of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contributions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, \"Sabrinae corolla\", are among the most remarkable of the collection. He communicated with Thomas Saunders Evans.\n", "His \"Translations into Latin and Greek Verse\" were privately printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, these are characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease to be idiomatic. He died while visiting Rome.\n", "A \"Memoir\" by J. D. Duff was prefixed to a re-issue of the translation of Lucretius in \"Bohn's Classical Library\" (1908).\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Manuscripts relating to Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro at Trinity College, Cambridge\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Montreal Expos\n", "The Montreal Expos () were a Canadian professional baseball team based in Montreal, Quebec. The Expos were the first Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise located outside the United States. They played in the National League (NL) East Division from 1969 until 2004. Following the 2004 season, the franchise relocated to Washington, D.C., and became the Washington Nationals.\n", "Immediately after the minor league Triple-A Montreal Royals folded in 1960, political leaders in Montreal sought an MLB franchise, and when the National League evaluated expansion candidates for the 1969 season, it awarded a team to Montreal. Named after the Expo 67 World's Fair, the Expos originally played at Jarry Park Stadium before moving to Olympic Stadium in 1977. The Expos failed to post a winning record in any of their first ten seasons. The team won its only division title in the strike-shortened season, but lost the 1981 National League Championship Series (NLCS) to the Los Angeles Dodgers. The team was sold in 1991 by its majority, founding owner, Charles Bronfman, to a consortium headed by Claude Brochu. Felipe Alou was promoted to the team's field manager in 1992, becoming MLB's first Dominican-born manager. He led the team to four winning seasons, including , where the Expos had the best record in baseball before a players' strike ended the season. Alou became the Expos leader in games managed (1,409).\n", "The aftermath of the 1994 strike initiated a downward spiral as the Expos chose to sell off their best players, and attendance and interest in the team declined. Major League Baseball purchased the team prior to the 2002 season after the club failed to secure funding for a new ballpark. In their final two seasons, the team played 22 home games each year at Hiram Bithorn Stadium in San Juan, Puerto Rico. On September 29, 2004, MLB announced the franchise would relocate to Washington, D.C. for the season, and the Expos played their final home game in Montreal.\n", "The Expos posted an all-time record of 2,753 wins, 2,943 losses and 4 ties during their 36 years in Montreal. Vladimir Guerrero led the franchise in both home runs and batting average, and Steve Rogers in wins and strikeouts. Three pitchers threw four no-hitters: Bill Stoneman (twice), Charlie Lea, and Dennis Martínez, who pitched the 13th official perfect game in Major League Baseball history. The Expos retired four numbers in Montreal, and nine former members have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, with Gary Carter, Andre Dawson and Tim Raines' plaques depicting them with Expos caps.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Founding (1960–1968).\n", "Professional baseball in Montreal dates back to 1890 when teams briefly played in the International Association. A second attempt at hosting a pro team failed in 1895. The Montreal Royals of the Eastern League were subsequently founded in 1897 and played 20 seasons. The Royals were revived in 1928 and were purchased by the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1939 to serve as one of their Triple-A affiliates. Under Dodgers' management, the Royals won seven International League championships and three Junior World Series titles between 1941 and 1958. In 1946, Jackie Robinson joined the Royals and led the team to a Junior World Series title in advance of his breaking baseball's colour barrier one year later. By the late 1950s, the Royals' championship years were past, and faced with declining attendance, the team was sold and relocated following the 1960 season as the Dodgers reduced the number of teams they maintained at the AAA level.\n", "Almost immediately upon the Royals' demise, Montreal mayor Jean Drapeau and city executive committee chairman Gerry Snyder began their campaign for a Major League Baseball (MLB) team. The city, which had previously been considered a leading candidate to acquire the St. Louis Browns if the team had relocated in 1933, was too late to submit its candidacy for a team as part of the National League's (NL) 1962 expansion but presented its bid to the league's owners at the winter meetings in 1967. Aiding Montreal's bid was the fact that Walter O'Malley, who owned the Dodgers and formerly oversaw the Montreal Royals, was the chairman of the NL's expansion committee. On May 27, 1968, National League president Warren Giles announced the league would add expansion teams in San Diego and Montreal at a cost of US$10 million each.\n", "With the franchise secured, Snyder built an ownership group of six partners led by financier Jean-Louis Lévesque and Seagram heir Charles Bronfman. Lévesque was originally tapped as chairman and the public face of the ownership group since he was a francophone. However, he bowed out, and Bronfman took over as chairman. The new group was faced with the immediate problem of finding a suitable facility in which to play for at least two years. Drapeau had promised the NL that a domed stadium would be built by 1971. However, Snyder's successor as executive committee chairman, Lucien Saulnier, told Bronfman that Drapeau could not make such a guarantee on his own authority. As 1968 dragged on without movement from the city on a facility, Bronfman and his group threatened to walk away. While they had more than enough money between them to pay the first installment of the expansion fee, they wanted assurances that a park would be built before proceeding any further with the effort. Delorimier Stadium, which hosted the Royals, was rejected even as a temporary facility; it could not be expanded beyond its 20,000-seat capacity because it was in a residential area. The Autostade, home of the Canadian Football League's Montreal Alouettes, was ruled out due to the prohibitive cost of expanding it and adding a dome, as well as doubts that the city even had the right to make the needed renovations to the federally-owned facility.\n", "By August 1968, the NL owners had grown increasingly concerned about the unresolved stadium question, putting the franchise's future in doubt. There were rumours of awarding the franchise to Buffalo, New York instead, whose War Memorial Stadium was ready to host a team. League president Warren Giles was reassured of Montreal's viability when shown a 3,000-seat community field in the centrally located Jarry Park that Drapeau proposed expanding to 30,000 seats as a temporary home for the Expos, at a cost of over C$1 million.\n", "Several options for a team name were considered: \"Royals\" was a popular option with fans, but the name had already been taken by the Kansas City Royals. Other names considered included \"Voyageurs\" and \"Nationals\". The team settled on \"Expos\", a name with the same spelling in French and English, in recognition of the recently concluded Expo 67 World's Fair. Less than a year after the city was awarded a team, the Expos took to the field to begin the season.\n", "Section::::History.:Jarry Park years (1969–1976).\n", "With Gene Mauch as their inaugural manager, the Expos made their debut on April 8, 1969: an 11–10 victory over the New York Mets at Shea Stadium. The team played its first home game—and the first Major League game outside the United States—on April 14; it was an 8–7 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals before 29,184 fans at Jarry Park Stadium. Three days later, on April 17, Bill Stoneman pitched the first no-hitter in Expos history with a 7–0 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies. The excitement of the early-season heroics quickly gave way to the realities of being an expansion team as the Expos struggled for much of their inaugural season. Montreal tied their expansion cousins, the San Diego Padres for the worst record in the NL with a record of 52–110. The team fared little better in the following seasons; the Expos went 73–89 in and 71–90 in .\n", "The team's best player, and first star, in its early seasons was Rusty Staub. Acquired from the Houston Astros in a trade prior to the Expos' inaugural season, he led the Expos with 30 home runs in 1970 and, owing to his red hair, was nicknamed \"Le Grand Orange\". Staub was Montreal's lone representative at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game in the team's first three seasons, and endeared himself to the local fans by learning French. Also popular was pitcher Claude Raymond, who completed his Major League career with Montreal in 1972 and was the team's first French-Canadian star. Pitcher Carl Morton, who posted an 18–11 record in 1970, was the first player in franchise history to be named National League Rookie of the Year. Bill Stoneman threw his second no-hitter, and the first pitched outside the United States, in a 7–0 win over the Mets in Montreal on October 2, 1972.\n", "The team failed to post a winning season in its first ten years and finished fifth or sixth in the six-team NL East eight times. Attendance declined as the initial excitement of having a team wore off. It recovered briefly in as the Expos mounted an unsuccessful charge at the NL East pennant, before declining sharply in and beyond. By , attendance had dropped to just over 600,000 fans over the course of the season, less than half of what the Expos drew in their inaugural season.\n", "The on-field product was not the only concern for the Expos. Jarry Park was only intended to serve as a temporary home until 1971 at the latest. Even allowing for this, it left much to be desired as a baseball venue. The grandstands were completely exposed to the elements, forcing the Expos to postpone a number of early-season games. Additionally, the sun set directly in the face of first basemen, forcing delays. Due to numerous delays and cost overruns with its intended replacement, Olympic Stadium, the Expos were forced to stay in Jarry until 1976.\n", "The team's future was also placed in doubt following an angry speech by Bronfman in which he threatened to relocate his family and the Seagram company outside Quebec if the separatist Parti Québécois (PQ) won a majority government in the 1976 Quebec election. The Parti Québécois did win the election; however, Bronfman and the Expos remained in Quebec.\n", "Section::::History.:The Big O and Blue Monday (1977–1981).\n", "For the season, the Expos moved into their new ballpark, Olympic Stadium, six years later than originally scheduled. For a time in the 1976–77 offseason, however, it appeared that the Expos would have to play at least the early part of the season at Jarry Park due to delays in securing a lease for Olympic Stadium. The team broke off negotiations not long after the PQ's landslide victory in the 1976 provincial election. Negotiations dragged out through the winter, leading the Expos to begin selling 1977 season tickets under the assumption they would have to play at Jarry. However, an agreement was finally reached in early 1977. A total of 57,592 fans attended Montreal's opening day 7–2 loss to Philadelphia.\n", "The new facility was a significant upgrade, although weather-related issues created by Montreal's harsh climate persisted until the stadium's roof was installed in 1987. Over the years, the stadium became notorious for its poor playing conditions. Players were frequently at risk for injury due to thin padding on the outfield fences, as well as the original artificial turf that remained in place for over two decades. Ultimately, the park became viewed as a white elephant. On the field, the Expos continued to fare poorly; the team won 75 games in 1977, and 76 in .\n", "Though the losing seasons mounted, the Expos built a solid core of players, led by Gary Carter, who went on to become one of baseball's best hitting catchers, pitcher Steve Rogers and outfielders Andre Dawson and Tim Raines. They supplemented their young roster with veteran acquisitions such as future Hall of Famer Tony Pérez, and in 1977, the Expos also hired Dick Williams as the team's manager. Williams had developed a reputation for nurturing young talent; he had managed a young Boston Red Sox team to the American League pennant in and the Oakland Athletics to back-to-back World Series titles in 1972 and 1973. In , Montreal had its first winning season in franchise history; in mid-July, the Expos led the NL East by 6.5 games, before finishing second to the Pittsburgh Pirates by two games with a 95–65 record. The fans responded: Montreal drew two million fans for the first time in franchise history and it was the first of five consecutive seasons that the team was in the top-four of National League attendance. Though they won five fewer games in , the Expos finished merely one game behind the Philadelphia Phillies for the division lead. In both seasons, the Expos were in the hunt for the division title into the last weekend of the season before losing to the ultimate World Series champion.\n", "In , Charlie Lea pitched the third no-hitter in franchise history. He defeated the San Francisco Giants by a 4–0 score on May 10, 1981. The Expos were in third place in the NL East with a 30–25 record when the season was halted for two months by a players' strike. By the time the strike ended, 713 games had been lost and could not possibly be made up. Major League Baseball chose to adopt a split-season schedule, which gave the Expos a fresh start in the second half of the season. With the team languishing near the .500 mark in post-strike play, the club fired Williams and replaced him with scouting director Jim Fanning. The team continued to struggle, though, and had a 19–19 record with 15 games left to play. Montreal won 11 of the remaining games and finished in first place, a 1/2 game ahead of the Pittsburgh Pirates, thereby qualifying for the franchise's first post-season berth. Terry Francona caught the final out – a fly ball hit by Dave Kingman – to seal a 5–4 victory over the New York Mets in the clinching game.\n", "In the 1981 National League Division Series, the Expos faced the first-half winners, the defending world champion Phillies. Montreal won the first two games, at Olympic Stadium, by identical 3–1 scores before dropping the following two games in Philadelphia. In the deciding fifth game, Montreal's Steve Rogers faced Steve Carlton in a pitchers' duel. Rogers pitched a complete-game shutout as Montreal advanced to the 1981 National League Championship Series with a 3–0 win. Facing the Los Angeles Dodgers, Montreal split the first two games of the best-of-five series in Los Angeles before returning home for the final three games. Montreal won game three, but failed in their first attempt to close out the series by losing game four and set up a deciding fifth game. The deciding game, postponed by a day due to rain, was played October 19, 1981, in near-freezing temperatures. The game was tied at 1 entering the ninth inning when Fanning opted to have his top starter, Steve Rogers, come out of the bullpen to pitch. Rogers retired the first two batters before facing Rick Monday. What followed was the defining moment in Expos history: on a 3–1 count, Rogers hung a sinking fastball that Monday hit over the centrefield fence for the game-winning and series-clinching home run. The moment, and game, became known to Expos fans as \"Blue Monday\". The dramatic loss was a bitter defeat for a franchise who by that time had been adopted as Canada's most popular baseball team.\n", "Section::::History.:\"The team of the '80s\" (1982–1988).\n", "By the end of the 1979 season, the Expos had earned a reputation for having one of the strongest player development systems in baseball; the team had stockpiled young talent throughout its roster including four starting pitchers below the age of 23, and was hailed as \"the team of the '80s\". When Montreal hosted the 1982 Major League Baseball All-Star Game on July 13, 1982, Expos fans voted four of their own into the starting lineup: Carter, Dawson, Raines and Rogers, while Al Oliver was named as a reserve. It was only the second time since 1969 that the host team had four starters. The National League claimed a 4–1 victory in front of 59,057 fans in the first All-Star Game held outside of the United States; Rogers was the winning pitcher. Baseball historian and author Jonah Keri argued in his book \"Up, Up and Away\" that \"no one at the stadium could know it then, but baseball in Montreal peaked that night at the Big O.\"\n", "The Expos were widely predicted to win the NL East in ; \"Sports Illustrated\", \"Baseball Digest\" and \"The Sporting News\" were among the publications that favoured Montreal. However, the team disappointed. Montreal finished third in the division with 86 wins. The Expos replaced Fanning with Bill Virdon in , and under their new manager, led the division in mid-July. However, the team faded down the stretch and finished with an 82–80 record. The Expos won more games between 1979 and 1983 than any other team in the NL East, but had only one postseason appearance to show for it.\n", "Hoping to turn the team's fortunes around, the Expos signed 42-year-old veteran Pete Rose, who was second all-time in base hits to Ty Cobb, to a one-year contract in . Rose reached a career milestone in Montreal's home opener by recording the 4,000th hit of his career in a 5–1 victory over Philadelphia on April 13. Though players and management had praised the acquisition of Rose and predicted he would help the team win the division, he was ineffective for Montreal. Rose batted only .259 and failed to hit a home run in 95 games before he was traded back to his original team, Cincinnati, and Montreal finished with a losing record on the season.\n", "Montreal's failed 1984 season resulted in a 31 percent decrease in attendance at the same time salaries were escalating throughout baseball. As a consequence, the Expos completed a major trade following the season, sending Gary Carter to the New York Mets on December 10, 1984, in exchange for four players. In trading Carter, the Expos gave up a team icon who, like Rusty Staub before him, endeared himself to the fans by learning French and being one of the most accessible players on the team. The trade came one year after Bronfman had called the seven-year, US$12.6 million contract Carter signed in 1981 \"the biggest mistake he had made in his life\".\n", "The economics of Major League Baseball also resulted in the departure of Andre Dawson following the season. Throughout that off-season, MLB owners colluded at the behest of Commissioner Peter Ueberroth to drive salaries for free agents down. Dawson, who should have been one of the most valuable free agents on the market that year, discovered that not only was there little interest in signing him, but that the Expos were publicly commenting about his knee problems in an effort to further drive interest down. Angered by these actions, Dawson walked into the Chicago Cubs' training camp with a signed, blank contract. The Cubs agreed to sign Dawson to a one-year, $500,000 contract, less than half of his previous salary.\n", "Dawson hit 49 home runs and drove in 137 runs in , attaining the honour of NL Most Valuable Player.\n", "Tim Raines was also affected by collusion: after receiving no offer worth more than the $1.5 million he earned in 1986, Raines returned to the Expos on a three-year, $5 million contract. He had one of the best seasons of his career in 1987, leading the NL with 123 runs (in 139 games), stealing 50 bases, batting .330 and hitting 18 home runs. He was also named the most valuable player of the 1987 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, as he drove in the game's only two runs with a triple in the 13th inning. Raines was ultimately traded to the Chicago White Sox in 1990.\n", "Section::::History.:\"El Presidente, El Perfecto!\" (1989–1993).\n", "On the field, the Expos won just four games more than they lost between 1986 and 1991 as the organization set about rebuilding its development system and acquiring a new generation of players. The team struggled to attract free agents to Montreal, and Bronfman had grown disillusioned with both the business of baseball and the challenge of drawing fans to Olympic Stadium for a middling ball club. He hoped to take one more chance at winning a title, however, and in , the Expos made a push for a division title by acquiring start pitcher and pending free agent Mark Langston from the Seattle Mariners. The price would ultimately prove to be a high one as the Expos gave up future Hall of Famer Randy Johnson and two other pitchers. The trade helped propel the Expos to first place in the NL East by the All-Star break. They held the top spot into August before Langston and the team collapsed. The Expos finished fourth in the division with an 81–81 record, and Langston left Montreal as a free agent.\n", "Bronfman grew increasingly uneasy about the reckless spending of his fellow team owners, increased strife with the players, and overall direction of MLB. According to then-team president Claude Brochu, the team's late-season decline in 1989 proved too much for Bronfman, who asked him to seek a buyer for the team.\n", "Bronfman hoped to sell the team for around $50 million, but both he and Brochu found it impossible to find a local businessman willing to take primary ownership of the team. Groups from American cities were interested, however. One group offered to buy the club for $135 million and relocate it to Miami; however, Bronfman viewed a relocation as a last resort. Instead, Brochu opted to lead a group himself. The city and the province agreed to fund $33 million of the $100 million sales price Bronfman had settled on, after which he and partner Jacques Ménard convinced 11 other Canadian businesses and businessmen—such as Bell Canada, Desjardins Group, the Jean Coutu Group and Loblaw Companies—to buy minority stakes. The sale was completed on November 29, 1990. However, many of the investors Brochu cajoled into joining the partnership made it clear that they considered their investments to be the equivalent of charitable donations, and were not interested in providing additional funding.\n", "With a new ownership group in place, the Expos traded Tim Raines to the Chicago White Sox in a five-player deal.\n", "General manager David Dombrowski fired manager Buck Rodgers, who had managed the team since 1985, after the team started the 1991 season with a 20–29 record, replacing him with Tom Runnells.\n", "Mark Gardner pitched nine no-hit innings in a July 26, game before losing 1–0 in the 10th inning to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Two days later, also in Los Angeles, Dennis Martínez achieved a rare feat, throwing the 13th official perfect game in Major League Baseball history (based on MLB's 1991 redefinition of a perfect game), winning 2–0. Dave Van Horne's iconic call of \"El Presidente, El Perfecto!\" following the final out became a hallmark of Expos lore. Martinez's catcher, Ron Hassey, also caught Len Barker's perfect game ten years earlier and remains the only player to catch two perfect games in MLB history. The euphoria of the pitching feats did not last, as the Expos were rendered homeless for the final month of the season after a 50-ton beam collapsed from Olympic Stadium's structure and fell nine metres onto a public concourse hours before a motocross event on September 13. The Expos hinted that they would have to open the 1992 season elsewhere unless Olympic Stadium was certified safe. While the stadium itself was given a clean bill of health by engineers in November, it took longer to get one for the roof since it had been badly ripped in a June windstorm. Ultimately, it was decided to keep the roof closed at all times; it had only been opened 88 times in a little more than four years.\n", "The Expos finished 1991 with a 71–90 record, sixth in the NL East, and drew fewer than one million fans for the first time since 1976. However, the foundation of the Expos' future was establishing their places in MLB: Larry Walker, Marquis Grissom and Delino DeShields had made their debuts the season prior, and the team acquired Moisés Alou in a trade with Pittsburgh. Moises' father Felipe, who had been a long time employee of the Expos, was promoted to manager during the season and became the first native of the Dominican Republic to manage a Major League Baseball team. In , DeShields was sent to Los Angeles in exchange for Pedro Martínez; the deal was initially pilloried by the \"Montreal Gazette\" and other local publications as a move designed to save money rather than improve the ball club. Nonetheless, the Expos improved on the field; they won 87 games in 1992, 94 in 1993 and finished second in the NL East both seasons.\n", "Section::::History.:1994 and the players' strike.\n", "The Expos were recognized as having a strong team entering the season, but their hopes of winning the division were significantly impacted by realignment, as the three-time defending West Division champion Atlanta Braves were shifted to the East. Atlanta opened the season with 13 wins in 14 games, and quickly opened up an -game lead on Montreal. By late June, the Expos had moved to games back when they hosted the Braves. Montreal won two out of three games in the series, including a late-game victory in the opener over future-Hall-of-Fame pitcher Greg Maddux that the players viewed as the turning point of their season. Montreal then embarked on a west coast road trip in which they won the final five games and entered the All-Star break in first place. The Expos pulled away from the Braves after the break; between July 18 and August 11, Montreal won 20 games and lost only three. For the second time in team history, five players were named all-stars: Moisés Alou, Wil Cordero, Darrin Fletcher, Marquis Grissom and Ken Hill.\n", "An offense led by Marquis Grissom, Moises Alou, Larry Walker and Wil Cordero scored more than 5 runs per game. With a record of 74–40, on pace for a 106-win season as the pitching staff with Butch Henry, Ken Hill, Jeff Fassero and a young Pedro Martinez put up the National League’s best ERA. the Expos had the best record in baseball on the morning of August 12, when MLB's players went on strike. The season began without a collective bargaining agreement as MLB's owners could not agree on how to share revenue between teams. Many teams were unwilling to agree to revenue sharing unless a salary cap was put in place, something which the Major League Baseball Players' Association (MLBPA) adamantly opposed. Unable to come to an agreement, the owners attempted to unilaterally force their system into effect, prompting the players to walk out. Most of the players believed they would be back on the field by the American Labor Day at the latest. On September 14, following a month of fruitless negotiations, the remainder of the season was cancelled. The franchise would never reach the playoffs as the Expos again.\n", "From Brochu's perspective, a salary cap was not a major concern for the Expos as they could not afford to spend the maximum value of any negotiated cap. But when the strike ended eight months later, by the order of United States federal judge Sonia Sotomayor, the failure to implement strong revenue sharing was a major blow to the Expos. The team had already built a reputation as a penny-pinching organization (Larry Walker once complained in the media that the team asked the players to buy their own vitamins), with the second-lowest payroll in MLB in 1994. Following the strike, the team initiated a fire sale of players: Ken Hill, John Wetteland and Marquis Grissom were traded while Larry Walker was allowed to leave as a free agent. Moisés Alou, Pedro Martínez and Mel Rojas would eventually follow. In his book, \"My Turn At Bat\", Brochu argued that the fire sale was the only viable option, since his partners in the ownership group were not interested in financing the team's losses. Brochu estimated that had he tried to keep the 1994 team together, the Expos would have lost $25 million in 1995, which would have pushed the franchise to the edge of bankruptcy. He claimed that he would have certainly kept Hill, Wetteland, Grissom and Walker had the partners been willing to put up the money necessary to keep them in Montreal. When Brochu told general manager Kevin Malone that Hill, Wetteland, Grissom and Walker all had to go, Malone tried to persuade Brochu to keep at least one of them. It was to no avail; Brochu told Malone that they all had to be off the roster by the deadline for salary arbitration—even though this made it all but impossible to get any leverage in possible deals. As a result, the Expos got almost nothing in return.\n", "Section::::History.:Decline (1995–2000).\n", "The strike and ensuing fire sale left fans in Montreal livid. The Expos finished last in the NL East in , and average game attendance fell by nearly 26%, from 24,543 to 18,189. Interest in the Expos continued to decline in the years that followed; they would never average more than 20,000 fans per game in a season again during their tenure in Montreal. While noting the Atlanta Braves went on to win 11 consecutive NL East titles following the strike, Jonah Keri expressed the viewpoint of the fans as it related to Brochu and the team's owners: \"Expos fans couldn't help but wonder if that could have been \"them\" celebrating every year ... had Brochu convinced the team's cheapskate owners to spend a few damn dollars, or taken a leap of faith that short-term financial pain would lead to long-term success.\" The media, meanwhile, had taken to calling the Expos a \"Triple-A team\" as the team seemed to enter a period where they would develop players only to move them on to other organizations.\n", "In spite of a sharp decline in attendance, Brochu claimed the Expos turned a small profit in 1995. While ticket sales increased in other markets in the seasons following the strike, though, Montreal's fan base continued to erode. Even with the loss of most of their best players, the Expos were competitive in , achieving second place in the NL East with an 88–74 record. The team fared poorly in the following five seasons, however, finishing with a losing record in each year and no higher than fourth in the division. Individually, Pedro Martínez became the first native of the Dominican Republic—and only Expo—to win the National League Cy Young Award. He won the award in after recording an 18–7 record with an earned run average (ERA) of 1.90. One week after he was announced as the NL Cy Young winner, Martínez was traded to the Boston Red Sox as part of another salary purge.\n", "As the 1990s wore on, interest in the Expos dwindled to the point that they were barely part of Montreal's sports landscape. Alou recalled in the latter part of the decade, an old friend of his who owned a team in the Dominican Republic came to Montreal for a visit and couldn't find any downtown store that sold Expos caps, nor did he see anyone wearing an Expos cap during his weeklong stay in the city. When he took a taxi to a game at Olympic Stadium, the driver couldn't find the entrance, and there were no signs anywhere touting games. According to Alou's friend, with such lackluster marketing, it was no surprise that the Expos couldn't attract any fans. Keri later wrote that the Expos would not have been in this position had a better-financed \"champion\" with the resources and the patience to shepherd the team through the 1990s bought the team.\n", "Brochu attempted to convince his partners that the only long-term solution to keep the Expos in Montreal was to replace Olympic Stadium. In addition to being poorly located—far from population centres, restaurants, and bars—fans perceived it as cavernous and unsafe. Additionally, free agents were letting it be known they were not willing to play for the Expos because of Olympic Stadium's poor playing conditions. A proposed 35,000-seat downtown facility, to be called Labatt Park, was announced in 1997 with a budgeted cost of $250 million and an anticipated opening date of 2001. It would have been a retro-classic park with a facade reminiscent of historic Bonaventure Station. According to a Montreal Gazette editorial supporting the new park, Brochu's threat to move the team unless Olympic Stadium was replaced was \"simple logic.\" Brochu sought $150 million in funding from the provincial government, but Premier Lucien Bouchard refused, saying he could not authorize public funding for a stadium when the province was being forced to close hospitals and had still not paid the Olympic Stadium debt. Many members of the consortium instead favoured selling the team. Hoping to pressure a sale, some members began to feed anonymous tips to the French press to make internal discord between Brochu and his partners public. Attendance continued to fall, decreasing by 39 percent in to an average of 11,295 spectators per game. It was the first of five consecutive seasons in which Montreal drew fewer than one million fans. One of the few bright spots of this time was the blossoming of Vladimir Guerrero into a star; he made four consecutive All-Star Games from 1999 to 2002, each time as the Expos' sole representative. Guerrero would eventually be elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2018.\n", "By 1999, the partners publicly began to question Brochu's fitness to lead the organization and he was criticized by the media. Brochu was also accused of having a secret deal with MLB commissioner Bud Selig to relocate the Expos to Washington, D. C., charges he denied in a spring press conference held to answer the accusations of his partners. Brochu's rebuttals fell on deaf ears as fans sided with the consortium's smear campaign against Brochu. He was ultimately replaced as managing general partner by American art dealer Jeffrey Loria, who was initially hailed as the franchise's saviour. Loria had originally bid for the team in 1991, but Brochu and Ménard had balked at his demand for controlling interest.\n", "Section::::History.:Relocation (2001–2004).\n", "When Loria took control, he let it be known that Brochu's low-budget approach—or as he called it, \"business as usual\"—was over. He promised to rebuild the Expos with \"a winning attitude and winning players\" in an effort to bring the team back to where it had been only six years earlier. To that end, he drafted a new partnership agreement that gave him the right to call for cash investments in exchange for team equity—an option that had been unavailable to Brochu. Most of the minority partners, though, continued to treat their participation as a public-relations gesture and remained uninterested in investing additional money. When Loria issued a cash call in May 2000, the only other partners to increase their contributions were Coutu, Loblaw, and Stephen Bronfman. Rather than contribute more money, the minority partners proposed trading Guererro. Loria instantly vetoed this suggestion.\n", "As Loria increased his own financial contribution over the next two years, most of the other partners failed to do likewise, which resulted in Loria raising his share in the franchise to 92 percent. Speaking in retrospect, one of the minority partners, Mark Routtenberg, said that he was both \"fooled\" and \"used\" by Loria, and called him a carpetbagger.\n", "The team payroll for 2000 increased to $33 million, nearly double the $17.9 million from the previous season. However, Loria's options for rebuilding the team were somewhat limited. He discovered that he needed to improve the team immediately in order to win back the fans' trust, rather than relying on long-term improvements via the draft. Even with the team's renewed willingness to spend more on talent, most elite players were reluctant to play in Montreal, given the franchise's uncertain future and Olympic Stadium's poor playing conditions. As a result, most of the increased payroll came from the signings of free agent pitchers Graeme Lloyd and Hideki Irabu, as well as a three-way trade with the Rangers and Blue Jays that brought Rangers first baseman Lee Stevens to Montreal. These moves failed to translate into on-field success: Lloyd missed the entire season due to arthroscopic surgery, Irabu posted a 7.24 ERA, and Stevens only batted .265. The Expos lost 95 games. Interest in the team continued to decline, as both fans and businesses were unwilling to lend their support to a noncompetitive team.\n", "Loria continued to pursue the construction of a new ballpark. He sought support from Major League Baseball, the Quebec government, and architectural firm HOK Sport for a cheaper and re-designed version of Labatt Park that eschewed the retro-classic concept in favour of a more modern design with curved contours and glass. HOK and MLB both thought Loria's proposed design was structurally unsound. More seriously, although Loria had been led to believe that Ménard had convinced the provincial government to contribute funding, in reality no agreement had been reached.\n", "To bolster the team's finances, Loria tried to renegotiate the Expos' broadcasting deals, which were far less valuable than that of any other team. He broke off negotiations with The Sports Network, the largest English-language cable sports network in Canada, when it only offered the Expos $5,000 per game. Even allowing for the Expos' greatly reduced home territory compared to that of the Blue Jays (see below), TSN's offer was still a pittance compared to the $200,000 it paid the Blue Jays at the time. Loria had similar issues with prospective radio partners; the only interested parties would only air Expos games as part of a brokerage agreement in which the team paid for the airtime. The Alouettes and Canadiens had similar arrangements, which was considered highly unusual for the time.\n", "Although the team continued its French radio coverage on the Telemedia network—whose flagship, CKAC, had carried the Expos since 1973—the Expos were unable to reach an agreement for English radio broadcasts. This resulted in the end of the Expos' longtime run on CIQC (formerly CFCF), which had been the Expos' English radio outlet for all but four years of their existence. No television coverage was available in either language. This left English-speaking fans relying on Internet audiocasts. Local fans accused Loria and his stepson, David Samson, of sabotage. In truth, though, according to longtime Montreal sportscaster Mitch Melnick, there was no anglophone radio for the 2000 season \"because nobody wanted to pay for it.\" Years later, Samson said that he had initially hoped that if the Expos got off to a hot start, local broadcasters would initiate new negotiations, but further discussions never materialized. Dave Van Horne, the team's English-language play-by-play announcer since the team's inception, left at the season's end to work for the Florida Marlins.\n", "In , the Expos drew only 642,748 fans, one of the smallest totals in MLB in decades. The minority partners, whose interest was now reduced to a combined seven percent, became convinced that Loria had planned his moves to force them out. When pleas to Selig and MLB officials fell on deaf ears, the group became convinced that Selig and Loria had conspired to force the Expos out of Montreal. At the same time, MLB took steps to vote on contraction, with the Expos and the Minnesota Twins slated for elimination. On November 6, 2001, MLB's owners voted 28–2 on contraction; only the Expos and Twins opposed. Initial plans called for the Expos and Twins to play a lame-duck season in before their franchises were revoked. Both teams were saved following a legal challenge filed in Minnesota that forced MLB to honour the Twins' lease with the Metrodome, as well as challenges by the MLBPA. As MLB was unable to find another candidate for contraction, the immediate threat for the Expos diminished, as MLB needed to keep an even number of teams to maintain its schedule.\n", "Shortly afterward, Loria sold the Expos to MLB and used the money he received from the sale to purchase the Florida Marlins from John Henry, who had recently purchased the Boston Red Sox. As a result of the transaction, Loria turned a significant profit on his initial $16 million investment – MLB bought the Expos from him for $120 million and gave him a $38.5 million interest free loan to complete the purchase of the Marlins. Following the sale, Loria took virtually everything of value with him to Miami, including the Expos' computers and scouting reports. His departure also marked the final end of the proposed Labatt Park, though any realistic chance of the park being built ended when the Bouchard government repeated its previous refusal to commit any public money to the project.\n", "MLB appointed former Anaheim Angels president Tony Tavares as team president to oversee business operations and oversee a future move of the team, and Mets assistant general manager Omar Minaya as vice-president, general manager and operating head of the franchise. MLB's chief disciplinarian Frank Robinson was appointed as the team's manager.\n", "Minaya, the first Latino general manager in baseball history, inherited a difficult situation. He was hired only 72 hours before the start of spring training, and there were only six other employees in baseball operations; most of the others had either followed Loria to the Marlins or taken jobs with other clubs. As the Expos began what many assumed at the time to be their final season in 2002, the mood in the Olympic Stadium for the home opener – a victory over the Marlins – was ugly. Montreal's home opener drew 34,000 fans, many of which came not only to say \"goodbye\" to the franchise, but also to express their disgust and anger at Loria.\n", "Loria's minority partners, who had gone from collectively owning 76 percent of the Expos to less than seven percent of the Marlins, filed a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) lawsuit against Major League Baseball, Selig and Loria. The partners contended that Loria and the commissioner's office had conspired to deprive them of their shares by issuing cash calls, and thus deliberately undermined the franchise's future in Montreal. The partners were ultimately unsuccessful in their suit, as it was dismissed in 2005 after an arbitration panel rejected their claims.\n", "On the field, the 2002 Expos exceeded expectations and were in playoff contention for much of the season. As they were owned by the other teams, including their direct competitors, the Expos did not have any flexibility to increase their payroll for a last-ditch post season drive. Operating under the belief that the Expos were playing their last season in Montreal, Minaya completed a blockbuster trade with the Cleveland Indians in late June to make a final run at bringing post-season success to the city, acquiring Bartolo Colón, one of baseball's top pitchers, in exchange for several star prospects and without increasing payroll. Remembering how the Seattle Mariners had revived a stalled bid for what became Safeco Field with a playoff run in 1995, Minaya believed that if the Expos made the playoffs, the renewed public and private sector support would lead to a viable owner stepping forward who would keep the team in Montreal. Minaya made several smaller moves, but the team lost its early-season momentum; they went seven games under .500 in July and August. The Expos finished with an 83–79 record – their first winning season since 1996 – but finished second in the NL East, 19 games out of both the division lead and the wild card.\n", "The Expos franchise was saved by a new collective bargaining agreement between the owners and players that forbade contraction until at least 2006. Speculation of contraction was replaced by rumours of relocation, as it was obvious MLB did not intend to keep the team in Montreal. While MLB was not ready to relocate the Expos right away, in it sought to increase revenues by having the team play 22 of its 81 home games in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The Expos again found themselves in contention for the playoffs: on August 29, the team was tied with four other clubs for the National League Wild Card spot. When MLB's rosters expanded on September 1, Selig announced that the Expos would not be recalling any additional players from the minor leagues: the other owners had decided against spending a few extra thousand dollars, a small fraction of the team's $35 million payroll, to bolster the team. Several players, including relief pitcher Eric Knott, were sent back to the minors due to budget constraints. The team faded again, finishing 18 games out of first in the East and eight games out of the wild card spot. Later, Minaya said that the denial of the September call-ups was \"a message to the players\" and \"a momentum killer.\" Keri later wrote that MLB's refusal to authorize the September call-ups eroded what goodwill the Expos still had among the Montreal fanbase. After the season, Guererro was lost to free agency, while staff ace Javier Vázquez was traded to the Yankees.\n", "The final season of the Montreal Expos came in , and was again split between Montreal and San Juan. The team never recovered from an April win-loss record of 5–19, and finished the season with a 67–95 record. On September 29, 2004, Major League Baseball announced that the franchise would relocate to Washington for the season. That same night, the team played its final game in Montreal: a 9–1 loss before 31,395 fans. The team then played its final games as the Expos on the road, ending on October 3 against the New York Mets, the team they had faced in the franchise's inaugural game in 1969. In the Expos last-ever game, the New York Mets defeated Montreal 8–1 at Shea Stadium. Jamey Carroll scored the last Expos run and Endy Chávez became the final Expos batter in history when he grounded out in the top of the ninth to end the game. The team ended their 36-year run with an all-time record of 2,753 wins, 2,943 losses and 4 ties.\n", "As of 2018, pitcher Bartolo Colón, who played half a season with the team in 2002, is the last active former Montreal Expos player in the major leagues.\n", "Section::::Team identity.\n", "The Expos logo consists of the stylized letters \"eb\", which stands for \"Expos Baseball\". When taken as a whole, the logo forms a large \"M\", representing \"Montreal\".\n", "In 1972, the Telemedia radio network brought in Jacques Doucet and Claude Raymond to serve as the Expos' French language broadcast team. They were asked by the Carling O'Keefe brewery, the title sponsor for the French-language broadcasts, to create a French language glossary of baseball terminology. Previously, particularly in the Montreal Royals days, French broadcasters would use English for baseball concepts that didn't have a French equivalent. Through their efforts, a French language baseball lexicon was created: words like \"home run\" became \"\" and \"hit\" became \"\". A knuckleball became \"\", literally \"butterfly ball\".\n", "Section::::Team identity.:Youppi!\n", "The Expos introduced their first mascot during the 1978 season. Called \"Souki\", the mascot resembled Mr. Met with a futuristic looking uniform but was met with such a negative reaction that the team immediately retired it after one season; Souki was once attacked by a father of children frightened by it. Seeking a replacement, the Expos found a design for a mascot similar to the Phillie Phanatic in the inventory of an American mascot company that had gone bankrupt. The mascot was designed by Bonnie Erickson, who created the Phanatic as well as several Muppets characters, including Miss Piggy. The team named the new mascot \"Youppi!\", which is French for \"Yippee!\" Unlike Souki, Youppi! was immediately popular with fans upon its introduction in 1979, particularly children, and the mascot became a fixture at children's hospitals during its 25 years as the Expos mascot.\n", "Youppi! made history in 1989 when he became the first mascot in Major League history to be ejected from a ballgame. The incident occurred during the 11th inning of a game against Los Angeles when Youppi was dancing and parading on top of the Dodgers' dugout. LA's manager, Tommy Lasorda complained to the umpires who ordered the mascot out of the game. Youppi! was eventually allowed to return on the provision he remained away from the Dodgers' dugout. The game, coincidentally, was the longest in Expos history as Los Angeles won 1–0 in 22 innings.\n", "The relocation of the Expos to Washington left Youppi! in limbo. Several organizations expressed interest in taking over the character, including other Montreal sports teams. After a year in storage, the mascot was sold to the National Hockey League's Montreal Canadiens. The Canadiens claim Youppi! is the first mascot in professional sports to change leagues; he made his re-debut with the Canadiens on October 18, 2005.\n", "Section::::Relationship with the Toronto Blue Jays.\n", "The Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League as an expansion franchise in 1977, and one year later, met the Expos for the first time in an exhibition contest, the first of an annual series that became known as the Pearson Cup. The Expos won that first game, 5–4, in front of 20,221 fans on June 29. Eight annual exhibitions (except for 1981 due to the strike) were played between 1978 and 1986 as each team won three games with two contests ending as ties. The teams did not meet again until 1997 with the advent of interleague play, and the first regular season meetings between the two. The games boosted attendance in both Montreal and Toronto, but the two teams failed to develop a serious rivalry.\n", "John McHale, then president of the Expos, was a strong proponent of adding a second Major League team in Toronto. The Expos remained Canada's most popular team until their mid-1980s downturn coincided with the Blue Jays' improvement, culminating in the Jays' first American League East pennant in 1985. At the same time, the Blue Jays grew perturbed that the Expos were able to air their games in several markets in southern Ontario—such as Windsor, Belleville, and Toronto itself. The Jays lobbied MLB to designate southern Ontario as their exclusive home television territory. Bronfman opposed the request, as he feared that shutting the Expos out of Canada's largest and most lucrative television market would limit the team's fan base. As a part of the territorial changes, MLB allowed the Expos to air 15 games in the Jays' television market for free, and purchase the rights to air additional games. For the remainder of their existence, the Expos only had full broadcast rights in Quebec and Atlantic Canada. The loss of viewership in southern Ontario diminished the Expos' ability to attract sponsors and corporate partners. Indeed, Keri later wrote that the Expos miscalculated when they considered the Blue Jays an ally rather than a potential threat, and missed a chance to cement their right to air their games across Canada. Keri added that the loss of this revenue stream, along with \"many other poor business decisions\" over the years, made it difficult for the Expos to be viable in Montreal. Longtime Expos play-by-play broadcaster Dave Van Horne later argued that the loss of badly-needed corporate support \"really started a long, downward spiral\" for the team.\n", "Regardless of their disagreements over television rights, when the Blue Jays reached the 1992 World Series, the team honoured Bronfman's contributions in bringing Major League Baseball to the country by having him throw the ceremonial first pitch for the first World Series game played in Canada. However, and while Blue Jays president Paul Godfrey again acknowledged the Expos' role in his own team's existence, Godfrey nonetheless voted with the other teams to support contracting the Expos in 2001 and relocating them in 2004: \"I know if it wasn't for the success of the Expos in those early years there would not be major-league baseball in Toronto. That wasn't an emotional or a baseball vote. It was a business decision.\" The Blue Jays' failure to stand with their fellow Canadian team offended many Expos fans.\n", "Ten years after the Expos relocated to Washington, a two-game exhibition series between the Toronto Blue Jays and New York Mets was held at the Olympic Stadium to conclude the spring training schedule prior to the season. For the Blue Jays, the series was intended, in part, to increase the team's following in Quebec. For others, the goal was to demonstrate that Montreal had an interest in returning to Major League Baseball. Former Expos player Warren Cromartie, who leads the Montreal Baseball Project, was among the organizers. The series was a success: 96,350 fans, frequently chanting \"Lets go Expos!\" and \"We want baseball!\" attended the two games. The Blue Jays returned for a two-game series in , against the Cincinnati Reds, which was attended by 96,545 fans. The success of the series' bolstered the Montreal Baseball Project's efforts: retiring commissioner Bud Selig was impressed by the fans in 2014 and said the city would be an \"excellent candidate\" for a new team. His replacement, Rob Manfred, echoed those comments in 2015. Olympic Stadium again hosted two spring training games prior to the beginning of the 2016 season between the Toronto Blue Jays and the Boston Red Sox, with a combined attendance of over 106,000 fans. In 2018, Vladimir Guerrero Jr. of the Blue Jays hit a game-winning home run against the St. Louis Cardinals in an exhibition game to the delight of the Montreal crowd.\n", "Section::::Players.\n", "Section::::Players.:National Baseball Hall of Fame.\n", "Nine people who represented the Expos organization have subsequently gone on to gain election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. Gary Carter was inducted in 2003 and was the first player whose Hall of Fame plaque depicted him with an Expos cap. The Hall's choice for his plaque logo followed initial statements by Carter that he preferred to be enshrined as a New York Met, with whom he won the 1986 World Series. He accepted the Hall's decision with grace, stating: \"The fact I played 11 years in Montreal and the fact that the majority of my statistics and accomplishments were achieved there, it would be wrong, probably, to do it any other way.\"\n", "Andre Dawson became the second depicted as an Expos player when he was elected in 2010. Although he had played the majority of his 21-year career with Montreal, Dawson also preferred his plaque to display a different logo: when the decision was made, he publicly expressed his disappointment, saying it was \"a little gut-wrenching\" to find out he would not go in as a Chicago Cub. Dawson's reluctance to be enshrined as an Expos player stemmed, in part, from the breakdown of his relationship with the team during MLB's collusion scandal of 1986–87, when he claims the team not only \"threw him out\" of Montreal, but tried to prevent other teams from signing him as a free agent.\n", "The third player with an Expos logo on his Hall of Fame plaque is Tim Raines, who was inducted in 2017, his final year of eligibility.\n", "On January 24, 2018, the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum announced Vladimir Guerrero as an inductee into the Hall of Fame. Guerrero played eight of his sixteen seasons with the Expos, being named to the MLB All-Star Game three times and winning the Silver Slugger Award three times while with the team. Nearly half of his career 2,590 hits were with Montreal (1,215), while having 234 of his 449 home runs and 702 of his 1,496 RBIs with the Expos in 1,004 games. Guerrero announced his Hall of Fame plaque will display him wearing an Angels cap.\n", "For the five other inductees, their time in Montreal played lesser roles in their careers. Manager Dick Williams was a member of the Expos between 1977 and 1981 as part of a 21-year managerial career in which he took three different teams to the World Series. Tony Pérez played three years with the Expos but was primarily known for being a member of Cincinnati's \"Big Red Machine\" teams of the 1970s. Pitchers Pedro Martínez (1994–97) and Randy Johnson (1988–89), who both played in Montreal early in their careers but spent the majority of their playing days elsewhere, were both elected to the Hall in 2015. Frank Robinson managed the team from 2002 to 2006 (spanning the franchise's move to Washington), but was elected based on his accomplishments as a player, including being the first player to win Most Valuable Player honours in both the AL and NL, a triple crown in 1966, and a rookie-record of 38 home runs while winning the NL Rookie of the Year award.\n", "Longtime broadcaster Dave Van Horne was named the recipient of the Ford C. Frick Award in 2011. The award is presented by the National Baseball Hall of Fame to honour broadcasters who make \"major contributions to baseball\".\n", "When the Washington Nationals unveiled their \"Ring of Honor\" at Nationals Park in 2010, the franchise recognized its roots in Montreal. The ring was created to honour Hall-of-Fame players associated with Washington, D.C., baseball or the Montreal-Washington franchise, later expanded to include anyone who has made a significant contribution to the game of baseball in Washington, D.C. Two Expos players – Gary Carter and Andre Dawson – were named among the inaugural members. Frank Robinson was added to the Ring of Honor in 2015, as was Tim Raines in 2017.\n", "Section::::Players.:Montreal Expos Hall of Fame.\n", "The team created the Montreal Expos Hall of Fame to celebrate the franchise's 25th season in 1993. Charles Bronfman was inducted as its inaugural member. In a pre-game ceremony on August 14, 1993, a circular patch on the right field wall was unveiled with Bronfman's name, the number 83 (which he used to wear during spring training), and the words \"FONDATEUR / FOUNDER\". A total of 23 people were honoured by the club.\n", "Section::::Expos records.\n", "The players listed here represent the statistical leaders for the franchise's time in Montreal only. For the record holders of the franchise overall, see List of Washington Nationals team records.\n", "Section::::No-hitters and cycles.\n", "Three pitchers in Expos history threw no-hitters. Bill Stoneman threw the first during the team's inaugural 1969 season. He threw a second no-hitter in 1972. Charlie Lea threw the third, nine years later in 1981. A decade after that, on July 28, 1991, Dennis Martínez threw the 13th official perfect game in Major League Baseball history. Two other pitchers threw no-hitters in shortened games which, after a 1992 rule change, were no longer recognized by MLB as official no-hitters. David Palmer pitched a perfect five innings in a rain-shortened game against the St. Louis Cardinals on April 22, 1984. Pascual Pérez threw a five-inning no-hitter on September 24, 1988, against the Philadelphia Phillies.\n", "Six batters hit for the cycle in Montreal's history. Tim Foli was the first to do it in 1976, and Vladimir Guerrero was the last to do so, in 2003.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Montreal Expos broadcasters\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Encore Baseball Montréal (French and English) – Encore Baseball Montréal is a non-profit organization that aims to be the voice of baseball fans in order to maintain interest in baseball in the province of Quebec\n", "BULLET::::- ExposNation.com – Registered Non-profit organisation seeking to promote the Montreal market as a viable baseball market, by creating awareness of a fan base in the region.\n", "BULLET::::- History of the Expos \"Sports E-Cyclopedia\"\n", "BULLET::::- Major League Baseball Comes to Canada CBC Digital Archives\n", "BULLET::::- Montreal Expos / Washington Nationals Franchise Record at Baseball Reference\n", "| colspan = 3 align = center | National League Eastern Division Champions\n" ] }

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{ "description": "former baseball team in Montreal, Canada, predecessor of the current Washington Nationals", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1148233", "wikidata_label": "Montreal Expos", "wikipedia_title": "Montreal Expos", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Expos" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20153, "parentid": 907451980, "revid": 907452495, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-23T00:37:34Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Montreal%20Expos&oldid=907452495" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Matilda of Tuscany\n", "Matilda of Tuscany (Italian: \"Matilde di Canossa\" , Latin: \"Matilda\", \"Mathilda\"; 1046 – 24 July 1115) was a powerful feudal Margravine of Tuscany, ruler in northern Italy and the chief Italian supporter of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy; in addition, she was one of the few medieval women to be remembered for her military accomplishments, thanks to which she was able to dominate all the territories north of the Papal States.\n", "In 1076 she came into possession of a substantial territory that included present-day Lombardy, Emilia, the Romagna and Tuscany, and made the castle of Canossa, in the Apennines south of Reggio, the centre of her domains. Between 6 and 11 May 1111 she was crowned Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at the Castle of Bianello (Quattro Castella, Reggio Emilia).\n", "Sometimes called la Gran Contessa (\"the Great Countess\") or Matilda of Canossa after her ancestral castle of Canossa, Matilda was one of the most important figures of the Italian Middle Ages. She lived in a period of constant battles, intrigues and excommunications, and was able to demonstrate an extraordinary force, even enduring great pain and humiliation, showing an innate leadership ability.\n", "Section::::Childhood.\n", "In a miniature in the early twelfth-century \"Vita Mathildis\" by the monk Donizo (or, in Italian, Donizone), Matilda is referred to as 'Resplendent Matilda' (\"Mathildis Lucens\"). Since the Latin word \"lucens\" is similar to \"lucensis\" (of/from Lucca), this may also be a reference to Matilda's origins. She was descended from the nobleman Sigifred of Lucca,\n", "and was the youngest of the three children of Margrave Boniface III of Tuscany, ruler of a substantial territory in Northern Italy and one of the most powerful vassals of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III. Matilda's mother, Beatrice of Lorraine, was the Emperor's first cousin and closely connected to the imperial household. Renowned for her learning, Matilda was literate in Latin, as well as reputed to speak German and French. The extent of Matilda's education in military matters is debated. It has been asserted that she was taught strategy, tactics, riding and wielding weapons, but recent scholarship challenges these claims.\n", "Following the death of their father in 1052, Matilda's brother, Frederick, inherited the family lands and titles under the regency of their mother. Matilda's sister, Beatrice, died the next year, making Matilda heir presumptive to Frederick's personal holdings. In 1054, determined to safeguard the interests of her children as well as her own, her mother married Godfrey the Bearded, a distant kinsman who had been stripped of the Duchy of Upper Lorraine after openly rebelling against Emperor Henry III.\n", "Henry was enraged by Beatrice of Lorraine's unauthorised union with his most vigorous adversary and took the opportunity to have her arrested, along with Matilda, when he marched south to attend a synod in Florence on Pentecost in 1055. Frederick's rather suspicious death soon thereafter made Matilda the last member of the House of Canossa. Mother and daughter were taken to Germany, but Godfrey successfully avoided capture. Unable to defeat him, Henry sought a rapproachment. The Emperor's death in October 1056, which brought to throne the underage Henry IV, seems to have accelerated the negotiations. Godfrey was reconciled with the crown and recognized as Margrave of Tuscany in December, while Beatrice and Matilda were released. By the time she and her mother returned to Italy, in the company of Pope Victor II, Matilda was formally acknowledged as heir to the greatest territorial lordship in the southern part of the Empire.\n", "Matilda's mother and stepfather became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections during their regency, supporting the Gregorian Reforms. Godfrey's brother Frederick became Pope Stephen IX, while both of the following two popes, Nicholas II and Alexander II, had been Tuscan bishops. Matilda made her first journey to Rome with her family in the entourage of Nicholas in 1059. Godfrey and Beatrice actively assisted them in dealing with antipopes, while the adolescent Matilda's role remains unclear. A contemporary account of her stepfather's 1067 expedition against Prince Richard I of Capua on behalf of the papacy mentions Matilda's participation in the campaign, describing it as the \"first service that the most excellent daughter of Boniface offered to the blessed prince of the apostles.\"\n", "Section::::First marriage.\n", "In 1069, Godfrey the Bearded lay dying in Verdun. Beatrice and Matilda hastened to reach Lorraine, anxious to ensure a smooth transition of power. Matilda was present at her stepfather's deathbed, and on that occasion she is for the first time clearly mentioned as the wife of her stepbrother, Godfrey the Hunchback, to whom she had been betrothed since childhood. The marriage proved a failure; the death of their only child (a daughter called Beatrice) shortly after birth in August 1071 and Godfrey's physical deformity may have helped fuel deep animosity between the spouses.\n", "By the end of 1071, Matilda had left her husband and returned to Tuscany. Matilda's bold decision to repudiate her husband came at a cost, but ensured her independence. Beatrice started preparing Matilda for rule by holding court jointly with her and, eventually, encouraging her to issue charters on her own as countess (\"comitissa\") and duchess (\"ducatrix\").\n", "Godfrey fiercely protested the separation and demanded that Matilda come back to him, which she repeatedly refused. The Duke descended into Italy in 1072, determined to enforce the marriage. He sought the help of both Matilda's mother and her ally, the newly elected Pope Gregory VII, promising military aid to the latter. Matilda's resolution was unshakable, and Godfrey returned to Lorraine alone, losing all hope by 1074. Rather than supporting the Pope as promised, Godfrey turned his attention to imperial affairs. Meanwhile, the conflict later known as the Investiture Controversy was brewing between Gregory and Henry, with both men claiming the right to appoint bishops and abbots within the Empire. Matilda and Godfrey soon found themselves on opposing sides of the dispute, leading to a further detoriation of their difficult relationship. German chroniclers, writing of the synod held at Worms in January 1076, even suggested that Godfrey inspired Henry's allegation of a licentious affair between Gregory and Matilda.\n", "Section::::Widowhood.\n", "Matilda became a widow on 26 February 1076. Godfrey the Hunchback was assassinated in Flanders while \"answering the call of nature\". Having been accused of adultery with the Pope the previous month, Matilda was suspected of ordering her estranged husband's death. She could not have known about the proceedings at the Synod of Worms at the time, however, since the news took three months to reach the Pope himself, and it is more likely that Godfrey was killed at the instigation of an enemy nearer to him. Within two months, Beatrice was dead as well. Matilda's power was considerably augmented by these deaths; she was now the undisputed heir of all her parents' allodial lands. Her inheritance would have been threatened had Godfrey survived her mother, but she now enjoyed the privileged status of a widow. It seemed unlikely, however, that Henry would formally invest her with the margraviate.\n", "Between 1076 and 1080, Matilda travelled to Lorraine to lay claim to her husband's estate in Verdun, which he had willed (along with the rest of his patrimony) to his sister Ida's son, Godfrey of Bouillon. Godfrey of Bouillon also disputed her right to Stenay and Mosay, which her mother had received as dowry. The quarrel between aunt and nephew over the episcopal county of Verdun was eventually settled by Theoderic, Bishop of Verdun, who enjoyed the right to nominate the counts. He easily found in favor of Margravine Matilda, as such verdict happened to please both Pope Gregory and King Henry. Matilda then proceeded to enfeoff Verdun to her husband's pro-reform cousin, Albert III of Namur. The deep animosity between Matilda and her nephew is thought to have prevented her from travelling to Jerusalem during the First Crusade, led by him in the late 1090s.\n", "Section::::Investiture Controversy.\n", "The disagreement between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV culminated in the aftermath of the Synod of Worms in February 1076. Gregory declared Henry excommunicated, releasing all his subjects from allegiance to him and providing the perfect reason for rebellion against his rule. Insubordinate southern German princes gathered in Trebur, awaiting the Pope. Matilda's first military endeavor, as well as the first major task altogether as ruler, turned out to be protecting the Pope during his perilous journey north. Gregory could rely on nobody else; as the sole heir to the Attonid patrimony, Matilda controlled all the Apennine passes and nearly all the rest that connected central Italy to the north. The Lombard bishops, who were also excommunicated for taking part in the synod and whose sees bordered Matilda's domain, were keen to capture Gregory. Gregory was aware of the danger, and recorded that all his advisors except Matilda counselled him against travelling to Trebur.\n", "Henry had other plans, however. He decided to descend into Italy and intercept Gregory, who was thus delayed. The German dukes held a council by themselves and informed the King that he had to submit to the Pope or be replaced. Henry's predecessors dealt easily with troublesome pontiffs - they simply deposed them, and the excommunicated Lombard bishops rejoiced at this prospect. When Matilda heard about Henry's approach, she urged Gregory to take refuge in the Castle of Canossa, her family's eponymous stronghold. Gregory took her advice. It soon became clear that the intention behind Henry's walk to Canossa was to show penance. By 25 January 1077, the King stood barefoot in the snow before the gates of Matilda's castle, accompanied by his mother-in-law, Margravine Adelaide of Susa. He remained there, humbled, until 28 January, when Matilda convinced the Pope to see him. Matilda and Adelaide brokered a deal between the men. Henry was taken back into the Church, with the margravines acting as sponsors and formally swearing to the agreement.\n", "In 1079, Matilda gave the Pope all her domains, in open defiance of Henry IV's claims both as the overlord of some of those domains, and as her close relative. Two years later the fortunes of Papacy and Empire turned again: in 1080 Henry IV summoned a council in Brixen, which deposed Gregory VII. The following year the Emperor decided to travel again to Italy to reinstate his overlordship over his territories. He also declared Matilda, on account of her 1079 donation to the Church, forfeit and be banned from the Empire; although this wasn't enough to eliminate her as a source of trouble, for she retained substantial allodial holdings. On 15 October 1080 near Volta Mantovana the Imperial troops (with Guibert of Ravenna as the newly elected Antipope Clement III) defeated the troops loyal to Gregory VII and controlled by Matilda. This was the first serious military defeat of Matilda (Battle of Volta Mantovana).\n", "Matilda, however, didn't surrender. While Gregory VII was forced into exile, she, retaining control over all the western passes in the Apennines, could force Henry IV to approach Rome via Ravenna; even with this route open, the Emperor would find it hard to besiege Rome with a hostile territory at his back. In December 1080 the citizens of Lucca, then the capital of Tuscany, had revolted and driven out her ally Bishop Anselm. She is believed to have commissioned the renowned Ponte della Maddalena where the Via Francigena crosses the river Serchio at Borgo a Mozzano just north of Lucca.\n", "Matilda remained Pope Gregory VII's chief intermediary for communication with northern Europe even as he lost control of Rome and was holed up in the Castel Sant'Angelo. After Henry caught hold of the Pope's seal, Matilda wrote to supporters in Germany only to trust papal messages that came through her.\n", "Henry IV's control of Rome enabled him to enthrone Antipope Clement III, who, in turn, crowned him Emperor. After this, Henry IV returned to Germany, leaving it to his allies to attempt Matilda's dispossession. These attempts floundered after Matilda (with help of the city of Bologna) defeated them at Sorbara near Modena on 2 July 1084.\n", "Gregory VII died in 1085, and Matilda's forces, with those of Prince Jordan I of Capua (her off and on again enemy), took to the field in support of a new pope, Victor III. In 1087, Matilda led an expedition to Rome in an attempt to install Victor, but the strength of the imperial counterattack soon convinced the pope to withdraw from the city.\n", "Section::::Second marriage.\n", "In 1088 Matilda was facing a new attempt at invasion by Henry IV, and decided to pre-empt it by means of a political marriage. In 1089 Matilda (in her early forties) married Welf V, who was probably fifteen to seventeen years old. Welf was heir to the Duchy of Bavaria. He was also a member of the Welf dynasty: the Welfs/Guelphs were important papal supporters from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries in their conflict with the German emperors (see Guelphs and Ghibellines). Matilda and Welf's wedding was part of a network of alliances approved by the new pope, Urban II, in order to effectively counter Henry IV.\n", "Cosmas of Prague (writing in the early twelfth century), included a letter in his \"Chronica Boemorum\", which he claimed that Matilda sent to her future husband, but which is now thought to be spurious:\n", "After this, Matilda sent an army of thousands to the border of Lombardy to escort her bridegroom, welcomed him with honors, and after the marriage (mid-1089), she organized 120 days of wedding festivities, with such splendor that any other medieval ruler's pale in comparison.\n", "Cosmas also reports that for two nights after the wedding, Welf V, fearing witchcraft, refused to share the marital bed. The third day, Matilda appeared naked on a table especially prepared on sawhorses, and told him that \"everything is in front of you and there is no hidden malice\". But the Duke was dumbfounded; Matilda, furious, slapped him and spat in his face, taunting him: \"Get out of here, monster, you don't deserve our kingdom, you vile thing, viler than a worm or a rotten seaweed, don't let me see you again, or you'll die a miserable death...\". Matilda and her young husband separated a few years later (1095); they had no children.\n", "Later Matilda allied with the two sons of Henry IV, Conrad and Henry, who rebelled against their father. This forced Henry to return to Italy, where he chased Matilda into the mountains. He was humbled before Canossa, this time in a military defeat in October 1092, from which his influence in Italy never recovered.\n", "Section::::The final victory against Henry IV.\n", "After several victories, including one against the Saxons, Henry IV prepared in 1090 his third descent to Italy, in order to inflict the final defeat on the Church. His route was the usual one, Brenner and Verona, along the border of Matilda's possessions, which began outside the cities' gates. The opposing armies would meet near Mantua. Matilda secured the loyalty of the townspeople by exempting them from some taxes, such as \"teloneo\" and \"ripatico\", and with the promise of Lombard franchise, entailing the rights to hunt, fish and cut wood on both banks of the Tartaro river.\n", "The Mantua people stood by Matilda until the so-called \"Holy Thursday betrayal\", when the townspeople, won over by additional concessions from Henry, who had meanwhile besieged the city, sided with him. In 1092 Matilda escaped to the Reggiano Apennines and her most inexpugnable strongholds. Since the times of Adalbert Atto the power of the Canossa family had been based on a network of castles, fortresses and fortified villages in the Val d'Enza, forming a complex polygonal defense that had always resisted all attack from the Apennines. After several bloody battles with mutual defeats, the powerful imperial army was surrounded.\n", "In spite of its fearful power, the Imperial army was defeated by Matilda's liegemen. Among them were small landowners and holders of fortified villages, which remained completely loyal to the Canossas even against the Holy Roman Emperor. Their familiarity with the territory, their quick communications and maneuvering to all the high places of the Val d'Enza gave them victory over Henry's might. It seems that Matilda personally participated, with a handful of chosen faithful men, to the battle, galvanizing the allies with the cry of Just War. The Imperial army was taken as in a vice in the meandering mountain creek. The overall import of Henry's rout was more than a military defeat. The Emperor realized it was impossible to penetrate those places, wholly different from the plains of the Po Valley or of Saxe. There he faced not boundaries drawn by the rivers of Central Europe, but steep trails, ravines, inaccessible places protecting Matilda's fortresses, and high tower houses, whence the defenders could unload on anyone approaching missiles of all kinds: spears, arrows, perhaps even boiling oil, javelins, stones.\n", "After Matilda's victory several cities, such as Milan, Cremona, Lodi and Piacenza, sided with her to free themselves of Imperial rule. In 1093 the Emperor's eldest son, Conrad, supported by the Pope, Matilda and a group of Lombard cities, was crowned King of Italy. Matilda freed and even gave refuge to Henry IV's wife, Eupraxia of Kiev, who, at the urging of Pope Urban II, made a public confession before the church Council of Piacenza. She accused her husband of imprisoning her in Verona after forcing her to participate in orgies, and, according to some later accounts, of attempting a black mass on her naked body. Thanks to these scandals and division within the Imperial family, the prestige and power of Henry IV was increasingly weakened.\n", "In 1095, Henry attempted to reverse his fortunes by seizing Matilda's castle of Nogara, but the countess's arrival at the head of an army forced him to retreat. In 1097, Henry withdrew from Italy altogether, after which Matilda reigned virtually unchallenged, although she did continue to launch military operations to restore her authority and regain control of the towns that had remained loyal to the emperor. With the assistance of the French armies heading off to the First Crusade, she was finally able to restore Urban to Rome. She ordered or led successful expeditions against Ferrara (1101), Parma (1104), Prato (1107) and Mantua (1114).\n", "Section::::Vice-Queen of Italy.\n", "Henry IV died now defeated in 1106; and after the deposition and death of Conrad (1101), his second son and new Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V, began to turn the fight against the Church and Italy. This time the attitude of Matilda against the imperial house had to change and she accepted the will of the Emperor. In 1111, on his way back to Germany, Henry V met her at the Castle of Bianello, near Reggio Emilia. Matilda confirmed him the inheritance rights over the fiefs that Henry IV disputed her, thus ending a fight that had lasted over twenty years. Henry V gave Matilda a new title: between 6 and 11 May 1111, the Emperor crowned Matilda as Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy. This episode was the decisive step towards the Concordat of Worms.\n", "Section::::Foundation of churches.\n", "By legend Matilda of Canossa is said to have founded one hundred churches. Documents and local legend identify well over one hundred churches, monasteries, hospices, and bridges built or restored between the Alps and Rome by Matilda and her mother, Beatrice. Today, churches and monasteries in the regions of Lombardy, Reggio Emilia, Tuscany, and even the Veneto attribute their foundation to her. Built originally with hospices for travelers attached, these churches created a network that united the supporters of the Gregorian reform of the Roman Church which Matilda supported. This network also provided protection for pilgrims, merchants and travelers assisting the Renaissance in culture that occurred in the centuries after Matilda's death.\n", "Most of these churches continue today to be vital centers of their communities. They include rural churches located along the Po and Arno rivers, and their tributaries; churches built along the Apennine mountain passes which Matilda's family controlled and those along the ancient highways of the via Emilia, the via Cassia, the via Aurelia and the via Francigena. Among these are monuments listed by UNESCO as among the heritage of our world, including churches in Florence, Ferrara, Lucca, Mantua, Modena, Pisa, Verona and Volterra. Her cultural legacy is enormous throughout Northern Italy.\n", "Some churches traditionally said to have been founded by Matilda include:\n", "BULLET::::- Sant'Andrea Apostolo of Vitriola, at Montefiorino (Modena).\n", "BULLET::::- Sant'Anselmo, Pieve di Coriano (Province of Mantua).\n", "BULLET::::- San Giovanni Decollato, at Pescarolo ed Uniti (Cremona).\n", "BULLET::::- Santa Maria Assunta, at Monteveglio (Bologna).\n", "BULLET::::- San Martino in Barisano, near Forlì.\n", "BULLET::::- San Zeno, at Cerea (Verona).\n", "It seems that even the foundation of the Church of San Salvaro in Legnago (Verona) was made by Matilda.\n", "Section::::Death.\n", "Matilda's death from gout in 1115 at Bondeno di Roncore marked the end of an era in Italian politics. It is widely reported that she bequeathed her allodial property to the Pope. Unaccountably, however, this donation was never officially recognized in Rome and no record exists of it. Henry V had promised some of the cities in her territory that he would appoint no successor after he deposed her. In her place the leading citizens of these cities took control, and the era of the city-states in northern Italy began.\n", "Matilda was at first buried in the Abbey of San Benedetto in Polirone, located in the town of San Benedetto Po; then, in 1633, at the behest of Pope Urban VIII, her body was moved to Rome and placed in Castel Sant'Angelo. Finally, in 1645 her remains were definitely deposited in the Vatican, where they now lie in St. Peter's Basilica. She is one of only six women who have the honor of being buried in the Basilica, the others being Queen Christina of Sweden, Maria Clementina Sobieska (wife of James Francis Edward Stuart), St. Petronilla, Queen Charlotte of Cyprus and Agnesina Colonna Caetani.\n", "A memorial tomb for Matilda, commissioned by Pope Urban VIII and designed by Gianlorenzo Bernini, marks her burial place in St Peter's and is often called the \"Honor and Glory of Italy\".\n", "After her death, an aura of legend came to surround Matilda. Church historians gave her the character of a semi-nun, solely dedicated to contemplation and faith. Some argue, instead, that she was a woman of strong passions of both spiritual and carnal nature (indicated by her supposed affairs with Popes Gregory VII and Urban II).\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "She has been posited by some critics as the origin of the mysterious \"Matilda\" who appears to Dante gathering flowers in the earthly paradise in Dante's \"Purgatorio\".\n", "The story of Matilda and Henry IV is the main plot device in Luigi Pirandello's play \"Enrico IV\". She is the main historical character in Kathleen McGowan's novel \"The Book of Love\" (Simon & Schuster, 2009).\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- House of Canossa\n", "BULLET::::- March of Tuscany\n", "BULLET::::- Terre Matildiche\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- A. Creber, ‘Women at Canossa. The Role of Elite Women in the Reconciliation between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV of Germany (January 1077),’ \"Storicamente\" 13 (2017), article no. 13, pp. 1–44.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine\", contains several letters to and from Matilda.\n" ] }

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Creber, ‘Women at Canossa. The Role of Elite Women in the Reconciliation between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV of Germany (January 1077),’", "\"Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine\"" ], "href": [ "Italian%20language", "Latin%20language", "Feudalism", "Margrave%20of%20Tuscany", "Pope%20Gregory%20VII", "Investiture%20Controversy", "Papal%20States", "Lombardy", "Emilia%20%28region%20of%20Italy%29", "Romagna", "Tuscany", "Canossa", "Henry%20V%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor", "Quattro%20Castella", "Reggio%20Emilia", "Count%20of%20Canossa", "Canossa", "Italy%20in%20the%20Middle%20Ages", "excommunication", "Donizo", "Lucca", "Sigifred%20of%20Lucca", "Boniface%20III%2C%20Margrave%20of%20Tuscany", "Holy%20Roman%20Emperor", "Henry%20III%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor", "Beatrice%20of%20Lorraine", "Latin%20language", "Middle%20High%20German", "Old%20French", "Frederick%2C%20Margrave%20of%20Tuscany", "regency", "heir%20presumptive", "Godfrey%2C%20Duke%20of%20Upper%20Lorraine", 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{ "description": "Italian feudal margrave of Tuscany, ruler in northern Italy and the chief Italian supporter of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q464162", "wikidata_label": "Matilda of Tuscany", "wikipedia_title": "Matilda of Tuscany", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Charles William King\n", "Charles William King (5 September 1818 – 25 March 1888) was a British Victorian writer and collector of gems.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "King was born in Newport, Monmouthshire, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1836. He graduated in 1840, and obtained a fellowship in 1842. He was a senior fellow at the time of his death in London.\n", "Section::::Gem expert.\n", "He spent much time in Italy, where he laid the foundation of his collection of engraved gems and gemstones, which, having been increased by subsequent purchases in London, was sold by him in consequence of his failing eyesight, and was presented in 1881 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.\n", "He was recognized universally as one of the greatest authorities in this department of art. His chief works on the subject are:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Antique Gems, their Origin, Uses and Value\" (1860), a complete and exhaustive treatise;\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems and of the Precious Metals\" (1865);\n", "BULLET::::- \"Early Christian Numismatics\" (1873);\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Handbook of Engraved Gems\" (2nd ed., 1885);\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gnostics and their Remains\" (2nd ed. by J Jacobs, 1887, which led to an animated correspondence in the \"Athenaeum\").\n", "Section::::Classicist.\n", "King took holy orders, but never held any cure.\n", "He was thoroughly familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially those of Pausanias and Pliny the Elder, which bore upon the subject in which he was most interested; but he had little taste for the minutiae of verbal criticism.\n", "In 1869, he brought out an edition of \"Horace\", illustrated from antique gems. He also translated Plutarch's \"Moralia\" (1882) and the theosophical works of the Emperor Julian (1888), for Bohn's Classical Library.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gnostics and their Remains\" - online text of the book\n", "BULLET::::- Catalogue of the engraved gems collected between the years 1845 and 1877 by C.W. King: manuscript fully digitized and available online\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Fenton Hort\n", "Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828–1892) was an Irish-born theologian and editor, with Brooke Foss Westcott of a critical edition of \"The New Testament in the Original Greek\".\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "He was born on 23 April 1828 in Dublin, the great-grandson of Josiah Hort, Archbishop of Tuam in the eighteenth century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby School to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. Benson, B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became lifelong friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his degree, being third in the classical \"tripos\". In 1851 he also took the recently established triposes in moral science and natural science, and in 1852 he became fellow of his college. In 1854, in conjunction with J. E. B. Mayor and Lightfoot, he established the \"Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology\", and plunged eagerly into theological and patristic study. He had been brought up in the strictest principles of the evangelical movement, but at Rugby, under the influence of Thomas Arnold and Archibald Campbell Tait, and through his acquaintance with Frederick Denison Maurice and Charles Kingsley, he finally moved towards liberalism.\n", "In 1857 he was married, and accepted the college living of St Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, where he remained for fifteen years. During his time there he took part in discussions on university reform, continued his studies, and wrote essays for various periodicals. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee for revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 he delivered the Hulsean Lectures before the university. Their title was \"The Way, the Truth, and the Life\", but they were not prepared for publication until many years after their delivery. In 1872 he accepted a fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.. In 1873 he became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. In 1878 he was made Hulsean Professor of Divinity and in 1887 Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity.\n", "Hort died on 30 November 1892 in Cambridge. He is buried in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge.\n", "Section::::Works.\n", "In 1881 he published, with his friend Westcott, an edition of the text of the New Testament based on their text critical work. The Revision Committee had largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a basis for their translation of the New Testament. Its appearance created a sensation among scholars, and it was attacked in many quarters, but on the whole it was received as being much the nearest approximation yet made to the original text of the New Testament. The introduction was the work of Hort. His first principle was, \"Knowledge of Documents should precede Final Judgments upon Readings\".\n", "Next to his Greek Testament his best-known work is \"The Christian Ecclesia\" (1897). Other publications are: \"Judaistic Christianity\" (1894); \"Village Sermons\" (two series); \"Cambridge and other Sermons\"; \"Prolegomena to ... Romans and Ephesians\" (1895); \"The Ante-Nicene Fathers\" (1895); and two \"Dissertations\", (1876) on the reading of a Greek word in John i.18, and on \"The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century.\" All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials. His \"Life and Letters\" was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart, in two volumes published in 1896: \"Volume 1\", \"Volume 2\".\n", "Section::::Other.\n", "Hort was a member of the Cambridge Apostles and is credited with writing the oath of secrecy taken by new members, in or around 1851.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Conflation of Readings\n", "BULLET::::- \"Textus Receptus\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Way, the Truth, the Life: Hulsean Lectures for 1871\" (first printed 1893)\n", "BULLET::::- Greek Text of Hort's \"The New Testament in the Original Greek\", Vol. 1 with variants\n" ] }

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{ "description": "British theologian", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1374608", "wikidata_label": "Fenton John Anthony Hort", "wikipedia_title": "Fenton Hort", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Fenton Hort", "Hort" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "John E. B. Mayor\n", "John Eyton Bickersteth Mayor, FBA (28 January 1825 – 1910) was an English classical scholar and vegetarian activist.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Mayor was born at Baddegama, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He went to England to be educated at Shrewsbury School and St John's College, Cambridge.\n", "From 1863 to 1867 Mayor was librarian of the University of Cambridge, and in 1872 succeeded H. A. J. Munro in the professorship of Latin, which he held for 28 years. His best-known work, an edition of the thirteen Satires of Juvenal, is notable for an extraordinary wealth of illustrative quotations. His \"Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature\" (1875), based on Emil Hübner's \"Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die römische Litteraturgeschichte\", was a valuable aid to the student, and his edition of Cicero's \"Second Philippic\" became widely used.\n", "He also edited the English works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1876); Thomas Baker's \"History of St John's College, Cambridge\" (1869); Richard of Cirencester's \"Speculum historiale de gestis regum Angliae 447–1066\" (1863–69); Roger Ascham's \"Schoolmaster\" (new ed., 1883); the \"Latin Heptateuch\" (1889); and the \"Journal of Philology\".\n", "According to the \"Enciklopedio de Esperanto\", Mayor learned Esperanto in 1907, and gave a historic speech against Esperanto reformists at the World Congress of Esperanto held at Cambridge.\n", "His life and work are idiosyncratically and somewhat unsympathetically described in \"Juvenal's Mayor: The Professor Who Lived on 2d. a Day\" by J. G. W. Henderson.\n", "He is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge.\n", "Mayor succeeded Francis William Newman as President of the Vegetarian Society in 1883.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- The Cambridge History of English and American Literature\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Brak\n", "Brak may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Brak (title) (or Braque), former title for the kings of Waalo, part of present-day Senegal, West Africa\n", "BULLET::::- Brak (character), a character on 1966 Hanna-Barbera cartoon \"Space Ghost\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Brak Show\", a 2000 animated series\n", "BULLET::::- Brak, a barbarian character in a series of 1960s novels by John Jakes\n", "BULLET::::- Brak, a supporting character in the 1950s classic science fiction film, \"This Island Earth\"\n", "BULLET::::- Brak, Libya, a city in Libya\n", "BULLET::::- Syd Brak, South African illustrator\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Iotapa\n", "Iotapa may refer to:\n", "Section::::People.\n", "A number of relatives, part of the Royal Family of Commagene:\n", "BULLET::::- (1) Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (born in 43 BC), daughter of King Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, Queen consort of King Mithridates III of Commagene\n", "BULLET::::- (2) Iotapa (spouse of Antiochus III) (born around 20 BC), a daughter of King Mithridates III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (1), who married her King brother Antiochus III\n", "BULLET::::- (3) Iotapa (spouse of Sampsiceramus II) (born around 20 BC), another daughter of King Mithridates III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (daughter of Artavasdes I) (1), who married Syrian king Sampsiceramus II of Emesa\n", "BULLET::::- (4) Iotapa (daughter of Sampsiceramus II) (who lived in the 1st century), daughter of King Sampsiceramus II of Emesa and Queen Iotapa (spouse of Sampsiceramus II) (3), who married the Herodian Prince Aristobulus Minor\n", "BULLET::::- (5) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (from before 17 to about 52), daughter of King Antiochus III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa (spouse of Antiochus III) (2), who married her brother King Antiochus IV of Commagene\n", "BULLET::::- (6) Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (born around 45), daughter of King Antiochus IV of Commagene and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus III) (5), who married Gaius Julius Alexander, son of Herodian prince Gaius Julius Tigranes, later crowned Queen of Cetis, a small region in Cilicia\n", "BULLET::::- (7) Julia Iotapa (Cilician Princess) (born around 80), daughter of King Gaius Julius Alexander and Queen Julia Iotapa (daughter of Antiochus IV) (6) of Cetis, who married Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, Galatian Roman Senator from Anatolia\n", "Section::::Places.\n", "BULLET::::- Iotapa in Isauria, a town of ancient Cilicia\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Euttob (given name)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Benjamin Hall Kennedy\n", "Benjamin Hall Kennedy (6 November 1804 – 6 April 1889) was an English scholar and schoolmaster, known for his work in the teaching of the Latin language. He was an active supporter of Newnham College and Girton College as Cambridge University colleges for women.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "He was born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, the eldest son of Rann Kennedy (1772–1851), of a branch of the Ayrshire family which had settled in Staffordshire. Rann was a scholar and man of letters, several of whose sons rose to distinction. Benjamin was educated at Shrewsbury School, and St John's College, Cambridge. He took frequent part in Cambridge Union debates and became president in 1825. In 1824 he was elected a member of the Cambridge Conversazione Society, better known as the Cambridge Apostles, and was a winner of a Browne medal. He was elected Fellow and lecturer in Classics at St John's College in 1828 and took Holy Orders the following year. In 1830, he became an assistant master at Harrow.\n", "In 1836, he, his wife and his first child Charlotte Amy May Kennedy returned to Shrewsbury when he became headmaster. While they were there Charlotte was joined by Marion, Julia, Edith and Arthur. \n", "In 1841 he became prebendary of Lichfield, and after leaving Shrewsbury he was rector of West Felton, Shropshire, from 1866 to 1868. He remained as headmaster of Shrewsbury School until 1866, the 30 years being marked by successes for his pupils, chiefly in Classics. When he retired, a large collection was made, and this was used on new school buildings and on founding a Latin professorship at Cambridge. The first holders of the Kennedy Professor of Latin chair were both former pupils of Kennedy, H. A. J. Munro and J. E. B. Mayor.\n", "In 1867, Kennedy was elected Regius Professor of Greek at Cambridge and canon of Ely Cathedral, serving in both posts until his death.\n", "From 1870 to 1880 he was a member of the committee for the revision of the New Testament. In 1870 he also became a member of the University Council.\n", "He supported the access of women to a university education, and took a prominent part in the establishment of Newnham and Girton colleges. When Mary Paley and Amy Bulley were among the first women to take tripos examinations they did it in the Kennedy's drawing room. Paley described him as excitable, but he would sometimes doze whilst nominally invigilating. He was nicknamed \"the purple boy\". In politics, he had liberal sympathies. He died near Torquay and is buried in Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge.\n", "Section::::Writings.\n", "Kennedy wrote a number of classical and theological works, but he is most famous today for his primer of Latin grammar. This began as the \"Elementary Latin Primer\" (1843), which became the \"Public School Latin Primer\" (1866), the \"Public School Latin Grammar\" (1871), and finally the \"Revised Latin Primer\" (1888). The latter was further revised by J. F. Mountford in 1930 and is still widely used today. The medieval way of writing Latin noun tables, starting with the nominative and then proceeding to the genitive was used in England prior to Kennedy's Primer and is still widely used in America (e.g. in the Wheelock's Latin course). Kennedy changed the order of writing the noun endings so that the nominative was always followed by the accusative, in order to bring out the similarities between these cases in many nouns more effectively. Kennedy's Primer was so widely used and was so influential that this led to a permanent change in the way that Latin is taught in the UK. Modern books such as the \"Cambridge Latin Course\" still follow this approach.\n", "In 1913, there was a problem with the copyright on the \"Revised Latin Primer\" which had been published in 1888. His daughter Marion Kennedy, a Latin scholar, revealed that the book was written by herself, her sister Julia and two of her father's former students, G. H. Hallam and T. E. Page. It is unlikely that Kennedy had any hand in the revision of 1888, and the \"Shorter Latin Primer\" of the same year. The BBC Radio 4 programme in December 2018 \"Amo, Amas, Amusical\", presented by Professor Mary Beard, explained the background to the primer and the sisters‘ significant part in writing it, as well as the resistance to women‘s higher education at Cambridge and elsewhere during their lifetime. \n", "Other works are:\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Psalter in English Verse\" (1860)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Elementary Greek Grammar\" (1862)\n", "BULLET::::- Sophocles, \"Oedipus Tyrannus\" (2nd ed., 1885)\n", "BULLET::::- Aristophanes, \"Birds\" (1874)\n", "BULLET::::- Aeschylus, \"Agamemnon\", with introduction, metrical translation and notes (2nd ed., 1882)\n", "BULLET::::- A commentary on Virgil (3rd ed., 1881)\n", "BULLET::::- Plato, \"Theaetetus\", English translation (1881)\n", "He contributed largely to the collection known as \"Sabrinae Corolla\" (D. S. Colman, Shrewsbury, c. 1950), and published a collection of verse in Greek, Latin and English under the title of \"Between Whiles\" (2nd ed., 1882), with many autobiographical details.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "His brother Charles Rann Kennedy was a barrister and wrote original works as well as translating and editing classical works. His younger brother The Rev. William James Kennedy (1814-1891) was a prominent educator, and the father of Lord Justice Sir William Rann Kennedy (1846–1915), a distinguished Cambridge scholar.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- This work in turn cites:\n", "BULLET::::- Sandys, \"A History of Classical Scholarship\" (Vol. III, Cambridge, 1908)\n", "BULLET::::- Page, Thomas E. \"Benjamin Hall Kennedy\". Article in the \"Dictionary of National Biography\", 1885-1900, Volume 30\n", "BULLET::::- Stray, Christopher. \"Marion Grace Kennedy\". Article in the \"Dictionary of National Biography\", 2004.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Garsington Manor\n", "Garsington Manor, in the village of Garsington, near Oxford, England, is a Tudor building, known as the former home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, the Bloomsbury Group socialite. The house is currently owned by the family of Leonard Ingrams and from 1989 to 2010 was the setting for an annual summer opera season, the Garsington Opera, which relocated to Wormsley Park, the home of Mark Getty near Stokenchurch in Buckinghamshire, in 2011.\n", "The manor house was built on land once owned by the son of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer, and at one time had the name \"Chaucers\". Lady Ottoline and her husband, Philip Morrell, bought the manor house in 1914, at which time it was in a state of disrepair, having been in use as a farmhouse.\n", "They completely restored the house in the 1920s, working with the architect Philip Tilden, and creating landscaped Italian-style gardens. The parterre has 24 square beds with Irish yews at the corners; the Italian garden has a large ornamental pool enclosed by yew hedges and set about with statues; beyond, is a wild garden, with lime-tree avenues, shrubs, a stream and pond.\n", "Garsington became a haven for the Morrells’ friends, including D. H. Lawrence, Siegfried Sassoon, Edward Sackville-West, William Smith, Lord David Cecil, John Cournos, Lytton Strachey, Aldous Huxley, Mark Gertler, Bertrand Russell and Virginia Woolf. In 1916, they invited conscientious objectors, including Clive Bell and other members of the Bloomsbury Group, to come and work on the home farm for the duration of World War I, as civilian Work of National Importance recognised as an alternative to military service . Aldous Huxley spent some time here before he wrote \"Crome Yellow\", a book which contains a ridiculous character obviously intended as a caricature of Lady Ottoline Morrell; she never forgave him. \"In Confidence\" a short story by Katherine Mansfield portrays the \"wits of Garsington\" some four years in advance of \"Crome Yellow\", and wittier than Huxley according to Mansfield's biographer Antony Alpers. Published in The New Age of 24 May 1917, it was not reprinted until 1984 in Alper's collection of her short stories. Five young gentlemen are having a drawing-room argument, observed by Isobel and Marigold: \"Aren't men extraordinary\" says Marigold. \n", "The Morrells moved out in 1928. The house was then owned by Sir John Wheeler-Bennett until it was sold in 1981 to Leonard and Rosalind Ingrams and their family.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Information from the University of York\n", "BULLET::::- \" The Pool at Garsington\" Mark Gertler's 1918 painting of Garsington Manor and its ornamental pool. Government Art Collection, UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport.\n", "BULLET::::- Description of Garsington Manor and its gardens at Garsington Opera.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Color constancy\n", "Color constancy is an example of subjective constancy and a feature of the human color perception system which ensures that the perceived color of objects remains relatively constant under varying illumination conditions. A green apple for instance looks green to us at midday, when the main illumination is white sunlight, and also at sunset, when the main illumination is red. This helps us identify objects.\n", "Section::::Color vision.\n", "Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment.\n", "Section::::Object illuminance.\n", "The phenomenon of color constancy occurs when the source of illumination is not directly known. It is for this reason that color constancy takes a greater effect on days with sun and clear sky as opposed to days that are overcast. Even when the sun is visible, color constancy may affect color perception. This is due to an ignorance of all possible sources of illumination. Although an object may reflect multiple sources of light into the eye, color constancy causes objective identities to remain constant.\n", "D. H. Foster (2011) states, \"in the natural environment, the source itself may not be well defined in that the illumination at a particular point in a scene is usually a complex mixture of direct and indirect [light] distributed over a range of incident angles, in turn modified by local occlusion and mutual reflection, all of which may vary with time and position.\" The wide spectrum of possible illuminances in the natural environment and the limited ability of the human eye to perceive color means that color constancy plays a functional role in daily perception. Color constancy allows for humans to interact with the world in a consistent or veridical manner and it allows for one to more effectively make judgements on the time of day.\n", "Section::::Physiological basis.\n", "The physiological basis for color constancy is thought to involve specialized neurons in the primary visual cortex that compute local ratios of cone activity, which is the same calculation that Land's retinex algorithm uses to achieve color constancy. These specialized cells are called \"double-opponent cells\" because they compute both color opponency and spatial opponency. Double-opponent cells were first described by Nigel Daw in the goldfish retina. There was considerable debate about the existence of these cells in the primate visual system; their existence was eventually proven using reverse-correlation receptive field mapping and special stimuli that selectively activate single cone classes at a time, so-called \"cone-isolating\" stimuli.\n", "Color constancy works only if the incident illumination contains a range of wavelengths. The different cone cells of the eye register different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths of the light reflected by every object in the scene. From this information, the visual system attempts to determine the approximate composition of the illuminating light. This illumination is then \"discounted\" in order to obtain the object's \"true color\" or reflectance: the wavelengths of light the object reflects. This reflectance then largely determines the perceived color.\n", "Section::::Physiological basis.:Neural mechanism.\n", "There are two possible mechanisms for color constancy. The first mechanism is unconscious inference. The second view holds this phenomenon to be caused by sensory adaptation. Research suggests color constancy to be related changes in retinal cells as well as cortical areas related to vision. This phenomenon is most likely attributed to changes in various levels of the visual system.\n", "Section::::Physiological basis.:Neural mechanism.:Cone adaptation.\n", "Cones, specialized cells within the retina, will adjust relative to light levels within the local environment. This occurs at the level of individual neurons. However, this adaptation is incomplete. Chromatic adaptation is also regulated by processes within the brain. Research in monkeys suggest that changes in chromatic sensitivity is correlated to activity in parvocellular lateral geniculate neurons. Color constancy may be both attributed to localized changes in individual retinal cells or to higher level neural processes within the brain.\n", "Section::::Metamerism.\n", "Metamerism, the perceiving of colors within two separate scenes, can help to inform research regarding color constancy. Research suggests that when competing chromatic stimuli are presented, spatial comparisons must be completed early in the visual system. For example, when subjects are presented stimuli in a dichoptic fashion, an array of colors and a void color, such as grey, and are told to focus on a specific color of the array, the void color appears different than when perceived in a binocular fashion. This means that color judgements, as they relate to spatial comparisons, must be completed at or prior to the V1 monocular neurons. If spatial comparisons occur later in the visual system such as in cortical area V4, the brain would be able to perceive both the color and void color as though they were seen in a binocular fashion.\n", "Section::::Retinex theory.\n", "The \"Land effect\" refers to the capacity to see full color (if muted) images solely by looking at a photo with red and gray wavelengths. The effect was discovered by Edwin H. Land, who was attempting to reconstruct James Clerk Maxwell's early experiments in full-colored images. Land realized that, even when there were no green or blue wavelengths present in an image, the visual system would still perceive them as green or blue by discounting the red illumination. Land described this effect in a 1959 article in \"Scientific American.\" In 1977, Land wrote another \"Scientific American\" article that formulated his \"retinex theory\" to explain the Land effect. The word \"retinex\" is a portmanteau formed from \"retina\" and \"cortex\", suggesting that both the eye and the brain are involved in the processing. Land, with John McCann, also developed a computer program designed to imitate the retinex processes taking place in human physiology.\n", "The effect can be experimentally demonstrated as follows. A display called a \"Mondrian\" (after Piet Mondrian whose paintings are similar) consisting of numerous colored patches is shown to a person. The display is illuminated by three white lights, one projected through a red filter, one projected through a green filter, and one projected through a blue filter. The person is asked to adjust the intensity of the lights so that a particular patch in the display appears white. The experimenter then measures the intensities of red, green, and blue light reflected from this white-appearing patch. Then the experimenter asks the person to identify the color of a neighboring patch, which, for example, appears green. Then the experimenter adjusts the lights so that the intensities of red, blue, and green light reflected from the green patch are the same as were originally measured from the white patch. The person shows color constancy in that the green patch continues to appear green, the white patch continues to appear white, and all the remaining patches continue to have their original colors.\n", "Color constancy is a desirable feature of computer vision, and many algorithms have been developed for this purpose. These include several retinex algorithms. These algorithms receive as input the red/green/blue values of each pixel of the image and attempt to estimate the reflectances of each point. One such algorithm operates as follows: the maximal red value \"r\" of all pixels is determined, and also the maximal green value \"g\" and the maximal blue value \"b\". Assuming that the scene contains objects which reflect all red light, and (other) objects which reflect all green light and still others which reflect all blue light, one can then deduce that the illuminating light source is described by (\"r\", \"g\", \"b\"). For each pixel with values (\"r\", \"g\", \"b\") its reflectance is estimated as (\"r\"/\"r\", \"g\"/\"g\", \"b\"/\"b\"). The original retinex algorithm proposed by Land and McCann uses a localized version of this principle.\n", "Although retinex models are still widely used in computer vision, actual human color perception has been shown to be more complex.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Chromatic adaptation\n", "BULLET::::- Memory color effect\n", "BULLET::::- Shadow and highlight enhancement\n", "BULLET::::- Trichromacy\n", "BULLET::::- Tetrachromacy\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Retinex.\n", "Here \"Reprinted in McCann\" refers to McCann, M., ed. 1993. \"Edwin H. Land's Essays.\" Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology.\n", "BULLET::::- (1964) \"The retinex\" \"Am. Sci.\" 52(2): 247–64. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 53–60. Based on acceptance address for William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement, Cleveland, Ohio, December 30, 1963.\n", "BULLET::::- with L.C. Farney and M.M. Morse. (1971) \"Solubilization by incipient development\" \"Photogr. Sci. Eng.\" 15(1):4–20. Reprinted in McCann, vol. I, pp. 157–73. Based on lecture in Boston, June 13, 1968.\n", "BULLET::::- with J.J. McCann. (1971) \"Lightness and retinex theory\" \"J. Opt. Soc. Am.\" 61(1):1–11. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 73–84. Based on the Ives Medal lecture, October 13, 1967.\n", "BULLET::::- (1974) \"The retinex theory of colour vision\" \"Proc. R. Inst. Gt. Brit.\" 47:23–58. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 95–112. Based on Friday evening discourse, November 2, 1973.\n", "BULLET::::- (1977) \"The retinex theory of color vision\" \"Sci. Am.\" 237:108-28. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 125–42.\n", "BULLET::::- with H.G. Rogers and V.K. Walworth. (1977) \"One-step photography\" In \"Neblette's Handbook of Photography and Reprography, Materials, Processes and Systems,\" 7th ed., J. M. Sturge, ed., pp. 259–330. New York: Reinhold. Reprinted in McCann, vol. I, pp. 205–63.\n", "BULLET::::- (1978) \"Our 'polar partnership' with the world around us: Discoveries about our mechanisms of perception are dissolving the imagined partition between mind and matter\" \"Harv. Mag.\" 80:23–25. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 151–54.\n", "BULLET::::- with D.H. Hubel, M.S. Livingstone, S.H. Perry, and M.M. Burns. (1983) \"Colour-generating interactions across the corpus callosum\" \"Nature\" 303(5918):616-18. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 155–58.\n", "BULLET::::- (1983) \"Recent advances in retinex theory and some implications for cortical computations: Color vision and the natural images\" \"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.\" 80:5136–69. Reprinted in McCann, vol. III, pp. 159–66.\n", "BULLET::::- (1986) \"An alternative technique for the computation of the designator in the retinex theory of color vision\" \"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.\" 83:3078–80.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Color constancy – McCann\n", "BULLET::::- Color constancy – Illuminant Estimation\n", "BULLET::::- Retinex Image Processing\n", "BULLET::::- Retinex implemented via a partial differential equation and Fourier transform, with code and on-line demonstration\n", "BULLET::::- BBC Horizon 21x08 Colourful notions 1985\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2563885", "wikidata_label": "color constancy", "wikipedia_title": "Color constancy", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206472, "parentid": 892692189, "revid": 905111616, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-06T22:38:44Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color%20constancy&oldid=905111616" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Bustard\n", "Bustards, including floricans and korhaans, are large, terrestrial birds living mainly in dry grassland areas and on the steppes of the Old World. They range in length from . They make up the family Otididae (formerly known as Otidae). Bustards are omnivorous and opportunistic, eating leaves, buds, seeds, fruit, small vertebrates, and invertebrates.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Bustards are all fairly large with the two largest species, the kori bustard (\"Ardeotis kori\") and the great bustard (\"Otis tarda\"), being frequently cited as the world's heaviest flying birds. In both the largest species, large males exceed a weight of , weight around on average and can attain a total length of . The smallest species is the little brown bustard (\"Eupodotis humilis\"), which is around long and weighs around on average. In most bustards, males are substantially larger than females, often about 30% longer and sometimes more than twice the weight. They are among the most sexually dimorphic groups of birds. In only the floricans is the sexual dimorphism reverse, with the adult female being slightly larger and heavier than the male.\n", "The wings have 10 primaries and 16–24 secondary feathers. There are 18–20 feathers in the tail. The plumage is predominantly cryptic.\n", "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n", "Bustards are omnivorous, feeding principally on seeds and invertebrates. They make their nests on the ground, making their eggs and offspring often very vulnerable to predation. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. Most prefer to run or walk over flying. They have long broad wings with \"fingered\" wingtips, and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays, such as inflating throat sacs or elevating elaborate feathered crests. The female lays three to five dark, speckled eggs in a scrape in the ground, and incubates them alone.\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.\n", "The family Otididae was introduced (as Otidia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Extinct species from the Paleofile.com website.\n", "Family Otididae\n", "BULLET::::- Genus †\"Gryzaja\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"Gryzaja odessana\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus †\"Ioriotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"Ioriotis gabunii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus †\"Miootis\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"Miootis compactus\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus †\"Pleotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"Pleotis liui\"\n", "BULLET::::- Subfamily Lissotinae\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Lissotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hartlaub's bustard, \"Lissotis hartlaubii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Black-bellied bustard, \"Lissotis melanogaster\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"L. m. notophila\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"L. m. melanogaster\"\n", "BULLET::::- Subfamily Neotinae\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Neotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Nubian bustard, \"Neotis nuba\"\n", "BULLET::::- Ludwig's bustard, \"Neotis ludwigii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Denham's bustard), \"Neotis denhami\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"N. d. denhami\" (Denham's bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"N. d. jacksoni\" (Jackson's Bustard bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"N. d. stanleyi\" (Stanley bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- Heuglin's bustard, \"Neotis heuglinii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Ardeotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Arabian bustard, \"Ardeotis arabs\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. lynesi\" (Moroccan bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. stieberi\" (great Arabian bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. arabs\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. butleri\" (Sudan bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- Australian bustard, \"Ardeotis australis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Great Indian bustard, \"Ardeotis nigriceps\"\n", "BULLET::::- Kori bustard, \"Ardeotis kori\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. k. struthiunculus\" (Northern Kori bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. k. kori\" (Southern Kori bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- Subfamily Otidinae\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Tetrax\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"T. paratetrax\"\n", "BULLET::::- Little bustard, \"Tetrax tetrax\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Otis\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"O. bessarabicus\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"O. hellenica\"\n", "BULLET::::- Great bustard, \"Otis tarda\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"O. t. tarda\" (Western great bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"O. t. dybowskii\" (Eastern great bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Chlamydotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"C. affinis\"\n", "BULLET::::- †\"C. mesetaria\"\n", "BULLET::::- Macqueen's bustard, \"Chlamydotis macqueenii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Houbara bustard, \"Chlamydotis undulata\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"C. u. fuertaventurae\" (Canary Islands houbara bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"C. u. undulata\" (North African houbara bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Houbaropsis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Bengal florican, \"Houbaropsis bengalensis\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"H. b. bengalensis\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"H. b. blandini\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Sypheotides\"\n", "BULLET::::- Lesser florican, \"Sypheotides indicus\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Lophotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Red-crested korhaan, \"Lophotis ruficrista\"\n", "BULLET::::- Savile's bustard, \"Lophotis savilei\"\n", "BULLET::::- Buff-crested bustard, \"Lophotis gindiana\"\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Eupodotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Little brown bustard, \"Eupodotis humilis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Karoo korhaan, \"Eupodotis vigorsii\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. v. namaqua\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. v. vigorsii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Rüppell's korhaan, \"Eupodotis rueppellii\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. r. fitzsimonsi\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. r. rueppellii\"\n", "BULLET::::- Blue korhaan, \"Eupodotis caerulescens\"\n", "BULLET::::- White-bellied bustard, \"Eupodotis senegalensis\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. s. barrowii\" (Barrow's/southern white-bellied Bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. s. canicollis\" (Somali white-bellied knorhaan)\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. s. erlangeri\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. s. mackenziei\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"E. s. senegalensis\" (Senegal bustard)\n", "BULLET::::- Genus \"Afrotis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Southern black korhaan, \"Afrotis afra\"\n", "BULLET::::- Northern black korhaan, \"Afrotis afraoides\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. etoschae\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. damarensis\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. a. afraoides\"\n", "Section::::Status and conservation.\n", "Bustards are gregarious outside the breeding season, but are very wary and difficult to approach in the open habitats they prefer.\n", "Most species are declining or endangered through habitat loss and hunting, even where they are nominally protected. \n", "Section::::Status and conservation.:United Kingdom.\n", "The last bustard in Britain died in approximately 1832, but the bird is being reintroduced through batches of chicks imported from Russia.\n", "In 2009, two great bustard chicks were hatched in Britain for the first time in more than 170 years. Reintroduced bustards also hatched chicks in 2010.\n", "Section::::Floricans.\n", "Some Indian bustards are also called Floricans. The origin of the name is unclear. Thomas C. Jerdon writes in \"The Birds of India (1862)\n", "The Hobson-Jobson dictionary however casts doubt on this theory stating that\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Bota, Gerard, et al. \"Ecology and conservation of Steppe-Land birds\". International Symposium on Ecology and Conservation of Steppe-land birds. Lynx Edicions 2005. 343 pages. .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Bustard videos on the Internet Bird Collection\n" ] }

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{ "description": "bird", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q21755", "wikidata_label": "bustard", "wikipedia_title": "Bustard", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Otididae" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206491, "parentid": 903587988, "revid": 904500713, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-02T16:00:34Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bustard&oldid=904500713" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Methodism\n", "Methodism, also known as the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their practice and belief from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother Charles Wesley were also significant early leaders in the movement. It originated as a revival movement within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate denomination after Wesley's death. The movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond because of vigorous missionary work, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.\n", "Wesleyan theology, which is upheld by the Methodist Churches, focuses on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include the new birth, assurance, imparted righteousness, the possibility of entire sanctification, the works of piety, and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all; in theology, this view is known as Arminianism. This teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several other early leaders of the movement were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the Calvinist position. In addition to evangelism, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals, collectively known as the Social Gospel, are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools to follow Christ's command to spread the good news and serve all people.\n", "The movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, while American Methodism is more so, the United Methodist Church in particular. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition, and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church.\n", "Early Methodists were drawn from all levels of society, including the aristocracy, but the Methodist preachers took the message to labourers and criminals who tended to be left outside organised religion at that time. In Britain, the Methodist Church had a major effect in the early decades of the developing working class (1760–1820). In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition.\n", "Section::::Origins.\n", "The Methodist revival began in England with a group of men, including John Wesley (1703–1791) and his younger brother Charles (1707–1788), as a movement within the Church of England in the 18th century. The Wesley brothers founded the \"Holy Club\" at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they systematically set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick and the poor, as well as prisoners. The fellowship were branded as \"Methodist\" by their fellow students because of the way they used \"rule\" and \"method\" to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery and turned it into a title of honour.\n", "In 1735, at the invitation of the founder of the Georgia Colony, General James Oglethorpe, both John and Charles Wesley set out for America to be ministers to the colonists and missionaries to the Native Americans. Unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church. At a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his \"heart strangely warmed\". He records in his journal: \"I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance was given me that He had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.\" Charles had reported a similar experience a few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. Burnett writes: \"The significance of [John] Wesley's Aldersgate Experience is monumental … Without it the names of Wesley and Methodism would likely be nothing more than obscure footnotes in the pages of church history.\"\n", "The Wesley brothers immediately began to preach salvation by faith to individuals and groups, in houses, in religious societies, and in the few churches which had not closed their doors to evangelical preachers. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609). Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield (1714–1770), Howell Harris (1714–1773), and Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon (1707–1791) were notable for being Calvinistic Methodists.\n", "George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade. Whitefield, who had been a fellow student of the Wesleys at Oxford, became well known for his unorthodox, itinerant ministry, in which he was dedicated to open-air preaching—reaching crowds of thousands. A key step in the development of John Wesley's ministry was, like Whitefield, to preach in fields, collieries and churchyards to those who did not regularly attend parish church services. Accordingly, many Methodist converts were those disconnected from the Church of England; Wesley remained a cleric of the Established Church and insisted that Methodists attend their local parish church as well as Methodist meetings.\n", "Faced with growing evangelistic and pastoral responsibilities, Wesley and Whitefield appointed lay preachers and leaders. Methodist preachers focused particularly on evangelising people who had been \"neglected\" by the established Church of England. Wesley and his assistant preachers organised the new converts into Methodist societies. These societies were divided into groups called \"classes\"—intimate meetings where individuals were encouraged to confess their sins to one another and to build each other up. They also took part in love feasts which allowed for the sharing of testimony, a key feature of early Methodism. Growth in numbers and increasing hostility impressed upon the revival converts a deep sense of their corporate identity. Three teachings that Methodists saw as the foundation of Christian faith were: \n", "BULLET::::1. People are all, by nature, \"dead in sin\".\n", "BULLET::::2. They are \"justified by faith alone\"\n", "BULLET::::3. Faith produces inward and outward holiness.\n", "Wesley's organisational skills soon established him as the primary leader of the movement. Whitefield was a Calvinist, whereas Wesley was an outspoken opponent of the doctrine of predestination. Wesley argued (against Calvinist doctrine) that Christians could enjoy a second blessing—entire sanctification (Christian perfection) in this life: loving God and their neighbours, meekness and lowliness of heart and abstaining from all appearance of evil. These differences put strains on the alliance between Whitefield and Wesley, with Wesley becoming quite hostile toward Whitefield in what had been previously very close relations. Whitefield consistently begged Wesley not to let theological differences sever their friendship and, in time their friendship was restored, though this was seen by many of Whitefield's followers to be a doctrinal compromise.\n", "Many clergy in the established church feared that new doctrines promulgated by the Methodists, such as the necessity of a new birth for salvation—the first work of grace, of justification by faith and of the constant and sustained action of the Holy Spirit upon the believer's soul, would produce ill effects upon weak minds. Theophilus Evans, an early critic of the movement, even wrote that it was \"the natural Tendency of their Behaviour, in Voice and Gesture and horrid Expressions, to make People mad.\" In one of his prints, William Hogarth likewise attacked Methodists as \"enthusiasts\" full of \"Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism\". Other attacks against the Methodists were physically violent—Wesley was nearly murdered by a mob at Wednesbury in 1743. The Methodists responded vigorously to their critics and thrived despite the attacks against them.\n", "Initially, the Methodists merely sought reform within the Church of England (Anglicanism), but the movement gradually departed from that Church. George Whitefield's preference for extemporaneous prayer rather than the fixed forms of prayer in the \"Book of Common Prayer\", in addition to his insistence on the necessity of the New Birth, set him at odds with Anglican clergy.\n", "As Methodist societies multiplied, and elements of an ecclesiastical system were, one after another, adopted, the breach between John Wesley and the Church of England gradually widened. In 1784, Wesley responded to the shortage of priests in the American colonies due to the American Revolutionary War by ordaining preachers for America with power to administer the sacraments. This was a major reason for Methodism's final split from the Church of England after Wesley's death. This split created a separate, eventually worldwide, group of church denominations.\n", "With regard to the position of Methodism within Christendom, \"John Wesley once noted that what God had achieved in the development of Methodism was no mere human endeavor but the work of God. As such it would be preserved by God so long as history remained.\" Calling it \"the grand depositum\" of the Methodist faith, Wesley specifically taught that the propagation of the doctrine of entire sanctification was the reason that God raised up the Methodists in the world.\n", "The influence of Whitefield and Lady Huntingdon on the Church of England was a factor in the founding of the Free Church of England in 1844. At the time of Wesley's death there were over 500 Methodist preachers in British colonies and the United States. Total membership of the Methodist societies in Britain was recorded as 56,000 in 1791, rising to 360,000 in 1836 and 1,463,000 by the national census of 1851.\n", "Early Methodism experienced a radical and spiritual phase that allowed women authority in church leadership. The role of the woman preacher emerged from the sense that the home should be a place of community care and should foster personal growth. Methodist women formed a community that cared for the vulnerable, extending the role of mothering beyond physical care. Women were encouraged to testify their faith. However the centrality of women's role sharply diminished after 1790 as Methodist churches became more structured and more male dominated.\n", "The Wesleyan Education Committee, which existed from 1838 to 1902, has documented the Methodist Church's involvement in the education of children. At first most effort was placed in creating Sunday Schools but in 1836 the British Methodist Conference gave its blessing to the creation of \"Weekday schools\".\n", "Methodism spread throughout the British Empire and, mostly through Whitefield's preaching during what historians call the First Great Awakening, in colonial America. After Whitefield's death in 1770, however, American Methodism entered a more lasting Wesleyan and Arminian phase of development.\n", "Section::::Theology.\n", "Many Methodist bodies, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the United Methodist Church, base their doctrinal standards on Wesley's Articles of Religion, an abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England that excised its Calvinist features. Some Methodist denominations also publish catechisms, which concisely summarise Christian doctrine. Methodists generally accept the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed as declarations of shared Christian faith. Methodism also affirms the traditional Christian belief in the triune Godhead: Father, Son and Holy Spirit, as well as the orthodox understanding of the consubstantial humanity and divinity of Jesus Christ. Methodism emphasises doctrines that indicate the power of the Holy Spirit to strengthen the faith of believers and to transform their personal lives. \n", "Methodism is broadly evangelical in doctrine and is characterized by Wesleyan–Arminian theology. John Wesley is studied by Methodists for his interpretation of church practice and doctrine. At its heart, the theology of John Wesley stressed the life of Christian holiness: to love God with all one's heart, mind, soul and strength and to love one's neighbour as oneself. One popular expression of Methodist doctrine is in the hymns of Charles Wesley. Since enthusiastic congregational singing was a part of the early evangelical movement, Wesleyan theology took root and spread through this channel.\n", "Section::::Theology.:Salvation.\n", "Wesleyan Methodists identify with the Arminian conception of free will, as opposed to the theological determinism of absolute predestination. Methodism teaches that salvation is initiated when one chooses to respond to God, who draws the individual near to him (the Wesleyan doctrine of prevenient grace), thus teaching synergism. Methodists interpret Scripture as teaching that the saving work of Jesus Christ is for all people (unlimited atonement) but effective only to those who respond and believe, in accordance with the Reformation principles of \"sola gratia\" (grace alone) and \"sola fide\" (faith alone). John Wesley taught four key points fundamental to Methodism:\n", "BULLET::::1. A person is free not only to reject salvation but also to accept it by an act of free will.\n", "BULLET::::2. All people who are obedient to the gospel according to the measure of knowledge given them will be saved.\n", "BULLET::::3. The Holy Spirit assures a Christian that they are justified by faith in Jesus (assurance of faith).\n", "BULLET::::4. Christians in this life are capable of Christian perfection and are commanded by God to pursue it.\n", "After the first work of grace (the new birth), Methodist soteriology emphasizes the importance of the pursuit of holiness in salvation, a concept best summarized in a quote by Methodist evangelist Phoebe Palmer who stated that \"justification would have ended with me had I refused to be holy.\" Thus, for Methodists, \"true faith...\"cannot\" subsist without works\". Methodism, inclusive of the holiness movement, thus teaches that \"justification [is made] conditional on obedience and progress in sanctification\", emphasizing \"a deep reliance upon Christ not only in coming to faith, but in remaining in the faith.\" John Wesley taught that the keeping of the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, as well as engaging in the works of piety and the works of mercy, were \"indispensible for our sanctification\". If a person backslides but later decides to returns to God, he or she must confess his or her sins and be entirely sanctified again (see conditional security).\n", "Section::::Theology.:Sacraments.\n", "Methodists hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution. Methodism has inherited its liturgy from Anglicanism, although American Methodist theology tends to have a stronger \"sacramental emphasis\" than that held by Evangelical Anglicans.\n", "In common with most Protestants, Methodists recognise two sacraments as being instituted by Christ: Baptism and Holy Communion (also called the \"Lord's Supper\", rarely the \"Eucharist\"). Most Methodist churches practice infant baptism, in anticipation of a response to be made later (confirmation), as well as believer's baptism. The \"Catechism for the use of the people called Methodists\" states that, \"[in Holy Communion] Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour\". The explanation of how Christ's presence is made manifest in the elements (bread and wine) is a \"Holy Mystery\".\n", "Methodist churches generally recognise sacraments to be a means of grace. John Wesley held that God also imparted grace by other established means such as public and private prayer, Scripture reading, study and preaching, public worship, and fasting. These constitute the Works of Piety. Wesley considered means of grace to be \"outward signs, words, or actions ... to be the ordinary channels whereby [God] might convey to men, preventing [i.e., preparing], justifying or sanctifying grace\". Specifically Methodist means, such as the class meetings, provided his chief examples for these prudential means of grace.\n", "Section::::Theology.:Sources of teaching.\n", "Traditionally, Methodists declare the Bible (Old and New Testaments) to be the only divinely inspired Scripture and the primary source of authority for Christians. The historic Methodist understanding of Scripture is based on the superstructure of Wesleyan covenant theology. Methodists, stemming from John Wesley's own practices of theological reflection, also make use of tradition, drawing primarily from the teachings of the Church Fathers, as a source of authority. Though not infallible like holy Scripture, tradition may serve as a lens through which Scripture is interpreted. Theological discourse for Methodists almost always makes use of Scripture read inside the wider theological tradition of Christianity.\n", "It is a historical position of the church that any disciplined theological work calls for the careful use of reason. By reason, it is said, one reads and is able to interpret the Bible coherently and consistently. By reason, one asks questions of faith and seeks to understand God's action and will. Methodism insists that personal salvation always implies Christian mission and service to the world. Scriptural holiness entails more than personal piety; love of God is always linked with love of neighbours and a passion for justice and renewal in the life of the world.\n", "Section::::Worship and liturgy.\n", "Methodism was endowed by the Wesley brothers with worship characterised by a twofold practice: the ritual liturgy of the \"Book of Common Prayer\" on the one hand and the informal preaching service on the other.\n", "This twofold practice became distinctive of Methodism because worship in the Church of England was based, by law, solely on the \"Book of Common Prayer\" and worship in the Non-conformist churches was almost exclusively that of \"services of the word\", i.e. preaching services, with Holy Communion being observed infrequently. John Wesley's influence meant that, in Methodism, the two practices were combined, a situation which remains characteristic of the movement. The Lovefeast, traditionally practiced quarterly, was another practice that characterized early Methodism as John Wesley taught that it was an apostolic ordinance.\n", "In America, the United Methodist Church and Free Methodist Church, as well as the Primitive Methodist Church and Wesleyan Methodist Church, have a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. When the Methodists in America were separated from the Church of England because of the American Revolution, John Wesley himself provided a revised version of the \"Book of Common Prayer\" called \"The Sunday Service of the Methodists; With Other Occasional Services\" (1784). Today, the primary liturgical books of the United Methodist Church are \"The United Methodist Hymnal\" and \"The United Methodist Book of Worship\". Congregations employ its liturgy and rituals as optional resources, but their use is not mandatory. These books contain the liturgies of the church that are generally derived from Wesley's \"Sunday Service\" and from the 20th-century liturgical renewal movement.\n", "The British Methodist Church is less ordered or liturgical in worship, but makes use of the \"Methodist Worship Book\" (similar to the Church of England's \"Common Worship\"), containing worship services (liturgies) and rubrics for the celebration of other rites, such as marriage. The \"Worship Book\" is also ultimately derived from Wesley's \"Sunday Service\".\n", "A unique feature of American Methodism has been the observance of the season of Kingdomtide, encompassing the last 13 weeks before Advent, thus dividing the long season after Pentecost into two distinct segments. During Kingdomtide, Methodist liturgy has traditionally emphasised charitable work and alleviating the suffering of the poor.\n", "A second distinctive liturgical feature of Methodism is the use of Covenant Services. Although practice varies between different national churches, most Methodist churches annually follow the call of John Wesley for a renewal of their covenant with God. It is common, at least in British Methodism, for each congregation to normally hold an annual Covenant Service on the first convenient Sunday of the year, and Wesley's covenant prayer is still used, with minor modification, in the order of service:\n", "As John Wesley advocated outdoor evangelism, revival services are a traditional worship practice of Methodism that are often held in churches, as well as at camp meetings and at tent revivals.\n", "Section::::Lifestyle.\n", "Early Methodists wore plain dress, with Methodist clergy condemning \"high headdresses, ruffles, laces, gold, and 'costly apparel' in general\". John Wesley recommended that Methodists annually read his thoughts \"On Dress\"; in that sermon, John Wesley expressed his desire for Methodists: \"Let me see, before I die, a Methodist congregation, full as plain dressed as a Quaker congregation\". The 1858 Discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist Connection thus stated that \"we would ... enjoin on all who fear God plain dress\". Peter Cartwright, a Methodist revivalist, stated that in addition to wearing plain dress, the early Methodists distinguished themselves from other members of society by fasting once a week, abstaining from alcohol, and devoutly observing the Sabbath. Methodist circuit riders were known for practicing the spiritual discipline of mortifying the flesh as they \"arose well before dawn for solitary prayer; they remained on their knees without food or drink or physical comforts sometimes for hours on end\". The early Methodists did not participate in, and condemned, \"worldly habits\" including \"playing cards, racing horses, gambling, attending the theater, dancing (both in frolics and balls), and cockfighting\".\n", "Over time, many of these practices were gradually relaxed in mainline Methodism, although practices such teetotalism and fasting are still very much encouraged, in addition to the current prohibition of gambling; denominations of the conservative holiness movement, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, continue to reflect the spirit of the historic Methodist practice of wearing plain dress, encouraging members in \"abstaining from the wearing of extravagant hairstyles, jewelry—to include rings, and expensive clothing for any reason\". The General Rules of the Methodist Church in America, which are among the doctrinal standards of many Methodist Churches, promote first-day Sabbatarianism as they require \"attending upon all the ordinances of God\" including \"the public worship of God\" and prohibit \"profaning the day of the Lord, either by doing ordinary work therein or by buying or selling\".\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.\n", "Today, millions belong to Methodist churches, which are present on all populated continents. Although Methodism is declining in Great Britain and North America, it is growing in other places; at a rapid pace in, for example, South Korea.\n", "There is no single Methodist Church with universal juridical authority; Methodists belong to multiple independent denominations or \"connexions\". The great majority of Methodists are members of denominations which are part of the international World Methodist Council, an association of 80 Methodist, Wesleyan and related united and uniting churches, representing over 80 million people. In 1956, the World Methodist Council established a permanent headquarters in the United States at Lake Junaluska, North Carolina.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.\n", "Methodism is prevalent in the English-speaking world but it is also organised in mainland Europe, largely due to missionary activity of British and American Methodists. British missionaries were primarily responsible for establishing Methodism across Ireland and Italy. Today the United Methodist Church (UMC)—a large denomination based in the United States—has a presence in Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Norway, Poland, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine. Collectively the European and Eurasian regions of the UMC constitute over 100,000 Methodists. Other smaller Methodist denominations exist in Europe.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Great Britain.\n", "The original body founded as a result of Wesley's work came to be known as the Wesleyan Methodist Church. Schisms within the original Church, and independent revivals, led to the formation of a number of separate denominations calling themselves \"Methodist\". The largest of these were the Primitive Methodist church, deriving from a revival at Mow Cop in Staffordshire, the Bible Christians and the Methodist New Connexion. The original church became known as the Wesleyan Methodist Church to distinguish it from these bodies. In 1907, a union of smaller groups with the Methodist New Connexion and Bible Christian Church brought about the United Methodist Church (Great Britain), then the three major streams of British Methodism united in 1932 to form the current Methodist Church of Great Britain. The fourth-largest denomination in the country, the Methodist Church of Great Britain has about 202,000 members in 4,650 congregations.\n", "Early Methodism was particularly prominent in Devon and Cornwall, which were key centers of activity by the Bible Christian faction of Methodists. The Bible Christians produced many preachers, and sent many missionaries to Australia. Methodism also grew rapidly in the old mill towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire, where the preachers stressed that the working classes were equal to the upper classes in the eyes of God. In Wales, three elements separately welcomed Methodism: Welsh-speaking, English-speaking, and Calvinistic.\n", "British Methodists, in particular the Primitive Methodists, took a leading role in the temperance movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Methodists saw alcoholic beverages, and alcoholism, as the root of many social ills and tried to persuade people to abstain from these. Temperance appealed strongly to the Methodist doctrines of sanctification and perfection. To this day, alcohol remains banned in Methodist premises, however this restriction no longer applies to domestic occasions in private homes (i.e. the minister may have a drink at home in the manse). The choice to consume alcohol is now a personal decision for any member.\n", "British Methodism does not have bishops; however, it has always been characterised by a strong central organisation, the Connexion, which holds an annual Conference (note that the Church retains the 18th-century spelling \"connexion\" for many purposes). The Connexion is divided into Districts in the charge of the Chair (who may be male or female). Methodist districts often correspond approximately, in geographical terms, to counties—as do Church of England dioceses. The districts are divided into circuits governed by the Circuit Meeting and led and administrated principally by a superintendent minister. Ministers are appointed to Circuits rather than to individual churches, although some large inner-city churches, known as \"central halls\", are designated as circuits in themselves—of these Westminster Central Hall, opposite Westminster Abbey in central London, is the best known. Most circuits have fewer ministers than churches, and the majority of services are led by lay local preachers, or by supernumerary ministers (ministers who have retired, called supernumerary because they are not counted for official purposes in the numbers of ministers for the circuit in which they are listed). The superintendent and other ministers are assisted in the leadership and administration of the Circuit by Circuit Stewards, lay people who may have particular skills who collectively with the ministers form what is normally known as the Circuit Leadership Team.\n", "The Methodist Council also helps to run a number of schools, including two leading public schools in East Anglia: Culford School and the Leys School. It helps to promote an all round education with a strong Christian ethos.\n", "Other Methodist denominations in Britain include: The Salvation Army, founded by Methodist minister William Booth in 1865; the Free Methodist Church, a holiness church; the Church of the Nazarene; the Wesleyan Reform Union, an early secession from the Wesleyan Methodist Church; and the Independent Methodist Connexion.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Ireland.\n", "John Wesley visited Ireland on at least twenty-four occasions and established classes and societies. The Methodist Church in Ireland () today operates across both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland on an all-Ireland basis. there are around 50,000 Methodists across Ireland. The biggest concentration–13,171–is in Belfast, with 2,614 in Dublin. it is the fourth-largest denomination in Northern Ireland, with Methodists accounting for 3 percent of the population.\n", "Eric Gallagher was the President of the Church in the 1970s, becoming a well-known figure in Irish politics. He was one of the group of Protestant churchmen who met with Provisional IRA officers in Feakle, County Clare to try to broker peace. The meeting was unsuccessful due to a Garda raid on the hotel.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Italy.\n", "The Italian Methodist Church () is a small Protestant community in Italy, with around 7,000 members. Since 1975 it is in a formal covenant of partnership with the Waldensian Church, with a total of 45,000 members. Waldensians are a Protestant movement which started in Lyon, France, in the late 1170s.\n", "Italian Methodism has its origins in the Italian Free Church, British Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, and the American Methodist Episcopal Mission. These movements flowered in the second half of the 19th century in the new climate of political and religious freedom that was established with the end of the Papal States and unification of Italy in 1870.\n", "Bertrand M. Tipple, minister of the American Methodist Church in Rome, founded a college there in 1914.\n", "In April 2016 the World Methodist Council opened an Ecumenical Office in Rome. Methodist leaders and the leader of the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Francis, jointly dedicated the new office. It helps facilitate Methodist relationships with the wider Church, especially the Roman Catholic Church.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Nordic and Baltic countries.\n", "The \"Nordic and Baltic Area\" of the United Methodist Church covers the Nordic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland) and the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania). Methodism was introduced to the Nordic countries in the late 19th century. Today the United Methodist Church in Norway () is the largest church in the region with 10,684 members in total ().\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:France.\n", "The French Methodist movement was founded in the 1820s by Charles Cook in the village of Congénies in Languedoc near Nîmes and Montpellier. The most important chapel of department was built in 1869, where there had been a Quaker community since the 18th century. Sixteen Methodist congregations voted to join the Reformed Church of France in 1938. In the 1980s, missionary work of a Methodist church in Agen led to new initiatives in Fleurance and Mont de Marsan.\n", "Methodism exists today in France under various names. The best-known is the Union of Evangelical Methodist Churches () or UEEM. It is an autonomous regional conference of the United Methodist Church and is the fruit of a fusion in 2005 between the \"Methodist Church of France\" and the \"Union of Methodist Churches\". , the UEEM has around 1,200 members and 30 ministers.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Germany.\n", "The Protestant-Methodist Church () is the name of the United Methodist Church in Germany and Austria. The German church had about 52,031 members . Members are organised into three conferences: north, east and south. Methodism is most prevalent in southern Saxony and around Stuttgart.\n", "British Methodist missionaries introduced Methodism to Germany in 1830, initially in the region of Württemberg. In 1859, the first Methodist minister arrived in Württemberg. Methodism was also spread in Germany through the missionary work of the American Methodist Episcopal Church, which began in 1849 in Bremen, soon spreading to Saxony. Early opposition towards Methodism was partly rooted in theological differences—northern and eastern regions of Germany were predominantly Lutheran and Reformed, and Methodists were dismissed as fanatics. Methodism was also hindered by its unfamiliar church structure (Connectionalism or \"Konnexionalismus\"), which was more centralised than the hierarchical polity in the Lutheran and Reformed churches. After World War I, the 1919 Weimar Constitution allowed Methodists to worship freely and many new chapels were established. In 1936, German Methodists elected their first bishop.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Hungary.\n", "The first Methodist mission in Hungary was established in 1898 in Bácska, in a then mostly German-speaking town of Verbász (since 1918 part of the Serbian province of Vojvodina). In 1905 a Methodist mission was established also in Budapest. In 1974, a group later known as the Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship seceded from the Hungarian Methodist Church over the question of interference by the communist state.\n", ", the United Methodist Church in Hungary, known locally as the Hungarian Methodist Church (), has 453 professing members in 30 congregations. It runs two student homes, two homes for the elderly, the Forray Methodist High School, the Wesley Scouts and the Methodist Library and Archives. The church has a special ministry among the Roma.\n", "The seceding Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship () also remains Methodist in its organisation and theology. It has eight full congregations and several mission groups, and runs a range of charitable organisations: hostels and soup kitchens for the homeless, a non-denominational theological college, a dozen schools of various kinds, and four old people's homes.\n", "Today there are a dozen Methodist/Wesleyan churches and mission organisations in Hungary, but all Methodist churches lost official church status under new legislation passed in 2011, when the number of officially recognised churches in the country fell to 14. However, the list of recognised churches was lengthened to 32 at the end of February 2012. This gave recognition to Hungarian Methodist Church and the Salvation Army, which was banned in Hungary in 1949 but had returned in 1990, but not to the Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship. The legislation has been strongly criticised by the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe as discriminatory.\n", "The Hungarian Methodist Church, the Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene and other Wesleyan groups formed the Wesley Theological Alliance for theological and publishing purposes in 1998. Today the Alliance has 10 Wesleyan member churches and organisations. The Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship does not belong to it and has its own publishing arm.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Europe.:Russia.\n", "The Methodist Church established several strongholds in Russia—Saint Petersburg in the west and the Vladivostok region in the east, with big Methodist centres right in the middle, in Moscow and Ekaterinburg (former Sverdlovsk). Methodists began their work in the west among Swedish immigrants in 1881 and started their work in the east in 1910. On 26 June 2009, Methodists celebrated the 120th year since Methodism arrived in Czarist Russia by erecting a new Methodist centre in Saint Petersburg. A Methodist presence was continued in Russia for 14 years after the Russian Revolution of 1917 through the efforts of Deaconess Anna Eklund. In 1939, political antagonism stymied the work of the Church and Deaconess Anna Eklund was coerced to return to her native Finland.\n", "After 1989, the Soviet Union allowed greatly increased religious freedoms and this continued after the USSR's collapse in 1991. During the 1990s, Methodism experienced a powerful wave of revival in the nation. Three sites in particular carried the torch—Samara, Moscow and Ekaterinburg. , the United Methodist Church in Eurasia comprised 116 congregations, each with a native pastor. There are currently 48 students enrolled in residential and extension degree programs at the United Methodist Seminary in Moscow.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Caribbean.\n", "Methodism came to the Caribbean in 1760 when the planter, lawyer and Speaker of the Antiguan House of Assembly, Nathaniel Gilbert (c. 1719–1774), returned to his sugar estate home in Antigua. A Methodist revival spread in the British West Indies due to the work of British missionaries. Missionaries established societies which would later become the Methodist Church in the Caribbean and the Americas (MCCA). The MCCA has about 62,000 members in over 700 congregations, ministered by 168 pastors. There are smaller Methodist denominations that have seceded from the parent church.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Caribbean.:Antigua.\n", "The story is often told that in 1755, Nathaniel Gilbert, while convalescing, read a treatise of John Wesley, \"An Appeal to Men of Reason and Religion\" sent to him by his brother Francis. As a result of having read this book Gilbert, two years later, journeyed to England with three of his slaves and there in a drawing room meeting arranged in Wandsworth on 15 January 1759, met the preacher John Wesley. He returned to the Caribbean that same year and on his subsequent return began to preach to his slaves in Antigua.\n", "When Nathaniel Gilbert died in 1774 his work in Antigua was continued by his brother Francis Gilbert to approximately 200 Methodists. However, within a year Francis took ill and had to return to Britain and the work was carried on by Sophia Campbell (\"a Negress\") and Mary Alley (\"a Mulatto\"), two devoted women who kept the flock together with class and prayer meetings as best as they could.\n", "On 2 April 1778, John Baxter, a local preacher and skilled shipwright from Chatham in Kent, England, landed at \"English\" harbour in Antigua (now called Nelson's Dockyard) where he was offered a post at the naval dockyard. Baxter was a Methodist and had heard of the work of the Gilberts and their need for a new preacher. He began preaching and meeting with the Methodist leaders, and within a year the Methodist community had grown to 600 persons. By 1783, the first Methodist chapel was built in Antigua, with John Baxter as the local preacher, its wooden structure seating some 2,000 people.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Caribbean.:St. Bart's.\n", "In 1785, William Turton (1761–1817) a Barbadian son of a planter, met John Baxter in Antigua, and later, as layman, assisted in the Methodist work in the Swedish colony of St. Bartholomew from 1796.\n", "In 1786 the missionary endeavour in the Caribbean was officially recognised by the Conference in England, and that same year Thomas Coke, having been made Superintendent of the church two years previously in America by Wesley, was travelling to Nova Scotia, but weather forced his ship to Antigua.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Caribbean.:Jamaica.\n", "In 1818 Edward Fraser (1798 – Aft. 1850), a privileged Barbadian slave, moved to Bermuda and subsequently met the new minister James Dunbar. The Nova Scotia Methodist Minister noted young Fraser's sincerity and commitment to his congregation and encouraged him by appointing him as assistant. By 1827 Fraser assisted in building a new chapel. He was later freed and admitted to the Methodist Ministry to serve in Antigua and Jamaica.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Caribbean.:Barbados.\n", "Following William J. Shrewsbury's preaching in the 1820s, Sarah Ann Gill (1779–1866), a free-born black woman, used civil disobedience in an attempt to thwart magistrate rulings that prevented parishioners holding prayer meetings. In hopes of building a new chapel, she paid an extraordinary £1,700-0s–0d and ended up having militia appointed by the Governor to protect her home from demolition.\n", "In 1884 an attempt was made at autonomy with the formation of two West Indian Conferences, however by 1903 the venture had failed. It was not until the 1960s that another attempt was made at autonomy. This second attempt resulted in the emergence of the Methodist Church in the Caribbean and the Americas in May 1967.\n", "Francis Godson (1864–1953), a Methodist minister, who having served briefly in several of the Caribbean islands, eventually immersed himself in helping those in hardship of the First World War in Barbados. He was later appointed to the Legislative Council of Barbados, and fought for the rights of pensioners. He was later followed by renowned Barbadian Augustus Rawle Parkinson (1864–1932), who also was the first principal of the Wesley Hall School, Bridgetown in Barbados (which celebrated its 125th anniversary in September 2009).\n", "In more recent times in Barbados, Victor Alphonso Cooke (born 1930) and Lawrence Vernon Harcourt Lewis (born 1932) are strong influences on the Methodist Church on the island. Their contemporary and late member of the Dalkeith Methodist Church, was the former secretary of the University of the West Indies, consultant of the \"Canadian Training Aid Programme\" and a man of letters – Francis Woodbine Blackman (1922–2010). It was his research and published works that enlightened much of this information on Caribbean Methodism.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Africa.\n", "Most Methodist denominations in Africa follow the British Methodist tradition and see the Methodist Church of Great Britain as their mother church. Originally modelled on the British structure, since independence most of these churches have adopted an episcopal model.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Africa.:Nigeria.\n", "The Nigerian Methodist Church is one of the largest Methodist denominations in the world and one of the largest Christian churches in Nigeria, with around two million members in 2000 congregations. It has seen exponential growth since the turn of the millennium.\n", "Christianity was established in Nigeria with the arrival in 1842 of a Wesleyan Methodist missionary. He had come in response to the request for missionaries by the ex-slaves who returned to Nigeria from Sierra Leone. From the mission stations established in Badagry and Abeokuta, the Methodist church spread to various parts of the country west of the River Niger and part of the north. In 1893 missionaries of the Primitive Methodist Church arrived from Fernando Po, an island off the southern coast of Nigeria. From there the Methodist Church spread to other parts of the country, east of the River Niger and also to parts of the north. The church west of the River Niger and part of the north was known as the Western Nigeria District and east of the Niger and another part of the north as the Eastern Nigeria District. Both existed independently of each other until 1962 when they constituted the Conference of Methodist Church Nigeria. The conference is composed of seven districts. The church has continued to spread into new areas and has established a department for evangelism and appointed a director of evangelism. An episcopal system adopted in 1976 was not fully accepted by all sections of the church until the two sides came together and resolved to end the disagreement. A new constitution was ratified in 1990. The system is still episcopal but the points which caused discontent were amended to be acceptable to both sides. Today, the Nigerian Methodist Church has a prelate, eight archbishops and 44 bishops.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Africa.:Ghana.\n", "Methodist Church Ghana is one of the largest Methodist denominations, with around 800,000 members in 2,905 congregations, ministered by 700 pastors. It has fraternal links with the British Methodist and United Methodist churches worldwide.\n", "Methodism in Ghana came into existence as a result of the missionary activities of the Wesleyan Methodist Church, inaugurated with the arrival of Joseph Rhodes Dunwell to the Gold Coast in 1835. Like the mother church, the Methodist Church in Ghana was established by people of Protestant background. Roman Catholic and Anglican missionaries came to the Gold Coast from the 15th century. A school was established in Cape Coast by the Anglicans during the time of Philip Quaque, a Ghanaian priest. Those who came out of this school had Bible copies and study supplied by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge. A member of the resulting Bible study groups, William De-Graft, requested Bibles through Captain Potter of the ship \"Congo\". Not only were Bibles sent, but also a Methodist missionary. In the first eight years of the Church's life, 11 out of 21 missionaries who worked in the Gold Coast died. Thomas Birch Freeman, who arrived at the Gold Coast in 1838 was a pioneer of missionary expansion. Between 1838 and 1857 he carried Methodism from the coastal areas to Kumasi in the Asante hinterland of the Gold Coast. He also established Methodist Societies in Badagry and AbeoKuta in Nigeria with the assistance of William De-Graft.\n", "By 1854, the church was organized into circuits constituting a district with T. B. Freeman as chairman. Freeman was replaced in 1856 by William West. The district was divided and extended to include areas in the then Gold Coast and Nigeria by the synod in 1878, a move confirmed at the British Conference. The district were Gold Coast District, with T.R. Picot as chairman and Yoruba and Popo District, with John Milum as chairman. Methodist evangelisation of northern Gold Coast began in 1910. After a long period of conflict with the colonial government, missionary work was established in 1955. Paul Adu was the first indigenous missionary to northern Gold Coast.\n", "In July 1961, the Methodist Church in Ghana became autonomous, and was called the Methodist Church Ghana, based on a deed of foundation, part of the church's \"Constitution and Standing Orders\".\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Africa.:Southern Africa.\n", "The Methodist Church operates across South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, with a limited presence in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is a member church of the World Methodist Council.\n", "Methodism in Southern Africa began as a result of lay Christian work by an Irish soldier of the English Regiment, John Irwin, who was stationed at the Cape and began to hold prayer meetings as early as 1795. The first Methodist lay preacher at the Cape, George Middlemiss, was a soldier of the 72nd regiment of the British Army stationed at the Cape in 1805. This foundation paved the way for missionary work by Methodist missionary societies from Great Britain, many of whom sent missionaries with the 1820 English settlers to the Western and Eastern Cape. Among the most notable of the early missionaries were Barnabas Shaw and William Shaw. The largest group was the Wesleyan Methodist Church, but there were a number of others that joined together to form the Methodist Church of South Africa, later known as the Methodist Church of Southern Africa.\n", "The Methodist Church of Southern Africa is the largest mainline Protestant denomination in South Africa—7.3 percent of the South African population recorded their religious affiliation as 'Methodist' in the last national census.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Asia.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Asia.:China.\n", "Methodism was brought to China in the autumn of 1847 by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The first missionaries sent out were Judson Dwight Collins and Moses Clark White, who sailed from Boston 15 April 1847, and reached Foochow 6 September. They were followed by Henry Hickok and Robert Samuel Maclay, who arrived 15 April 1848. In 1857 it baptised the first convert in connection with its labours. In August 1856, a brick built church, called the \"Church of the True God\" (真神堂), the first substantial church building erected at Foochow by Protestant Missions, was dedicated to the worship of God. In the winter of the same year another brick built church, located on the hill in the suburbs on the south bank of the Min, was finished and dedicated, called the \"Church of Heavenly Peace\" (天安堂). In 1862, the number of members was 87. The Foochow Conference was organised by Isaac W. Wiley on 6 December 1867, by which time the number of members and probationers had reached 2,011.\n", "Hok Chau 周學 (also known as Lai-Tong Chau, 周勵堂) was the first Chinese ordained minister of the South China District of the Methodist Church (incumbent 1877–1916). Benjamin Hobson (1816–1873), a medical missionary sent by the London Missionary Society in 1839, set up a highly successful Wai Ai Clinic (惠愛醫館) Liang Fa (Leung Fat in Cantonese, 梁發, 1789–1855, ordained by the London Missionary Society), Hok Chau and others worked there. Liang (age 63) baptized Chau (quite young) in 1852. The Methodist Church based in Britain sent missionary George Piercy to China. In 1851, Piercy went to Guangzhou (Canton), where he worked in a trading company. In 1853, he started a church in Guangzhou. In 1877, Chau was ordained by the Methodist Church, where he pastored for 39 years.\n", "In 1867, the mission sent out the first missionaries to Central China, who began work at Kiukiang. In 1869 missionaries were also sent to the capital city Peking, where they laid the foundations of the work of the North China Mission. In November 1880, the West China Mission was established in Sichuan Province. In 1896 the work in the Hinghua prefecture (modern-day Putian) and surrounding regions was also organized as a Mission Conference.\n", "In 1947, the Methodist Church in the Republic of China celebrated its centenary. In 1949, however, the Methodist Church moved to Taiwan with the Kuomintang government. On 21 June 1953, Taipei Methodist Church was erected, then local churches and chapels with a baptized membership numbering over 2,500. Various types of educational, medical and social services are provided (including Tunghai University).\n", "In 1972 the Methodist Church in the Republic of China became autonomous and the first bishop was installed in 1986.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Asia.:India.\n", "Methodism came to India twice, in 1817 and in 1856, according to P. Dayanandan who has done extensive research on the subject. Thomas Coke and six other missionaries set sail for India on New Year's Day in 1814. Coke, then 66, died en route. Rev. James Lynch was the one who finally arrived in Madras in 1817 at a place called Black Town (Broadway), later known as George Town. Lynch conducted the first Methodist missionary service on 2 March 1817, in a stable.\n", "The first Methodist church was dedicated in 1819 at Royapettah. A chapel at Broadway (Black Town) was later built and dedicated on 25 April 1822. This church was rebuilt in 1844 since the earlier structure was collapsing. At this time there were about 100 Methodist members in all of Madras, and they were either Europeans or Eurasians (European and Indian descent). Among names associated with the founding period of Methodism in India are Elijah Hoole and Thomas Cryer, who came as missionaries to Madras.\n", "In 1857, the Methodist Episcopal Church started its work in India, and with prominent evangelists like William Taylor the Emmanuel Methodist Church, Vepery, was born in 1874. The evangelist James Mills Thoburn established the Thoburn Memorial Church in Calcutta in 1873 and the Calcutta Boys' School in 1877.\n", "In 1947 the Wesleyan Methodist Church in India merged with Presbyterians, Anglicans and other Protestant churches to form the Church of South India while the American Methodist Church remained affiliated as the Methodist Church in Southern Asia (MCSA) to the mother church in USA- the United Methodist Church until 1981, when by an enabling act the Methodist Church in India (MCI) became an autonomous church in India. Today, the Methodist Church in India is governed by the General Conference of the Methodist Church of India headed by six Bishops, with headquarters at Methodist Centre, 21 YMCA Road, Mumbai, India.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Asia.:Malaysia and Singapore.\n", "Missionaries from Britain, North America, and Australia founded Methodist churches in many Commonwealth countries. These are now independent and many of them are stronger than the former \"mother\" churches. In addition to the churches, these missionaries often also founded schools to serve the local community. A good example of such schools are the Methodist Boys' School in Kuala Lumpur, Methodist Girls' School and Methodist Boys' School in George Town, and Anglo-Chinese School, Methodist Girls' School, Paya Lebar Methodist Girls School and Fairfield Methodist Schools in Singapore.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Asia.:Philippines.\n", "Methodism in the Philippines began shortly after the United States acquired the Philippines in 1898 as a result the Spanish–American War. On 21 June 1898, after the Battle of Manila Bay but before the Treaty of Paris, executives of the American Mission Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church expressed their desire to join other Protestant denominations in starting mission work in the islands and to enter into a Comity Agreement that would facilitate the establishment of such missions. The first Protestant worship service was conducted on 28 August 1898 by an American military chaplain named George C. Stull. Stull was an ordained Methodist minister from the Montana Annual Conference of The Methodist Episcopal Church (later part of the United Methodist Church after 1968).\n", "Methodist and Wesleyan traditions in the Philippines are shared by three of the largest mainline Protestant churches in the country: The United Methodist Church, \"Iglesia Evangelica Metodista En Las Islas Filipinas\" (\"Evangelical Methodist Church in the Philippine Islands\", abbreviated IEMELIF), and The United Church of Christ in the Philippines. There are also evangelical Protestant churches in the country of the Methodist tradition like the Wesleyan Church of the Philippines, Inc. the Free Methodist Church of the Philippines, and the Church of the Nazarene. There are also the IEMELIF Reform Movement (IRM), The Wesleyan (Pilgrim Holiness) Church of the Philippines, the Philippine Bible Methodist Church, Inc., the Pentecostal Free Methodist Church, Inc., the Fundamental Christian Methodist Church, The Reformed Methodist Church, Inc., The Methodist Church of the Living Bread, Inc., and the Wesley Evangelical Methodist Church & Mission, Inc.\n", "There are three Episcopal Areas of the United Methodist Church in the Philippines: the Baguio Episcopal Area, Davao Episcopal Area and Manila Episcopal Area.\n", "A call for autonomy from groups within the United Methodist Church in the Philippines was discussed at several conferences led mostly by episcopal candidates. This led to the establishment of the \"Ang Iglesia Metodista sa Pilipinas\" (\"The Methodist Church in the Philippines\") in 2010, led by Bishop Lito C. Tangonan, George Buenaventura, Chita Milan and Atty. Joe Frank E. Zuñiga. The group finally declared full autonomy and legal incorporation with the Securities and Exchange Commission was approved on 7 December 2011 with papers held by present procurators. It now has 126 local churches in Metro Manila, Palawan, Bataan, Zambales, Pangasinan, Bulacan, Aurora, Nueva Ecija, as well as parts of Pampanga and Cavite. Tangonan was consecrated as the denomination's first Presiding Bishop on 17 March 2012.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Asia.:South Korea.\n", "The Korean Methodist Church (KMC) is one of the largest churches in South Korea with around 1.5 million members and 8,306 ministers. Methodism in Korea grew out of British and American mission work which began in the late 19th century. The first missionary sent out was Robert Samuel Maclay of the Methodist Episcopal Church, who sailed from Japan in 1884 and was given the authority of medical and schooling permission from emperor Gojong. The Korean church became fully autonomous in 1930, retaining affiliation with Methodist churches in America and later the United Methodist Church. The church experienced rapid growth in membership throughout most of the 20th century—in spite of the Korean War—before stabilizing in the 1990s. The KMC is a member of the World Methodist Council and hosted the first Asia Methodist Convention in 2001.\n", "There are many Korean-language Methodist churches in North America catering to Korean-speaking immigrants, not all of which are named as Methodist.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Americas.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Americas.:Brazil.\n", "The Methodist Church in Brazil was founded by American missionaries in 1867 after an initial unsuccessful founding in 1835. It has grown steadily since, becoming autonomous in 1930. In the 1970s it ordained its first woman minister. , the Brazilian Methodist Church is divided into eight annual conferences with 162,000 members.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Americas.:Canada.\n", "The father of Methodism in Canada was William Black (1760–1834) who began preaching in settlements along the Petitcodiac River of New Brunswick in 1781. A few years afterwards, Methodist Episcopal circuit riders from the U.S. state of New York began to arrive in Canada West at Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Erie in 1786, and at the Kingston region on the northeast shore of Lake Ontario in the early 1790s. At the time the region was part of British North America and became part of Upper Canada after the Constitutional Act of 1791. Upper and Lower Canada were both part of the New York Episcopal Methodist Conference until 1810 when they were transferred to the newly formed Genesee Conference. Reverend Major George Neal began to preach in Niagara in October 1786, and was ordained in 1810 by Bishop Philip Asbury, at the Lyons, New York Methodist Conference. He was Canada's first saddlebag preacher, and travelled from Lake Ontario to Detroit for 50 years preaching the gospel.\n", "The spread of Methodism in the Canadas was seriously disrupted by the War of 1812 but quickly gained lost ground after the Treaty of Ghent was signed in 1815. In 1817 the British Wesleyans arrived in the Canadas from the Maritimes but by 1820 had agreed, with the Episcopal Methodists, to confine their work to Lower Canada (present-day Quebec) while the latter would confine themselves to Upper Canada (present-day Ontario). In the summer of 1818, the first place of public worship was erected for the Wesleyan Methodists in York, later Toronto. The chapel for the First Methodist Church was built on the corner of King Street and Jordan Street, the entire cost of the building was $250, an amount that took the congregation three years to raise. In 1828 Upper Canadian Methodists were permitted by the General Conference in the United States to form an independent Canadian Conference and, in 1833, the Canadian Conference merged with the British Wesleyans to form the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Canada. In 1884, most Canadian Methodists were brought under the umbrella of the Methodist Church, Canada.\n", "During the 19th century, Methodism played a large role in the culture and political affairs of Toronto. The city became known for being very puritanical with strict limits on the sale of alcohol and a rigorous enforcement of the Lord's Day Act.\n", "In 1925, the Methodist Church, Canada and most Presbyterian congregations, then by far the largest Protestant communion in Canada, most Congregational Union of Ontario and Quebec congregations, Union Churches in Western Canada, and the American Presbyterian Church in Montreal merged to form the United Church of Canada. In 1968, the Evangelical United Brethren Church's Canadian congregations joined after their American counterparts joined the United Methodist Church.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Americas.:Mexico.\n", "The Methodist Church came to Mexico in 1872, with the arrival of two Methodist commissioners from the United States to observe the possibilities of evangelistic work in México. In December 1872, Bishop Gilbert Haven arrived to Mexico City, and he was ordered by M. D. William Butler to go to México. Bishop John C. Keener arrived from the Methodist Episcopal Church, South in January 1873.\n", "In 1874, M. D. William Butler established the first Protestant Methodist school of México, in Puebla. The school was founded under the name \"Instituto Metodista Mexicano.\" Today the school is called \"Instituto Mexicano Madero.\" It is still a Methodist school, and it is one of the most elite, selective, expensive and prestigious private schools in the country, with two campuses in Puebla State, and one in Oaxaca. A few years later the principal of the school created a Methodist university, the first and only Protestant university in Mexico.\n", "On 18 January 1885, the first Annual Conference of the United Episcopal Church of México was established.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Americas.:United States.\n", "Wesley came to believe that the New Testament evidence did not leave the power of ordination to the priesthood in the hands of bishops but that other priests could ordain. In 1784, he ordained preachers for Scotland, England, and America, with power to administer the sacraments (this was a major reason for Methodism's final split from the Church of England after Wesley's death). At that time, Wesley sent Thomas Coke to America. Francis Asbury founded the Methodist Episcopal Church at the Baltimore Christmas Conference in 1784; Coke (already ordained in the Church of England) ordained Asbury deacon, elder, and bishop each on three successive days. Circuit riders, many of whom were laymen, travelled by horseback to preach the gospel and establish churches in many places. One of the most famous circuit riders was Robert Strawbridge who lived in the vicinity of Carroll County, Maryland soon after arriving in the Colonies around 1760.\n", "The First Great Awakening was a religious movement in the 1730s and 1740s, beginning in New Jersey, then spreading to New England, and eventually south into Virginia and North Carolina. The English Methodist preacher George Whitefield played a major role, traveling across the colonies and preaching in a dramatic and emotional style, accepting everyone as his audience.\n", "The new style of sermons and the way people practiced their faith breathed new life into religion in America. People became passionately and emotionally involved in their religion, rather than passively listening to intellectual discourse in a detached manner. People began to study the Bible at home. The effect was akin to the individualistic trends present in Europe during the Protestant Reformation.\n", "The Second Great Awakening was a nationwide wave of revivals, from 1790 to 1840. In New England, the renewed interest in religion inspired a wave of social activism among Yankees; Methodism grew and established several colleges, notably Boston University. In the \"burned over district\" of western New York, the spirit of revival burned brightly. Methodism saw the emergence of a Holiness movement. In the west, especially at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and in Tennessee, the revival strengthened the Methodists and the Baptists. Methodism grew rapidly in the Second Great Awakening, becoming the nation's largest denomination by 1820. From 58,000 members in 1790, it reached 258,000 in 1820 and 1,661,000 in 1860, growing by a factor of 28.6 in 70 years, while the total American population grew by a factor of eight. Other denominations also used revivals, but the Methodists grew fastest of all because \"they combined popular appeal with efficient organization under the command of missionary bishops.\"\n", "Disputes over slavery placed the church in difficulty in the first half of the 19th century, with the northern church leaders fearful of a split with the South, and reluctant to take a stand. The Wesleyan Methodist Connexion (later renamed the Wesleyan Methodist Church) and the Free Methodist Churches were formed by staunch abolitionists, and the Free Methodists were especially active in the Underground Railroad, which helped to free the slaves. In 1962, the Evangelical Wesleyan Church separated from the Free Methodist Church. In 1968 the Wesleyan Methodist Church and Pilgrim Holiness Church merged to form the Wesleyan Church; a significant amount dissented from this decision resulting in the independence of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and the formation of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, both of which fall within the conservative holiness movement.\n", "In a much larger split, in 1845 at Louisville, the churches of the slaveholding states left the Methodist Episcopal Church and formed The Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The northern and southern branches were reunited in 1939, when slavery was no longer an issue. In this merger also joined the Methodist Protestant Church. Some southerners, conservative in theology, opposed the merger, and formed the Southern Methodist Church in 1940.\n", "The Third Great Awakening from 1858 to 1908 saw enormous growth in Methodist membership, and a proliferation of institutions such as colleges (e.g., Morningside College). Methodists were often involved in the \"Missionary Awakening\" and the Social Gospel Movement. The awakening in so many cities in 1858 started the movement, but in the North it was interrupted by the Civil War. In the South, on the other hand, the Civil War stimulated revivals, especially in Lee's army.\n", "In 1914–1917 many Methodist ministers made strong pleas for world peace. President Woodrow Wilson (a Presbyterian), promised \"a war to end all wars,\" using language of a future peace that had been a watchword for the postmillennial movement. In the 1930s many Methodists favored isolationist policies. Thus in 1936, Methodist Bishop James Baker, of the San Francisco Conference, released a poll of ministers showing 56% opposed warfare. However, the Methodist Federation did call for a boycott of Japan, which had invaded China and was disrupting missionary activity there. In Chicago, 62 local African Methodist Episcopal churches voted their support for the Roosevelt administration's policy, while opposing any plan to send American troops overseas to fight. When war came in 1941, the vast majority of Methodists strongly supported the national war effort, but there were also a few (673) conscientious objectors.\n", "The United Methodist Church (UMC) was formed in 1968 as a result of a merger between the Evangelical United Brethren Church (EUB) and The Methodist Church. The former church had resulted from mergers of several groups of German Methodist heritage, however there was no longer any need or desire to worship in the German language. The latter church was a result of union between the Methodist Protestant Church and the northern and southern factions of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The merged church had approximately nine million members as of the late 1990s. While United Methodist Church in America membership has been declining, associated groups in developing countries are growing rapidly. Prior to the merge that led to the formation of the United Methodist Church, the Evangelical Methodist Church entered into a schism with the Methodist Church, citing modernism in its parent body as the reason for the departure in 1946.\n", "American Methodist churches are generally organized on a \"connectional\" model, related, but not identical to that used in Britain. Pastors are assigned to congregations by bishops, distinguishing it from presbyterian government. Methodist denominations typically give lay members representation at regional and national Conferences at which the business of the church is conducted, making it different from most episcopal government. This connectional organizational model differs further from the congregational model, for example of Baptist, and Congregationalist Churches, among others.\n", "In addition to the United Methodist Church, there are over 40 other denominations that descend from John Wesley's Methodist movement. Some, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the Free Methodists and the Wesleyan Church (formerly Wesleyan Methodist), are explicitly Methodist. There are also independent Methodist churches, many of which are affiliated with the Association of Independent Methodists. Others do not call themselves Methodist, but grew out of the Methodist movement: for example, The Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene. Some of the charismatic or Pentecostal churches such as the Pentecostal Holiness Church and the Assemblies of God USA also have roots in or draw from Wesleyan thought.\n", "The Holiness Revival was primarily among people of Methodist persuasion, who felt that the church had once again become apathetic, losing the Wesleyan zeal. Some important events of this revival were the writings of Phoebe Palmer during the mid-1800s, the establishment of the first of many holiness camp meetings at Vineland, New Jersey in 1867, and the founding of Asbury College, (1890), and other similar institutions in the U.S. around the turn of the 20th century.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Oceania.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Oceania.:Australia.\n", "An Australasian General Conference, meeting triennially, for Australasia was established in 1875, with Annual Conferences in each colony (including New Zealand).\n", "Various branches of Methodism in Australia merged during the 20 years from 1881. The Methodist Church of Australasia was formed on 1 January 1902 when five Methodist denominations in Australia – the Wesleyan Methodist Church, the Primitive Methodists, the Bible Christian Church, the United Methodist Free and the Methodist New Connexion Churches came together. In polity it largely followed the Wesleyan Methodist Church. The only sizable Methodist group outside this new structure were the Lay Methodists.\n", "In 1945 Kingsley Ridgway offered himself as a Melbourne-based \"field representative\" for a possible Australian branch of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of America, after meeting an American serviceman who was a member of that denomination. The Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia was founded on his work.\n", "The Methodist Church of Australasia merged with the majority of the Presbyterian Church of Australia and the Congregational Union of Australia in 1977, becoming the Uniting Church. The Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia and some independent congregations chose not to join the union.\n", "From the mid-1980s a number of independent Methodist churches were founded by missionaries and other members from the Methodist Churches of Malaysia and Singapore. Some of these came together to form what is now known as the Chinese Methodist Church in Australia in 1994, electing its first bishop in 2002.\n", "Since the 2000s many independent Methodist churches have been established or grown by Tongan immigrants. Many Pacific Islander immigrants of a Methodist background have also joined Uniting Church congregations.\n", "Wesley Mission in Pitt Street, Sydney, the largest parish in the Uniting Church, remains strongly in the Wesleyan tradition.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Oceania.:Fiji.\n", "As a result of the early efforts of missionaries, most of the natives of the Fiji Islands were converted to Methodism in the 1840s and 1850s. Most ethnic Fijians are Methodists today (the others are largely Roman Catholic and further divided into minor denominations such as Baptist, All Nations, Assemblies of God, Christian Mission Fellowship, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of Latter Day Saints, Souls to Jesus and a few others), and the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma is an important social force.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Oceania.:New Zealand.\n", "The Methodist Church of New Zealand was the fourth most frequent religious affiliation chosen by those who declared one in the 2006 national census.\n", "Since the early 1990s, missionaries and Methodist Church members from Malaysia and Singapore established Churches around major centres in New Zealand. These congregations came together to form The Chinese Methodist Church in New Zealand (CMCNZ) in 2003, and constituted as a Provisional Annual Conference to elect its first president in 2018.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Oceania.:Samoan Islands.\n", "In 1868, Piula Theological College was established in Lufilufi on the north coast of Upolu island in Samoa and serves as the main headquarters of the Methodist church in the country. The college includes the historic Piula Monastery as well as Piula Cave Pool, a natural spring situated beneath the church by the sea. The Methodist Church is the third largest denomination throughout the Samoan Islands, in both Samoa and American Samoa.\n", "Section::::Contemporary Methodism.:Oceania.:Tonga.\n", "Methodism had a particular resonance with the inhabitants of Tonga. somewhat more than a third of Tongans adhered to the Methodist tradition. Methodism is represented on the island by a number of churches including the Free Church of Tonga and the Free Wesleyan Church, which is the largest church in Tonga. The royal family of the country are prominent members, and the late king was a lay preacher.\n", "Section::::Ecumenical relations.\n", "Many Methodists have been involved in the ecumenical movement, which has sought to unite the fractured denominations of Christianity. Because Methodism grew out of the Church of England, a denomination from which neither of the Wesley brothers seceded, some Methodist scholars and historians, such as Rupert E. Davies, have regarded their 'movement' more as a preaching order within wider Christian life than as a church, comparing them with the Franciscans, who formed a religious order within the medieval European church and not a separate denomination. Certainly, Methodists have been deeply involved in early examples of church union, especially the United Church of Canada and the Church of South India.\n", "Also, a disproportionate number of Methodists take part in inter-faith dialogue. For example, Wesley Ariarajah, a long-serving director of the World Council of Churches' sub-unit on \"Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies\" is a Methodist.\n", "In October 1999, an executive committee of the World Methodist Council resolved to explore the possibility of its member churches becoming associated with the doctrinal agreement which had been reached by the Catholic Church and Lutheran World Federation (LWF). In May 2006, the International Methodist–Catholic Dialogue Commission completed its most recent report, entitled \"The Grace Given You in Christ: Catholics and Methodists Reflect Further on the Church,\" and submitted the text to Methodist and Catholic authorities. In July of the same year, in Seoul, South Korea, the Member Churches of the World Methodist Council (WMC) voted to approve and sign a \"Methodist Statement of Association\" with the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, the agreement which was reached and officially accepted in 1999 by the Catholic Church and the Lutheran World Federation and which proclaimed that:\n", "\"Together we confess: By grace alone, in faith in Christ's saving work and not because of any merit on our part, we are accepted by God and receive the Holy Spirit, who renews our hearts while equipping and calling us to good works... as sinners our new life is solely due to the forgiving and renewing mercy that God imparts as a gift and we receive in faith, and never can merit in any way,\" affirming \"fundamental doctrinal agreement\" concerning justification between the Catholic Church, the LWF, and the World Methodist Council.\n", "This is not to say there is perfect agreement between the three denominational traditions; while Catholics and Methodists believe that salvation involves cooperation between God and man, Lutherans believe that God brings about the salvation of individuals without any cooperation on their part.\n", "Commenting on the ongoing dialogues with Catholic Church leaders, Ken Howcroft, Methodist minister and the Ecumenical Officer for the Methodist Church of Great Britain, noted that \"these conversations have been immensely fruitful.\" Methodists are increasingly recognizing that the 15 centuries prior to the Reformation constitute a shared history with Catholics, and are gaining new appreciation for neglected aspects of the Catholic tradition. There are, however, important unresolved doctrinal differences separating Roman Catholicism and Methodism, which include \"the nature and validity of the ministry of those who preside at the Eucharist, the precise meaning of the Eucharist as the sacramental 'memorial' of Christ's saving death and resurrection, the particular way in which Christ is present in Holy Communion, and the link between eucharistic communion and ecclesial communion.\n", "In the 1960s, the Methodist Church of Great Britain made ecumenical overtures to the Church of England, aimed at denominational union. Formally, these failed when they were rejected by the Church of England's General Synod in 1972; conversations and co-operation continued, however, leading in 2003 to the signing of a covenant between the two churches. From the 1970s onward, the Methodist Church also started several Local Ecumenical Projects (LEPs, later renamed Local Ecumenical Partnerships) with local neighbouring denominations, which involved sharing churches, schools and in some cases ministers. In many towns and villages there are United Churches which are sometimes with Anglican or Baptist churches, but most commonly are Methodist and URC, simply because in terms of belief, practice and churchmanship, many Methodists see themselves as closer to the United Reformed Church than to other denominations such as the Church of England. In the 1990s and early 21st century, the British Methodist Church was involved in the Scottish Church Initiative for Union, seeking greater unity with the established and Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Scottish Episcopal Church and the United Reformed Church in Scotland.\n", "The Methodist Church of Great Britain is a member of several ecumenical organisations, including the World Council of Churches, the Conference of European Churches, the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe, Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, Churches Together in England, Action of Churches Together in Scotland and Cytûn (Wales).\n", "Methodist denominations in the United States have also strengthened ties with other Christian traditions. In April 2005, bishops in the United Methodist Church approved \"A Proposal for Interim Eucharistic Sharing.\" This document was the first step toward full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA). The ELCA approved this same document in August 2005. At the 2008 General Conference, the United Methodist Church approved full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. The UMC is also in dialogue with the Episcopal Church for full communion by 2012. The two denominations are working on a document called \"Confessing Our Faith Together.\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Methodists\n", "BULLET::::- List of Methodist theologians\n", "BULLET::::- Saints in Methodism\n", "BULLET::::- List of Methodist churches\n", "BULLET::::- List of Methodist denominations\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham, William J. and James E. Kirby, eds. \"The Oxford Handbook of Methodist Studies\" (2009). 780pp; historiography; excerpt\n", "Section::::Further reading.:World.\n", "BULLET::::- Copplestone, J. Tremayne. \"History of Methodist Missions, vol. 4: Twentieth-Century Perspectives\" (1973), 1288 pp; comprehensive world coverage for US Methodist missions – online\n", "BULLET::::- Cracknell, Kenneth and White, Susan J. (2005) \"An Introduction to World Methodism\", Cambridge University Press, .\n", "BULLET::::- Forster, DA and Bentley, W (eds.) (2008)\"What are we thinking? Reflections on Church and Society from Southern African Methodists.\" Methodist Publishing House, Cape Town.\n", "BULLET::::- Forster, DA and Bentley, W (eds.) (2008)\" Methodism in Southern Africa: A celebration of Wesleyan Mission\" AcadSA Publishers, Kempton Park.\n", "BULLET::::- Harmon, Nolan B. (ed.) (2 vol. 1974) \"The Encyclopedia of World Methodism\", Nashville: Abingdon Press, . 2640pp\n", "BULLET::::- Heitzenrater, Richard P. (1994) \"Wesley and the People Called Methodists\", Nashville: Abingdon Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Hempton, David (2005) \"Methodism: Empire of the Spirit\", Yale University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Wilson, Kenneth. \"Methodist Theology\". London, T & T Clark International, 2011 (Doing Theology).\n", "BULLET::::- Yrigoyen Jr, Charles, and Susan E. Warrick. \"Historical dictionary of Methodism\" (2nd ed. Scarecrow Press, 2013)\n", "Section::::Further reading.:Great Britain.\n", "BULLET::::- Borgen, Ole E. \"John Wesley on the Sacraments: a Theological Study\". Grand Rapids, Mich.: Francis Asbury Press, 1985, cop. 1972. 307 p.\n", "BULLET::::- Brooks, Alan (2010) \"West End Methodism: The Story of Hinde Street\", London: Northway Publications, 400pp.\n", "BULLET::::- Dowson, Jean and Hutchinson, John (2003) \"John Wesley: His Life, Times and Legacy\" [CD-ROM], Methodist Publishing House, TB214\n", "BULLET::::- Edwards, Maldwyn. \"Methodism and England: A study of Methodism in its social and political aspects during the period 1850–1932\" (1944)\n", "BULLET::::- Halevy, Elie, and Bernard Semmel. \"The Birth of Methodism in England\" (1971)\n", "BULLET::::- Hempton, David (1984) \"Methodism and Politics in British Society, 1750–1850\", Stanford University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Jones, David Ceri et al. \"The Elect Methodists: Calvinistic Methodism in England and Wales, 1735–1811\" (2012)\n", "BULLET::::- Kent, John (2002) \"Wesley and the Wesleyans\", Cambridge University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Madden, Lionel. \"Methodism in Wales: A Short History of the Wesley Tradition\" (2003)\n", "BULLET::::- Stigant, P. \"Wesleyan Methodism and working-class radicalism in the north, 1792–1821.\" \"Northern History\" (1971) 6#1 pp: 98–116.\n", "BULLET::::- Thompson, Edward Palmer. \"The making of the English working class\" (1963) a famous classic stressing the role of Methodism.\n", "BULLET::::- Turner, John Munsey. \"John Wesley: The Evangelical Revival and the Rise of Methodism in England\" (2003)\n", "BULLET::::- Turner, John M. \"Modern Methodism in England, 1932–1996\" (1997)\n", "BULLET::::- Warner, Wellman J. (1930) \"The Wesleyan Movement in the Industrial Revolution\", London: Longmans, Green.\n", "Section::::Further reading.:African Americans.\n", "BULLET::::- Campbell, James T. (1995) \"Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa\", Oxford University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- George, Carol V.R. (1973) \"Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Rise of Independent Black Churches, 1760–1840\", New York: Oxford University Press, LCCN 73076908\n", "BULLET::::- Montgomery, William G. (1993) \"Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865–1900\", Louisiana State University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Walker, Clarence E. (1982) \"A Rock in a Weary Land: The African Methodist Episcopal Church During the Civil War and Reconstruction\", Louisiana State University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Wills, David W. and Newman, Richard (eds.) (1982) \"Black Apostles at Home and Abroad: Afro-American and the Christian Mission from the Revolution to Reconstruction\", Boston, MA: G. K. Hall,\n", "Section::::Further reading.:US and Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Cameron, Richard M. (ed.) (1961) \"Methodism and Society in Historical Perspective\", 4 vol., New York: Abingdon Press\n", "BULLET::::- Lyerly, Cynthia Lynn (1998) \"Methodism and the Southern Mind, 1770–1810\", Religion in America Series, Oxford University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Meyer, Donald (1988) \"The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919–1941\", Wesleyan University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Rawlyk, G.A. (1994) \"The Canada Fire: Radical Evangelicalism in British North America, 1775–1812\", Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Schmidt, Jean Miller (1999) \"Grace Sufficient: A History of Women in American Methodism, 1760–1939\", Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press\n", "BULLET::::- Semple, Neil (1996) \"The Lord's Dominion: The History of Canadian Methodism\", Buffalo: McGill-Queen's University Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Sweet, William Warren (1954) \"Methodism in American History\", Revision of 1953, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 472 p.\n", "BULLET::::- Wigger, John H. (1998) \"Taking Heaven by Storm: Methodism and the Rise of Popular Christianity in America\", Oxford University Press, – pp. ix & 269 focus on 1770–1910\n", "Section::::Further reading.:Primary sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Richey, Russell E., Rowe, Kenneth E. and Schmidt, Jean Miller (eds.) (2000) \"The Methodist Experience in America: a sourcebook\", Nashville: Abingdon Press, . 756 p. of original documents\n", "BULLET::::- Sweet, William Warren (ed.) (1946) \"Religion on the American Frontier: Vol. 4, The Methodists,1783–1840: A Collection of Source Materials\", New York: H. Holt & Co., – 800 p. of documents regarding the American frontier\n", "BULLET::::- The Archive of the Methodist Missionary Society is held at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. http://www.soas.ac.uk/library/archives/\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Methodist History Bookmarks\n", "BULLET::::- World Methodist Council (Official Website)\n", "BULLET::::- List of Member Churches\n", "BULLET::::- World Methodist Evangelical Institute (Official Website)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q33203", "wikidata_label": "Methodism", "wikipedia_title": "Methodism", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "YTV\n", "YTV or ytv may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- YTV (TV channel), a Canadian youth television station owned by Corus Entertainment\n", "BULLET::::- Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council, a co-operation agency operating in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area\n", "BULLET::::- Yale TV, the broadcast desk of the student newspaper \"Yale Daily News\"\n", "BULLET::::- Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, a TV station joining Nippon News Network and Nippon Television Network System in Osaka, Japan\n", "BULLET::::- Yorkshire Television, former name of ITV Yorkshire, United Kingdom\n", "BULLET::::- Yumurcak TV, a Turkish channel\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- KYTV (TV), an NBC affiliated television station in Springfield, Missouri\n", "BULLET::::- WYTV, an ABC affiliated television station in Youngstown, Ohio\n", "BULLET::::- WHYY-TV, a PBS member station in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Miranda Richardson\n", "Miranda Jane Richardson (born 3 March 1958) is an English actress. She made her film debut playing Ruth Ellis in \"Dance with a Stranger\" (1985) and went on to receive Academy Award nominations for \"Damage\" (1992) and \"Tom & Viv\" (1994). A seven-time BAFTA Award nominee, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for \"Damage\". She has also been nominated for seven Golden Globe Awards, winning twice for \"Enchanted April\" (1992) and the TV film \"Fatherland\" (1994). \n", "Richardson began her career in 1979 and made her West End debut in the 1981 play \"Moving\", before being nominated for the 1987 Olivier Award for Best Actress for \"A Lie of the Mind\". Her television credits include \"Blackadder\" (1986–89), \"A Dance to the Music of Time\" (1997), \"Merlin\" (1998), \"The Lost Prince\" (2003), \"Gideon's Daughter\" (2006), the sitcom \"The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle\" (2007), and \"Rubicon\" (2010). She was nominated for the 2015 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator for \"Operation Orangutan\".\n", "Her other films include \"Empire of the Sun\" (1987), \"The Crying Game\" (1992), \"The Apostle\" (1997), \"Sleepy Hollow\" (1999), \"Chicken Run\" (2000), \"The Hours\" (2002), \"Spider\" (2002), \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" (2005), \"The Young Victoria\" (2009), \"Made in Dagenham\" (2010), \"Belle\" (2013), and \"Stronger\" (2017).\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Richardson was born in Southport, England, to Marian Georgina (née Townsend), a housewife, and William Alan Richardson, a marketing executive, and was their second daughter.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Section::::Career.:Theatre.\n", "Richardson enrolled at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, where she studied alongside Daniel Day-Lewis and Jenny Seagrove, having started out with juvenile performances in \"Cinderella\" and \"Lord Arthur Savile's Crime\" at the Southport Dramatic Club.\n", "Richardson has enjoyed a successful and extensive theatre career, first joining Manchester Library Theatre in 1979 as an assistant stage manager, followed by a number of appearances in repertory theatre. Her London stage debut was in \"Moving\" at the Queen's Theatre in 1981. She found recognition in the West End for a series of stage performances, ultimately receiving an Olivier Award nomination for her performance in \"A Lie of the Mind\", and, in 1996, one critic asserted that she is \"the greatest actress of our time in any medium\" after she appeared in \"Orlando\" at the Edinburgh Festival. She returned to the London stage in May 2009 to play the lead role in Wallace Shawn's new play, \"Grasses of a Thousand Colours\" at the Royal Court Theatre. Richardson has said that she prefers new work rather than the classics because of the history which goes with them.\n", "Section::::Career.:Film and television.\n", "In 1985, Richardson made her film debut as Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be hanged in the United Kingdom, in the biographical drama \"Dance with a Stranger\". Around the same time, Richardson played a comedic Queen Elizabeth I, aka Queenie, in the British television comedy \"Blackadder II\".\n", "Following \"Dance with a Stranger\", Richardson turned down numerous parts in which her character was unstable or disreputable, including the Glenn Close role in \"Fatal Attraction\". In this period, she appeared in \"Empire of the Sun\" (1987). In an episode of the TV series \"The Storyteller\" (\"The Three Ravens\", 1988), she played a witch. Meanwhile, she had returned in guest roles in one episode each in \"Blackadder the Third\" (1987) and \"Blackadder Goes Forth\" (1989). She returned to play Queenie in the Christmas special \"Blackadder's Christmas Carol\" (1988) and, later, a special edition for the millennium \"\".\n", "Her portrayal of a troubled theatre goer in \"Secret Friends\" (BBC 2, 1990) was described as \"a miniature tour de force... Miranda Richardson's finest hour, all in ten minutes\" (\"The Sunday Times\"). Other television roles include Pamela Flitton in \"A Dance to the Music of Time\" (1997), Miss Gilchrist in \"St. Ives\" (1998), Bettina the interior decorator in \"Absolutely Fabulous\", Queen Elspeth, Snow White's stepmother, in \"\" (2001), and Queen Mary in \"The Lost Prince\" (2003).\n", "Richardson has appeared in a number of high-profile supporting roles in film, including Vanessa Bell in \"The Hours\", Lady Van Tassel in \"Sleepy Hollow\" and Patsy Carpenter in \"The Evening Star\". She also won acclaim for her performances in \"The Crying Game\" and \"Enchanted April\", for which she won a Golden Globe. She received Academy Award nominations for her performances in \"Damage\" and \"Tom & Viv\".\n", "Her film credits also include \"Kansas City\" (1996), \"The Apostle\" (1997) and \"Wah-Wah\" (2005). In 2002, she performed a triple-role in the thriller \"Spider\".\n", "Richardson also appeared as Queen Rosalind of Denmark in \"The Prince and Me\" and as the ballet mistress Madame Giry in the film version of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical \"The Phantom Of The Opera\" (2004). In 2005, she appeared in the role of Rita Skeeter, the toxic \"Daily Prophet\" journalist in \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\". She also did the voice for Corky in \"The Adventures of Bottle Top Bill and His Best Friend Corky\" (2005), an Australian animated series for children. In 2006, she appeared in \"Gideon's Daughter\". She played Mrs. Claus in the film \"Fred Claus\" (2007).\n", "Richardson appeared in the BBC sitcom, \"The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle\". She appeared as a guest in \"A Taste of My Life\".\n", "In 2008, Richardson was cast in a leading role in original AMC pilot, \"Rubicon\". She plays Katherine Rhumor, a New York socialite who finds herself drawn into the central intrigue of a think tank after the death of her husband.\n", "Additionally, she played Labour politician Barbara Castle in the British film \"Made in Dagenham\".\n", "Richardson was cast as Queen Ulla in \"Maleficent\", where she was to play the titular character's aunt, but her role was cut from the film during post-production. In 2015, she played Sybil Birling in Helen Edmundson's BBC One adaptation of J. B. Priestley's \"An Inspector Calls\".\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Richardson has never married. She is interested in falconry.\n", "Section::::Theatre roles.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Savage Amusement\" (Hazel) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stags and Hens\" (Linda) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster\n", "BULLET::::- \"All My Sons\" (Ann) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sisterly Feelings\" (Brenda) – Derby Playhouse, Lancaster\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ten Times Table\" (Phillipa) – Library Theatre, Manchester\n", "BULLET::::- \"Whose Life Is It Anyway?\" (Kay Sadler) – Library Theatre, Manchester\n", "BULLET::::- \"Play It Again, Sam\" (Linda Christie) – Library Theatre, Manchester\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tom Jones\" (Sophie Western) – Library Theatre, Manchester\n", "BULLET::::- \"Educating Rita\" (Rita) – Haymarket Theatre, Leicester\n", "BULLET::::- \"Moving\" (Jane Gladwin) – Queen's Theatre (1980/1)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Table of the Two Horseman\" (Katie Wyld) – Bristol Theatre Royal (9 March 1983/2 April 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?\" (Honey) – Bristol Theatre Royal (6 April 1983/30 April 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Maids\" (Madame) – Bristol New Vic (27 September 1983/22 October 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Insignificance\" (The Actress) – Bristol New Vic (25 October 1983/19 December 1983)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Life of Einstein\" – The Dukes Theatre, Lancaster (1984)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Edmond\" (Glenna) – Newcastle (1985)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Lie of the Mind\" (Beth) – Royal Court Theatre, West End (1987)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Changeling\" (Beatrice-Joanna) – (Lyttelton) National Theatre, West End (1988)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mountain Language\" (Young Woman) – (Lyttelton) National Theatre, West End (1988)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Etta Jenks\" (Etta Jenks) – Royal Court Theatre, West End (1990)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Designated Mourner\" (Judy) – Royal National Theatre, West End (1996)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Orlando\" (Orlando) – 50th Edinburgh International Festival (11/21 August 1996)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aunt Dan and Lemon\" (Aunt Dan) – Almeida Theatre, Islington, London (5 May/5 June 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Play What I Wrote\" (Herself) – Wyndham's Theatre, West End (30 January 2002, 5 May 2002, 2 January 2003)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Comic Aid 2005\" – (Herself – Asia Tsunami Aid) – Carling Apollo, West End (22 February 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- \"One Knight Only\" – (Herself – Asia Tsunami Aid) – Theatre Royal, Haymarket, West End (20 March 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grasses of a thousand colours\" (Cerise) – Royal Court Theatre (May 2009)\n", "Section::::Filmography.\n", "Section::::Filmography.:Television.\n", "1998 \"Merlin\" (Hallmark TV special) as Queen Mab\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English actress", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q229241", "wikidata_label": "Miranda Richardson", "wikipedia_title": "Miranda Richardson", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Miranda Jane Richardson" ] } }

{ "pageid": 20192, "parentid": 903941041, "revid": 907370297, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-22T12:45:08Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miranda%20Richardson&oldid=907370297" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Supachai Panitchpakdi\n", "Supachai Panitchpakdi (, , ; born 30 May 1946 in Bangkok, Thailand) is a Thai politician and professor. He was Secretary-General of the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) from 1 September 2005 to 31 August 2013. Prior to this, he was the Director-General of the World Trade Organization (WTO) from 1 September 2002 to 1 September 2005. He was succeeded by Pascal Lamy.\n", "In 1986 Supachai Panitchpakdi was appointed as Thailand's Deputy Minister of Finance, but when parliament was dissolved in 1988 he left politics and became president of Thai Military Bank. In 1992 he returned to politics and became deputy prime minister until 1995, responsible for trade and economics. During the Asian financial crisis in November 1997 he returned to be deputy prime minister and also became minister of commerce.\n", "In September 1999 he was elected to become Director-General of the World Trade Organization, sharing the post with Mike Moore when a decision could not be reached. Taking the second half of the six-year term, he entered office on 1 September 2002.\n", "In March 2005 he was appointed Secretary-General of the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) following his term at the WTO, a post he took up in late-2005. He was appointed for a second four-year term in September 2009. Keen to reform and revitalise the organisation, he has established a Panel of Eminent Persons to oversee the start of reform of UNCTAD.\n", "Supachai received his master's degree in economics, development planning and his PhD in economic planning and development at the Netherlands School of Economics (now known as Erasmus University) in Rotterdam. In 1973, he completed his doctoral dissertation under supervision of Professor Jan Tinbergen, the first Nobel laureate in economics. In the same year, he went to Cambridge University as a visiting fellow to conduct research on development models.\n", "He published numerous books, including \"Educational Growth in Developing Countries\" (1974), \"Globalization and Trade in the New Millennium\" (2001) and \"China and the WTO: Changing China, Changing World Trade\" (2002, co-authored with Mark Clifford).\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- UNCTAD - Secretary-General's Office\n", "BULLET::::- UNCTAD - Secretary-General's Biography\n", "BULLET::::- UNDT judgment UNDT/2012/136\n", "BULLET::::- Biography at WTO\n" ] }

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{ "description": "New Zealand diplomat", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q473046", "wikidata_label": "Supachai Panitchpakdi", "wikipedia_title": "Supachai Panitchpakdi", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Garsington\n", "Garsington is a village and civil parish about southeast of Oxford in Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 1,689.\n", "The village is known for the flamboyant social life at Garsington Manor when it was the home from 1914 to 1928 of Philip and Ottoline Morrell, and for the Garsington Opera which was staged here from 1989 until 2010.\n", "Section::::Buildings.\n", "Section::::Buildings.:Garsington Manor.\n", "Garsington Manor House was built in the 16th century and remodelled in the 17th century. It is a Grade II* listed building. \n", "It was the home of Lady Ottoline Morrell (1873–1938), doyenne of the Bloomsbury group of writers and artists who used to meet at the manor. By association it has connection with the philosopher Bertrand Russell, writers such as Aldous Huxley, W. B. Yeats, Virginia Woolf and D. H. Lawrence and artists like Mark Gertler, Eric Gill and Dora Carrington. \n", "Garsington Manor was bought in 1982 by Leonard Ingrams who established the Garsington Opera, an annual open air opera festival which was staged there each summer from 1989 until 2010. The opera moved to Wormsley Park, Buckinghamshire in 2011.\n", "Section::::Buildings.:Southend Manor House.\n", "The Southend part of the village has its own manor house. It is an early 17th-century double-pile Jacobean building with a front of seven bays. It is a Grade II* listed building.\n", "Section::::Buildings.:Parish church.\n", "The oldest part of the parish church of Saint Mary includes the tower, built towards the end of the 12th century in the transitional style between Norman and Early English. The chancel is pure Early English and was built or rebuilt in about 1300. St Mary's has Decorated Gothic north and south aisles, which were added in the 14th century and have four-bay arcades.\n", "St Mary's was restored in 1849 under the direction of the Gothic Revival architect Joseph Clarke. Clarke's alterations included rebuilding the chancel arch to match the north arcade, adding gargoyles to the south aisle and much remodelling of the north aisle. St Mary's is a Grade II* listed building.\n", "Inside, next to the entrance door, is a memorial to Garsington's most illustrious inhabitant, Ottoline Morrell, by Eric Gill. \n", "The west tower has a ring of six bells. Richard Keene of Woodstock cast the treble bell in 1696. Abraham II Rudhall of Gloucester cast the second bell in 1720. Henry III Bagley of Chacombe, Northamptonshire cast the third bell in 1733, presumably at his then foundry in Witney. John Rudhall of Gloucester cast the tenor bell in 1788. W&J Taylor cast the fifth bell in 1825, presumably at their then foundry in Oxford. The fourth bell was cast in 1732 but Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry recast it in 1929. The bells were restored in 2013.\n", "Thomas Thwaites of Clerkenwell in London built the turret clock for the tower in 1796 at a cost of £172 4s 0d. It is a 30-hour clock and it strikes the hours on the tenor bell. Its dials still have only an hour hand.\n", "St Mary's parish is now part of the Benefice of Garsington, Cuddesdon and Horspath.\n", "The wedding scene in the 2006 film \"Amazing Grace\" was filmed at the church.\n", "Section::::Buildings.:School.\n", "A parish school was built in Garsington in 1840. It was reorganised as a junior school in 1923. It now occupies more modern premises and is a Church of England primary school.\n", "Section::::Buildings.:Village hall.\n", "The village hall was built in 1911 and given to the village by the lord of the manor, Philip Morrell. For most of the 20th century it served the needs of the villagers and a number of small improvements were made over the years. It was renovated to bring it up to modern day standards. The building retains its original appearance as well as adding modern-day facilities.\n", "Section::::Amenities.\n", "Garsington has a public house: the Three Horseshoes. There were two other public houses: the Plough has been converted into a private house; and the Red Lion is in the process of conversion. There are also a hairdressing salon, a garden centre, dog kennels and a cattery.\n", "Garsington Sports and Social Club is in Denton Lane. It has two men's football teams that play in the Oxfordshire Senior Football League and two youth teams that play in the \"Oxford Mail\" Youth League\n", "Garsington Cricket Club plays in the Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division Five. The Club also has teams that compete in local darts and Aunt Sally leagues.\n", "The Garsington Society seeks to expand the knowledge of Garsington and its surrounding areas historically and geographically with talks held from time to time. The Society holds an annual barn dance.\n", "Garsington has a Women's Institute.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Garsington Parish Council\n", "BULLET::::- Garsington Community Plan\n", "BULLET::::- Garsington Village Hall\n", "BULLET::::- Oxford Green Belt Network\n" ] }

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{ "description": "village and civil parish in South Oxfordshire, England", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1946231", "wikidata_label": "Garsington", "wikipedia_title": "Garsington", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Garsington, Oxfordshire", "Garsington, Oxon" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Isaac Todhunter\n", "Isaac Todhunter FRS (23 November 1820 – 1 March 1884), was an English mathematician who is best known today for the books he wrote on mathematics and its history.\n", "Section::::Life and work.\n", "The son of George Todhunter, a Nonconformist minister, and Mary née Hume, he was born at Rye, Sussex. He was educated at Hastings, where his mother had opened a school after the death of his father in 1826. He became an assistant master at a school at Peckham, attending at the same time evening classes at the University College, London where he was influenced by Augustus De Morgan. In 1842 he obtained a mathematical scholarship and graduated as B.A. at London University, where he was awarded the gold medal on the M.A. examination. About this time he became mathematical master at a school at Wimbledon.\n", "In 1844 Todhunter entered St John's College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler in 1848, and gained the first Smith's Prize and the Burney Prize; and in 1849 he was elected to a fellowship, and began his life of college lecturer and private tutor. In 1862 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1865 a member of the Mathematical Society of London. In 1871 he gained the Adams Prize and was elected to the council of the Royal Society. He was elected honorary fellow of St John's in 1874, having resigned his fellowship on his marriage in 1864. In 1880 his eyesight began to fail, and shortly afterwards he was attacked with paralysis.\n", "He is buried in the Mill Road cemetery, Cambridge.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Todhunter married 13 August 1864 Louisa Anna Maria, eldest daughter of Captain (afterwards Admiral) George Davies, R.N. (at that time head of the county constabulary force). He died on 1 March 1884, at his residence, 6 Brookside, Cambridge. A mural tablet and medallion portrait were placed in the ante-chapel of his college by his widow, who, with four sons and one daughter, survived him.\n", "He was a sound Latin and Greek scholar, familiar with French, German, Spanish, Italian, and also Russian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. He was well versed in the history of philosophy, and on three occasions acted as examiner for the moral sciences tripos.\n", "Section::::Selected writings.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Treatise on the Differential Calculus and the Elements of the Integral Calculus\" (1852, 6th ed., 1873)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Treatise on Analytical Statics\" (1853, 4th ed., 1874)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Treatise on the Integral Calculus\" (1857, 4th ed., 1874)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Treatise on Algebra\" (1858, 6th ed., 1871)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Treatise on differential Calculus\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Treatise on Plane Coordinate Geometry\" (1858, 3rd ed., 1861)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Plane Trigonometry\" (1859, 4th ed., 1869)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spherical Trigonometry\" (1859)\n", "BULLET::::- \"History of the Calculus of Variations\" (1861)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Theory of Equations\" (1861, 2nd ed. 1875)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Examples of Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions\" (1858, 3rd ed., 1873)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mechanics for Beginners\" (1867)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability from the Time of Pascal to that of Laplace\" (1865)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Researches in the Calculus of Variations\" (1871)\n", "BULLET::::- \"History of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and Figure of the Earth from Newton to Laplace\" (1873)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Elementary Treatise on Laplace's, Lamé's and Bessel's Functions\" (1875)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A history of the theory of elasticity and of the strength of materials from Galilei to the present time \" \" Vol I PtI \"\"Vol II Pt II\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Natural Philosophy for Beginners\" (1877).\n", "An unfinished work, \"The History of the Theory of Elasticity\", was edited and published posthumously in 1886 by Karl Pearson. A biographical work on William Whewell was published in 1876, in addition to many original papers in scientific journals.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Attribution\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Obituary notices: \"Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.\" (1884) and \"Proc. Roy. Soc.\" 37, p. xxvvii (1884)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English mathematician (1820-1884)", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1398945", "wikidata_label": "Isaac Todhunter", "wikipedia_title": "Isaac Todhunter", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mecklenburg\n", "Mecklenburg (, Low German: \"Mękel(n)borg\" ) is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar and Güstrow.\n", "The name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named \"Mikilenburg\" (Old Saxon: \"big castle\", hence its translation into New Latin and ), located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic language it was known as \"Veligrad\", which also means \"big castle\". It was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg; for a time the area was divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty.\n", "Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain and use many features of Low German vocabulary or phonology.\n", "The adjective for the region is \"Mecklenburgian\" (); inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians ().\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the terrain is boggy, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features, with small forests interspersed. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea.\n", "Under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Traditionally, at least in the countryside, the stone from these flows is cut and used in the construction of homes, often in joint use with cement, brick and wood, forming a unique look to the exterior of country houses.\n", "Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing for livestock.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins. By no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples.\n", "The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the grinning steer's head (Low German: \"Ossenkopp\", lit.: 'oxen's head', with \"osse\" being a synonym for steer and bull in Middle Low German), with an attached hide, and a crown above, may have originated from this period. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i.e. a steers's head as a helmet, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy.\n", "From the 7th through the 12th centuries, the area of Mecklenburg was taken over by Western Slavic peoples, most notably the Obotrites and other tribes that Frankish sources referred to as \"Wends\". The 11th century founder of the Mecklenburgian dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites.\n", "In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the region, subjugated its local lords, and Christianized its people, in a precursor to the Northern Crusades. From 12th to 14th century, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area (Ostsiedlung), importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. The Wends who survived all warfare and devastation of the centuries before, including invasions of and expeditions into Saxony, Denmark and Liutizic areas as well as internal conflicts, were assimilated in the centuries thereafter. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence. An example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called \"Zuarin\" in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the 'gard' portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word 'grad', meaning city or town.\n", "Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true. During the reformation the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg.\n", "Section::::History.:History, 1621–1933.\n", "Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty. In 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and part going to the new line of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.\n", "In 1815, the two Mecklenburgian duchies were raised to Grand Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and subsequently existed separately as such in Germany under enlightened but absolute rule (constitutions being granted on the eve of World War I) until the revolution of 1918. Life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh. Practices such as having to ask for permission from the Grand Duke to get married, or having to apply for permission to emigrate, would linger late into the history of Mecklenburg (i.e. 1918), long after such practices had been abandoned in other German areas. Even as late as the later half of the 19th century the Grand Duke personally owned half of the countryside. The last Duke abdicated in 1918, as monarchies fell throughout Europe. The Duke's ruling house reigned in Mecklenburg uninterrupted (except for two years) from its incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire until 1918. From 1918 to 1933, the duchies were free states in the Weimar Republic.\n", "Traditionally Mecklenburg has always been one of the poorer German areas, and later the poorer of the provinces, or \"Länder\", within a unified Germany. The reasons for this may be varied, but one factor stands out: agriculturally the land is poor and can not produce at the same level as other parts of Germany. The two Mecklenburgs made attempts at being independent states after 1918, but eventually this failed as their dependence on the rest of the German lands became apparent.\n", "Section::::History.:History since 1934.\n", "After three centuries of partition, Mecklenburg was united on 1 January 1934 by the Nazi government. The Wehrmacht assigned Mecklenburg and Pomerania to Wehrkreis II under the command of \"General der Infanterie\" Werner Kienitz, with the headquarters at Stettin. Mecklenburg was assigned to an Area headquartered at Schwerin, which was responsible for military units in Schwerin; Rostock; Parchim; and Neustrelitz.\n", "After World War II, the Soviet government occupying eastern Germany merged Mecklenburg with the smaller neighbouring region of Western Pomerania (German \"Vorpommern\") to form the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Mecklenburg contributed about two-thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population. Also, the new state became temporary or permanent home for lots of refugees expelled from former German territories seized by the Soviet Union and Poland after the war. The Soviets changed the name from \"Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania\" to \"Mecklenburg\" in 1947.\n", "In 1952, the East German government ended the independent existence of Mecklenburg, creating 3 districts (\"Bezirke\") out of its territory: Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg.\n", "During German reunification in 1990, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was revived, and is now one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic of Germany.\n", "Section::::Coat of arms of the duchies of Mecklenburg.\n", "The House of Mecklenburg was founded by Niklot, prince of the Obotrites, Chizzini and Circipani on the Baltic Sea, who died in 1160. His Christian progeny was recognized as prince of the Holy Roman Empire 1170 and Duke of Mecklenburg 8 July 1348. On 27 February 1658 the ducal house divided in two branches: Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.\n", "The flag of both Mecklenburg duchies is traditionally made of the colours blue, yellow and red. The sequence however changed more than once in the past 300 years. In 1813 the duchies used yellow-red-blue. 23 December 1863 for Schwerin and 4 January 1864 for Strelitz blue-yellow-red was ordered. Mecklenburg-Schwerin however used white instead of yellow for flags on sea by law of 24 March 1855.\n", "Siebmachers Wappenbuch gives therefore (?) blue-white-red for Schwerin and blue-yellow-red for Strelitz.\n", "According to this source, the grand ducal house of Schwerin used a flag of 3.75 to 5.625 M with the middle arms on a white quadrant (1.75 M) in the middle.\n", "The middle arms show the shield of Mecklenburg as arranged in the 17th century. The county of Schwerin in the middle and in the quartering Mecklenburg (bull's head with hide), Rostock (griffin), principality of Schwerin (griffin surmounting green rectangle), Ratzeburg (cross surmounted by crown), Stargard (arm with hand holding ring) and Wenden (bull's head). The shield is supported by a bull and a griffin and surmounted by a royal crown.\n", "The dukes of Strelitz used according to Siebmachers the blue-yellow-red flag with just the (oval) shield of Mecklenburg in the yellow band.\n", "Ströhl in 1897 and Bulgaria, show another arrangement: The grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin flows a flag (4:5) with the arms of the figures from the shield of arms.\n", "The former Schwerin standard with the white quadrant is now ascribed to the grand dukes of Strelitz.\n", "Ströhl mentions a flag for the grand ducal house by law of 23 December 1863 with the middle arms in the yellow band. And he mentions a special sea flag, the same but with a white middle band. \n", "'Berühmte Fahnen' shows furthermore a standard for grand duchess Alexandra of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, princess of Hannover (1882–1963), showing her shield and that of Mecklenburg joined by the order of the Wendic Crown in a white oval. On sea the yellow band in her flag was of course white. \n", "The princes (dukes) of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had according to this source their own standard, showing the griffin of Rostock.\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Tourism.\n", "Mecklenburg faces a huge increase in tourism since German reunification in 1990, particularly with its beaches and seaside resorts at the Baltic Sea (\"German Riviera\", Warnemünde, Boltenhagen, Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Rerik and others), the Mecklenburg Lakeland (\"Mecklenburgische Seenplatte\") and the Mecklenburg Switzerland (\"Mecklenburgische Schweiz\") with their pristine nature, the old Hanseatic towns of Rostock, Greifswald, Stralsund and Wismar (the latter two being World Heritage) well known for their medieval Brick Gothic buildings, and the former royal residences of Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz.\n", "Section::::Notable Mecklenburgers.\n", "BULLET::::- Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prussian army leader\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Buddrus (born 1957), historian\n", "BULLET::::- Jan Ullrich, cyclist\n", "BULLET::::- Gottlob Frege, logician\n", "BULLET::::- Siegfried Marcus, automobile pioneer\n", "BULLET::::- Heinrich Schliemann, classical archaeologist\n", "BULLET::::- Johannes Gillhoff, teacher, author of book on Mecklenburg emigrants to the US\n", "BULLET::::- Fritz Reuter, poet and novelist\n", "BULLET::::- Ludwig Jacoby, (1813–1874), born in Altstrelitz, an author and Methodist clergyman, commissioned as a missionary to St. Louis, Missouri, by the founder of the German Methodist Church in America, William Nast (1807–1899). Jacoby founded the first Methodist Church West of the Mississippi River, originally known as Bethel Church, now known as Memorial United Methodist Church, in St. Louis in 1841.\n", "BULLET::::- Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, (1744–1818), wife of George III of the United Kingdom and grandmother of Queen Victoria. Charlotte, North Carolina, USA and the county in which it lies were named in her honour, as was Charlottesville, Virginia, US.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Mecklenburg-Vorpommern\n", "BULLET::::- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin\n", "BULLET::::- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz\n", "BULLET::::- List of Dukes and Grand Dukes of Mecklenburg\n", "BULLET::::- Mecklenburg County, North Carolina\n", "BULLET::::- Mecklenburg County, Virginia\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Government portal of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania\n" ] }

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{ "description": "historical region in northern Germany", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q109057", "wikidata_label": "Mecklenburg", "wikipedia_title": "Mecklenburg", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 20193, "parentid": 908315440, "revid": 908319791, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-28T23:47:38Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mecklenburg&oldid=908319791" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Liane Haid\n", "Juliane \"Liane\" Haid (16 August 1895 – 28 November 2000) was an Austrian actress who has often been referred to as Austria's first movie star.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Born in Vienna, Haid trained both as a dancer and singer and became the epitome of the \"Süßes Wiener Mädel\" (\"Sweet Viennese Girl\") and a popular pin-up throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Her first motion picture was a propaganda film made during the First World War, \"Mit Herz und Hand fürs Vaterland\" (1916). She worked for UFA and, as a trained singer, easily made the transition to the sound era, appearing in comedy films alongside German stars such as Willi Forst, Bruno Kastner, Georg Alexander, Theo Lingen, and Heinz Rühmann.\n", "Having refused several offers from Hollywood, she left Germany for Switzerland in 1942 \"because of the regime, because everything was bombed, and because all the good directors had left\". She married Carl Spycher and also ended her film career.\n", "Her notable films include \"Lady Hamilton\" (1921; her breakthrough role); \"Lucrezia Borgia\" (1922); \"The Csardas Princess\" (1927, based on the operetta by Emmerich Kálmán); and the talkies \"The Song Is Ended\" (1930) and \"Ungeküsst soll man nicht schlafen gehn\" (1936). She made her last film appearance in 1953.\n", "The sister of the actress Grit Haid, who died in Schwarzwald, Germany, in 1938, aged 38.\n", "Section::::Filmography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"With Heart and Hand for the Fatherland\" (1915)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Summer Idyll\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"With God for Emperor and Empire\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Vagabonds\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tragedy of Castle Rottersheim\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"On the Heights\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lebenswogen\" (1917)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Black Hand\" (1917)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Stain of Shame\" (1917)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Spendthrift\" (1917)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Double Suicide\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rigoletto\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"So fallen die Lose des Lebens\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Ancestress\" (1919)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Master of Life\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Let the Little Ones Come to Me\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Durch Wahrheit zum Narren\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Freut Euch des Lebens\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Dancing Death\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Voice of Conscience\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Der Leiermann\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eva, The Sin\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Verschneit\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Doctor Ruhland\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Light of His Life\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Woman in White\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Films of Princess Fantoche\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Story of a Maid\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lady Hamilton\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Money in the Streets\" (1922)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lucrezia Borgia\" (1922)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Explosion\" (1923)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Slipper Hero\" (1923)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Southern Love\" (1924)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Island of Dreams\" (1925)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fire of Love\" (1925)\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Love You\" (1925)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The White Horse Inn\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Brothers Schellenberg\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Uncle from the Provinces\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Son of Hannibal\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"When I Came Back\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The White Slave\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Dashing Archduke\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Golden Abyss\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Dollar Princess and her Six Admirers\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Csardas Princess\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Last Waltz\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Women's War\" (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lady in Black\" (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Two Red Roses\" (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Vienna, City of My Dreams\" (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spy of Madame Pompadour\" (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ship in Distress\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Play Around a Man\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Black Forest Girl\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Great Longing\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Song Is Ended\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Twice Married\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Immortal Vagabond\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"My Cousin from Warsaw\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kaiserliebchen\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zirkus Leben\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Opera Ball\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Men Around Lucy\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grock\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Do Not Want to Know Who You Are\" (1932)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Prince of Arcadia\" (1932)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Der Diamant des Zaren\" (1932)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Madame Makes Her Exit\" (1932)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Madame Wants No Children\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Woman Like You\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Typhoon\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Star of Valencia\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Castle in the South\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Keine Angst vor Liebe\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ihre Durchlaucht, die Verkäuferin\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tell Me Who You Are\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Roman einer Nacht\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"An Evening Visit\" (1934)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bei der blonden Kathrein\" (1934)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Die Fahrt in die Jugend\" (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dance Music\" (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Whom the Gods Love\" (1936)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wer zuletzt küßt...\" (1936)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Peter in the Snow\" (1937)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Die unvollkommene Liebe\" (1940)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Die fünf Karnickel\" (1953)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of centenarians\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Photographs of Liane Haid\n" ] }

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"The Vagabonds", "The Tragedy of Castle Rottersheim", "On the Heights", "Lebenswogen", "The Black Hand", "The Stain of Shame", "The Spendthrift", "Double Suicide", "Rigoletto", "So fallen die Lose des Lebens", "The Ancestress", "The Master of Life", "Let the Little Ones Come to Me", "Durch Wahrheit zum Narren", "Freut Euch des Lebens", "The Dancing Death", "The Voice of Conscience", "Der Leiermann", "Eva, The Sin", "Verschneit", "Doctor Ruhland", "Light of His Life", "The Woman in White", "The Films of Princess Fantoche", "The Story of a Maid", "Lady Hamilton", "Money in the Streets", "Lucrezia Borgia", "Explosion", "The Slipper Hero", "Southern Love", "The Island of Dreams", "Fire of Love", "I Love You", "The White Horse Inn", "The Brothers Schellenberg", "The Uncle from the Provinces", "The Son of Hannibal", "When I Came Back", "The White Slave", "The Dashing Archduke", "The Golden Abyss", "The Dollar Princess and her Six Admirers", "The Csardas Princess", "The Last Waltz", "The Women's War", "The Lady in Black", "Two Red Roses", "Vienna, City of My Dreams", "Spy of Madame Pompadour", "Ship in Distress", "Play Around a Man", "Black Forest Girl", "The Great Longing", "The Song Is Ended", "Twice Married", "The Immortal Vagabond", "My Cousin from Warsaw", "Kaiserliebchen", "Zirkus Leben", "The Opera Ball", "The Men Around Lucy", "Grock", "I Do Not Want to Know Who You Are", "The Prince of Arcadia", "Der Diamant des Zaren", "Madame Makes Her Exit", "Madame Wants No Children", "A Woman Like You", "Typhoon", "The Star of Valencia", "The Castle in the South", "Keine Angst vor Liebe", "Ihre Durchlaucht, die Verkäuferin", "Tell Me Who You Are", "Roman einer Nacht", "An Evening Visit", "Bei der blonden Kathrein", "Die Fahrt in die Jugend", "Dance Music", "Whom the Gods Love", "Wer zuletzt küßt...", "Peter in the Snow", "Die unvollkommene Liebe", "Die fünf Karnickel", "List of centenarians", "Photographs of Liane Haid" ], "href": [ "Austria", "Vienna", "dancer", 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{ "description": "Actress, singer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q94711", "wikidata_label": "Liane Haid", "wikipedia_title": "Liane Haid", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206516, "parentid": 904679215, "revid": 906097668, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-13T16:19:54Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liane%20Haid&oldid=906097668" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Afghan Armed Forces\n", "The Afghan Armed Forces are the military forces of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. They consist of the Afghan National Army and the Afghan Air Force. The President of Afghanistan is the Commander-in-Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces, which is administratively controlled through the Ministry of Defense. The National Military Command Center in Kabul serves as the headquarters of the Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan Armed Forces currently has approximately 200,000 active duty soldiers and airmen, which are expected to reach 260,000 soldiers and airmen in the coming year.\n", "The current Afghan military originates in 1709 when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by the Durrani Empire. The Afghan military fought many wars with the Safavid dynasty and Maratha Empire from the 18th to the 19th century. It was re-organized by the British in 1880, when the country was ruled by Amir Abdur Rahman Khan. It was modernized during King Amanullah Khan's rule in the early 20th century, and upgraded during King Zahir Shah's forty-year rule. From 1978 to 1992, the Soviet-backed Afghan Armed Force fought with multi-national mujahideen groups who were being backed by the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan. After President Najibullah's resignation in 1992 and the end of Soviet support, the military dissolved into portions controlled by different warlord factions and the mujahideen took control over the government. This era was followed by the rise of the Pakistan-backed Taliban regime, who established a military force on the basis of Islamic sharia law.\n", "After the removal of the Taliban and the formation of the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan in late 2001 and 2002, respectively, the Afghan Armed Forces was gradually rebuilt by NATO forces in the country, primarily by the United States Armed Forces. Despite early problems with recruitment and training, it is becoming effective in fighting against the Taliban insurgency. As of 2014, it is becoming able to operate independently from the NATO International Security Assistance Force. As a major non-NATO ally of the United States, Afghanistan continues to receive billions of dollars in military assistance.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Afghans have served in the militaries of the Ghaznavids (963–1187), Ghurids (1148–1215), Delhi Sultanate (1206–1527), Mughals (1526–1858) and the Persian army. The current Afghan military traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotaki dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722.\n", "When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, his Afghan army fought a number of wars in the Punjab region of Hindustan during the 18th to the 19th century. One of the famous battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat in which the Afghans invaded and decisively defeated the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Afghans then engaged in wars with the Punjabi Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh, which included the Battle of Jamrud in which Hari Singh Nalwa was killed by Prince Akbar Khan. During the First Anglo-Afghan War, British India invaded Afghanistan in 1838 but withdraw in 1842. During the three years a number of battles took place in different parts of Afghanistan.\n", "The first organized army of Afghanistan (in the modern sense) was established after the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1880 when the nation was ruled by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan. Traditionally, Afghan governments relied on three military institutions: the regular army, tribal levies, and community militias. The regular army was sustained by the state and commanded by government leaders. The tribal or regional levies - irregular forces - had part-time soldiers provided by tribal or regional chieftains. The chiefs received tax breaks, land ownership, cash payments, or other privileges in return. The community militia included all available able-bodied members of the community, mobilized to fight, probably only in exceptional circumstances, for common causes under community leaders. Combining these three institutions created a formidable force whose components supplemented each other's strengths and minimized their weaknesses.\n", "After the Third Anglo-Afghan War ended, the reforming King Amanullah did not see the need for a large army, instead deciding to rely on Afghanistan's historical martial qualities. This resulted in neglect, cutbacks, recruitment problems, and finally an army unable to quell the 1929 up-rising that cost him his throne. However, under his reign, the Afghan Air Force was formed in 1924. The Afghan Armed Forces were expanded during King Zahir Shah's reign, reaching a strength of 70,000 in 1933.\n", "Following World War II, Afghanistan briefly received continued military support from the British government under the Lancaster Plan from 1945 to 1947, until the partition of India realigned British priorities in the region. Afghanistan declined to join the 1955 United States-sponsored Baghdad Pact; this rebuff did not stop the United States from continuing its low-level aid program, but it was reluctant to provide Afghanistan with military assistance, so Daoud turned to the Soviet Union and its allies for military aid, and in 1955 he received approximately US$25 million of military aid. In addition, the Soviet bloc also began construction of military airfields in Bagram, Mazar-e-Sharif, and Shindand. By the 1960s, Soviet assistance started to improve the structure, armament, training, and command and control arrangements for the military. The Afghan Armed Forces reached a strength of 98,000 (90,000 soldiers and 8,000 airmen) by this period.\n", "After the exile of King Zahir Shah in 1973, President Daud Khan forged stronger ties with the Soviets by signing two highly controversial military aid packages for his nation in 1973 and 1975. For three years, the Afghan Armed Forces and police officers received advanced Soviet weapons, as well as training by the KGB and Soviet Armed Forces. Due to problems with local political parties in his country, President Daud Khan decided to distance himself from the Soviets in 1976. He made Afghanistan's ties closer to the Greater Middle East and the United States instead.\n", "From 1977 to 1978, the Afghan Armed Forces conducted joint military training with the Egyptian Armed Forces. In April 1978 there was a coup, known as the Saur Revolution, orchestrated by members of the government loyal to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). This led to a full-scale Soviet invasion in December 1979, led by the 40th Army and the Airborne Forces. In 1981 the total strength of the Army was around 85,000 troops according to The New York Times. The Army had around 35-40,000 soldiers, who was mostly conscripts, the Air Force had around 7,000 airmen and if put together all military personnel in 1984, the total strength of the Afghan Armed Forces was around 87,000 in 1984. Throughout the 1980s, the Afghan Armed Forces was heavily involved in fighting against the multi-national Mujahiddin rebel groups who were largely backed by the United States and trained by the Pakistani Armed Forces. The rebel groups were fighting to force the Soviet Union to withdraw from Afghanistan as well as to remove the Soviet-backed government of President Mohammad Najibullah. Due to large number of defectors, the Afghan Armed Forces in 1985 was reduced to around 47,000. The Air Force had over 150 combat aircraft with about 7,000 officers who were supported by an estimated 5,000 Cuban Revolutionary Air and Air Defense Force and Czechoslovak Air Force advisers.\n", "Weapons supplies were made available to the Mujahideen through numerous countries; the United States purchased all of Israel's captured Soviet weapons clandestinely, and then funnelled the weapons to the Mujahideen, while Egypt upgraded their own Army's weapons, and sent the older weapons to the militants, Turkey sold their World War II stockpiles to the warlords, and the British and Swiss provided Blowpipe missiles and Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns respectively, after they were found to be poor models for their own forces. China provided the most relevant weapons, likely due to their own experience with guerrilla warfare, and kept meticulous record of all the shipments.\n", "Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan continued to deal with attacks from the Mujahiddin. For several years the Afghan Armed Forces had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence. But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the Mujahideen in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul. By 1992 the Army fragmented into regional militias under local warlords because of the fall of the Soviet Union which stopped supplying the Afghan Armed Forces and later in 1992 when the Afghan government lost power and the country went into a state of anarchy.\n", "After the fall of Najibullah's regime in 1992, private militias were formed and the nation began to witness a Civil War between the various warlords, including Ahmad Shah Massoud, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Abdul Rashid Dostum, Abdul Ali Mazari, Ismail Khan, and many others. They received logistics support from foreign powers including Russia, Pakistan, India, Iran, China, France, Canada and the United States. When the Taliban took power in 1996, the warlords fled Kabul to the north or neighboring countries. With the backing and support of Pakistan, the Taliban began creating a new military force purely based on Islam's Sharia law.\n", "The Taliban maintained a military during their period of control. The Taliban Army possessed over 400 T-54/55 and T-62 tanks and more than 200 Armoured personnel carriers.\n", "The Afghan Air Force under the Taliban maintained five supersonic MIG-21MFs and 10 Sukhoi-22 fighter-bombers. In 1995, during the 1995 Airstan incident, a Taliban fighter plane captured a Russian transport. They also held six Mil Mi-8 helicopters, five Mi-35s, five L-39Cs, six An-12s, 25 An-26s, a dozen An-24/32s, an IL-18, and a Yakovlev.\n", "Section::::History.:Current organization.\n", "After the formation of the Karzai administration in late 2001, the Afghan Armed Forces was gradually reestablished by the United States and its allies. Initially, a new land force, the Afghan National Army (ANA), was created, along with an air arm, the Afghan National Army Air Corps, as an integral part of the Army. The ANA Air Corps later split off to become an independent branch, the Afghan Air Force (AAF). Commandos and Special Forces were also trained and formed as a part of the Afghan National Army. Training was managed initially by the U.S. Office of Military Cooperation, followed by other U.S. organisations and then Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan, and is now being run by the NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan.\n", "The Afghan Air Force was relatively capable before and during the 1980s but by late 2001, the number of operational aircraft available was minimal. The United States and its allies quickly eliminated the remaining strength and ability of the Taliban to operate aircraft in the opening stages of their invasion. With the occupation of airbases by American forces it became clear how destitute the Air Force had become since the withdrawal of the Soviet Union. Most aircraft were only remnants rusting away for a decade or more. Many others were relocated to neighboring countries for storage purposes or sold cheaply. The AAF was reduced to a very small force while the country was torn by civil war. It is currently being rebuilt and modernized by the NATO-led multinational Combined Air Power Transition Force of the international Combined Security Transition Command - Afghanistan (CSTC-A).\n", "There has been significant progress toward revitalization of the Afghan Armed Forces in the last decade, with two service branches established. The ANA and AAF are under the Afghan Ministry of Defense, which forms the basic military force. By 2006, more than 60,000 former militiamen from around the country have been disarmed. Most heavy weapons from Panjshir, Balkh, Nangarhar and other areas were seized by the Afghan government. In 2007, it was reported that the DDR programmes had dismantled 274 paramilitary organizations, reintegrated over 62,000 militia members into civilian life, and recovered more than 84,000 weapons, including heavy weapons. But \"The New York Times\" reported in October 2007 this information in the context of a reported rise in the number of hoarded weapons in the face of what has been seen as a growing Taliban threat, even in the north of the country.\n", "The ANA Commando Battalion was established in 2007. The Afghan National Development Strategy of 2008 explained that the aim of DIAG (Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups) was to ban all illegal armed groups in all provinces of the country. Approximately 2,000 such groups have been identified and most of them have surrendered to the Afghan government or joined the nation's military.\n", "The NATO-trained Afghan National Army is organized into 31 Kandaks, or Battalions, 28 of which are considered combat ready. Seven regional corps headquarters exist. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan was built to provide future officers, it is modeled after the United States Military Academy and United States Air Force Academy. The Afghan Defense University (ADU) is located in Kabul province and consists of a headquarters building, classrooms, dining facility, library, and medical clinic. In addition to this, an $80 million central command center was built next to the Hamid Karzai International Airport. In 2012, Afghanistan became a Major non-NATO ally of the United States.\n", "Sizable numbers of Afghan officers are sent to be trained in India either at the Indian Military Academy in Dehradun, the National Defence Academy near Pune or the Officers Training Academy in Chennai. The Indian Military Academy which has been in existence since 1932, provides a 4-year degree to army officers, while the National Defence Academy is a tri-service college provides a 3-year degree after which officers undergo a 1-year specialization in their respective service colleges. The Officers Training Academy on the other hand provides a 49-week course to Graduate officer candidates. In 2014 the number of Afghan officers in training in India was nearly 1,100. A Total of 1,200 Afghan officers have been trained up to 2013.\n", "The total manpower of the Afghan Armed Forces was around 164,000 in May 2011. By September 2014 it has reached 195,000. Its Air Force has about 100 refurbished aircraft, which includes A-29 Super Tucano attack aircraft, Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Pilatus PC-12s military transport aircraft, as well as Mil Mi-17 and Mi-24 helicopters. It also includes trainers such as Aero L-39 Albatros and Cessna 182. The manpower of the Afghan Air Force is around 3600 airmen, including 450 pilots. It also has small number of female pilots.\n", "Section::::Organization and leadership.\n", "BULLET::::- Defense Minister, General Asadullah Khalid\n", "BULLET::::- Defense Ministry Spokesman, Major General Dawlat Waziri\n", "BULLET::::- Chief of Staff of the General Staff (CoGS), Lieutenant General Murad Ali Murad\n", "BULLET::::- Vice Chief of the General Staff (VCoGS),\n", "BULLET::::- Deputy Chief of the General Staff (DoGS), Lieutenant General Mohammad Ikram\n", "BULLET::::- Afghan Air Force Commander, Lieutenant General Mohammad Dawran\n", "BULLET::::- Command Sergeant Major of the ANA, Sergeant Major Roshan Safi\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Personnel (GSG1), Lieutenant General Murad Ali Murad\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Intelligence (GSG2), Major General Abdul Khaliq Faryad\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Operations (GSG3), Major General Afzal Aman\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Logistics (GSG4), Lieutenant General Azizuddin Farahee\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Plans (GSG5), Major General Jan Kahn\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Communications (GSG6), Major General Mehrab Ali\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Doctrine & Training (GSG7), Major General Kushiwal\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Chief of Engineering (GSEng), Major General Muslim Amid\n", "BULLET::::- General Staff Inspector General, Major General Jalandar Shah\n", "BULLET::::- Surgeon General, Lieutenant General Dr. Abdul Qayum Tutakhail\n", "BULLET::::- 201st Selab (\"Flood\") Corps Commander, Major General Mohammad Rahim Wardak\n", "BULLET::::- 203rd Tandar (\"Thunder\") Corps Commander, Major General Abdul Khaleq\n", "BULLET::::- 205th Atal (\"Hero\") Corps Commander, Major General Sher Mohammad Zazai\n", "BULLET::::- 207th Zafar (\"Victory\") Corps Commander, Major General Jalandar Shah Behnam\n", "BULLET::::- 209th Shaheen (\"Falcon\") Corps Commander, Major General Murad Ali\n", "BULLET::::- 215th Maiwand Corps Commander, Major Gen. Sayed Malouk\n", "BULLET::::- Afghan National Army Training Command, Major General Aminullah Karim\n", "BULLET::::- ANA Special Operations Command\n", "BULLET::::- ANA Recruiting Command, Lieutenant General Mohammad Eshaq Noori\n", "BULLET::::- Headquarters Security and Support Brigade, Brigadier General Sadiq\n", "BULLET::::- Command and General Staff College, Major General Rizak\n", "BULLET::::- National Military Academy of Afghanistan, Major General Mohammad Sharef\n", "BULLET::::- Kabul Military Training Centre, Brigadier General Mohammad Amin Wardak\n", "Section::::Bases and equipment.\n", "Large numbers of military bases are found all cross the country, including major ones in Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Balkh, Nangarhar, Khost, Paktia, Paktika, Maidan Wardak, Ghazni, Farah, and many other provinces. Some of these were built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) while others by ISAF and Afghans. It was reported in 2010 that there were at least 700 military bases inside Afghanistan but more were expected to be built in the coming years. About 400 of these were used by Americans and ISAF forces with the remaining 300 or so by Afghan National Security Forces.\n", "During the 1950s and 1960s, Afghanistan purchased moderate quantities of Soviet weapons to keep the military up to date. It was mainly Sukhoi Su-7, MiG-21 fighter jets, T-34 and Iosif Stalin tanks, SU-76 self-propelled guns, GAZ-69 4x4 light trucks of jeep class (in many versions), ZIL-157 military trucks, Katyusha multiple rocket launchers, and BTR-40 and BTR-152 armored personnel carriers. Also included were PPSh-41 and RPK machine guns. After King Zahir Shah's exile in 1973, President Daoud Khan made attempts to create a strong Afghan military in the Greater Middle East-South Asia region. Between 1973 and 1978, Afghanistan obtained more sophisticated Soviet weapons such as Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, Su-22 and Il-28 jets. In addition to that the nation possessed great many T-55, T-62, and PT-76 tanks along with huge amounts of AKM assault rifles ordered. Armored vehicles delivered in the 1970s also included: ZIL-135s, BMP-1s, BRDM-1s, BTR-60s, UAZ-469, and GAZ-66 as well as large quantities of small arms and artillery.\n", "Under the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1992), weapon deliveries by the Soviets were increased and included Mi-24 helicopters, MiG-23 fighter aircraft, ZSU-23-4 \"Shilka\" and ZSU-57-2 anti-aircraft self-propelled mounts, MT-LB armored personnel carriers, BM-27 \"Uragan\" and BM-21 \"Grad\" multiple-launch rocket systems and FROG-7 and Scud launchers. Some of the weapons that were not damaged during the decades of wars are still being used today, while the remainder have probably been sold on the black market.\n", "The United States has provided billions of dollars in military aid. One package included 2,500 Humvees, tens of thousands of M16 assault rifles and body armoured-jackets. It also included the building of a national military command center as well as training compounds in several provinces of the country. Canadian Forces supplied some ANA soldiers surplus C7 assault rifles but the Afghans returned the Canadian-made C7 in favor of the American-made M16 rifle, reason being that parts between the two rifles, despite being similar, are not fully interchangeable.\n", "Besides NATO, Afghanistan has been increasingly turning to India and Russia for assistance. Both countries have supported the Northern Alliance, with funding, training, supplies and medical treatment of wounded fighters, against the Taliban prior to 2002. India has been helping with several billion dollars invested in infrastructure development projects in Afghanistan besides the training of Afghan officers in India, but has been reluctant to provide military aid due to fears of antagonizing its regional rival Pakistan. In 2013, after years of subtle reminders, the Afghan government sent a wish list of heavy weapons to India. The list includes as many as 150 battle tanks T-72, 120 (105 mm) field guns, a large number of 82 mm mortars, one medium lift transport aircraft AN-32, two squadrons of medium lift Mi-17 and attack helicopters Mi-35, and a large number of trucks. In 2014, India signed a deal with Russia and Afghanistan where it would pay Russia for all the heavy equipment requested by Afghanistan instead of directly supplying them. The deal also includes the refurbishment of heavy weapons left behind since the Soviet war.\n", "The United States has also been largely responsible for the growth of the Afghan Air Force, as part of the Combined Air Power Transition Force, from four aircraft at the end of 2001 to about 100 as of 2011. Types include Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Pilatus PC-12 transport aircraft, A-29 Super Tucano attack aircraft, as well as Mi-17 troop-carrying helicopters and Mi-35 attack helicopters. The aircrew are being trained by an American team. The American intention is to spend around $5 billion by 2016 to increase the force to around 120 aircraft.\n", "As the size of Afghan Armed Force is growing rapidly so is the need for more aircraft and vehicles. It was announced in 2011 that the Afghan Armed Forces would be provided with 145 multi-type aircraft, 21 helicopters and 23,000 various type vehicles. As a Major non-NATO ally of the United States, Afghanistan is able to purchase and receive weapons from the United States without restrictions. In the meantime, the Afghan Air Force began seeking fighter aircraft and other advanced weapons. Defense Minister Wardak explained that \"what we are asking to acquire is just the ability to defend ourselves, and also to be relevant in the future so that our friends and allies can count on us to participate in peacekeeping and other operations of mutual interest.\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Official website\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Brooke Foss Westcott\n", "Brooke Foss Westcott (12 January 1825 – 27 July 1901) was a British bishop, biblical scholar and theologian, serving as Bishop of Durham from 1890 until his death. He is perhaps most known for co-editing \"The New Testament in the Original Greek\" in 1881.\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "He was born in Birmingham. His father, Frederick Brooke Westcott, was a botanist. Westcott was educated at King Edward VI School, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, where he became friends with Joseph Barber Lightfoot, later Bishop of Durham.\n", "The period of Westcott's childhood was one of political ferment in Birmingham and amongst his earliest recollections was one of Thomas Attwood leading a large procession of men to a meeting of the Birmingham Political Union in 1831. A few years after this Chartism led to serious disturbances in Birmingham and many years later Westcott would refer to the deep impression the experiences of that time had made upon him.\n", "In 1844, Westcott entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was invited to join the Cambridge Apostles. He became a scholar in 1846, won a Browne medal for a Greek ode in 1846 and 1847, and the Members' Prize for a Latin essay in 1847 and 1849. He took his BA degree in January 1848, obtaining double-first honours. In mathematics, he was twenty-fourth wrangler, Isaac Todhunter being senior. In classics, he was senior, being bracketed with Charles Broderick Scott, afterwards headmaster of Westminster School.\n", "Section::::Early teaching career.\n", "After obtaining his degree, Westcott remained in residence at Trinity. In 1849, he obtained his fellowship; and in the same year he was made deacon by his old headmaster, Prince Lee, later Bishop of Manchester. In 1851 he was ordained and became an assistant master at Harrow School. As well as studying, Westcott took pupils at Cambridge; fellow readers included his school friend Lightfoot and two other men who became his attached and lifelong friends, Edward White Benson and Fenton Hort. The friendship with Lightfoot and Hort influenced his future life and work.\n", "He devoted much attention to philosophical, patristic and historical studies, but his main interest was in New Testament work. In 1851, he published his Norrisian prize essay with the title \"Elements of the Gospel Harmony\". The Cambridge University Norrisian Prize for theology was established in 1781 by the will of John Norris Esq of Whitton, Norfolk for the best essay by a candidate between the ages of twenty and thirty on a theological subject.\n", "He combined his school duties with his theological research and literary writings. He worked at Harrow for nearly twenty years under C. J. Vaughan and Montagu Butler, but he was never good at maintaining discipline among large numbers.\n", "Section::::Early theological writings.\n", "In 1855, he published the first edition of his \"History of the New Testament Canon\", which, frequently revised and expanded, became the standard English work on the subject. In 1859, there appeared his \"Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles\".\n", "In 1860, he expanded his \"Elements of the Gospel Harmony\" essay into an \"Introduction to the Study of the Gospels\". Westcott's work for Smith's \"Dictionary of the Bible\", notably his articles on \"Canon,\" \"Maccabees\", and \"Vulgate,\" led to the composition of his subsequent popular books, \"The Bible in the Church\" (1864) and a \"History of the English Bible\" (1869). To the same period belongs \"The Gospel of the Resurrection\" (1866). It recognised the claims of historical science and pure reason. At the time when the book appeared, his method of apologetic showed originality, but was impaired by the difficulty of the style.\n", "In 1865, he took his B.D., and in 1870, his D.D. Later, he received honorary degrees of DC.L. from Oxford (1881) and of D.D. from Edinburgh (1883). In 1868, Westcott was appointed examining chaplain by Bishop Connor Magee (of Peterborough); and in the following year he accepted a canonry at Peterborough, which forced him to leave Harrow.\n", "Section::::Regius Professorship of Divinity, Cambridge.\n", "For a time he was enthusiastic about a cathedral life, devoted to the pursuit of learning and to the development of opportunities for the religious and intellectual benefit of the diocese. But the Regius Professorship of Divinity at Cambridge fell vacant, and J. B. Lightfoot, who was then Hulsean Professor, refused it in favour of Westcott. It was due to Lightfoot's support almost as much as to his own great merits that Westcott was elected to the chair on 1 November 1870.\n", "Westcott now occupied a position for which he was suited. He played a leading part in raising the standard of theological study in the University. Supported by his friends Lightfoot and Hort, he reformed the regulations for degrees in divinity and was responsible for the formation and first revision of the new theology tripos. He planned lectures and organised the new Divinity School and Library. He promoted mission and set up the Cambridge mission to Delhi.\n", "He worked hard and forewent many of the privileges of a university career so that his studies might be more continuous and that he might see more his students.\n", "Section::::Regius Professorship of Divinity, Cambridge.:Lectures.\n", "His lectures were generally on Biblical subjects. His \"Commentaries on St John's Gospel\" (1881), on the \"Epistle to the Hebrews\" (1889), and the \"Epistles of St John\" (1883), resulted from his public lectures.\n", "One of his most valuable works,\" The Gospel of Life\" (1892), a study of Christian doctrine, incorporated the materials upon which he delivered a series of more private and esoteric lectures on week-day evenings. Lecturing was an intense strain to him, but his influence was immense: to attend one of Westcott's lectures was an experience which encouraged those to whom the references to Origen or Rupert of Deutz were unintelligible.\n", "Section::::Regius Professorship of Divinity, Cambridge.:New Testament textual studies.\n", "Between 1870 and 1881, Westcott was also continually engaged in text critical work for an edition of the New Testament and, simultaneously, in the preparation of a new text in conjunction with Hort. The years in which Westcott, Lightfoot and Hort could thus meet frequently and naturally for the discussion of the work in which they were all three so deeply engrossed formed a happy and privileged period in their lives.\n", "In the year 1881, there appeared the famous Westcott and Hort text of the New Testament, upon which had been expended nearly thirty years of incessant labour.\n", "Section::::Regius Professorship of Divinity, Cambridge.:Educational reformer.\n", "The reforms in the regulations for degrees in divinity, the formation and first revision of the new theological tripos, the inauguration of the Cambridge Mission to Delhi and the subsequent founding of St. Stephen's College, Delhi, the institution of the Church Society (for the discussion of theological and ecclesiastical questions by the younger men), the meetings for the divinity faculty, the organisation of the new Divinity School and Library and, later, the institution of the Cambridge Clergy Training School (renamed Westcott House in 1901 in his honour), were all, in a very real degree, the result of Westcott's energy and influence as Regius professor. To this list should also be added the Oxford and Cambridge preliminary examination for candidates for holy orders, with which he was from the first most closely identified.\n", "The departure of Lightfoot to become Bishop of Durham in 1879 was a great blow to Westcott. Nevertheless, it resulted in bringing him into still greater prominence. He was compelled to take the lead in matters where Lightfoot's more practical nature had previously been predominant.\n", "Section::::Regius Professorship of Divinity, Cambridge.:Canonry at Westminster Abbey.\n", "In 1883, Westcott was elected to a professorial fellowship at King's. Shortly afterwards, having previously resigned his canonry at Peterborough, he was appointed by the crown to a canonry at Westminster Abbey, and accepted the position of examining chaplain to Archbishop Benson.\n", "His little edition of the \"Paragraph Psalter\" (1879), arranged for the use of choirs, and his lectures on the Apostles' Creed, entitled \"Historic Faith\" (1883), are reminiscences of his vacations spent at Peterborough. He held his canonry at Westminster in conjunction with the regius professorship.\n", "The strain of the joint work was very heavy, and the intensity of the interest and study which he brought to bear upon his share in the labours of the Ecclesiastical Courts Commission, of which he had been appointed a member, added to his burden.\n", "Preaching at Westminster Abbey gave him an opportunity of dealing with social questions. His sermons were generally portions of a series; and to this period belong the volumes \"Christus Consummator\" (1886) and \"Social Aspects of Christianity\" (1887). Westcott's presidency of the Christian Social Union from 1889 did much to draw mainstream, respectable churchgoers into calling for justice for the poor and unemployed in the face of the predominant laissez-faire economic policies.\n", "Section::::Bishop of Durham.\n", "In March 1890, he was nominated to follow in the steps of his beloved friend Lightfoot, who had died in December 1889. His election was confirmed by Robert Crosthwaite, Bishop of Beverley (acting as commissioner for the Archbishop of York) on 30 April at York Minster and he was consecrated on 1 May at Westminster Abbey by William Thompson, Archbishop of York, Hort being the preacher, and enthroned at Durham Cathedral on 15 May. \n", "Contrary to his reputation as recluse and a mystic, he took a practical interest in the mining population of Durham and in the shipping and artisan industries of Sunderland and Gateshead. On occasion in 1892 he succeeded in bringing to a peaceful solution a long and bitter strike which had divided the masters and men in the Durham collieries.\n", "He has been described as a Christian socialist and was a staunch supporter of the co-operative movement. He was practically the founder of the Christian Social Union. He continually insisted upon the necessity of promoting the cause of foreign missions; four of his sons went on to do missionary work for the Church in India.\n", "He was energetic to the very end, but during the last two or three years of his life he aged considerably. His wife died suddenly in May 1901, and he dedicated to her memory his last book, \"Lessons from Work\" (1901). He preached a farewell sermon to the miners in Durham Cathedral at their annual festival on 20 July. Then came a short, sudden and fatal illness. He was buried in the chapel of Auckland Castle.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "Westcott married, in 1852, Sarah Louisa Mary Whithard (ca 1830–1901), daughter of Thomas Middlemore Whithard, of Bristol. Mrs Westcott was for many years deeply interested in foreign missionary work. She became an invalid in her later years, and died on 28 May 1901. They had seven sons and three daughters, including Frederick, who followed his father into the ministry in the Church of England, was headmaster of Sherborne School, Archdeacon of Norwich, and author of multiple books on the Letters of Saint Paul; George, Bishop of Lucknow; and Foss, who became Bishop of Calcutta and Metropolitan of India.\n", "Section::::Legacy and influence.\n", "Westcott was not a narrow specialist. He loved of poetry, music and art. His literary sympathies were wide. He would never tire of praising Euripides, and studied the writings of Robert Browning. He was also said to be a talented draughtsman, and used often to say that if he had not taken orders he would have become an architect. He followed with delight the development of natural science studies at Cambridge. He spared no pains to be accurate, or to widen the basis of his thought. Thus he devoted one summer vacation to the careful analysis of Auguste Comte's \"Politique positive\".\n", "He studied assiduously The Sacred Books of the East, and earnestly contended that no systematic view of Christianity could afford to ignore the philosophy of other religions. The outside world was wont to regard him as a mystic; and the mystical, or sacramental, view of life enters, it is true, very largely into his teaching. He had in this respect many points of similarity with the Cambridge Platonists of the 17th century, and with F. D. Maurice, for whom he had profound regard. An amusing instance of his unworldliness was his observation that, \"I never went to the Derby. Once, though, I nearly did: I happened to be passing through Derby, that very day\".\n", "He was a strong supporter of Church reform, especially in the direction of obtaining larger powers for the laity.\n", "He kept himself aloof from all party strife. He describes himself when he says:\n", "His theological work assigned great importance to Divine Revelation in Holy Scripture and in the teaching of history. His own studies have largely contributed in England to their current understanding of the doctrines of the Resurrection and the Incarnation. His work in conjunction with Hort upon the Greek text of the New Testament will endure as what is thought to be one of the greatest achievements of English Biblical criticism. The principles which are explained in Hort's introduction to the text had been arrived at after years of elaborate investigation and continual correspondence and discussion between the two friends. The place which it almost at once took among scientific scholars in Britain and throughout Europe was a recognition of the great advance which it represented in the use and classification of ancient authorities. His commentaries rank with Lightfoot's as the best type of Biblical exegesis produced by the English Church in the 19th century.\n", "A portrait of Westcott by William Edwards Miller is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n", "Some American fundamentalists have denounced Westcott's and Hort's Greek text of the Bible as corrupt. Most of these critics subscribe to the King James Only movement. King James Only author Gail Riplinger quotes them in her book \"New Age Bible Versions\". In it, she accuses Westcott of being involved in the occult. However, Westcott himself wrote,\n", "Section::::Works.\n", "The following is a bibliography of Westcott's more important writings, giving the date of the first editions:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Elements of the Gospel Harmony\" (1851)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament\" (1855; revised 1875)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles\" (1859)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Introduction to the Study of the Gospels\" (1860; revised 1866)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Bible in the Church\" (1864)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gospel of the Resurrection\" (1866; revised 1879)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A General View of the History of the English Bible\" (1868; revised by W A Wright 1905)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Christian Life Manifold and One\" (1869)\n", "BULLET::::- \"On the religious office of the universities\" (1873)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paragraph Psalter for the Use of Choirs\" (1879)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Commentary on the Gospel of St John\" (1881)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Commentary on the Epistles of St John\" (1883)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Revelation of the Risen Lord\" (1882)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Historic Faith : short lectures on the Apostles' Creed\" (1885)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Revelation of the Father: short lectures on the titles of the Lord in the Gospel of St John\" (1884)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Some Thoughts from the Ordinal\" (1884)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Christus Consummator\" (1886)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Social Aspects of Christianity\" (1887)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Victory of the Cross: Sermons in Holy Week\" (1888)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews\" (1889)\n", "BULLET::::- \"From Strength to Strength\" (1890)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Essays in the History of Religious Thought in the West\" (1891)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gospel of Life: thoughts introductory to the study of Christian doctrine\" (1892)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Incarnation and Common Life\" (1893)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gospel According to St. John\" (1896)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Some Lessons of the Revised Version of the New Testament\" (1897)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Christian Aspects of Life\" (1897)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lessons from Work\" (1901)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians: the Greek text\" (1906)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Two Empires : the Church and the World\" (1909)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of New Testament papyri\n", "BULLET::::- List of New Testament uncials\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Bishop of Durham", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q781494", "wikidata_label": "Brooke Westcott", "wikipedia_title": "Brooke Foss Westcott", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Brooke Foss Westcott" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury\n", "Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury (28 April 1801 – 1 October 1885), styled Lord Ashley from 1811 to 1851 and then Lord Shaftesbury following the death of his father, was a British politician, philanthropist and social reformer. He was the eldest son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury and his wife Lady Anne Spencer, daughter of George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough, and older brother of Henry Ashley, MP.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Lord Ashley, as he was styled until his father's death in 1851, was educated at Manor House school in Chiswick (1812–1813), Harrow School (1813–1816) and Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained first class honours in classics in 1822, took his MA in 1832 and was appointed DCL in 1841.\n", "Ashley's early family life was loveless, a circumstance common among the British upper classes, and resembled in that respect the fictional childhood of Esther Summerson vividly narrated in the early chapters of Charles Dickens's novel \"Bleak House\". G.F.A Best in his biography \"Shaftesbury\" writes that: \"Ashley grew up without any experience of parental love. He saw little of his parents, and when duty or necessity compelled them to take notice of him they were formal and frightening.\" Even as an adult, he disliked his father and was known to refer to his mother as \"a devil\".\n", "This difficult childhood was softened by the affection he received from his housekeeper Maria Millis, and his sisters. Millis provided for Ashley a model of Christian love that would form the basis for much of his later social activism and philanthropic work, as Best explains: \"What did touch him was the reality, and the homely practicality, of the love which her Christianity made her feel towards the unhappy child. She told him bible stories, she taught him a prayer.\" Despite this powerful reprieve, school became another source of misery for the young Ashley, whose education at Manor House from 1808 to 1813 introduced a \"more disgusting range of horrors\". Shaftesbury himself shuddered to recall those years, \"The place was bad, wicked, filthy; and the treatment was starvation and cruelty.\"\n", "By teenage years he had become a committed Christian and whilst at Harrow two experiences happened that would influence his later life. \"Once, at the foot of Harrow Hill, he was the horrified witness of a pauper’s funeral. The drunken pall-bearers, stumbling along with a crudely-made coffin and shouting snatches of bawdy songs, brought home to him the existence of a whole empire of callousness which put his own childhood miseries in their context. The second incident was his unusual choice of a subject for a Latin poem. In the school grounds, there was an unsavoury mosquito-breeding pond called the Duck Puddle. He chose it as his subject because he was urgently concerned that the school authorities should do something about it, and this appeared to be the simplest way of bringing it to their attention. Soon afterwards the Duck Puddle was inspected, condemned and filled in. This little triumph was a useful fillip to his self-confidence, but it was more than that. It was a foretaste of his skill in getting people to act decisively in face of sloth or immediate self-interest. This was to prove one of his greatest assets in Parliament.\"\n", "Section::::Political career.\n", "Ashley was elected as the Tory Member of Parliament for Woodstock (a pocket borough controlled by the Duke of Marlborough) in June 1826 and was a strong supporter of the Duke of Wellington. After George Canning replaced Lord Liverpool as Prime Minister, he offered Ashley a place in the new government, despite Ashley having been in the Commons for only five months. Ashley politely declined, writing in his diary that he believed that serving under Canning would be a betrayal of his allegiance to the Duke of Wellington and that he was not qualified for office. Before he had completed one year in the Commons, he had been appointed to three parliamentary committees and he received his fourth such appointment in June 1827, when he was appointed to the Select Committee On Pauper Lunatics in the County of Middlesex and on Lunatic Asylums.\n", "Section::::Political career.:Reform of the Lunacy Laws.\n", "In 1827, when Ashley-Cooper was appointed to the Select Committee On Pauper Lunatics in the County of Middlesex and on Lunatic Asylums, the majority of lunatics in London were kept in madhouses owned by Dr Warburton. The Committee examined many witnesses concerning one of his madhouses in Bethnal Green, called the White House. Ashley visited this on the Committee's behalf. The patients were chained up, slept naked on straw, and went to toilet in their beds. They were left chained from Saturday afternoon until Monday morning when they were cleared of the accumulated excrement. They were then washed down in freezing cold water and one towel was allotted to 160 people, with no soap. It was overcrowded and the meat provided was \"that nasty thick hard muscle a dog could not eat\". The White House had been described as \"a mere place for dying\" rather than curing the insane and when the Committee asked Dr MacMichael whether he believed that \"in the lunatic asylums in the neighbourhood of London any curative process is going on with regard to pauper patients\", he replied: \"None at all\".\n", "The Committee recommended that \"legislative measures of a remedial character should be introduced at the earliest period at the next session\", and the establishment of a Board of Commissioners appointed by the Home Secretary possessing extensive powers of licensing, inspection and control. When in February 1828 Robert Gordon, Liberal MP for Cricklade, introduced a bill to put these recommendations into law, Ashley seconded this and delivered his maiden speech in support of the Bill. He wrote in his diary: \"So, by God's blessing, my first effort has been for the advance of human happiness. May I improve hourly! Fright almost deprived me of recollection but again thank Heaven, I did not sit down quite a presumptuous idiot\". Ashley was also involved in framing the County Lunatic Asylums (England) Act 1828 and the Madhouses Act 1828. Through these Acts, fifteen commissioners were appointed for the London area and given extensive powers of licensing and inspection, one of the commissioners being Ashley.\n", "In July 1845 Ashley sponsored two Lunacy Acts, ‘For the Regulation of lunatic Asylums’ and ‘For the better Care and Treatment of Lunatics in England and Wales’. They originated in the Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy which he had commended to Parliament the year before. These Acts consolidated and amended previous lunacy laws, providing better record keeping and more strict certification regulations to ensure patients against unwarranted detention. They also ordered, instead of merely permitting, the construction of country lunatic asylums with and establishing an ongoing Lunacy Commission with Ashley as its chairman. In support of these measures, Ashley gave a speech in which he claimed that although since 1828 there had been an improvement, more still needed to be done. He cited the case of a Welsh lunatic girl, Mary Jones, who had for more than a decade been locked in a tiny loft with one boarded-up window with little air and no light. The room was extremely filthy and was filled with an intolerable smell. She could only squat in a bent position in the room and this had caused her to become deformed.\n", "In early 1858 a Select Committee was appointed over concerns that sane persons were detained in lunatic asylums. Lord Shaftesbury (as Ashley had become upon his father's death in 1851) was the chief witness and opposed the suggestion that the certification of insanity be made more difficult and that early treatment of insanity was essential if there was to be any prospect of a cure. He claimed that only one or two people in his time dealing with lunacy had been detained in an asylum without sufficient grounds and that commissioners should be granted more not fewer powers. The Committee's Report endorsed all of Shaftesbury's recommendations except for one: that a magistrate's signature on a certificate of lunacy be made compulsory. This was not put into law chiefly due to Shaftesbury's opposition to it. Clarification needed The Report also agreed with Shaftesbury that unwarranted detentions were \"extremely rare\".\n", "In July 1877 Shaftesbury gave evidence before the Select Committee on the Lunacy Laws, which had been appointed in February over concerns that it was too easy for sane persons to be detained in asylums. Shaftesbury feared that because of his advanced age he would be taken over by forgetfulness whilst giving evidence and was greatly stressed in the months leading up to this: \"Shall fifty years of toil, anxiety and prayer, crowned by marvellous and unlooked-for success, bring me in the end only sorrow and disgrace?\" When \"the hour of trial\" arrived Shaftesbury defended the Lunacy Commission and claimed he was now the only person alive who could speak with personal knowledge of the state of care of lunatics before the Lunacy Commission was established in 1828. It had been \"a state of things such as would pass all belief\". In the Committee's Report, the members of the Committee agreed with Shaftesbury's evidence on all points.\n", "In 1884 the husband of Mrs Georgina Weldon tried to have her detained in a lunatic asylum because she believed that her pug dog had a soul and that the spirit of her dead mother had entered into her pet rabbit. She commenced legal action against Shaftesbury and other lunacy commissioners although it failed. In May Shaftesbury spoke in the Lords against a motion declaring the lunacy laws unsatisfactory but the motion passed Parliament. The Lord Chancellor Selborne supported a Lunacy Law Amendment Bill and Shaftesbury wanted to resign from the Lunacy Commission as he believed he was honour bound not to oppose a Bill supported by the Lord Chancellor. However, Selborne implored him not to resign so Shaftesbury refrained. However, when the Bill was introduced and it contained the provision which made it compulsory for a certificate of lunacy to be signed by a magistrate or a judge, he resigned. The government fell, however, and the Bill was withdrawn and Shaftesbury resumed his chairmanship of the Lunacy Commission.\n", "Shaftesbury's work in improving the care of the insane remains one of his most important, though less well known, achievements. He wrote: \"Beyond the circle of my own Commissioners and the lunatics that I visit, not a soul, in great or small life, not even my associates in my works of philanthropy, has any notion of the years of toil and care that, under God, I have bestowed on this melancholy and awful question\".\n", "Section::::Political career.:Child Labour and Factory Reform.\n", "In March 1833 Ashley introduced the Ten Hours Act 1833 into the Commons, which provided that children working in the cotton and woollen industries must be aged nine or above; no person under the age of eighteen was to work more than ten hours a day or eight hours on a Saturday; and no one under twenty-five was to work nights. However the Whig government, by a majority of 145, amended this to substitute \"thirteen\" in place of \"eighteen\" and the Act as it passed ensured that no child under thirteen worked more than nine hours, insisted they should go to school, and appointed inspectors to enforce the law.\n", "In June 1836 another Ten Hours act was introduced into the Commons and although Ashley considered this Bill ill-timed, he supported it. In July one member of the Lancashire committees set up to support the Bill wrote that: \"If there was one man in England more devoted to the interests of the factory people than another, it was Lord Ashley. They might always rely on him as a ready, steadfast and willing friend\". In July 1837 he accused the government of ignoring the breaches of the 1833 Act and moved the resolution that the House regretted the regulation of the working hours of children had been found to be unsatisfactory. It was lost by fifteen votes.\n", "The text of \"A Narrative of the Experience and Sufferings of William Dodd a Factory Cripple\" was sent to Lord Ashley and with his support was published in 1840. Ashley employed William Dodd at 45 shillings a week and he wrote \"The Factory System: Illustrated\" to describe the conditions of working children in textile manufacture. This was published in 1842. These books were attacked by John Bright in parliament who said that he had evidence that the books described Dodd's mistreatment but were in fact driven by Dodd's ingratitude as a disgruntled employee. Ashley sacked Dodd who emigrated to America.\n", "In 1842 Ashley wrote twice to the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, to urge the government to support a new Factory Act. Peel wrote in reply that he would not support one and Ashley wrote to the Short Time Committees of Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire who desired a Ten Hours Act:\n", "Though painfully disappointed, I am not disheartened, nor am I at a loss either what course to take, or what advice to give. I shall persevere unto my last hour, and so must you; we must exhaust every legitimate means that the Constitution afford, in petitions to Parliament, in public meetings, and in friendly conferences with your employers; but you must infringe no law, and offend no proprieties; we must all work together as sensible men, who will one day give an account of their motives and actions; if this course is approved, no consideration shall detach me from your cause; if not, you must elect another advocate.\n", "I know that, in resolving on this step, I exclude myself altogether from the tenure of office; I rejoice in the sacrifice, happy to devote the remainder of my days, be they many or be they few, as God in His wisdom shall determine, to an effort, however laborious, to ameliorate your moral and social condition.\n", "In March 1844 Ashley moved an amendment to a Factory Bill limiting the working hours of adolescents to ten hours after Sir James Graham had introduced a Bill aiming to limit their working hours to twelve hours. Ashley's amendment was passed by eight votes, the first time the Commons had approved of the Ten Hour principle. However, in a later vote his amendment was defeated by seven votes and the Bill was withdrawn. Later that month Graham introduced another Bill which again would limit the employment of adolescents to twelve hours. Ashley supported this Bill except that he wanted ten hours not twelve as the limit. In May he moved an amendment to limit the hours worked to ten hours but this was lost by 138 votes.\n", "In 1846, whilst he was out of Parliament, Ashley strongly supported John Fielden's Ten Hours Bill, which was lost by ten votes. In January 1847 Fielden reintroduced his Bill and it finally passed through Parliament to become the Ten Hours Act.\n", "Section::::Political career.:Miners.\n", "Ashley introduced the Mines and Collieries Act 1842 in Parliament to outlaw the employment of women and children underground in coal mines. He made a speech in support of the Act and the Prince Consort wrote to him afterwards, sending him the \"best wishes for your \"total\" success\". At the end of his speech, his opponent on the Ten Hours issue, Cobden, walked over to Ashley and said: \"You know how opposed I have been to your views, but I don't think I have ever been put into such a frame of mind in the whole course of my life as I have been by your speech\".\n", "Section::::Political career.:Climbing boys.\n", "Ashley was a strong supporter of prohibiting the employment of boys as chimney sweeps. Many climbing boys were illegitimate who had been sold by their parents. They suffered from scorched and lacerated skin, their eyes and throats filled with soot, with the danger of suffocation and their occupational disease—cancer of the scrotum. In 1840 a Bill was introduced into the Commons outlawing the employment of boys as chimney sweeps, and strongly supported by Ashley. Despite being enforced in London, elsewhere the Act did not stop the employment of child chimney sweeps and this led to the foundation of the Climbing-Boys' Society with Ashley as its chairman. In 1851, 1853 and 1855 Shaftesbury introduced Bills into Parliament to deal with the ongoing use of boy chimney sweeps but these were all defeated. He succeeded in passing the Chimney Sweepers Regulation Act 1864 but like its predecessors, it remained ineffectual. Shaftesbury finally persuaded Parliament to pass the Chimney Sweepers Act 1875 which ensured the annual licensing of chimney sweeps and the enforcement of the law by the police. This finally eradicated the employment of boys as chimney sweeps.\n", "After Shaftesbury discovered that a boy chimney sweep was living behind his house in Brock Street, London, he rescued the child and sent him to \"the Union School at Norwood Hill, where, under God's blessing and special merciful grace, he will be trained in the knowledge and love and faith of our common Saviour\".\n", "Section::::Political career.:Education reform.\n", "In 1844 Ashley became president of the Ragged School Union that promoted ragged schools. These schools were for poor children and sprang up from volunteers. Ashley wrote that \"If the Ragged School system were to fail I should not die in the course of nature, I should die of a broken heart\".\n", "Section::::Political career.:Religion and Jewish Restorationism.\n", "Shaftesbury was a pre-millennial evangelical Anglican who believed in the imminent second coming of Christ. His belief underscored the urgency of immediate action. He strongly opposed the Roman Catholic Church and any hint of Romanism or ritualism among High Church Anglicans. He strongly opposed the Oxford movement In the Church of England, fearful of Catholic features. In 1845 he denounced the Maynooth Act, which funded the Catholic seminary in Ireland that would train many priests.\n", "Shaftesbury was a leading figure within 19th-century evangelical Anglicanism. Shaftesbury was President of the British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) from 1851 until his death in 1885. He wrote, of the Bible Society, \"\"Of all Societies, this is nearest to my heart... Bible Society has always been a watchword in our house.\"\" He was also president of the Evangelical Alliance for some time.\n", "Shaftesbury was also a student of Edward Bickersteth and together they became prominent advocates of Christian Zionism in Britain. Shaftesbury was an early proponent of the Restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land, providing the first proposal by a major politician to resettle Jews in Palestine. The conquest of Greater Syria in 1831 by Muhammad Ali of Egypt changed the conditions under which European power politics operated in the Near East. As a consequence of that shift, Shaftesbury was able to help persuade Foreign Minister Palmerston to send a British consul, James Finn, to Jerusalem in 1838. Shaftesbury became President of the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, of which Finn was a prominent member. A committed Christian and a loyal Englishman, Shaftesbury argued for a Jewish return because of what he saw as the political and economic advantages to England and because he believed that it was God's will. In January 1839, Shaftesbury published an article in the Quarterly Review, which although initially commenting on the 1838 \"Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land (1838)\" by Lord Lindsay, provided the first proposal by a major politician to resettle Jews in Palestine:\n", "The soil and climate of Palestine are singularly adapted to the growth of produce required for the exigencies of Great Britain; the finest cotton may be obtained in almost unlimited abundance; silk and madder are the staple of the country, and olive oil is now, as it ever was, the very fatness of the land. Capital and skill are alone required: the presence of a British officer, and the increased security of property which his presence will confer, may invite them from these islands to the cultivation of Palestine; and the Jews, who will betake themselves to agriculture in no other land, having found, in the English consul, a mediator between their people and the Pacha, will probably return in yet greater numbers, and become once more the husbandmen of Judaea and Galilee.\n", "The lead-up to the Crimean War (1854), like the military expansionism of Muhammad Ali two decades earlier, signalled an opening for realignments in the Near East. In July 1853, Shaftesbury wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, that Greater Syria was \"“a country without a nation” in need of “a nation without a country... Is there such a thing? To be sure there is, the ancient and rightful lords of the soil, the Jews!\"\" In his diary that year he wrote \"“these vast and fertile regions will soon be without a ruler, without a known and acknowledged power to claim dominion. The territory must be assigned to some one or other... There is a country without a nation; and God now in his wisdom and mercy, directs us to a nation without a country.\"\" This is commonly cited as an early use of the phrase, \"A land without a people for a people without a land\" by which Shaftesbury was echoing another British proponent of the restoration of the Jews to Israel, (Dr Alexander Keith.)\n", "Section::::Political career.:Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade.\n", "Shaftesbury served as the first president of the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade: a lobbying group opposed to the Anglo-Asian opium trade. The Society was formed by Quaker businessmen in 1874, and Shaftesbury was president from 1880 until his death. The Society's efforts eventually led to the creation of the investigative Royal Commission on Opium.\n", "Section::::Shaftesbury Memorial.\n", "The Shaftesbury Memorial in Piccadilly Circus, London, erected in 1893, was designed to commemorate his philanthropic works. The Memorial is crowned by Alfred Gilbert's aluminium statue of Anteros as a nude, butterfly-winged archer. This is officially titled The Angel of Christian Charity, but has become popularly, if mistakenly, known as \"Eros\". It appears on the masthead of the \"Evening Standard\".\n", "Section::::Veneration.\n", "Lord Shaftesbury is honoured together with William Wilberforce on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church on 30 July. Lord Shaftesbury was a member of the Canterbury Association, as were two of Wilberforce's sons, Samuel and Robert. Lord Ashley joined on 27 March 1848.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "Lord Shaftesbury, then Lord Ashley, married Lady Emily Caroline Catherine Frances Cowper (died 15 October 1872), daughter of Peter Cowper, 5th Earl Cowper and Emily Lamb, Countess Cowper; Emily is likely in fact to have been the natural daughter of Lord Palmerston (later her official stepfather), on 10 June 1830. This marriage, which proved a happy and fruitful one, produced ten children. It also provided invaluable political connections for Ashley; his wife's maternal uncle was Lord Melbourne and her stepfather (and supposed biological father) Lord Palmerston, both Prime Ministers.\n", "The children, who mostly suffered various degrees of ill-health, were:\n", "BULLET::::1. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 8th Earl of Shaftesbury (27 June 1831 – 13 April 1886), ancestor of all subsequent earls. He proved to be a disappointing heir apparent, constantly running up debts with his extravagant wife Harriet, born Lady Harriet Chichester.\n", "BULLET::::2. Hon. (Anthony) Francis Henry Ashley-Cooper, second son (b. 13 March 1833 – 13 May 1849)\n", "BULLET::::3. Hon. (Anthony) Maurice William Ashley-Cooper, third son (22 July 1835 – 19 August 1855), died aged 20, after several years of illness.\n", "BULLET::::4. Rt. Hon. Evelyn Melbourne Ashley (24 July 1836 – 15 November 1907), married 1stly 28 July 1866 Sybella Charlotte Farquhar (ca. 1846 – 31 August 1886), daughter of Sir Walter Rockcliffe Farquhar, 3rd Bt. by his wife Lady Mary Octavia Somerset, a daughter of the Duke of Beaufort and had one son Wilfred William Ashley, and one daughter. His granddaughter was Hon. Edwina Ashley, later Lady Mountbatten (1901–1960), who had two daughters Patricia, Countess Mountbatten of Burma (1924-2017) and Lady Pamela Hicks (b. 1929). Evelyn Ashley left several other descendants via his daughter and Edwina's younger sister. Evelyn Ashley married 2ndly 30 June 1891 Lady Alice Elizabeth Cole (4 February 1853 – 25 August 1931), daughter of William Willoughby Cole, 3rd Earl of Enniskillen by his 1st wife Jane Casamajor, no issue. The Rt Hon Evelyn Melbourne Ashley died 15 November 1907.\n", "BULLET::::5. Lady Victoria Elizabeth Ashley, later Lady Templemore (23 September 1837 – 15 February 1927), married 8 January 1873 (aged 35) St George's, Hanover Square, London Harry Chichester, 2nd Baron Templemore (4 June 1821 – 10 June 1906), son of Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Templemore and Lady Augusta Paget, and had issue.\n", "BULLET::::6. Hon (Anthony) Lionel George Ashley-Cooper (b. 7 September 1838 – 1914). He md 12 December 1868 Frances Elizabeth Leigh \"Fanny (d. 12 August 1875), daughter of Capel Hanbury Leigh; apparently had no issue.\n", "BULLET::::7. Lady Mary Charlotte Ashley-Cooper, second daughter (25 July 1842 – 3 September 1861.\n", "BULLET::::8. Lady Constance Emily Ashley-Cooper, third daughter, or \"Conty\" (29 November 1845 – 16 December 1872 or 1871 of lung disease)\n", "BULLET::::9. Lady Edith Florence Ashley-Cooper, fourth daughter (1 February 1847 – 25 November 1913)\n", "BULLET::::10. Hon. (Anthony) Cecil Ashley-Cooper, sixth son and tenth and youngest child (8 August 1849 – 23 September 1932); apparently died unmarried.\n", "Section::::Styles of address.\n", "BULLET::::- 1801–1811: Mr Anthony Ashley-Cooper\n", "BULLET::::- 1811–1826: Lord Ashley\n", "BULLET::::- 1826–1851: Lord Ashley MP\n", "BULLET::::- 1851–1862: \"The Right Honourable\" The Earl of Shaftesbury\n", "BULLET::::- 1862–1885: \"The Right Honourable\" The Earl of Shaftesbury KG\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Although he was offered a burial at Westminster Abbey, Shaftesbury wished to be buried at St. Giles. A funeral service was held in Westminster Abbey during early morning of 8 October and the streets along the route from Grosvenor Square and Westminster Abbey were thronged with poor people, costermongers, flower-girls, boot-blacks, crossing-sweepers, factory-hands and similar workers who waited for hours to see Shaftesbury's coffin as it passed by. Due to his constant advocacy for the better treatment of the working classes, Shaftesbury became known as the \"Poor Man's Earl\".\n", "One of his biographers, Georgina Battiscombe, has claimed that \"No man has in fact ever done more to lessen the extent of human misery or to add to the sum total of human happiness\".\n", "Three days after his death, Charles Spurgeon eulogized him saying, \"DURING the past week the church of God, and the world at large, have sustained a very serious loss. In the taking home to himself by our gracious Lord of the Earl of Shaftesbury, we have, in my judgment, lost the best man of the age. I do not know whom I should place second, but I certainly should put him first—far beyond all other servants of God within my knowledge—for usefulness and influence. He was a man most true in his personal piety, as I know from having enjoyed his private friendship; a man most firm in his faith in the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ; a man intensely active in the cause of God and truth. Take him whichever way you please, he was admirable: he was faithful to God in all his house, fulfilling both the first and second commands of the law in fervent love to God, and hearty love to man. He occupied his high position with singleness of purpose and immovable steadfastness: where shall we find his equal? If it is not possible that he was absolutely perfect, it is equally impossible for me to mention a single fault; for I saw none. He exhibited scriptural perfection, inasmuch as he was sincere, true, and consecrated. Those things which have been regarded as faults by the loose thinkers of this age are prime virtues in my esteem. They called him narrow; and in this they bear unconscious testimony to his loyalty to truth. I rejoiced greatly in his integrity, his fearlessness, his adherence to principle, in a day when revelation is questioned, the gospel explained away, and human thought set up as the idol of the hour. He felt that there was a vital and eternal difference between truth and error; consequently, he did not act or talk as if there was much to be said on either side, and, therefore, no one could be quite sure. We shall not know for many a year how much we miss in missing him; how great an anchor he was to this drifting generation, and how great a stimulus he was to every movement for the benefit of the poor. Both man and beast may unite in mourning him: he was the friend of every living thing. He lived for the oppressed; he lived for London; he lived for the nation; he lived still more for God. He has finished his course; and though we do not lay him to sleep in the grave with the sorrow of those that have no hope, yet we cannot but mourn that a great man and a prince has fallen this day in Israel. Surely, the righteous are taken away from the evil to come, and we are left to struggle on under increasing difficulties\" (“Departed Saints Yet Living.” The Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit Sermons. Vol. 31. London: Passmore & Alabaster, 1885. 541–542).\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- London Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews – Shaftesbury was president of the society.\n", "BULLET::::- A land without a people for a people without a land\n", "BULLET::::- Christian Zionism\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Georgina Battiscombe, \"Shaftesbury: A Biography of the Seventh Earl. 1801–1885\" (London: Constable, 1974).\n", "BULLET::::- John Wolffe, ‘Cooper, Anthony Ashley-, seventh earl of Shaftesbury (1801–1885)’, \"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\", Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008, accessed 13 February 2012.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Best, Geoffrey. \"Shaftesbury\" (1964) short scholarly biography online free\n", "BULLET::::- Bready, J. Wesley. \"Lord Shaftesbury and social-industrial progress\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- Finlayson, Geoffrey. \"The Victorian Shaftesbury.\" \"'History Today\" (March 1983) 33#3 pp 31-35.\n", "BULLET::::- Finlayson, Geoffrey B. A. M. \"The Seventh Earl of Shaftesbury\" (1981), a major scholarly biography\n", "BULLET::::- Furse-Roberts, David Andrew Barton. \"The Making of an Evangelical Tory: The Seventh Earl of Shaftesbury (1801-1885) and the Evolving Character of Victorian Evangelicalism.\" (PhD thesis, University of New South Wales, 2015, ).\n", "BULLET::::- J. L. Hammond and B. Hammond, \"Lord Shaftesbury\" (1923). online free\n", "BULLET::::- E. Hodder, \"The Life and Work of the Seventh Earl of Shaftesbury\", 3 vols. (1887). Volume 1; Volume2; Volume3\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- John Debrett \"The Peerage of the United Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland\" vol. 1: \"Cropley Ashley-Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury\", p. 143. Reprinted 2002 from the original edition circa 1810. The entry gives details of Shaftesbury's four brothers and three surviving sisters. Further details of their marriages and descendance are available here.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "British politician", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q333294", "wikidata_label": "Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury", "wikipedia_title": "Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Pyroclastic flow\n", "A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that moves away from a volcano about on average but is capable of reaching speeds up to . The gases can reach temperatures of about .\n", "Pyroclastic flows are a common and devastating result of certain explosive eruptions; they normally touch the ground and hurtle downhill, or spread laterally under gravity. Their speed depends upon the density of the current, the volcanic output rate, and the gradient of the slope.\n", "Section::::Origin of term.\n", "The word \"pyroclast\" is derived from the Greek , meaning \"fire\", and , meaning \"broken in pieces\". A name for pyroclastic flows which glow red in the dark is nuée ardente (French, \"burning cloud\"); this was first used to describe the disastrous 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Martinique.\n", "Pyroclastic flows that contain a much higher proportion of gas to rock are known as \"fully dilute pyroclastic density currents\" or pyroclastic surges. The lower density sometimes allows them to flow over higher topographic features or water such as ridges, hills, rivers and seas. They may also contain steam, water and rock at less than ; these are called \"cold\" compared with other flows, although the temperature is still lethally high. Cold pyroclastic surges can occur when the eruption is from a vent under a shallow lake or the sea. Fronts of some pyroclastic density currents are fully dilute; for example, during the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902, a fully dilute current overwhelmed the city of Saint-Pierre and killed nearly 30,000 people.\n", "A pyroclastic flow is a type of gravity current; in scientific literature they are sometimes abbreviated to PDC (pyroclastic density current).\n", "Section::::Causes.\n", "There are several mechanisms that can produce a pyroclastic flow:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fountain collapse\" of an eruption column from a Plinian eruption (e.g. Mount Vesuvius' destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii). In such an eruption, the material forcefully ejected from the vent heats the surrounding air and the turbulent mixture rises, through convection, for many kilometers. If the erupted jet is unable to heat the surrounding air sufficiently, convection currents will not be strong enough to carry the plume upwards and it falls, flowing down the flanks of the volcano.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fountain collapse\" of an eruption column associated with a Vulcanian eruption (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano has generated many of these deadly pyroclastic flows and surges). The gas and projectiles create a cloud that is denser than the surrounding air and becomes a pyroclastic flow.\n", "BULLET::::- Frothing at the mouth of the vent during degassing of the erupted lava. This can lead to the production of a rock called ignimbrite. This occurred during the eruption of Novarupta in 1912.\n", "BULLET::::- Gravitational collapse of a lava dome or spine, with subsequent avalanches and flows down a steep slope (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano, which caused nineteen deaths in 1997).\n", "BULLET::::- The directional blast (or jet) when part of a volcano collapses or explodes (e.g., the eruption of Mount St. Helens in May 18, 1980). As distance from the volcano increases, this rapidly transforms into a gravity-driven current.\n", "Section::::Size and effects.\n", "Flow volumes range from a few hundred cubic meters (yards) to more than 1,000 cubic kilometres (~240 cubic miles). Larger flows can travel for hundreds of kilometres (miles), although none on that scale has occurred for several hundred thousand years. Most pyroclastic flows are around 1 to 10 km (about ¼ to 2½ cubic miles) and travel for several kilometres. Flows usually consist of two parts: the \"basal flow\" hugs the ground and contains larger, coarse boulders and rock fragments, while an extremely hot ash plume lofts above it because of the turbulence between the flow and the overlying air, admixing and heating cold atmospheric air causing expansion and convection.\n", "The kinetic energy of the moving cloud will flatten trees and buildings in its path. The hot gases and high speed make them particularly lethal, as they will incinerate living organisms instantaneously or turn them into carbonized fossils: \n", "BULLET::::- The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy, for example, were engulfed by pyroclastic surges on August 24, 79 AD with many lives lost.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée destroyed the Martinique town of St. Pierre. Despite signs of impending eruption, the government deemed St. Pierre safe due to hills and valleys between it and the volcano, but the pyroclastic flow charred almost the entirety of the city, killing all but two of its 30,000 residents.\n", "BULLET::::- A pyroclastic surge killed volcanologists Harry Glicken and Katia and Maurice Krafft and 40 other people on Mount Unzen, in Japan, on June 3, 1991. The surge started as a pyroclastic flow and the more energised surge climbed a spur on which the Kraffts and the others were standing; it engulfed them, and the corpses were covered with about of ash.\n", "BULLET::::- On 25 June, 1997 a pyroclastic flow travelled down Mosquito Ghaut on the Caribbean island of Montserrat. A large, highly energized pyroclastic surge developed. This flow could not be restrained by the Ghaut and spilled out of it, killing 19 people who were in the Streatham village area (which was officially evacuated). Several others in the area suffered severe burns.\n", "Section::::Size and effects.:Interaction with water.\n", "Testimonial evidence from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, supported by experimental evidence, shows that pyroclastic flows can cross significant bodies of water. However, that might be a pyroclastic surge, not flow, because the density of a gravity current means it cannot move across the surface of water. One flow reached the Sumatran coast as much as 48 km (30 mi) away.\n", "A 2006 BBC documentary film, \"Ten Things You Didn't Know About Volcanoes\", demonstrated tests by a research team at Kiel University, Germany, of pyroclastic flows moving over water. When the reconstructed pyroclastic flow (stream of mostly hot ash with varying densities) hit the water, two things happened: the heavier material fell into the water, precipitating out from the pyroclastic flow and into the liquid; the temperature of the ash caused the water to evaporate, propelling the pyroclastic flow (now only consisting of the lighter material) along on a bed of steam at an even faster pace than before.\n", "During some phases of the Soufriere Hills volcano on Montserrat, pyroclastic flows were filmed about offshore. These show the water boiling as the flow passed over it. The flows eventually built a delta, which covered about .\n", "A pyroclastic flow can interact with a body of water to form a large amount of mud, which can then continue to flow downhill as a lahar. This is one of several mechanisms that can create a lahar.\n", "Section::::Size and effects.:On the Moon.\n", "In 1963, NASA astronomer Winifred Cameron proposed that the lunar equivalent of terrestrial pyroclastic flows may have formed sinuous rilles on the Moon. In a lunar volcanic eruption, a pyroclastic cloud would follow local relief, resulting in an often sinuous track. The Moon's Schröter's Valley offers one example.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Pyroclastic fall\n", "BULLET::::- Pyroclastic rock\n", "BULLET::::- Pyroclastic surge\n", "BULLET::::- Welded tuff\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Sigurdson, Haraldur: Encyclopedia of volcanoes. Academic Press, 546–548. .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Pyroclastic Flows video\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter that moves away from a volcano", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q221616", "wikidata_label": "pyroclastic flow", "wikipedia_title": "Pyroclastic flow", "aliases": { "alias": [ "pyroclastic density current", "pyroclastic cloud" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206520, "parentid": 904506867, "revid": 905830800, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-11T18:35:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyroclastic%20flow&oldid=905830800" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Chiang Rai Province\n", "Chiang Rai (, ; , ) or is the northernmost province of Thailand. It is bordered by the Shan State of Myanmar to the north, Bokeo Province of Laos to the east, Phayao to the south, Lampang to the southwest, and Chiang Mai to the west.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "The average elevation of the province is . The north of the province is part of the so-called \"Golden Triangle\", where the borders of Thailand, Laos and Burma converge, an area which prior to the rise of agricultural production of coffee, pineapple, coconuts, and banana plantations, was unsafe because of drug smuggling across the borders. The Mekong River forms the boundary with Laos, the Mae Sai and Ruak River with Burma. Through the town of Chiang Rai itself, flows the \"Mae Kok\" Kok River and south of it the Lao River, a tributary of the Kok.\n", "While the eastern part of the province is characterized by relatively flat river plains, the northern and western part consist of the hilly terrain of the Thai highlands with the Khun Tan Range and the Phi Pan Nam Range in the west and the Daen Lao Range in the north. While not the highest elevation of the province, the high Doi Tung (\"Flag Hill\") is the most important terrain feature. Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong wat on top of the hill, according to the chronicles, dates back to the year 911. Nearby is Doi Tung Royal Villa, former residence of the late princess mother (mother of the present king) Somdej Phra Srinagarindra. Thanks to her activities the hills were reforested, and the hill tribes diverted from growing opium poppies to other crops including coffee, bananas, coconuts, and pineapples.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Populations have dwelled in Chiang Rai since the 7th century and it became the center of the Lanna Kingdom during the 13th century. The region, rich in natural resources, was occupied by the Burmese until 1786.\n", "Chiang Rai Province's golden triangle bordering Laos and Burma was once the hub of opium production.\n", "Chiang Rai became a province in 1910, after being part of the Lanna Kingdom for centuries. After Lanna was incorporated into Thailand, it remained an autonomous region and thus the Chiang Rai area was administered from Chiang Mai.\n", "Chiang Rai Province is a transit point for Rohingya refugees from Myanmar (Burma) who are transported there from Sangkhlaburi district in Kanchanaburi Province.\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n", "The majority of the population are ethnic Thai who speak Kham Muang among themselves, but 12.5% are of hill tribes origin, a sizeable minority in the north provinces. A smaller number are of Chinese descent, mainly descendants of the Kuomintang soldiers who settled in the region, notably in Santikhiri.\n", "Section::::Symbols.\n", "The seal of the province shows a white elephant, the royal symbol, recalling that Chiang Rai was founded by King Mengrai, according to legend because his elephant liked the place.\n", "The provincial tree is the tree jasmine (\"Radermachera ignea\"), and the provincial flower is the orange trumpet (\"Pyrostegia venusta\").\n", "The former provincial slogan was \"เหนือสุดในสยาม อร่ามดอยตุง ผดุงวัฒนธรรม รสล้ำข้าวสาร หอมหวานลิ้นจี่ สตรีโสภา ชาเลิศรส สัปปะรดนางแล\", 'Northernmost of Siam, beautiful Doi Tung, repository of culture, most delicious rice, sweet and fragrant lychee, beautiful women, the finest flavoured tea, pineapple from Nang Lae, source of the giant catfish\".\n", "The current slogan is \"เหนือสุดในสยาม ชายแดนสามแผ่นดิน ถิ่นวัฒนธรรมล้านนา ล้ำค่าพระธาตุดอยตุง\", 'Northernmost of Siam, frontier of three lands, the home of Lan Na culture and Doi Tung Temple'.\n", "Section::::Administrative divisions.\n", "Chiang Rai is divided into 18 districts (\"amphoes\"). The districts are further subdivided into 124 sub-districts (\"tambons\") and 1,751 villages (\"mubans\").\n", "Section::::Human achievement index 2014.\n", "Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development.Chiang Rai province, with a HAI value of 0.6130, takes 53rd place in the rankings. This is \"somewhat low\" between the values of 0.6070 and 0.6209.\n", "Section::::Transport.\n", "Section::::Transport.:Air.\n", "Chiang Rai International Airport has domestic flights to both Bangkok airports, which connect to regional and international flights.\n", "Section::::Transport.:Boat.\n", "There is daily boat service between Chiang Rai and Tha Ton.\n", "Section::::Transport.:Rail.\n", "There is no railway system in Chiang Rai. The nearest station is Chiang Mai Railway Station.\n", "Section::::Transport.:Road.\n", "Chiang Rai Province is intersected by Asian Highway 2, which runs for over 13,000 km (over 8,000 miles) from Denpasar in Indonesia to Kosravi in Iran, and by Asian Highway 3, which runs for over from Kentung in Myanmar to Ulan-Ude in Russia.\n", "Decent bus services are available in the province. In more remote areas, songthaews are the norm.\n", "Section::::Ethnic groups.\n", "Khon Muang are the city folk who originally came from Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, and Phrae. Culturally, they design their houses having only one floor with wooden gable decorations called \"ka-lae\". They are known for their craftsmanship in wood carving, weaving, lacquer ware, and musical instruments.\n", "Tai Yai (Shan) are a Tai ethnic group who primarily live in what is now Shan State in Burma, and also in Mae Hong Son Province in Thailand. They grow rice, farm, raise cattle, and trade. Their craftsmanship lies in weaving, pottery, wood carving, and bronze ware.\n", "Akha have the largest population of any hill tribe in the region. Originating from Tibet and southern China, they dwell on high ground around 1,200 meters above sea level. Within their villages they build spirit gateways to protect them from evil spirits.\n", "Lahu (Musor) are also from the Yunnanese area and live in high areas. They are known as hunters and planters.\n", "Karen live in various areas of the region which have valleys and riverbanks.\n", "Chin Haw in Chiang Rai consist primarily of the former Kuomintang (KMT army) who took refuge in the area, mainly in Santikhiri (formerly Mae Salong).\n", "Hmong from southern China, inhabit high ground. They raise livestock and grow rice, corn, tobacco, and cabbage. They are also known for their embroidery and silver.\n", "Tai Lue (Dai) live in dwellings of usually only a single room wooden house built on high poles. They are skilled in weaving.\n", "Lisu from southern China and Tibet are renowned for their colorful dress and also build their dwellings on high stilts. They harvest rice and corn and their men are skilled in hunting.\n", "Yao (Mien) reside along mountain sides and grow corn and other crops. They are skilled blacksmiths, silversmiths, and embroiders.\n", "Section::::Hospitals.\n", "BULLET::::- Kasemrad Sriburin General Hospital, Private hospital.\n", "BULLET::::- Chiangrai Prachanukroh Hospital, Public hospital.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Provincial Website(Thai)\n", "BULLET::::- Chiang Rai page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand\n", "BULLET::::- English News Chiang Rai Province\n" ] }

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{ "description": "province in nothern Thailand", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q236419", "wikidata_label": "Chiang Rai", "wikipedia_title": "Chiang Rai Province", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206497, "parentid": 904885574, "revid": 906596230, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-16T21:56:58Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chiang%20Rai%20Province&oldid=906596230" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Caliban (moon)\n", "Caliban ( or ) is the second-largest retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered on 6 September 1997 by Brett J. Gladman, Philip D. Nicholson, Joseph A. Burns, and John J. Kavelaars using the 200-inch Hale telescope together with Sycorax and given the temporary designation S/1997 U 1.\n", "Designated Uranus XVI, it was named after the monster character in William Shakespeare's play \"The Tempest\".\n", "Section::::Orbit.\n", "Caliban follows a distant orbit, more than 10 times further from Uranus than the furthest regular moon Oberon. Its orbit is retrograde, moderately inclined and slightly eccentric. The orbital parameters suggest that it may belong to the same dynamic cluster as Stephano and Francisco, suggesting common origin.\n", "The diagram illustrates the orbital parameters of the retrograde irregular satellites of Uranus (in polar co-ordinates) with the eccentricity of the orbits represented by the segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n", "Its diameter is estimated at 72 km (assuming albedo of 0.04) making it the second largest irregular satellite of Uranus, half the size of Sycorax, the biggest irregular satellite of Uranus.\n", "Somewhat inconsistent reports put Caliban in \"light-red\" category ( , ), redder than Himalia but still less red than most Kuiper belt objects. Caliban may be slightly redder than Sycorax. It also absorbs light at 0.7 μm, and one group of astronomers think this may be a result of liquid water that modified the surface.\n", "The light curve suggests the rotation period of Caliban is about 2.7h.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n", "Caliban is hypothesized to be a captured object: it did not form in the accretionary disk that existed around Uranus just after its formation. The exact capture mechanism is not known, but capturing a moon requires the dissipation of energy. The possible capture processes include: gas drag in the protoplanetary disk, many body interactions and the capture during the fast growth of the Uranus' mass (so-called \"pull-down\").\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Moons of Uranus\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Caliban Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration\n", "BULLET::::- David Jewiit pages\n", "BULLET::::- Uranus' Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard)\n", "BULLET::::- MPC: Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service\n", "BULLET::::- Caliban and Sycorax, Moons of Uranus (2005 Calvin J. Hamilton)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "moon of Uranus", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q18481", "wikidata_label": "Caliban", "wikipedia_title": "Caliban (moon)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Uranus XVI", "S/1997 U 1" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206525, "parentid": 902649571, "revid": 908101933, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-27T12:55:36Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caliban%20(moon)&oldid=908101933" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Murder\n", "Murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, such as manslaughter. Manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of \"malice\", brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. \"Involuntary\" manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, recklessness.\n", "Most societies consider murder to be an extremely serious crime, and thus believe that the person charged should receive harsh punishments for the purposes of retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, or incapacitation. In most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence; and in a few, the death penalty may be imposed.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The modern English word \"murder\" descends from the Proto-Indo-European \"mrtró\" which meant \"to die\". The Middle English \"mordre\" is a noun from Anglo-Saxon \"morðor\" and Old French \"murdre\". Middle English \"mordre\" is a verb from Anglo-Saxon \"myrdrian\" and the Middle English noun.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "The eighteenth-century English jurist William Blackstone (citing Edward Coke), in his \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\" set out the common law definition of murder, which by this definition occurs\n", "The elements of common law murder are:\n", "BULLET::::1. Unlawful\n", "BULLET::::2. killing\n", "BULLET::::3. through criminal act or omission\n", "BULLET::::4. of a human\n", "BULLET::::5. by another human\n", "BULLET::::6. with malice aforethought.\n", "BULLET::::- Unlawful – This distinguishes murder from killings that are done within the boundaries of law, such as capital punishment, justified self-defence, or the killing of enemy combatants by lawful combatants as well as causing collateral damage to non-combatants during a war.\n", "BULLET::::- Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total and irreversible cessation of blood circulation and respiration. With advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life.\n", "BULLET::::- Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission.\n", "BULLET::::- Of a human – This element presents the issue of when life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being. Life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath.\n", "BULLET::::- By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder. The requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder.\n", "BULLET::::- With malice aforethought – Originally \"malice aforethought\" carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate and premeditated (prior intent) killing of another motivated by ill will. Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice. All that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes \"malice\".\n", "The four states of mind recognized as constituting \"malice\" are:\n", "Under state of mind (i), intent to kill, the \"deadly weapon rule\" applies. Thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, \"intent follows the bullet\". Examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims.\n", "Under state of mind (iii), an \"abandoned and malignant heart\", the killing must result from the defendant's conduct involving a reckless indifference to human life and a conscious disregard of an unreasonable risk of death or serious bodily injury. In Australian jurisdictions, the unreasonable risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death (or grievous bodily harm in most states), as opposed to possibility.\n", "Under state of mind (iv), the felony-murder doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape, robbery or kidnapping. Importantly, the underlying felony \"cannot\" be a lesser included offense such as assault, otherwise all criminal homicides would be murder as all are felonies.\n", "As with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation. Even when the legal distinction between murder and manslaughter is clear, it is not unknown for a jury to find a murder defendant guilty of the lesser offence. The jury might sympathise with the defendant (e.g. in a crime of passion, or in the case of a bullied victim who kills their tormentor), and the jury may wish to protect the defendant from a sentence of life imprisonment or execution.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Degrees of murder.\n", "Many jurisdictions divide murder by degrees. The distinction between first- and second-degree murder exists, for example, in Canadian murder law and U.S. murder law.\n", "The most common division is between first- and second-degree murder. Generally, second-degree murder is common law murder, and first-degree is an aggravated form. The aggravating factors of first-degree murder depend on the jurisdiction, but may include a specific intent to kill, premeditation, or deliberation. In some, murder committed by acts such as strangulation, poisoning, or lying in wait are also treated as first-degree murder. A few states in the U.S. further distinguish third-degree murder, but they differ significantly in which kinds of murders they classify as second-degree versus third-degree. For example, Minnesota defines third-degree murder as depraved-heart murder, whereas Florida defines third-degree murder as felony murder (except when the underlying felony is specifically listed in the definition of first-degree murder).\n", "Some jurisdictions also distinguish premeditated murder. This is the crime of wrongfully and intentionally causing the death of another human being (also known as murder) after rationally considering the timing or method of doing so, in order to either increase the likelihood of success, or to evade detection or apprehension. State laws in the United States vary as to definitions of \"premeditation\". In some states, premeditation may be construed as taking place mere seconds before the murder. Premeditated murder is one of the most serious forms of homicide, and is punished more severely than manslaughter or other types of homicide, often with a life sentence without the possibility of parole, or in some countries, the death penalty. In the U.S, federal law () criminalizes premeditated murder, felony murder and second-degree murder committed under situations where federal jurisdiction applies. In Canada, the Criminal Code classifies murder as either 1st- or 2nd-degree. The former type of murder is often called premeditated murder, although premeditation is not the only way murder can be classified as first-degree.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Common law.\n", "According to Blackstone, English common law identified murder as a \"public wrong\". According to common law, murder is considered to be \"malum in se\", that is an act which is evil within itself. An act such as murder is wrong or evil by its very nature. And it is the very nature of the act which does not require any specific detailing or definition in the law to consider murder a crime.\n", "Some jurisdictions still take a common law view of murder. In such jurisdictions, what is considered to be murder is defined by precedent case law or previous decisions of the courts of law. However, although the common law is by nature flexible and adaptable, in the interests both of certainty and of securing convictions, most common law jurisdictions have codified their criminal law and now have statutory definitions of murder.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Exclusions.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Exclusions.:General.\n", "Although laws vary by country, there are circumstances of exclusion that are common in many legal systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Killing of enemy combatants who have not surrendered by lawful combatants, in accordance with lawful orders in war, is also generally not considered murder; although illicit killings within a war may constitute murder or homicidal war crimes. (see the Laws of war article)\n", "BULLET::::- Self-defense: acting in self-defense or in defense of another person is generally accepted as legal justification for killing a person in situations that would otherwise have been murder. However, a self-defense killing might be considered manslaughter if the killer established control of the situation before the killing took place. In the case of self-defense it is called a \"justifiable homicide\".\n", "BULLET::::- Unlawful killings without malice or intent are considered manslaughter.\n", "BULLET::::- In many common law countries, provocation is a partial defense to a charge of murder which acts by converting what would otherwise have been murder into manslaughter (this is voluntary manslaughter, which is more severe than involuntary manslaughter).\n", "BULLET::::- Accidental killings are considered homicides. Depending on the circumstances, these may or may not be considered criminal offenses; they are often considered manslaughter.\n", "BULLET::::- Suicide does not constitute murder in most societies. Assisting a suicide, however, may be considered murder in some circumstances.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Exclusions.:Specific to certain countries.\n", "BULLET::::- Capital punishment: some countries practice the death penalty. Capital punishment may be ordered by a legitimate court of law as the result of a conviction in a criminal trial with due process for a serious crime. The 47 Member States of the Council of Europe are prohibited from using the death penalty.\n", "BULLET::::- Euthanasia, doctor-assisted suicide: the administration of lethal drugs by a doctor to a terminally ill patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain, in many jurisdictions it is seen as a special case (see the doctrine of double effect and the case of Dr John Bodkin Adams).\n", "BULLET::::- Killing to prevent the theft of one's property may be legal, depending on the jurisdiction. In 2013, a jury in south Texas acquitted a man who killed a prostitute who attempted to run away with his money.\n", "BULLET::::- Killing an intruder who is found by an owner to be in the owner's home (having entered unlawfully): legal in most US states (see Castle doctrine).\n", "BULLET::::- Killing to prevent specific forms of aggravated rape or sexual assault – killing of attacker by the potential victim or by witnesses to the scene; legal in parts of the US and in various other countries.\n", "BULLET::::- In Pakistan, the killing of a woman or girl in specific circumstances (e.g., when she commits adultery and is killed by her husband or other family members, known as honor killing) is not considered murder.\n", "BULLET::::- In the United States, in some states and in federal jurisdiction, a killing by a police officer is excluded from prosecution if the officer believes they are being threatened with deadly force by the victim. This may include such actions by the victim as reaching into a glove compartment or pocket for license and registration, if the officer thinks that the victim might be reaching for a gun.\n", "BULLET::::- Space jurisdiction is similar to that of international waters. Therefore, a murder committed in outer space is subject to jurisdiction in the country that owns the space craft in which the killing transpired. In the event the murder occurred on an extraterrestrial planet (e.g. the Moon), no country can own land of any other planet so the killer is bound by the laws of the country in which they originate. This also applies to the ISS per agreement signed by all countries that have worked on the station so all astronauts are covered by extraterratorial jurisdiction.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Victim.\n", "All jurisdictions require that the victim be a natural person; that is, a human being who was still alive before being murdered. In other words, under the law one cannot murder a corpse, a corporation, a non-human animal, or any other non-human organism such as a plant or bacterium.\n", "California's murder statute, Penal Code Section 187, was interpreted by the Supreme Court of California in 1994 as not requiring any proof of the viability of the fetus as a prerequisite to a murder conviction. This holding has two implications. The first is a defendant in California can be convicted of murder for killing a fetus which the mother herself could have terminated without committing a crime. The second, as stated by Justice Stanley Mosk in his dissent, is that because women carrying nonviable fetuses may not be visibly pregnant, it may be possible for a defendant to be convicted of intentionally murdering a person they did not know existed.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Mitigating circumstances.\n", "Some countries allow conditions that \"affect the balance of the mind\" to be regarded as mitigating circumstances. This means that a person may be found guilty of \"manslaughter\" on the basis of \"diminished responsibility\" rather than being found guilty of murder, if it can be proved that the killer was suffering from a condition that affected their judgment at the time. Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and medication side-effects are examples of conditions that may be taken into account when assessing responsibility.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Mitigating circumstances.:Insanity.\n", "Mental disorder may apply to a wide range of disorders including psychosis caused by schizophrenia and dementia, and excuse the person from the need to undergo the stress of a trial as to liability. Usually, sociopathy and other personality disorders are not legally considered insanity, because of the belief they are the result of free will in many societies. In some jurisdictions, following the pre-trial hearing to determine the extent of the disorder, the defence of \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" may be used to get a not guilty verdict. This defence has two elements:\n", "BULLET::::1. That the defendant had a serious mental illness, disease, or defect.\n", "BULLET::::2. That the defendant's mental condition, at the time of the killing, rendered the perpetrator unable to determine right from wrong, or that what they were doing was wrong.\n", "Under New York law, for example:\n", "Under the French Penal Code:\n", "Those who successfully argue a defence based on a mental disorder are usually referred to mandatory clinical treatment until they are certified safe to be released back into the community, rather than prison. A criminal defendant is often presented with the option of pleading \"not guilty by reason of insanity\". Thus, a finding of insanity results in a not-guilty verdict, although the defendant is placed in a state treatment facility where they could be kept for years or even decades.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Mitigating circumstances.:Postpartum depression.\n", "Postpartum depression (also known as post-natal depression) is recognized in some countries as a mitigating factor in cases of infanticide. According to Dr. Susan Friedman, \"Two dozen nations have infanticide laws that decrease the penalty for mothers who kill their children of up to one year of age. The United States does not have such a law, but mentally ill mothers may plead not guilty by reason of insanity.\" In the law of the Republic of Ireland, infanticide was made a separate crime from murder in 1949, applicable for the mother of a baby under one year old where \"the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth of the child\". Since independence, death sentences for murder in such cases had always been commuted; the new act was intended \"to eliminate all the terrible ritual of the black cap and the solemn words of the judge pronouncing sentence of death in those cases ... where it is clear to the Court and to everybody, except perhaps the unfortunate accused, that the sentence will never be carried out.\" In Russia, murder of a newborn child by the mother has been separate crime since 1996.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Mitigating circumstances.:Unintentional.\n", "For a killing to be considered murder in nine out of fifty states in the US, there normally needs to be an element of intent. A defendant may argue that they took precautions not to kill, that the death could not have been anticipated, or was unavoidable. As a general rule, manslaughter constitutes reckless killing, but manslaughter also includes criminally negligent (i.e. grossly negligent) homicide. Unintentional killing that results from an involuntary action generally cannot constitute murder. After examining the evidence, a judge or jury (depending on the jurisdiction) would determine whether the killing was intentional or unintentional.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Mitigating circumstances.:Diminished capacity.\n", "In those jurisdictions using the Uniform Penal Code, such as California, diminished capacity may be a defence. For example, Dan White used this defence to obtain a manslaughter conviction, instead of murder, in the assassination of Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk. Afterward, California amended its penal code to provide \"As a matter of public policy there shall be no defense of diminished capacity, diminished responsibility, or irresistible impulse in a criminal action...\"\n", "Section::::Definition.:Aggravating circumstances.\n", "Murder with specified aggravating circumstances is often punished more harshly. Depending on the jurisdiction, such circumstances may include:\n", "BULLET::::- Premeditation\n", "BULLET::::- Poisoning\n", "BULLET::::- Murder of a child\n", "BULLET::::- Murder of a police officer, judge, firefighter or witness to a crime\n", "BULLET::::- Murder of a pregnant woman\n", "BULLET::::- Crime committed for pay or other reward, such as contract killing\n", "BULLET::::- Exceptional brutality or cruelty\n", "BULLET::::- Methods which are dangerous to the public, e.g. explosion, arson, shooting in a crowd etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Murder for a political cause\n", "BULLET::::- Murder committed in order to conceal another crime or facilitate its commission.\n", "BULLET::::- Hate crimes, which occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their perceived membership in a certain social group.\n", "BULLET::::- Treachery (e.g. \"\" in German law)\n", "In the United States and Canada, these murders are referred to as first-degree or aggravated murders. Murder, under English criminal law, always carries a mandatory life sentence, but is not classified into degrees. Penalties for murder committed under aggravating circumstances are often higher, under English law, than the 15-year minimum non-parole period that otherwise serves as a starting point for a murder committed by an adult.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Felony murder rule.\n", "A legal doctrine in some common law jurisdictions broadens the crime of murder: when an offender kills in the commission of a dangerous crime, (regardless of intent), he/she is guilty of murder. The felony murder rule is often justified by its supporters as a means of deterring dangerous felonies, but the case of Ryan Holle shows it can be used very widely.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Year-and-a-day rule.\n", "In some common law jurisdictions, a defendant accused of murder is not guilty if the victim survives for longer than one year and one day after the attack. This reflects the likelihood that if the victim dies, other factors will have contributed to the cause of death, breaking the chain of causation; and also means that the responsible person does not have a charge of murder \"hanging over their head indefinitely\". Subject to any statute of limitations, the accused could still be charged with an offence reflecting the seriousness of the initial assault.\n", "With advances in modern medicine, most countries have abandoned a fixed time period and test causation on the facts of the case. This is known as \"delayed death\" and cases where this was applied or was attempted to be applied go back to at least 1966.\n", "In England and Wales, the \"year-and-a-day rule\" was abolished by the Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996. However, if death occurs three years or more after the original attack then prosecution can take place only with the Attorney-General's approval.\n", "In the United States, many jurisdictions have abolished the rule as well. Abolition of the rule has been accomplished by enactment of statutory criminal codes, which had the effect of displacing the common-law definitions of crimes and corresponding defences. In 2001 the Supreme Court of the United States held that retroactive application of a state supreme court decision abolishing the year-and-a-day rule did not violate the Ex Post Facto Clause of Article I of the United States Constitution.\n", "The potential effect of fully abolishing the rule can be seen in the case of 74-year-old William Barnes, charged with the murder of a Philadelphia police officer Walter T. Barclay Jr., who he had shot nearly 41 years previously. Barnes had served 16 years in prison for attempting to murder Barkley, but when the policeman died on August 19, 2007, this was alleged to be from complications of the wounds suffered from the shooting – and Barnes was charged with his murder. He was acquitted on May 24, 2010.\n", "Section::::Murder and natural selection.\n", "Martin Daly and Margo Wilson of McMaster University have claimed that several aspects of homicides, including the genetic relations or proximity between murderers and their victims, (as in the Cinderella effect), can often be explained by the evolution theory or evolutionary psychology.\n", "Section::::Historical and religious attitudes.\n", "In the Abrahamic religions, the first ever murder was committed by Cain against his brother Abel out of jealousy. In the past, certain types of homicide were lawful and justified. Georg Oesterdiekhoff wrote:\n", "In many such societies the redress was not via a legal system, but by blood revenge, although there might also be a form of payment that could be made instead—such as the weregild which in early Germanic society could be paid to the victim's family in lieu of their right of revenge.\n", "One of the oldest-known prohibitions against murder appears in the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu written sometime between 2100 and 2050 BC. The code states, \"If a man commits a murder, that man must be killed.\"\n", "In Judeo-Christian traditions, the prohibition against murder is one of the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses in (Exodus: 20v13) and (Deuteronomy 5v17). The Vulgate and subsequent early English translations of the Bible used the term \"secretly killeth his neighbour\" or \"smiteth his neighbour secretly\" rather than \"murder\" for the Latin \"clam percusserit proximum\". Later editions such as Young's Literal Translation and the World English Bible have translated the Latin \"occides\" simply as \"murder\" rather than the alternatives of \"kill\", \"assassinate\", \"fall upon\", or \"slay\".\n", "In Islam according to the Qur'an, one of the greatest sins is to kill a human being who has committed no fault. \"For that cause We decreed for the Children of Israel that whosoever killeth a human being for other than manslaughter or corruption in the earth, it shall be as if he had killed all mankind, and whoso saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he had saved the life of all mankind.\" \"And those who cry not unto any other god along with Allah, nor take the life which Allah hath forbidden save in (course of) justice, nor commit adultery – and whoso doeth this shall pay the penalty.\"\n", "The term \"assassin\" derives from Hashshashin, a militant Ismaili Shi'ite sect, active from the 8th to 14th centuries. This mystic secret society killed members of the Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuq and Crusader elite for political and religious reasons. The Thuggee cult that plagued India was devoted to Kali, the goddess of death and destruction. According to some estimates the Thuggees murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. The Aztecs believed that without regular offerings of blood the sun god Huitzilopochtli would withdraw his support for them and destroy the world as they knew it. According to Ross Hassig, author of \"Aztec Warfare\", \"between 10,000 and 80,400 persons\" were sacrificed in the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan.\n", "Southern slave codes did make willful killing of a slave illegal in most cases. For example, the 1860 Mississippi case of \"Oliver v. State\" charged the defendant with murdering his own slave. In 1811, the wealthy white planter Arthur Hodge was hanged for murdering several of his slaves on his plantation in the British West Indies.\n", "In Corsica, vendetta was a social code that required Corsicans to kill anyone who wronged their family honor. Between 1821 and 1852, no fewer than 4,300 murders were perpetrated in Corsica.\n", "Section::::Incidence.\n", "The World Health Organization reported in October 2002 that a person is murdered every 60 seconds. An estimated 520,000 people were murdered in 2000 around the globe. Another study estimated the worldwide murder rate at 456,300 in 2010 with a 35% increase since 1990. Two-fifths of them were young people between the ages of 10 and 29 who were killed by other young people. Because murder is the least likely crime to go unreported, statistics of murder are seen as a bellwether of overall crime rates.\n", "Murder rates vary greatly among countries and societies around the world. In the Western world, murder rates in most countries have declined significantly during the 20th century and are now between 1 and 4 cases per 100,000 people per year. Latin America and the Caribbean, the region with the highest murder rate in the world, experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.\n", "Section::::Incidence.:Murder rates by country.\n", "Murder rates in jurisdictions such as Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Iceland, Sweden, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and Germany are among the lowest in the world, around 0.3–1 cases per 100,000 people per year; the rate of the United States is among the highest of developed countries, around 4.5 in 2014, with rates in larger cities sometimes over 40 per 100,000. The top ten highest murder rates are in Honduras (91.6 per 100,000), El Salvador, Ivory Coast, Venezuela, Belize, Jamaica, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guatemala, Saint Kitts and Nevis and Zambia. (UNODC, 2011 – ).\n", "The following absolute murder counts per-country are not comparable because they are not adjusted by each country's total population. Nonetheless, they are included here for reference, with 2010 used as the base year (they may or may not include justifiable homicide, depending on the jurisdiction). There were 52,260 murders in Brazil, consecutively elevating the record set in 2009. Over half a million people were shot to death in Brazil between 1979 and 2003. 33,335 murder cases were registered across India, about 19,000 murders committed in Russia, approximately 17,000 murders in Colombia (the murder rate was 38 per 100,000 people, in 2008 murders went down to 15,000), approximately 16,000 murders in South Africa, approximately 15,000 murders in the United States, approximately 26,000 murders in Mexico, approximately 13,000 murders in Venezuela, approximately 4,000 murders in El Salvador, approximately 1,400 murders in Jamaica, approximately 550 murders in Canada and approximately 470 murders in Trinidad and Tobago. Pakistan reported 12,580 murders.\n", "In the United States, 666,160 people were killed between 1960 and 1996. Approximately 90% of murders in the US are committed by males. Between 1976 and 2005, 23.5% of all murder victims and 64.8% of victims murdered by intimate partners were female. For women in the US, homicide is the leading cause of death in the workplace.\n", "In the US, murder is the leading cause of death for African American males aged 15 to 34. Between 1976 and 2008, African Americans were victims of 329,825 homicides. In 2006, Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Report indicated that nearly half of the 14,990 murder victims that year were Black (7421). In the year 2007, there were 3,221 black victims and 3,587 white victims of non-negligent homicides. While 2,905 of the black victims were killed by a black offender, 2,918 of the white victims were killed by white offenders. There were 566 white victims of black offenders and 245 black victims of white offenders. The \"white\" category in the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) includes non-black Hispanics. In London in 2006, 75% of the victims of gun crime and 79% of the suspects were \"from the African/Caribbean community\".\n", "Murder demographics are affected by the improvement of trauma care, which has resulted in reduced lethality of violent assaults – thus the murder rate may not necessarily indicate the overall level of social violence.\n", "Workplace homicide, which tripled during the 1980s, is the fastest growing category of murder in America.\n", "Development of murder rates over time in different countries is often used by both supporters and opponents of capital punishment and gun control. Using properly filtered data, it is possible to make the case for or against either of these issues. For example, one could look at murder rates in the United States from 1950 to 2000, and notice that those rates went up sharply shortly after a moratorium on death sentences was effectively imposed in the late 1960s. This fact has been used to argue that capital punishment serves as a deterrent and, as such, it is morally justified. Capital punishment opponents frequently counter that the United States has much higher murder rates than Canada and most European Union countries, although all those countries have abolished the death penalty. Overall, the global pattern is too complex, and on average, the influence of both these factors may not be significant and could be more social, economic, and cultural.\n", "Despite the immense improvements in forensics in the past few decades, the fraction of murders solved has decreased in the United States, from 90% in 1960 to 61% in 2007. Solved murder rates in major U.S. cities varied in 2007 from 36% in Boston, Massachusetts to 76% in San Jose, California. Major factors affecting the arrest rate include witness cooperation and the number of people assigned to investigate the case.\n", "Section::::Incidence.:History of murder rates.\n", "According to scholar Pieter Spierenburg homicide rates per 100,000 in Europe have fallen over the centuries, from 35 per 100,000 in medieval times, to 20 in 1500 AD, 5 in 1700, to below two per 100,000 in 1900.\n", "In the United States, murder rates have been higher and have fluctuated. They fell below 2 per 100,000 by 1900, rose during the first half of the century, dropped in the years following World War II, and bottomed out at 4.0 in 1957 before rising again. The rate stayed in 9 to 10 range most of the period from 1972 to 1994, before falling to 5 in present times. The increase since 1957 would have been even greater if not for the significant improvements in medical techniques and emergency response times, which mean that more and more attempted homicide victims survive. According to one estimate, if the lethality levels of criminal assaults of 1964 still applied in 1993, the country would have seen the murder rate of around 26 per 100,000, almost triple the actually observed rate of 9.5 per 100,000.\n", "A similar, but less pronounced pattern has been seen in major European countries as well. The murder rate in the United Kingdom fell to 1 per 100,000 by the beginning of the 20th century and as low as 0.62 per 100,000 in 1960, and was at 1.28 per 100,000 . The murder rate in France (excluding Corsica) bottomed out after World War II at less than 0.4 per 100,000, quadrupling to 1.6 per 100,000 since then.\n", "The specific factors driving this dynamics in murder rates are complex and not universally agreed upon. Much of the raise in the U.S. murder rate during the first half of the 20th century is generally thought to be attributed to gang violence associated with Prohibition. Since most murders are committed by young males, the near simultaneous low in the murder rates of major developed countries circa 1960 can be attributed to low birth rates during the Great Depression and World War II. Causes of further moves are more controversial. Some of the more exotic factors claimed to affect murder rates include the availability of abortion and the likelihood of chronic exposure to lead during childhood (due to the use of leaded paint in houses and tetraethyllead as a gasoline additive in internal combustion engines).\n", "Section::::Use of the term.\n", "In many countries, in news reports, journalists are typically careful not to call a killing a murder until the perpetrator is convicted of such. After arrest, journalists write that the person was \"arrested on suspicion of murder\". When a prosecutor files charges, the accused is referred to as an \"accused murderer\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "Section::::See also.:Lists related to murder.\n", "BULLET::::- Lists of murders\n", "BULLET::::- List of types of killing\n", "Section::::See also.:Topics related to murder.\n", "BULLET::::- Culpable homicide\n", "BULLET::::- Depraved-heart murder\n", "BULLET::::- Double murder\n", "BULLET::::- Execution-style murder\n", "BULLET::::- Letting die\n", "BULLET::::- Mass murder\n", "BULLET::::- Misdemeanor murder\n", "BULLET::::- Murder conviction without a body\n", "BULLET::::- Seven laws of Noah\n", "BULLET::::- Stigmatized property\n", "BULLET::::- Thrill killing\n", "BULLET::::- Capital Murder\n", "BULLET::::- Assassination, a form of murder where the victim is prominent person such as a head of state or head of government.\n", "Section::::See also.:Murder laws by country.\n", "BULLET::::- Australia\n", "BULLET::::- Brazil\n", "BULLET::::- Canada\n", "BULLET::::- China\n", "BULLET::::- Cuba\n", "BULLET::::- Denmark\n", "BULLET::::- England and Wales\n", "BULLET::::- Finland\n", "BULLET::::- France\n", "BULLET::::- Germany\n", "BULLET::::- Hong Kong\n", "BULLET::::- India\n", "BULLET::::- Israel\n", "BULLET::::- Italy\n", "BULLET::::- Netherlands\n", "BULLET::::- Northern Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- Norway\n", "BULLET::::- Peru\n", "BULLET::::- Portugal\n", "BULLET::::- Romania\n", "BULLET::::- Russia\n", "BULLET::::- Sweden\n", "BULLET::::- Switzerland\n", "BULLET::::- United States\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Lord Mustill on the Common Law concerning murder\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Edward Coke Co. Inst., Pt. III, ch.7, p. 50\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Introduction and Updated Information on the Seville Statement on Violence\n", "BULLET::::- The Seville Statement\n", "BULLET::::- Atlas of United States Mortality – U.S. Centers for Disease Control\n", "BULLET::::- Cezanne's depiction of \"The Murder\" – National Museums Liverpool\n" ] }

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{ "description": "unlawful killing of a human with malice aforethought", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q132821", "wikidata_label": "murder", "wikipedia_title": "Murder", "aliases": { "alias": [ "first degree murder", "murder one", "murder 1", "1st degree murder", "premeditated homicide", "premeditated murder", "first-degree murder", "second degree murder", "2nd degree murder", "second-degree murder", "iced", "murder two", "murder 2", "criminal homicide [Pennsylvania]", "aggravated murder [Illinois]" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Solar maximum\n", "Solar maximum or solar max is a regular period of greatest Sun activity during the 11-year solar cycle. During solar maximum, large numbers of sunspots appear, and the solar irradiance output grows by about 0.07%. The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth's global climate, and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns.\n", "At solar maximum, the Sun's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles. On average, the solar cycle takes about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next, with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years.\n", "Large solar flares often occur during a maximum. For example, the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii.\n", "Section::::Predictions.\n", "Predictions of a future maximum's timing and strength are very difficult; predictions vary widely. There was a solar maximum in 2000. In 2006 NASA initially expected a solar maximum in 2010 or 2011, and thought that it could be the strongest since 1958. However, the solar maximum was not declared to have occurred until 2014, and even then was ranked among the weakest on record.\n", "Italian engineer Carlo Santagata suggested a parallelism between the masses (planets) orbiting the Sun and electric charges of equivalent magnitude. Then the magnetic induction of each orbiting mass (electric charge) on the Sun would add up during certain periods thus creating Solar maximums or would cancel out during other periods thus causing Solar minimums.\n", "Section::::Film.\n", "IMAX documentary about solar maximum called \"Solarmax\".\n", "Section::::Grand solar minima and maxima.\n", "Grand solar maxima occur when several solar cycles exhibit greater than average activity for decades or centuries. Solar cycles still occur during these grand solar maximum periods but the intensity of those cycles is greater. Grand solar maxima have shown some correlation with global and regional climate changes.\n", "The idea of a Modern Maximum has now been thrown into question with the release of a paper at the International Astronomical Union General Assembly in August 2015.\n", "A list of historical Grand minima of solar activity includes also Grand minima ca. 690 AD, 360 BC, 770 BC, 1390 BC, 2860 BC, 3340 BC, 3500 BC, 3630 BC, 3940 BC, 4230 BC, 4330 BC, 5260 BC, 5460 BC, 5620 BC, 5710 BC, 5990 BC, 6220 BC, 6400 BC, 7040 BC, 7310 BC, 7520 BC, 8220 BC, 9170 BC.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Solar wind\n", "BULLET::::- Solar variation\n", "BULLET::::- Solar minimum\n", "BULLET::::- List of solar cycles – table of solar cycles\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1445154", "wikidata_label": "Solar maximum", "wikipedia_title": "Solar maximum", "aliases": { "alias": [ "solar max" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Peter Anthony Motteux\n", "Peter Anthony Motteux (25 February 1663 – 18 February 1718), born Pierre Antoine Motteux (), was an English author, playwright, and translator. Motteux was a significant figure in the evolution of English journalism in his era, as the publisher and editor of \"The Gentleman's Journal\", \"the first English magazine,\" from 1692 to 1694.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "A native of Rouen, he was a French Huguenot who came to England in 1685 after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. At first he lived with his godfather, Paul Dominique, and made his living as an auctioneer; by 1706 he maintained a shop in Leadenhall Street, selling imports from China, Japan, and India, and (in his own words) \"silks, lace, linens, pictures, and other goods.\" He also held a position with the Post Office in the first decade of the 18th century.\n", "His death in a bawdy house was thought to be suspicious, and caused a good deal of legal disturbance.\" Five people were tried for his murder, but were acquitted. He was survived by his widow Priscilla, two sons and a daughter.\n", "Section::::Translations.\n", "Motteux is perhaps best known for completing Sir Thomas Urquhart's translation of Rabelais' \"Gargantua and Pantagruel\". Books I and II of Urquhart's translation of Rabelais had been published in 1653; Motteux (with outside help) revised these, completed Urquart's translation of Book III, and translated Book IV and the possibly-spurious Book V. The entire work was published in 1693 and 1694 (reprinted in 1708; revised by John Ozell in 1737).\n", "While Urquhart's original version of Rabelais has sometimes been acclaimed as a masterpiece in itself, critics have had reservations about Motteux's continuation. In part, Motteux suffered for frankly rendering the vulgarity of Rabelais, to a generation of readers less prepared to tolerate it than Urquhart's had been.\n", "Motteux produced an important translation of Cervantes' \"Don Quixote\"; this 4-volume 1700-03 edition (3rd edition in 1712) was credited as \"translated from the original by many hands and published by Peter Motteux.\" Very popular in its own era, Motteux's version of the work has been condemned by later, more rigorous translators, for:\n", "BULLET::::- adopting a frivolous style, compared to the mock-serious and ironic tone of the original;\n", "BULLET::::- turning Don Quixote and Sancho Panza into buffoons;\n", "BULLET::::- casting the work in a \"Franco-Cockney\" rather than a Spanish ambience.\n", "Motteux translated other works as well, one example being \"The Present State of the Empire of Morocco\" (1695) by François Pidou de Saint-Olon.\n", "Section::::Dramas.\n", "Motteux wrote a series of plays and musical librettos that were produced during the 1690s and early 18th century, including:\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Loves of Mars and Venus\" (1695)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Love's a Jest\" (1696)\n", "BULLET::::- \"She Ventures and He Wins\" (1696)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Novelty, or Every Act a Play\" (1697)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Beauty in Distress\" (1698)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Britain's Happiness\" (1704)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Amorous Miser, or the Younger the Wiser\" (1705)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Thomyris, Queen of Scythia\" (1707)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Love's Triumph\" (1708)\n", "— among others. As its subtitle indicates, \"The Novelty\" was an anthology of five short plays in different genres, comedy, tragedy, pastoral, masque, and farce.\n", "Motteux worked in the English stage genre then called \"opera,\" which were semi-operas somewhat comparable to modern musicals; works like \"The Rape of Europa by Jupiter\" (1694), \"Acis and Galatea\" (1701), and \"Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus\" (1705), the first two with music by John Eccles, and the third with music by Thomas Clayton. His final works are translations and adaptations of opera libretti from the Italian.\n", "As was typical of Restoration drama, Motteux's plays often adapted earlier works; and his plays in turn were adapted by others into new forms. His semi-opera \"The Island Princess, or the Generous Portuguese\" (1699) was an adaptation of John Fletcher's play \"The Island Princess\", with music by Daniel Purcell. After his death, the comic subplot of \"Acis and Galatea\" was transformed into \"a comic mask\" called \"Roger and Joan, or the Country Wedding\" (1739). Much later, David Garrick adapted \"The Novelty\" into a farce titled \"The Lying Varlet\", published in 1823.\n", "Section::::Journalism.\n", "Motteux edited \"The Gentleman's Journal, or the Monthly Miscellany\" from its initial issue, dated January 1692, to its last of November 1694; evidence suggests he wrote most of the prose in each issue as well. (The plan was for monthly issues, though some were late, and some were missed.) Motteux may have been influenced by \"Le Mercure Galant\", a French periodical of the 1670s devoted to Court news and gossip — though Motteux's \"Journal\" was more ambitious. The \"Journal\" published \"News, History, Philosophy, Poetry, Musick, Translations, &c.\" It covered a wider range of topics than other periodicals of its era like \"The Athenian Gazette\", giving it some claim as the first \"general interest\" magazine in English. Motteux reviewed plays by John Dryden (a personal friend) and William Congreve among others; he published verse by the poets of the era, including Matthew Prior and Charles Sedley; he covered the musical career of Henry Purcell and printed several of his songs. The \"Journal\" even featured a \"Lovers' Gazette,\" foreshadowing the advice-to-the-lovelorn columns of later generations of popular journalism.\n", "Though its existence was relatively brief in historical terms, the \"Journal\" provided a precedent for later publications of the same type, notably \"The Gentleman's Magazine\" and \"The London Magazine\". One curiosity of the \"Journal\" is that the title page of its first issue bore the motto \"E pluribus unum\", apparently the earliest use of what would later become the motto of the United States of America. Motteux used the phrase in the sense of \"one chosen among many,\" rather than its common later connotation. (Classicists have attempted to trace possible sources for the motto, ranging from Vergil to Aristotle to Horace to Cicero to St. Augustine.)\n", "Motteux published early arguments in favor of the equality of the sexes; he re-titled the October 1693 issue of the \"Journal\" \"The Lady's Journal,\" and devoted it to articles by and about women.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Arnold, Howard Payson. \"Historical Side-Lights\". New York, Harper & Brothers, 1899.\n", "BULLET::::- Baldwin, Neil. \"The American Revelation.\" New York, St. Martin's Griffin, 2006.\n", "BULLET::::- Cervantes, Miguel de. \"The History of Don Quixote De La Mancha\". Translated by John Ormsby. Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica Press, 1952.\n", "BULLET::::- Cunningham, Robert Newton. \"Peter Anthony Motteux: A Biographical and Critical Study.\" Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1933.\n", "BULLET::::- Gillespie, Stuart, and David Hopkins, eds. \"The Oxford History of Literary Translation in English.\" Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Jackson, Mason. \"The Pictorial Press: Its Origin and Progress.\" London, Hurst and Blackett, 1885.\n", "BULLET::::- MacDonald, Hugh. \"John Dryden: A Bibliography of Early Editions and of Drydeniana.\" Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1939; reprinted Kessinger, 2006.\n", "BULLET::::- Owen, Susan J. \"A Companion to Restoration Drama.\" London, Blackwell, 2001.\n", "BULLET::::- Van Laun, Henri. \"Life,\" in: \"Motteux's Don Quixote\", edited by John Gibson Lockhart; 4 Volumes, reprinted London, J. M. Dent, 1880.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Three Motteux plays online.\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 206521, "parentid": 839583650, "revid": 884216274, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-02-20T07:03:00Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Anthony%20Motteux&oldid=884216274" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Hey Arnold!\n", "Hey Arnold! is an American animated children's television series created by Craig Bartlett that aired on Nickelodeon from October 7, 1996, to June 8, 2004. The show centers on a fourth grader named Arnold, who lives with his grandparents in an inner-city boarding house. Episodes center on his experiences navigating big city life while dealing with the problems he and his friends encounter.\n", "Bartlett's idea for the show is based on a minor character named Arnold whom he created while working on \"Pee-wee's Playhouse\". The executives enjoyed the character, and Bartlett completed the cast by drawing inspiration from people he grew up with in Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. Bartlett created the pilot episode in his living room in 1994 and official production began in 1995. The animators worked to transform Arnold from clay animation to cel animation, leading to the series premiere. The show finished production in 2001 after 5 seasons and 100 episodes. A feature film based on the series, \"\", was released in 2002. All five seasons have been released on DVD.\n", "A television film continuation of the series, \"\", was green-lit. It picks up from where the series ended and resolved unanswered plot lines of the story. The film premiered on November 24, 2017, on Nickelodeon.\n", "Section::::Premise.\n", "Section::::Premise.:Characters.\n", "\"Hey Arnold!\" stars nine-year-old Arnold (voiced by Toran Caudell; Phillip Van Dyke; Spencer Klein; Alex D. Linz and Mason Vale Cotton) and his neighborhood friends: Gerald (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith and Benjamin Flores Jr.), a street-smart character who generally serves as the leader of the group, and Helga (Francesca Marie Smith), a girl who bullies Arnold in order to hide the fact that she is in love with him. Bartlett drew inspiration from people he grew up with when creating the characters for the show.\n", "Arnold lives with his eccentric but loving paternal grandparents, Phil (Dan Castellaneta) and Gertrude (Tress MacNeille), proprietors of the Sunset Arms boarding house, in the fictional city of Hillwood. In each episode, he often helps a schoolmate or boarding home tenant in solving a personal problem or encounters a predicament of his own. Many episodes involve urban legends usually told by Gerald, such as superheroes or headless horsemen.\n", "Other characters include students and faculty at P.S. 118, Arnold's school, and citizens of Hillwood. Certain episodes focus on the lives of supporting characters, such as the tenants of the boarding house that Arnold's grandparents own.\n", "Section::::Premise.:Setting.\n", "\"Hey Arnold!\" takes place in the fictional American city of Hillwood. While its geographic location is never revealed outright, Bartlett described the city as \"an amalgam of large northern cities I have loved, including Seattle (my hometown), Portland (where I went to art school) and Brooklyn (the bridge, the brownstones, the subway)\". Bartlett, having grown up in Seattle, based many of the show's events on his own experience growing up in the city. Evan Levine of the \"Houston Chronicle\" commented on the series, \"backdrop of dark streets, nighttime adventures and rundown buildings, all seen from a child's point of view\".\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Animator Craig Bartlett graduated from Anacortes High School and obtained a degree in communications from The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington. During high school and college, he studied painting and sculpture at the Museum Art School in Portland, and his first job after college was at Will Vinton Productions, a claymation studio. Originally, Bartlett intended to become a painter \"in the 19th-century sense\", but he became interested in animation during a trip to Italy.\n", "In 1987, while working on \"Pee-wee's Playhouse\", he created claymation cutaways about a character named Penny and her friend Arnold, and made three \"Arnold\" shorts: \"Arnold Escapes from Church\" (1988), \"The Arnold Waltz\" (1990) and \"Arnold Rides His Chair\" (1991) which years later, were given the nickname \"Clay Arnold \". Six years later, Bartlett teamed up with five writers from \"Rugrats\" to develop animation projects for Nickelodeon. These meetings were generally difficult and the writers became frustrated; Bartlett recalled: \"Our ideas were OK, but such a large and motley group couldn't get far at pitch meetings. Network execs got migraines just counting us coming in the door.\" As a last resort, Bartlett played the \"Penny\" tapes, intending to highlight the Penny character. However, the executives were more impressed by Arnold, despite him being a minor character.\n", "After the meeting, the group began developing Arnold, creating his personality and evolving him from claymation to cel animation. Bartlett stated: \"We did a lot of talking about who Arnold is. We came up with a reluctant hero who keeps finding himself responsible for solving something, making the right choices, doing the right thing.\" After creating ideas for Arnold, Bartlett began work on the supporting characters, drawing influence from his childhood: \"A lot of the characters are an amalgam of people I knew when I was a kid. The girls in \"Hey Arnold!\" are girls that either liked or didn't like me when I was in school.\"\n", "In 1994, Bartlett created the pilot episode of \"Hey Arnold!\" in his living room, and showed it to producers at Nickelodeon. A year later, the network decided to begin work on the series. As mentioned earlier, the character was previously featured in a trilogy of clay animation shorts from 1988 to 1991: \"Arnold Escapes from Church\" (1988), \"The Arnold Waltz\" (1990), and \"Arnold Rides a Chair\" (1991), the latter having been aired as a filler short on \"Sesame Street\" in 1991. The 10-minute pilot episode, titled \"Arnold\", was shown in theaters in 1996 before Nickelodeon's first feature-length film, its adaptation of \"Harriet the Spy\".\n", "Apart from the animation style, Nick's Arnold wears a sweater, with his plaid shirt untucked (resembling a kilt). Only Arnold's cap remains unchanged from his original clay-animation wardrobe. \"Arnold\" comic strips also appeared in \"Simpsons Illustrated\" magazine, by Matt Groening, the creator of \"The Simpsons\", who is also Craig Bartlett's brother-in-law.\n", "Production of \"Hey Arnold!\" wrapped on December 7, 2001. A dispute over a second planned \"Hey Arnold!\" movie, \"\", then resulted in Bartlett leaving Nickelodeon. The last season's episodes were released over four years, beginning in 2000. The series aired its final episode, unannounced, on June 8, 2004.\n", "Section::::Films.\n", "Section::::Films.:2002 feature film.\n", "In this 2002 feature film, Arnold, Helga and Gerald set out on a quest to save their old neighborhood from a greedy developer who plans on converting it into a huge shopping mall. This film was directed by Tuck Tucker, and featured guest voice talents of Jennifer Jason Leigh, Paul Sorvino and Christopher Lloyd.\n", "In 1998, Nickelodeon gave Craig Bartlett the chance to develop a feature adaptation of the series. As work on the fifth season was completing, Bartlett and company engaged in the production of \"Arnold Saves the Neighborhood\", which would eventually become \"\". The \"Neighborhood\" project was originally made for television and home video, but executives at Paramount Pictures decided to release it theatrically after successful test screenings. According to animation historian Jerry Beck (in his \"Animated Movie Guide\"), the decision was buoyed by the financial success of the first two \"Rugrats\" movies, \"The Rugrats Movie\" and \"\".\n", "Section::::Films.:2017 television film.\n", "In an interview with Arun Mehta, Craig Bartlett announced that he was working with Nickelodeon on a \"Hey Arnold!\" revival. In September 2015, Nickelodeon president Russell Hicks announced that the company was considering revivals for a number of their older shows, including \"Hey Arnold!\". According to an announcement by \"The Independent\", a \"Hey Arnold!\" revival is \"very much on the cards\". On November 23, 2015, Nickelodeon announced that a TV movie is in the works and will pick up right where the series left off. The film will also answer unanswered questions about the fate of Arnold's parents. On March 1, 2016, it was announced that the TV film, \"The Jungle Movie\", would be divided into two parts and would air in 2017. On March 6, 2016, voice actress Nika Futterman confirmed on Twitter that she and her character Olga Pataki would appear in the two-hour film. In June 2016, it was confirmed that the TV film would be titled \"The Jungle Movie\", and that 19 of the original voice actors from the series would lend their voices in the film. New cast-members included Mason Vale Cotton as Arnold; Benjamin \"Lil' P-Nut\" Flores as Gerald; Gavin Lewis as Eugene; Jet Jurgensmeyer as Stinky; Aiden Lewandowski as Sid; Laya Hayes as Nadine; Nicolas Cantu as Curly; Wally Wingert as Oskar; Stephen Stanton as Pigeon Man; and Alfred Molina as the villain Lasombra. The film debuted on November 24, 2017, on Nickelodeon.\n", "Section::::Broadcast.\n", "Apart from Nickelodeon in the United States, \"Hey Arnold!\" premiered on October 30, 1996, in the United Kingdom, originally on CITV. In 2002, Nicktoons Network began broadcasting the show, and aired reruns of all \"Hey Arnold!\" episodes until May 30, 2008, when the show was taken off its nightly schedule. The show aired in reruns on the now-defunct \"Nick on CBS\" programming block for two years, from September 14, 2002, to September 4, 2004. On September 5, 2011, the Canadian Nickelodeon channel began airing reruns of \"Hey Arnold!\". In September 2011, TeenNick brought \"Hey Arnold!\" reruns to \"The '90s Are All That\" programming block (which has been rebranded \"NickRewind\") where it continues to air today.\n", "Section::::Home media.\n", "Nickelodeon released all five seasons on DVD in Region 1 via Amazon.com through its CreateSpace Manufacture-on-demand program in 2008 and 2009. Season 1 was released on August 21, 2008, Season 2 on August 29, 2008, Season 3 on December 8, 2009, Season 4 on November 27, 2009, and Season 5 on December 4, 2009.\n", "On May 9, 2011, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series. They subsequently released Season 1 in a 4-disc set on August 9, 2011. Season 2, Part 1 was released in a 2-disc set on March 20, 2012, followed by Season 2, Part 2 in a 2-disc set on July 24, 2012. Season 3 was released in a 3-disc set on January 29, 2013, as a \"Shout Select\" title. On May 14, 2013, Season 4 was released in a 2-disc set as a Shout exclusive followed by Season 5 released in a 3-disc set on October 15, 2013, also as a Shout exclusive making the entire series available on DVD. On August 19, 2014, the complete series was released in a 16-disc set through Shout! Factory as a Walmart exclusive. On November 20, 2018, Paramount Home Media Distribution released \"Hey Arnold!: The Ultimate Collection\" DVD containing all of the previously released episodes and movies now packaged into one set.\n", "In Australia, all five seasons have been released by Beyond Home Entertainment under licence from Nickelodeon. A 16-disc collector's edition was released on September 1, 2016, containing all five seasons.\n", "♦ – Shout! Factory select title sold exclusively through Shout's online store.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- on Nick\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hey Arnold! at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.\n" ] }

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Factory", "Paramount Home Media Distribution", "Beyond Home Entertainment", "\"Hey Arnold!", "Don Markstein's Toonopedia", "Archived" ], "href": [ "animated", "children%27s%20television%20series", "Craig%20Bartlett", "Nickelodeon", "Arnold%20%28Hey%20Arnold%21%29", "inner-city", "boarding%20house", "Pee-wee%27s%20Playhouse", "Portland%2C%20Oregon", "Seattle%2C%20Washington", "clay%20animation", "cel%20animation", "List%20of%20Hey%20Arnold%21%20episodes", "Nickelodeon", "Lane%20Toran", "Phillip%20Van%20Dyke", "Spencer%20Klein", "Alex%20D.%20Linz", "Mason%20Vale%20Cotton", "Gerald%20Johanssen", "Jamil%20Walker%20Smith", "Benjamin%20Flores%20Jr.", "List%20of%20Hey%20Arnold%21%20characters%23Helga%20Pataki", "Francesca%20Marie%20Smith", "Arnold%27s%20Grandpa%20Phil", "Dan%20Castellaneta", "Arnold%27s%20Grandpa%20Phil", "Tress%20MacNeille", "boarding%20house", "urban%20legend", "superhero", "Headless%20Horseman", "Seattle", "Portland%2C%20Oregon", "Brooklyn%20Bridge", "Houston%20Chronicle", "Craig%20Bartlett", "The%20Evergreen%20State%20College", "Olympia%2C%20Washington", "Portland%20Art%20Museum", "Portland%2C%20Oregon", "Will%20Vinton%20Productions", "Pee-wee%27s%20Playhouse", "cutaway%20%28filmmaking%29", "Rugrats", "migraine", "cel%20animation", "Sesame%20Street", "Nickelodeon%20Movies", "Harriet%20the%20Spy%20%28film%29", "kilt", "Simpsons%20Illustrated", "Matt%20Groening", "The%20Simpsons", "Jennifer%20Jason%20Leigh", "Paul%20Sorvino", "Christopher%20Lloyd", "feature%20film", "Paramount%20Pictures", "Jerry%20Beck", "Rugrats", "The%20Rugrats%20Movie", "Nickelodeon", "The%20Independent", "TV%20movie", "TV%20movie", "Nika%20Futterman", "Mason%20Vale%20Cotton", "Lil%27%20P-Nut", "Jet%20Jurgensmeyer", "Wally%20Wingert", "Stephen%20Stanton", "Alfred%20Molina", "CITV", "Nicktoons%20%28TV%20channel%29", "Nickelodeon%20on%20CBS", "Nickelodeon%20%28Canada%29", "TeenNick", "NickRewind", "Shout%21%20Factory", "Paramount%20Home%20Media%20Distribution", "Beyond%20Home%20Entertainment", "http%3A//www.toonopedia.com/arnold.htm", "Don%20Markstein%27s%20Toonopedia", "https%3A//www.webcitation.org/6f3uveq4W%3Furl%3Dhttp%3A//www.toonopedia.com/arnold.htm" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "television series", "enwikiquote_title": "Hey Arnold!", "wikidata_id": "Q832054", "wikidata_label": "Hey Arnold!", "wikipedia_title": "Hey Arnold!", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Jean-Frédéric Waldeck\n", "Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck (March 16, 1766? – April 30, 1875) was a French antiquarian, cartographer, artist and explorer. He was a man of talent and accomplishment, but his love of self-promotion and refusal to let the truth get in the way of a good story leave some aspects of his life in mystery.\n", "At various times Waldeck said that he was born in Paris, Prague, or Vienna, and at other times claimed to be a German, Austrian and British citizen. He often claimed the title of Count and occasionally that of Duke or Baron, but these cannot be verified.\n", "Waldeck said he had traveled to South Africa at age 19 and thereafter had begun a career in exploration. He claimed to have returned to France and studied art as a student of Jacques-Louis David. He said he had traveled to Egypt with Napoleon's expedition. None of this has been independently verified; indeed most of Waldeck's autobiography before about 1820 (including his given birthdate) is undocumented and his name is absent from records of various early expeditions he claimed to have been on.\n", "Waldeck is remembered primarily for two actions. The first is republishing the notorious set of pornographic prints titled \"I Modi\". The second is the exploration of Mexico and the publication of many examples of Maya and Aztec sculpture. Unfortunately, errors in his illustrations fostered misconceptions about Mesoamerican civilizations and contributed to Mayanism.\n", "He was active up until his death, at the claimed age of 109 years 45 days. He supposedly died of a heart attack while eying a beautiful woman near the \"Champs-Élysées\" in Paris.\n", "Section::::I Modi.\n", "The \"I Modi\" prints are highly pornographic and accompanied sonnets by Pietro Aretino. The original prints were published by the engraver Marcantonio Raimondi in the 16th century allegedly from paintings by Giulio Romano. The publication caused a furor in Rome, and Pope Clement VII ordered that all copies be destroyed. As such, there is no known original printing of \"I Modi\" in existence. What has survived is a series of fragments in the British Museum, two copies of a single print, and a woodcut copy from the 16th century. Waldeck claimed to have found a set of tracings of the \"I Modi\" prints in a convent near Palenque in Mexico. His story is dubious because there is no such convent. However, we know that he saw the fragments now in the British Museum because the fragments can be matched to his drawings.\n", "Section::::Mexican illustrations.\n", "Waldeck's first contact with the art of ancient Mesoamerica was when he was hired by the publisher Henry Berthoud to prepare some plates for an 1822 book entitled \"Description of the Ruins of an Ancient City\". This book was an English translation of the 1787 report on Palenque by Antonio del Río which had been commissioned for Charles III of Spain and then sat unpublished in the National Archives of Spain. Waldeck's engravings were much more beautiful and artistic than the original drawings he worked from, and gave the monuments a decidedly Egyptian look, in line with his patron's views that the ancient Mesoamerican Native Americans were the Lost Tribes of Israel.\n", "In 1825, he was hired as a hydraulic engineer by an English mining company and went to Mexico. He did not last long at this job, and after his failure he explored the Pre-Columbian ruins of the country, living in the ruined Palenque between May 1832 and July 1833. After that, in 1834, he was hired by Lord Kingsborough to travel to Uxmal and make drawings and architectural reconstructions. Some of these were \"fanciful in the extreme.\"\n", "In 1838, Waldeck published \"Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan pendant les années 1834 et 1836\" (Paris), a volume of illustrations of Mérida, Yucatán and Maya ruins, including those at Uxmal. Dedicated to Lord Kingsborough, this book provided what Waldeck believed was further support for connections between the ancient Maya and ancient Egypt. His illustration of the Pyramid of the Magician at Uxmal, for example, makes it look similar Egyptian pyramids. In 1839, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.\n", "Waldeck's illustrations of Palenque were chosen to accompany \"Monuments anciens du Mexique (Palenque, et autres ruines de l'ancienne civilisation du Mexique)\" (1866) by Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg. However, just as his earlier illustrations had implied connections between the ancient Maya and ancient Egypt, the ones included with Brasseur de Bourbourg's text invoked the Classical antiquity of ancient Greece and Rome. His illustrations of panels of Maya script in the Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque included clear depictions of heads of elephants (now known to be erroneous embellishments). This fueled speculation about contact between the ancient Maya and Asia and the role of the mythical lost continent of Atlantis as a common link between ancient civilizations of the Old and New Worlds.\n", "Waldeck published numerous lithographs of what he had come across. His last set of prints was published in 1866 when he celebrated his centennial.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Baudez, C. F., 1993: Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, peintre: le premier explorateur des ruines mayas. Hazan, Paris.\n", "BULLET::::- Brasseur de Bourbourg, É. C., 1866: Monuments anciens de Mexique: Palenqué et autres ruines de l'anc. civilisation du Mexique, Paris. (Illustrated by Waldeck.)\n", "BULLET::::- Brunhouse, Robert L., 1973: In Search of the Maya: The First Archaeologists. University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque. (One chapter on Waldeck.)\n", "BULLET::::- Cline, Howard F., 1947: The Apocryphal Early Career of J. F. de Waldeck, Pioneer Americanist. Acta Americana. Tome V, pp. 278–299.\n", "BULLET::::- Del Rio, A., 1822: Report of Antonio Del Rio to Don Jose Estacheria, Brigadier, Governor and Commandant General of the Kingdom of Guatemala, Etc. In Description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near Palenque, in the kingdom of Guatemala, pp. 1–21. H. Berthoud and Suttaby Evance and Fox, London. (Illustrated by Waldeck.)\n", "BULLET::::- Lawner, L., 1988: I Modi: the sixteen pleasures: an erotic album of the Italian Renaissance:Giulio Romano, Marcantonio Raimondi, Pietro Aretino, and Count Jean-Frederic-Maximilien de Waldeck. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.\n", "BULLET::::- Le Fur, Y., 2006: D'un regard l'autre: histoire des regards européens sur l'Afrique, l'Amérique et l'Océanie. Musée du quai Branly, Paris. (Exhibition catalog that includes paintings by Waldeck.)\n", "BULLET::::- Parsons, L. A. and Jay I. Kislak Foundation., 1993: Columbus to Catherwood, 1494-1844 : 350 years of historic book graphics depicting the islands, Indians, and archaeology of the West Indies, Florida, and Mexico. Kislak bibliographic series ; publication 1. Jay I. Kislak Foundation Inc., Miami Lakes, Fla. (Includes book illustrations by Waldeck.)\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Mary Rebecca Darby., 1878: Recollections of two distinguished persons : la Marquise de Boissy and the Count de Waldeck. J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1878. (Memoir of encounters with Waldeck. Book digitized at Internet Archive.)\n", "BULLET::::- Thompson, John Eric, 1927: The Elephant Heads in the Waldeck Manuscripts. Scientific Monthly, No. 25, pp. 392–398. New York.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Waldeck on emuseum.mnsu.edu\n", "BULLET::::- Reed College web site including all the images of Uxmal in Waldeck's 1838 \"Voyage pittoresque et archeólogique\"\n", "BULLET::::- Waldeck's erotic drawings at the British Museum\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brief Encounters with Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck\" at the Public Domain Review\n" ] }

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{ "description": "French antiquarian, explorer, artist", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q956537", "wikidata_label": "Jean-Frédéric Waldeck", "wikipedia_title": "Jean-Frédéric Waldeck", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Johann Friedrich Graf von Waldeck", "Jean-Frédéric Maximilien de Waldeck", "Johann Friedrich Maximilian Waldeck", "Friedrich von Waldeck", "Friedrich Waldeck", "Johann Friedrich Maximilian, Graf von Waldeck", "Johann Friedrich Maximilian von Waldeck", "Johann Friedrich, Graf von Waldeck", "Johann Friedrich Waldeck", "Jean Frédérick Waldeck", "Johann Friedrich Maximilian Graf Von Waldeck", "Jean-Frederic Waldeck", "Jean-Frederic Maximilien de Waldeck", "Jean Frederick Waldeck" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Marcus Aurelius\n", "Marcus Aurelius ( or ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 8 March 161 to 17 March 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers traditionally known as the Five Good Emperors, and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He was also consul in 140, 145, and 161.\n", "The son of the praetor Marcus Annius Verus (III) and the wealthy heiress Domitia Lucilla, Marcus was raised by his grandfather, Marcus Annius Verus (II), after his father died. Educated at home, he later credited his maternal step-great-grandfather Lucius Catilius Severus – who helped Marcus' grandfather to raise him – for his education. In 138, Emperor Hadrian's first adopted son and heir, Lucius Aelius, died. Hadrian chose as his new heir Marcus' uncle, Antoninus Pius, who adopted Marcus and the son of Aelius, Lucius Commodus. Antoninus took the throne that year and Marcus, now his heir, studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He kept in close correspondence with Fronto for many years afterwards. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. Antoninus died following an illness in 161.\n", "The reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, his co-ruler until 169, was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars. However, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. Marcus modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. Persecution of Christians is believed to have increased during his reign. The Antonine Plague that broke out in 165 or 166 devastated the population of the Roman Empire. It caused the deaths of five million people, a quarter of those it affected. \n", "Marcus never adopted an heir unlike some of his predecessors; his children included Lucilla (who married Lucius Verus) and his successor Commodus, the only survivor among at least six sons, whose succession has become a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. \"Meditations\", the writings of 'the philosopher' – as contemporary biographers such as Cassius Dio called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the \"Historia Augusta\", claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD. The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate. For Marcus' life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.\n", "A body of correspondence between Marcus' tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166. Marcus' own \"Meditations\" offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs. The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective. Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the \"Digest\" and \"Codex Justinianeus\" on Marcus' legal work. Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Name.\n", "Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus, but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age, or at the time of his marriage. He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, at birth or at some point in his youth, or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death; Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors \"On Weights and Measures\", calls him \"Marcus Aurelius Verus\".\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Family origins.\n", "Marcus was of Italic and Iberian origins, being the son of Domitia Lucilla (also known as Domitia Calvilla) and Marcus Annius Verus (III). His father traced his legendary pedigree to Numa Pompilius (second King of Rome) and Domitia traced hers to Mallenius, prince of the Messapians. Domitia was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and Domitia Lucilla and had inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the \"Horti Domitia Calvillae\" (or \"Lucillae\"), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome. Marcus himself was born and raised in the \"Horti\" and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.\n", "Marcus' paternal family originated in Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica. The family rose to prominence in the late 1st century AD. Marcus' great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the \"Historia Augusta\") ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made a patrician in 73–74. Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Childhood.\n", "Marcus' sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123. His father probably died in 124, during his praetorship, when Marcus was three years old. Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his \"Meditations\" that he had learnt 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and from the man's posthumous reputation. His mother Lucilla did not remarry and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses', and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of \"patria potestas\" over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different \"patria potestas\". Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus' maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather. Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, which he would affectionately refer to as 'my Caelian'. It was an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus' grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood. Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'. He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia. Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.\n", "Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends; he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools. One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life. In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed. A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin – took over Marcus' education in about 132 or 133. Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling. Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus' \"Meditations\".\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Succession to Hadrian.\n", "In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus' intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son, according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'. While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne. As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own. After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the senate on the first day of 138. The night before the speech, however, he grew ill, and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.\n", "On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus' aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus in turn adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius. Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius. Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.\n", "At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming \"quaestor\" before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139. Marcus' adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become \"triumvir monetalis\", a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.\n", "After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138. His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli. The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days. For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145).\n", "Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal. He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a \"seviri\", one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became \"princeps iuventutis\", head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar. Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'. At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (\"pontifices\", \"augures\", \"quindecimviri sacris faciundis\", \"septemviri epulonum\", etc.); direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.\n", "Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the \"aulicum fastigium\" or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus' objections. Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace' – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the \"Meditations\" for 'abusing court life' in front of company.\n", "As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent, and would do secretarial work for the senators. But he felt drowned in paperwork, and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'. He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer. He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.\n", "On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'. Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'. Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses. In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138. Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'. Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as \"Pontifex Maximus\", would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Fronto and further education.\n", "After taking the \"toga virilis\" in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory. He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time, but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome. This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his \"Meditations\", Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.\n", "Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger, and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner. Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions. He thought the Stoics' desire for a 'lack of feeling' foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said. In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his \"Meditations\", in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.\n", "Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters, he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him. He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.\n", "A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived. The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence. Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.\n", "He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'. His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses. Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.\n", "Fronto never became Marcus' full-time teacher, and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus. Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows. Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus' tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct, but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular which refer to the beating and robbing I will describe in such a way that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'. The outcome of the trial is unknown.\n", "By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to \"be\" a judge is noble work'. Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it. In any case, Marcus' formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus' entire boyhood.\n", "Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'. He disdained philosophy and philosophers, and looked down on Marcus' sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle. Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus' 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training. Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.\n", "Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy. He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory. He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (\"r\". 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century; the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one). Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing\".\n", "Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea:\n", "The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.' \n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Births and deaths.\n", "On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the \"imperium\" – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus' on 10 December 147. The first mention of Domitia in Marcus' letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care. Domitia would die in 151.\n", "In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend \"temporum felicitas\", 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius. Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him\". He quoted from the \"Iliad\" what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':poem leaves,\n", "the wind scatters some on the face of the ground;\n", "like unto them are the children of men./poem\n", "– \"Iliad\" vi.146\n", "Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus' mother Domitia Lucilla died. Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153. Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates \"fecunditati Augustae\", 'the Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus' sister Cornificia. By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown. In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus' dead sisters.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.:Antoninus Pius' last years.\n", "Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154, and was consul again with Marcus in 161. Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights. He did not marry until 164.\n", "In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) as Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157. In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.\n", "Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria, about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome. He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died. His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.\n", "Section::::Emperor.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161).\n", "After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title \"imperator\", and he would soon be formally elected as \"Pontifex Maximus\", chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power. This may have been a genuine \"horror imperii\", 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.\n", "Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his \"Meditations\"), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans. Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers. The senate accepted, granting Lucius the \"imperium\", the tribunician power, and the name Augustus. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus' family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.\n", "In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more \"auctoritas\", or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus' rule, and he alone was \"Pontifex Maximus\". It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.\n", "Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as \"imperatores\". Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative. This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus' accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles. Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from to .\n", "Antoninus' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'. If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A \"flamen\", or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus' remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus' children and of Hadrian himself. The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.\n", "In accordance with his will, Antoninus' fortune passed on to Faustina. (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other. On 31 August she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children. The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:Early rule.\n", "Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus' eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle). At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their \"civiliter\" ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.\n", "Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The \"ab epistulis\" Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus' former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus' accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (\"aerarium Saturni\"). He was made consul soon after. Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.\n", "Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.' Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.\n", "Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors. Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.' Marcus' early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection. Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the \"felicitas temporum\" ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.\n", "In either autumn 161 or spring 162, the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention. In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.\n", "Fronto's letters continued through Marcus' early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus' prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'. Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.\n", "The early days of Marcus' reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished. Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:War with Parthia (161–166).\n", "On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him. One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161. Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself. The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.\n", "Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.\n", "There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the \"limes\". Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus' twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.\n", "More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions. Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany, II Adiutrix from Aquincum, and V Macedonica from Troesmis.\n", "The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible. M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties, and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.\n", "Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?' He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the \"palaestra\", fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back. Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: \"Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'\n", "Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled \"De bello Parthico\" (\"On the Parthian War\"). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.\n", "Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity. Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor. Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.\n", "Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch. Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle, saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through', and enjoyed the company of actors. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.\n", "In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius' mistress Panthea. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen. Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius' uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, who was made \"comes Augusti\", 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at. Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen. He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.\n", "The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163. At the end of the year, Lucius took the title \"Armeniacus\", despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year. When Lucius was hailed as \"imperator\" again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the \"Imperator II\" with him.\n", "Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus. Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend : Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.\n", "In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne. In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point. Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.\n", "In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed. The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris. A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.\n", "By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.\n", "Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely. Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as \"imperatores\" again, earning the title 'imp. III'. Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus', and the emperors were again hailed as \"imperatores\", becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay. On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:War with Germanic tribes (166–180).\n", "During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome). The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.\n", "Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.\n", "Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.\n", "Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes. Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.\n", "The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:Legal and administrative work.\n", "Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes, but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power. He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law' and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'. He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (\"decuriones\").\n", "Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire. In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs. In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from . However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:Legal and administrative work.:Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague.\n", "A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus. In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula). Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.\n", "The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius' campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166, mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms. It is believed that the plague was smallpox. In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome. Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.\n", "Section::::Emperor.:Death and succession (180).\n", "Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 due to natural causes in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome. Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.\n", "Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177. Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs; however, it was only the second time that a 'non-adoptive' son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus' erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen. At the end of his history of Marcus' reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:\n", "[Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day.\n", "Dio adds that from Marcus' first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, 'he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least.'\n", "Michael Grant, in \"The Climax of Rome\", writes of Commodus:\n", "The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.\n", "Section::::Legacy and reputation.\n", "Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain his after death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'. Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Melito also gave him the title. The last named went so far as to call him 'more philanthropic and philosophic' than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder. 'Alone of the emperors,' wrote the historian Herodian, 'he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life'. Iain King concludes that Marcus' legacy is tragic, because the emperor's 'Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death'.\n", "Section::::Attitude towards Christians.\n", "In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates. The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians. The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.,) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Aurelius believed Christian-prayer had saved his army from thirst when ' water poured from heaven,' after which, ' immediately we recognized the presence of God.' Aurelius goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.\n", "Section::::Marriage and children.\n", "Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage, including two sets of twins. One son and four daughters outlived their father. Their children included:\n", "BULLET::::- Domitia Faustina (147–151)\n", "BULLET::::- Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)\n", "BULLET::::- Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)\n", "BULLET::::- Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150–182), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus\n", "BULLET::::- Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151)\n", "BULLET::::- Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)\n", "BULLET::::- Unknown child (died before 158)\n", "BULLET::::- Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159)\n", "BULLET::::- Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160)\n", "BULLET::::- Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus\n", "BULLET::::- Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192), twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor\n", "BULLET::::- Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162–169)\n", "BULLET::::- Hadrianus\n", "BULLET::::- Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170– died before 217)\n", "Section::::Writings.\n", "While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his \"Meditations\" in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. \"Meditations\" is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton. It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.\n", "It is not known how widely Marcus' writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention \"Meditations\". It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus' writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards. The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.\n", "Section::::Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.\n", "The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period. This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.\n", "Section::::Column of Marcus Aurelius.\n", "Marcus' victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V. The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.\n", "Section::::Citations.\n", "All citations to the \"Historia Augusta\" are to individual biographies, and are marked with a \"HA\". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Ancient sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Aristides, Aelius. \"Orationes\" (in Latin).\n", "BULLET::::- Victor, Aurelius. \"De Caesaribus\" (in Latin).\n", "BULLET::::- Dio, Cassius. \"Roman History\" (in Greek).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Digest\" (in Latin).\n", "BULLET::::- Epiphanius of Salamis. \"On Weights and Measures\" (in Latin).\n", "BULLET::::- Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. \"The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends\" (in Latin).\n", "BULLET::::- Gellius, Aulus. \"Noctes Atticae\" (\"Attic Nights\").\n", "BULLET::::- Herodian. \"Ab Excessu Divi Marci\" (\"History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius\", in Latin).\n", "BULLET::::- Lucian.\n", "BULLET::::- Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. \"Meditations\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Scriptores Historiae Augustae\" (Authors of the Historia Augusta). \"Historia Augusta\" (\"Augustan History\").\n", "BULLET::::- Themistius. \"Orationes\" (in Latin).\n", "Section::::References.:Modern sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Jancie J.; Lo Upshur, Jiu-Hwa; Whitters, Mark F. \"Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History\". New York: Facts on File, 2008. .\n", "BULLET::::- Adams, Geoff W. \"Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond\". Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. .\n", "BULLET::::- An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), \"Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road\", 79–94. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2002. .\n", "BULLET::::- Astarita, Maria L. \"Avidio Cassio\" (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. .\n", "BULLET::::- Ball, Warwick. \"Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire\", 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2016. .\n", "BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus'. \"Journal of Roman Studies\" 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', \"Phoenix\" 26:2 (1972): 140–82. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Birley, Anthony R. \"Marcus Aurelius: a biography\". London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. .\n", "BULLET::::- Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In \"The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70-192\", edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. .\n", "BULLET::::- Bowman, John L. \"A Reference Guide to Stoicism\". Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. .\n", "BULLET::::- Bury, John Bagnell. \"The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)\". New York: Harper, 1893. .\n", "BULLET::::- Champlin, Edward. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. \"Journal of Roman Studies\" 64 (1974): 136–59. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Champlin, Edward. \"Fronto and Antonine Rome\". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. .\n", "BULLET::::- Collins, Desmond. \"Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting\". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. .\n", "BULLET::::- De Crespigny, Rafe. \"A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)\". Boston: Brill, 2007. .\n", "BULLET::::- Duncan-Jones, Richard. \"Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy\". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. .\n", "BULLET::::- 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius'. Musei Capitolini.\n", "BULLET::::- Gagarin, Michael. \"The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology\". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. .\n", "BULLET::::- Giacosa, Giorgio. \"Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins\". Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. .\n", "BULLET::::- Gilliam, J. F. 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. \"American Journal of Philology\" 82.3 (1961): 225–51. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Gnecchi, Francesco. \"I medaglioni Romani\", 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. .\n", "BULLET::::- Grant, Michael. \"The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition\". London: Routledge, 2016. .\n", "BULLET::::- Grant, Michael. \"The Climax Of Rome\". London: Orion, 2011. .\n", "BULLET::::- Haas, Charles. The Antonine plague (in French). \"Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine\". Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. .\n", "BULLET::::- Hadot, Pierre. \"The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius\". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. .\n", "BULLET::::- Hays, Gregory. \"Meditations\". London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. .\n", "BULLET::::- Irvine, William B. \"A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy\". Oxford University Press, 2009. .\n", "BULLET::::- Kemezis, Adam M. \"Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian\". Cambridge University Press, 2014. .\n", "BULLET::::- Kleiner, Fred S. \"Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective\". Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. .\n", "BULLET::::- Le Bohec, Yann. \"The Imperial Roman Army\". Routledge, 2013. .\n", "BULLET::::- Levick, Barbara M. \"Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age\". New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. .\n", "BULLET::::- Magill, Frank N. \"Dictionary of World Biography\". London: Routledge, 2003. .\n", "BULLET::::- Mattingly, Harold; Sydenham, Edward A. \"The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus\". London: Spink & Son, 1930. .\n", "BULLET::::- Mellor, Ronald, review of Edward Champlin's \"Fronto and Antonine Rome\", \"American Journal of Philology\" 103:4 (1982).\n", "BULLET::::- Merrony, Mark. \"The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD\". London: Routledge, 2017. .\n", "BULLET::::- McLaughlin, Raoul. \"Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China\". London & New York: Continuum, 2010. .\n", "BULLET::::- McLynn, Frank. \"Marcus Aurelius: A Life\". New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. .\n", "BULLET::::- McLynn, Frank. \"Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor\". London: Bodley Head, 2009. .\n", "BULLET::::- Millar, Fergus. \"The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337\". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. .\n", "BULLET::::- Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. \"Journal of the American Oriental Society\", 1999. 119 (1). . .\n", "BULLET::::- Reed, J. Eugene. \"The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476)\". Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883.\n", "BULLET::::- Robertson, D. \"How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius\". New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019.\n", "BULLET::::- Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. \"Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano\" [\"Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire\"]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. .\n", "BULLET::::- Stephens, William O. \"Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed\". London: Continuum, 2012. .\n", "BULLET::::- Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. \"The Classical World\" 70:7 (1977): 433–39. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. \"Historia\" 17:1 (1968): 72–105. .\n", "BULLET::::- Van Ackeren, Marcel. \"A Companion to Marcus Aurelius\". New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. . .\n", "BULLET::::- Young, Gary K. \"Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305\". London: Routledge, 2003. .\n", "BULLET::::- Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), \"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220\", 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n" ] }

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F.", "American Journal of Philology", "Grant, Michael", "\"The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition\"", "\"The Climax Of Rome\"", "The Antonine plague", "Hadot, Pierre", "\"The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius\"", "\"Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian\"", "\"Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective\"", "\"The Imperial Roman Army\"", "Levick, Barbara M.", "\"Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age\"", "\"Dictionary of World Biography\"", "Mattingly, Harold", "Mellor, Ronald", "American Journal of Philology", "\"The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD\"", "McLynn, Frank", "Millar, Fergus", "\"The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337\"", "\"The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476)\"", "\"How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius\"", "\"Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano\" [\"Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire\"]", "Stephens, William O.", "\"Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed\"", "Syme, Ronald", "\"A Companion to Marcus Aurelius\"", "\"Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305\"", "\"The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220\"", "Marcus Aurelius", "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy" ], "href": [ "Roman%20emperor", "Stoic%20philosopher", "Five%20Good%20Emperors", "Pax%20Romana", "Roman%20Empire", "Roman%20consul", "praetor", "Marcus%20Annius%20Verus%20%28III%29", "Domitia%20Lucilla", "Marcus%20Annius%20Verus%20%28II%29", "Lucius%20Catilius%20Severus", "Hadrian", "Adoption%20in%20ancient%20Rome", "Lucius%20Aelius", "Antoninus%20Pius", "Lucius%20Aurelius%20Verus", "Herodes%20Atticus", "Marcus%20Cornelius%20Fronto", "Faustina%20the%20Younger", "reign%20of%20Marcus%20Aurelius", 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{ "description": "Emperor of Ancient Rome", "enwikiquote_title": "Marcus Aurelius", "wikidata_id": "Q1430", "wikidata_label": "Marcus Aurelius", "wikipedia_title": "Marcus Aurelius", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Emperor of Rome Markos Antōninos", "Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius", "Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus", "Emperor of Rome Mark Aurel", "Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus", "Emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio", "Marcus Annius Verus", "Marcus, imperatore romano Aurelius Antoninus", "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Frederick Denison Maurice\n", "John Frederick Denison Maurice (1805–1872), known as F. D. Maurice, was an English Anglican theologian, a prolific author, and one of the founders of Christian socialism. Since World War II, interest in Maurice has expanded.\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "John Frederick Denison Maurice was born in Normanton, Suffolk, on 29 August 1805, the only son of Michael Maurice and his wife, Priscilla. Michael Maurice was the evening preacher in a Unitarian chapel. Deaths in the family brought about changes in the family's \"religious convictions\" and \"vehement disagreement\" between family members. Maurice later wrote about these disagreements and their effect on him:\n", "Michael was \"of no little learning\" and gave his son his early education. The son \"appears to have been an exemplary child, responsive to teaching and always dutiful. He read a good deal on his own account, but had little inclination for games. Serious and precocious, he even at this time harboured ambitions for a life of public service.\"\n", "For his higher education in civil law, Maurice entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1823 that required no religious test for admissions though only members of the established church were eligible to obtain a degree. With John Sterling Maurice founded the Apostles' Club. He moved to Trinity Hall in 1825. In 1826, Maurice went to London to read for the bar and returned to Cambridge where he obtained a first-class degree in civil law in 1827.\n", "During the 1827–1830 break in his higher education, Maurice lived in London and Southampton. While in London, he contributed to the \"Westminster Review\" and made the acquaintance of John Stuart Mill. With Sterling he also edited the \"Athenaeum\". The magazine did not pay and his father had lost money which entailed moving the family to a smaller house in Southampton and Maurice joined them. During his time in Southampton, Maurice rejected his earlier Unitarianism and decided to be ordained in the Church of England.\n", "Maurice entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1830 to prepare for ordination. He was older than most of students, he was very poor and he \"kept to himself, toiling at his books\". However, \"his honesty and intellectual powers\" impressed others. In March 1831, Maurice was baptised in the Church of England. After taking a second-class degree in November 1831, he worked as a \"private tutor\" in Oxford until his ordination as a deacon in January 1834 and appointment to a curacy in Bubbenhall near Leamington. Being twenty-eight years old when he was ordained deacon, Maurice was older and with a wider experience than most ordinands. He had attended both universities and been active in \"the literary and social interests of London\". All this, coupled with his diligence in study and reading, gave Maurice a knowledge \"scarcely paralleled by any of his contemporaries\". He was ordained as priest in 1835.\n", "Section::::Career and marriages.\n", "Except for his 1834–1836 first clerical assignment, Maurice's career can be divided between his conflicted years in London (1836–1866) and his peaceful years in Cambridge (1866–1872)\n", "For his first clerical assignment, Maurice served an assistant curacy in Bubbenhall in Warwickshire from 1834 until 1836. During his time in Bubbenhall, Maurice began writing on the topic of \"moral and metaphysical philosophy\". Writing on this topic by \"revision and expansion\" continued the rest of his life until the publication of \"Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, 2 vols\" in 1871–1872, the year of his death. Also, Maurice's novel \"Eustace Conway\", begun , was published in 1834 and was praised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.\n", "In 1836, he was appointed chaplain of Guy's Hospital where he took up residence and \"lectured the students on moral philosophy\". He continued this post until 1860. Maurice's public life began during his years at Guy's.\n", "In June 1837, Maurice met Anna Barton. They became engaged and were married on 7 October 1837.\"\n", "In 1838, the first edition of \"The Kingdom of Christ\" was published. It was \"one of his most significant works.\" A second enlarged edition was published in 1842 and a third edition in 1883. For Maurice the signs of this kingdom are \"the sacraments of baptism and the eucharist, to which must be added the creeds, the liturgy, the episcopate, and the scriptures—in fact, all the marks of catholicity as exemplified in the Church of England.\" The book was met with criticism when published, a criticism \"that lasted throughout Maurice's career.\"\n", "Section::::Career and marriages.:London.\n", "Maurice served as editor of the \"Educational Magazine\" during its entire 1839–1841 existence. He argued that \"the school system should not be transferred from the church to the state.\" Maurice was elected professor of English literature and history at King's College, London, in 1840. When the college added a theological department in 1846, he became a professor there also. That same year Maurice was elected chaplain of Lincoln's Inn and resigned the chaplaincy at Guy's Hospital.\n", "In 1845, Maurice was made both the Boyle lecturer by the Archbishop of York's nomination and the Warburton lecturer by the Archbishop of Canterbury's nomination. He held these chairs until 1853.\n", "Maurice's wife, Anna, died on 25 March 1845, leaving two sons, one of whom was John Frederick Maurice who wrote his father's biography.\n", "Queen’s College\n", "During his London years, Maurice engaged in two lasting educational initiatives: founding Queen's College, London in 1848 and the Working Men's College in 1854.\n", "In 1847, Maurice and \"most of his brother-professors\" at King's College formed a Committee on Education for the education of governesses. This committee joined a scheme for establishing a College for Women that resulted in the founding of Queen's College. Maurice was its first principal. The college was \"empowered to grant certificates of qualification 'to governesses' and 'to open classes in all branches of female education'.\"\n", "One of the early graduates of Queen's College who was influenced by Maurice was Matilda Ellen Bishop who became the first Principal of Royal Holloway College.\n", "On 4 July 1849, Maurice remarried, this time to Georgina Hare-Naylor.\n", "Dismissed from King's College\n", "\"Maurice was dismissed from his professorships because of his leadership in the Christian Socialist Movement, and because of the supposed unorthodoxy of his \"Theological Essays\" (1853).\" His work \"The Kingdom of Christ\" had evoked virulent criticism. The publication of his \"Theological Essays\" in 1853 evoked even more and precipitated his dismissal from King's College. At the instigation of Richard William Jelf, the Principal of the College, the Council of the College, asked Maurice to resign. He refused and demanded that he be either \"acquitted or dismissed.\" He was dismissed. To prevent the controversy from affecting Queen's College, Maurice \"severed his relations\" with it.\n", "The public and his friends were strongly in support of Maurice. His friends \"looked up to him with the reverence due to a great spiritual teacher.\" They were devoted to him and wanted to protect Maurice against his opponents.\n", "Working Men's College\n", "Although his relations with King's College and Queen's College had been severed, Maurice continued to work for the education of workers. In February 1854, he developed plans for a Working Men's College. Maurice gained enough support for the college by giving lectures that by 30 October 1854 the college opened with over 130 students. \"Maurice became principal, and took an active part both in teaching and superintending during the rest of his life in London.\"\n", "Maurice's teaching led to some \"abortive attempts at co-operation among working men\" and to the more enduring Christian Socialism movement and the Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations.\n", "In July 1860, in spite of controversy, Maurice was appointed to the benefice of the chapel of St. Peter's, Vere Street. He held the position until 1869.\n", "Section::::Career and marriages.:Cambridge University.\n", "\"On 25 October 1866 Maurice was elected to the Knightbridge professorship of casuistry, moral theology, and moral philosophy at [the University of] Cambridge.\" This professorship was the \"highest preferment\" Maurice attained. Among his books he cited in his application, were his \"Theological Essays\" and \"What is Revelation?\" that had evoked opposition elsewhere. But at Cambridge, Maurice was \"almost unanimously elected\" to the faculty. Maurice was \"warmly received\" at Cambridge, where \"there were no doubts of his sufficient orthodoxy\".\n", "While teaching at Cambridge, Maurice continued as the Working Men's College principal, though he was there less often. At first, he retained the Vere Street, London, cure which entailed a weekly rail trip to London to officiate at services and preach. When this proved too strenuous, upon medical advice, Maurice resigned this cure in October 1869. In 1870, by accepting the offer of St Edward's, Cambridge, where he had \"an opportunity for preaching to an intelligent audience\" with few pastoral duties, albeit with no stipend.\n", "In July 1871 Maurice accepted the Cambridge preachership at Whitehall. \"He was a man to whom other men, no matter how much they might differ from him, would listen.\"\n", "Royal Commissioner\n", "In spite of declining health, in 1870 Maurice agreed to serve on the Royal Commission regarding the Contagious Diseases Act of 1871, and travelled to London for the meetings. \"The Commission consisted of twenty-three men, including ten parliamentarians (from both Houses), some clergy, and some eminent scientists (such as T.H. Huxley).\"\n", "Dean Francis Close wrote a monograph about the proceedings of the royal commission. The issue was whether earlier acts legalising and policing prostitution for the armed forces should be repealed. Close quoted a commission member's speech to the House of Commons that praised Maurice as a \"model Royal Commissioner\". Close ended his monograph with these words: \"Professor Maurice remained firmly and conscientiously opposed to the Acts to the very last.\"\n", "Final years\n", "In spite of terminal illness, Maurice continued giving his professorial lectures, trying to know his students personally and completing his \"Metaphysical and Moral Philosophy\" (2 vols., 1871–1872). He also continued preaching (at Whitehall from November 1871 to January 1872 and two university sermons in November). His final sermon was 11 February 1872 in St Edward's. On 30 March he resigned from St Edward's. Very weak and mentally depressed, on Easter Monday, 1 April 1872, after receiving Holy Communion, with great effort he pronounced the blessing, became unconscious and died.\n", "Section::::Career and marriages.:Conflicting opinions of Maurice's thinking.\n", "In a letter of 2 April 1833 to Richard Chenevix Trench, Maurice lamented the current \"spirit\" of \"conflicting opinions\" that \"cramps our energies\" and \"kills our life\". In spite of his lamenting \"contradictory opinions,\" that term precisely described reactions to Maurice.\n", "Maurice's writings, lectures, and sermons spawned conflicting opinions. Julius Hare considered him \"the greatest mind since Plato\", but John Ruskin thought him \"by nature puzzle-headed and indeed wrong-headed;\" while John Stuart Mill considered that “there was more intellectual power wasted in Maurice than in any other of my contemporaries”.\n", "Hugh Walker in a study of Victorian literature found other examples of conflicting opinions.\n", "BULLET::::- Charles Kingsley pronounced Maurice \"a great and rare thinker\".\n", "BULLET::::- Aubrey Thomas de Vere compared listening to Maurice to \"eating pea-soup with a fork\".\n", "BULLET::::- Matthew Arnold spoke of Maurice as \"always beating the bush with profound emotion, but never starting the hare.\"\n", "One important literary and theological figure who was favorably impressed by Maurice was Charles Dodgson, also known as Lewis Carroll. Dodgson wrote about attending morning and afternoon services at Vere Street at which Maurice preached both times with the comment, \"I like his sermons very much\". Maurice held the benefice of the chapel of St. Peter's, Vere Street from 1860–1869.\n", "M. E. Grant Duff in his diary for 22 April 1855, wrote that he \"went, as usual about this time, to hear F.D. Maurice preach at Lincoln's Inn. I suppose I must have heard him, first and last, some thirty or forty times, and never carried away one clear idea, or even the impression that he had more than the faintest conception of what he himself meant.\"\n", "John Henry Newman described Maurice as a man of \"great power\" and of \"great earnestness\". However, Newman found Maurice so \"hazy\" that he \"lost interest in his writings.\"\n", "In the United States, \"The National Quarterly Review and Religious Magazine, Volume 38\" (January 1879), contained this appreciation of Maurice.\n", "\"Mr. Maurice's characteristics are well known and becoming every year more highly appreciated—broad catholicity, keeness of insight, powerful mental grasp, fearlessness of utterance and devoutness of spirit.\"\n", "Leslie Stephen in The English Utilitarians,Vol 3, John Stuart Mill. 1900., Wrote \" Maurice is equally opposed to the sacerdotalism which makes the essence of religion consist in a magical removal of penalties instead of a'regeneration' of the nature. He takes what may be vaguely called the 'subjective' view of religion, and sympathises with Schleiermacher's statement that piety is 'neither a knowing nor a doing, but an inclination and determination of the feelings' \".\n", "Section::::Social activism.\n", "\"The demand for political and economic righteousness is one of the principal themes of Maurice's theology.\" Maurice practiced his theology by going \"quietly on bearing the chief burthen of some of the most important social movements of the time.\"\n", "Living in London the \"condition of the poor pressed upon him with consuming force.\" Working men trusted him when they distrusted other clergymen and the church. Working men attended Bible classes and meetings led by Maurice whose theme was \"moral edification.\"\n", "Christian socialism\n", "Maurice was affected by the \"revolutionary movements of 1848\", especially the march on Parliament, but he believed that \"Christianity rather than secularist doctrines was the only sound foundation for social reconstruction.\"\n", "Maurice \"disliked competition as fundamentally unchristian, and wished to see it, at the social level, replaced by co-operation, as expressive of Christian brotherhood.\" In 1849, Maurice joined other Christian socialist in an attempt to mitigate competition by the creation of co-operative societies. He viewed co-operative societies as \"a modern application of primitive Christian communism.\" Twelve cooperative workshops were to be launched in London. However, even with subsidy by Edward Vansittart Neale many turned out to be unprofitable. Nevertheless, the effort effected lasting consequences as seen in the following sub-section on the \"Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations\"\n", "In 1854, there were eight Co-operative Productive Associations in London and fourteen in the Provinces. These included breweries, flour mills, tailors, hat makers, builders, printers, engineers. Others were formed in the following decades. Some of them failed after several years, some lasted a longer time, some were replaced.\n", "Maurice's perception of a need for a moral and social regeneration of society led him into Christian socialism. From 1848 until 1854 (when the movement came to an end), he was a leader of the Christian Socialist Movement. He insisted that \"Christianity is the only foundation of Socialism, and that a true Socialism is the necessary result of a sound Christianity.\"\n", "Maurice has been characterized as \"the \"spiritual\" leader\" of the Christian socialists because he was more interested in disseminating its theological foundations than \"their practical endeavours.\" Maurice once wrote,Let people call me merely a philosopher, or merely anything else…. My business, because I am a theologian, and have no vocation except for theology, is not to build, but to dig, to show that economics and politics … must have a ground beneath themselves, and that society was not to be made by any arrangements of ours, but is to be regenerated by finding the law and ground of its order and harmony, the only secret of its existence, in God.\n", "Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations\n", "Early in 1850 the Christian socialists started a working men’s association for tailors in London, followed by associations for other trades. To promote this movement, a Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations (SPWMA) was founded with Maurice as a founding member and head of its a \"central board\". At first, the SPWMA's work was merely propagating the idea of associations by publishing tracts. Then it undertook the practical project of establishing the Working Men's College because educated workers were essential for successful co-operative societies. With that ingredient more of the associations succeeded; others still failed or were replaced by a later \"cooperative movement. The lasting legacy of the Christian socialists was that, in 1852, they influenced the passage of an act in Parliament which gave \"a legal status to co-operative bodies\" such as working men's associations. The SPWMA \"flourished in the years from 1849 to 1853, or thereabouts.\"\n", "The original mission of the Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations was \"to diffuse the principles of co-operation as the practical application of Christianity to the purposes of trade and industry.\" The goal was forming associations by which working men and their families could enjoy \"the whole produce of their labour.\"\n", "In testimony from representatives of \"Co-operative Societies\" during 1892–1893 to the Royal Commission on Labour for the House of Commons, one witness applauded the contribution of Christian socialists to the \"present cooperative movement\" by their formulating the idea in the 1850s. The witness specifically cited \"Maurice, Kingsley, Ludlow, Neale, and Hughes.\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "That Maurice left a legacy that would be valued by many was harbingered by responses to his death. \"Crowds following his remains to their last resting place, and around the open grave there stood men of widely different creeds, united for the moment by the common sorrow and their deep sense of loss. From pulpit and press, from loyal friends and honest opponents, the tribute to the worth of Mr. Maurice was both sincere and generous.\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Personal legacy.\n", "Maurice’s close friends were \"deeply impressed with the spirituality of his character\". His wife observed that whenever Maurice was awake in the night, he was \"always praying.\" Charles Kingsley called him \"the most beautiful human soul whom God has ever allowed me to meet with.\"\n", "Maurice’s life comprised \"contradictory elements\".\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Teaching legacy.\n", "As a professor at King's College and at Cambridge, Maurice attracted \"a band of earnest students\" to whom he gave two things. He taught them from the knowledge he had gained by his comprehensive reading. More importantly, Maurice instilled in students \"the habit of inquiry and research\" and a \"desire for knowledge and the process of independent thought.\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Written legacy.\n", "Maurice's written legacy includes \"nearly 40 volumes\", and they hold \"a permanent place in the history of thought in his time.\" His writings are \"recognizable as the utterance of a mind profoundly Christian in all its convictions.\"\n", "By themselves, two of Maurice's books, \"The Kingdom of Christ\" (1838 and later editions) and \"Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy\" (2 volumes, 1871–1872), are \"remarkable enough to have made their writer famous.\" But there more reasons for Maurice's fame. In his \"life-work\" Maurice was \"constantly teaching, writing, guiding, organizing; training up others to do the same kind of work, but giving them something of his spirit, never simply his views.\" He drew out \"all the best that was in others, never trying to force himself upon them.\" With his opponents, Maurice tried to find some \"common ground\" between them. None who knew him personally \"could doubt that he was indeed a man of God.\"\n", "In \"The Kingdom of Christ\" Maurice viewed the true church as a united body that transcended the \"diversities and partialities of its individual members, factions, and sects\". The true church had six signs: \"baptism, creeds, set forms of worship, the eucharist, an ordained ministry, and the Bible.\" Maurice's ideas were reflected a half-century later by William Reed Huntington and the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral. The modern ecumenical movement also incorporated Maurice's ideas contained in his \"The Kingdom of Christ\".\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Decline and revival of interest in legacy.\n", "Interest in the vast legacy of writings bequeathed by Maurice declined even before his death. Hugh Walker, a fellow academic, predicted in 1910 that neither of Maurice's major works, his \"Theological Essays\" (1853) and his \"Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy\" (1871–1872), will \"stand the test of time.\" However, \"this phase of neglect has passed.\"\n", "\"Since World War II there has been a revival of interest in Maurice as a theologian.\" During this period, twenty-three (some only in part) books about Maurice have been published as can be seen in the References section of this article.\n", "Maurice is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer on 1 April as \"Frederick Denison Maurice, Priest, 1872\" and a brief biography is included in the church's \"Holy Women, Holy Men: Celebrating the Saints\".\n", "Despite Maurice's dismissal by King's College after the publication of his \"Theological Essays\", \"a chair at King's, the F D Maurice Professorship of Moral and Social Theology, now commemorates his contribution to scholarship at the College.\"\n", "King's College also established \"The FD Maurice Lectures\" in 1933 in honour of Maurice. Maurice, who was Professor of English Literature and History (1840–1846) and then Professor of Theology (1846–1853).\"\n", "Section::::Writings.\n", "Maurice's writings result from diligent work on his part. As a rule he \"rose early\" and did his socializing with friends at breakfast. He dictated his writings until dinner-time. The manuscripts he dictated were \"elaborately corrected and rewritten\" before publication.\n", "Maurice's writings hold \"a permanent place in the history of thought in his time.\"\n", "Some of the following were \"rewritten and in a measure recast, and the date given is not necessarily that of the first appearance.\" Most of these writings \"were first delivered as sermons or lectures.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eustace Conway, or the Brother and Sister\"], a novel in three volumes (1834): Volume 1, \"Volume 2\", and \"Volume 3\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Subscription no Bondage, Or The Practical Advantages Afforded by the Thirty-nine Articles as Guides in All the Branches of Academical Education\" under the pseudonym Rusticus (1835)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Kingdom of Christ, or Hints to a Quaker, respecting the principles, constitution and ordinances of the Catholic Church\" (1838)\"Volume 1\" \"Volume 2\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Has the Church or the State power to Educate the Nation?\" (1839)\n", "BULLET::::- \" Reasons for Not Joining a Party in the Church; a Letter to S Wilberforce \" (1841)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Three Letters to the Rev W Palmer on the Jerusalem Bishopric\" (1842)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Right and Wrong Methods of Supporting Protestantism: A Letter to Lord Ashley\" (1843)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Christmas Day and Other Sermons\" (1843)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The New Statute and Dr Ward: A Letter to a Non-resident Member of Convocation\" (1845)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Thoughts on the Rule of Conscientious Subscription\" (1845)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Epistle to the Hebrews\" (1846)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Religions of the World and Their Relation to Christianity\" (1847)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Letter on the Attempt to Defeat the Nomination of Dr Hampden\" (1847)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Thoughts on the Duty of a Protestant on the Present Oxford Election\" (1847)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lord's Prayer: Nine Sermons\" (1848)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Queen's College, London: its Objects and Methods\" in \"Queen's College, London: its Objects and Methods\" (1848)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy\" (at first an article in the \"Encyclopædia Metropolitana\", 1848) Volume 1 \"Ancient Philosophy\" Volume 2 \"The Christian Fathers\" Volume 3 \"Mediaeval Philosophy\" Volume 4 \"Modern Philosophy\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Prayer Book, Considered Especially in Reference to the Romish System\" (1849)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Church a Family\" (1850)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Queen's College, London\" in reply to the Quarterly Review (1850)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Old Testament: Nineteen Sermons on the First Lessons for the Sundays from Septuagesima\" (1851)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sermons on the Sabbath Day, on the Character of the Warrior, and on the Interpretation of History\" (1853)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Word Eternal and the Punishment of the Wicked: A Letter to Dr Jelf \" (1853)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Theological Essays\" (1853)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament: a series of sermons\" (1853)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Unity of the New Testament: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels and of the Epistles of St. James, St. Jude, St. Peter, and St. Paul\" in two volumes (1854)Volume 1 \"Volume 2\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Centuries\" (1854)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Doctrine of Sacrifice Deduced From the Scriptures\" (1854)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Unity of the New Testament, a Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, and the Epistles of St James, St Jude, St Peter, and St Paul\" in two volumes(1854)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Unity of the New Testament\", 1st American ed in one volume (1879)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Learning and Working: six lectures\" and \"The Religion of Rome: 4 lectures\" (1855)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament: a series of sermons\" (1855)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gospel of St John: a series of discourses\" (1857)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Epistles of St John: a series of lectures on Christian ethics\" (1857)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Eucharist: five sermons\" (1857)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Indian Crisis: five sermons\" (1857)\n", "BULLET::::- \"What is Revelation?: a Series of Sermons on the Epiphany\" (1859)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sequel to the Enquiry, What is Revelation?\" (1860)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Address of Congratulation to the Rev. F. D. Maurice, on His Nomination to St. Peter's, Vere Street; with His Reply Thereto\" (1860)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lectures on the Apocalypse, or the Book of Revelation of St John the Divine\" (1861)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dialogues Between a Clergyman and a Layman on Family Worship\" (1862)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence Between a Layman and the Rev. F. D. Mauhice on Some Questions Arising out of the Controversy Respecting the Pentateuch\" (1863)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Conflict of Good and Evil in our Day: twelve letters to a missionary\" (1864)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gospel of the Kingdom of Heaven: a course of lectures on the Gospel of St Luke\" (1864)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Commandments Considered as Instruments of National Reformation\" (1866)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Casuistry, Moral Philosophy, and Moral Theology: inaugural lecture at Cambridge\" (1866)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Working Men’s College\" (1866)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Ground and Object of Hope for Mankind: four university sermons\" (1867)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Workman and the Franchise: Chapters from English History on the Representation and Education of the People\" (1866)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Conscience: Lectures on Casuistry\" (1868)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Social Morality: twenty-one lectures delivered in the University of Cambridge\" (1869)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lord's Prayer, a Manual\" (1870).\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Friendship of Books and Other Lectures\", ed. T. Hughes (1873)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sermons Peached in Country Churches\" (1873)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Faith and Action from the Writings of F.D. Maurice\" (1886)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Acts of the Apostles: A Course of Sermons\" (1894) Preached at St Peter, Vere Street.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Frederick Barton Maurice\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frederick Denison Maurice\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"MAURICE, Professor Frederick Denison (1805–1872)\"\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English theologian, religious author and Christian Socialist", "enwikiquote_title": "Frederick Denison Maurice", "wikidata_id": "Q961022", "wikidata_label": "Frederick Denison Maurice", "wikipedia_title": "Frederick Denison Maurice", "aliases": { "alias": [ "John Frederick Denison Maurice", "F. D. Maurice" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206518, "parentid": 901852632, "revid": 901852753, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-14T18:14:46Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice&oldid=901852753" }

{ "paragraph": [ "William Adams (sailor, born 1564)\n", "William Adams (24 September 1564 – 16 May 1620), known in Japanese as Miura Anjin (三浦按針: \"the pilot of Miura\"), was an English navigator who, in 1600, was the first of his nation to reach Japan during a five-ship expedition for the Dutch East India Company. Of the few survivors of the only ship that reached Japan, Adams and his second mate Jan Joosten were not allowed to leave the country while Jacob Quaeckernaeck and Melchior van Santvoort were to go back to the Dutch Republic to invite them to trade. Adams and Joosten settled in Japan and became two of the first ever (and very few) Western samurai.\n", "Soon after Adams's arrival in Japan, he became a key advisor to the \"shōgun\" Tokugawa Ieyasu. Adams directed construction for the \"shōgun\" of the first Western-style ships in the country. He was later key to Japan's approving the establishment of trading factories by the Netherlands and England. He was also highly involved in Japan's Red Seal Asian trade, chartering and serving as captain of four expeditions to Southeast Asia. He died in Japan at age 55. He has been recognised as one of the most influential foreigners in Japan during this period.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Adams was born in Gillingham, Kent, England. When Adams was twelve his father died, and he was apprenticed to shipyard owner Master Nicholas Diggins at Limehouse for the seafaring life. He spent the next twelve years learning shipbuilding, astronomy, and navigation before entering the Royal Navy.\n", "With England at war with Spain, Adams served in the Royal Navy under Sir Francis Drake. He saw naval service against the Spanish Armada in 1588 as master of the \"Richarde Dyffylde\", a resupply ship. In the same year he is recorded to have married Mary Hyn in the parish church of St Dunstan's, Stepney. Soon after Adams became a pilot for the Barbary Company. During this service, Jesuit sources claim he took part in an expedition to the Arctic that lasted about two years, in search of a Northeast Passage along the coast of Siberia to the Far East. The veracity of this claim is somewhat suspect, because he never referred to such an expedition in his autobiographical letter written from Japan; its wording implies that the 1598 voyage was his first involvement with the Dutch. The Jesuit source may have misattributed to Adams a claim by one of the Dutch members of Mahu's crew who had been on Rijp's ship during the voyage that discovered Spitsbergen.\n", "Section::::Expedition to the Far East.\n", "Attracted by the Dutch trade with India, Adams, then 34 years old, shipped as pilot major with a five-ship fleet dispatched from the isle of Texel to the Far East in 1598 by a company of Rotterdam merchants (a \"voorcompagnie,\" predecessor of the Dutch East India Company). His brother Thomas accompanied him. The Dutch were allied with England and as well as fellow Protestants, they too were also at war with Spain fighting for their independence.\n", "The Adams brothers set sail from Rotterdam in June 1598 on the \"Hoope\" and joined with the rest of the fleet on 24 June. The fleet consisted of:\n", "BULLET::::- the \"Hoope\" (\"Hope\"), under Jacques Mahu (d. 1598), expedition leader, succeeded by Simon de Cordes (d. 1599), and finally, Jan Huidekoper;\n", "BULLET::::- the \"Liefde\" (\"Love\" or \"Charity\"), under Simon de Cordes, 2nd in command, succeeded by Gerrit van Beuningen and finally under Jacob Kwakernaak;\n", "BULLET::::- the \"Geloof\" (\"Faith\"), under Gerrit van Beuningen, and in the end, Sebald de Weert;\n", "BULLET::::- the \"Trouw\" (\"Loyalty\"), under Jurriaan van Boekhout (d. 1599), and finally, Baltazar de Cordes; and\n", "BULLET::::- the \"Blijde Boodschap\" (\"Good Tiding\" or \"The Gospel\"), under Sebald de Weert, and later, Dirck Gerritz.\n", "The fleet's original mission was to sail for the west coast of South America, where they would sell their cargo for silver, and to head for Japan only if the first mission failed. In that case, they were supposed to obtain silver in Japan to buy spices in the Moluccas (the Spice Islands), before heading back to Europe.\n", "The vessels, ships ranging from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the coast of Guinea, West Africa where the adventurers attacked the island of Annobón for supplies. They sailed on west for the Straits of Magellan. Scattered by stress of weather and after several disasters in the South Atlantic, only three ships of the five made it through the Magellan Straits. (The \"Blijde Boodschap\" was adrift after being disabled in bad weather and was captured by a Spanish ship. The \"Geloof\" returned to Rotterdam in July 1600 with 36 men surviving of the original 109 crew.)\n", "During the voyage, Adams changed ships to the \"Liefde\" (originally named \"Erasmus\" and adorned by a wooden carving of Erasmus on her stern). The statue was preserved in a Buddhist temple in Sano-shi, Tochigi-ken. The \"Liefde\" waited for the other ships at Floreana Island off the Ecuadorean coast. However, only the \"Hoope\" had arrived by the spring of 1599. The captains of both vessels, together with Adams' brother Thomas and twenty other men, lost their lives in a violent encounter with natives. The \"Trouw\" later reached Tidore (Indonesia). The crew were killed by the Portuguese in January 1601.\n", "In fear of the Spaniards, the remaining crews determined to leave Ecuador and sail across the Pacific. It was late November 1599 when the two ships sailed westwardly for Japan. On their way, the two ships made landfall in \"certain islands\" (possibly the islands of Hawaii) where eight sailors deserted the ships. Later during the voyage, a typhoon claimed the \"Hoope\" with all hands, in late February 1600.\n", "Section::::Arrival in Japan.\n", "In April 1600, after more than nineteen months at sea, a crew of twenty-three sick and dying men (out of the 100 who started the voyage) brought the \"Liefde\" to anchor off the island of Kyūshū, Japan. Its cargo consisted of eleven chests of trade goods: coarse woolen cloth, glass beads, mirrors, and spectacles; and metal tools and weapons: nails, iron, hammers, nineteen bronze cannon; 5,000 cannonballs; 500 muskets, 300 chain-shot, and three chests filled with coats of mail.\n", "When the nine surviving crew members were strong enough to stand, they made landfall on 19 April off Bungo (present-day Usuki, Ōita Prefecture). They were met by Japanese locals and Portuguese Jesuit missionary priests claiming that Adams' ship was a pirate vessel and that the crew should be executed as pirates. The ship was seized and the sickly crew were imprisoned at Osaka Castle on orders by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the \"daimyō\" of Edo and future \"shōgun.\" The nineteen bronze cannon of the \"Liefde\" were unloaded and, according to Spanish accounts, later used at the decisive Battle of Sekigahara on 21 October 1600.\n", "Adams met Ieyasu in Osaka three times between May and June 1600. He was questioned by Ieyasu, then a guardian of the young son of the \"Taikō\" Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the ruler who had just died. Adams' knowledge of ships, shipbuilding and nautical smattering of mathematics appealed to Ieyasu.\n", "Coming before the king, he viewed me well, and seemed to be wonderfully favourable. He made many signs unto me, some of which I understood, and some I did not. In the end, there came one that could speak Portuguese. By him, the king demanded of me of what land I was, and what moved us to come to his land, being so far off. I showed unto him the name of our country, and that our land had long sought out the East Indies, and desired friendship with all kings and potentates in way of merchandise, having in our land diverse commodities, which these lands had not… Then he asked whether our country had wars? I answered him yea, with the Spaniards and Portugals, being in peace with all other nations. Further, he asked me, in what I did believe? I said, in God, that made heaven and earth. He asked me diverse other questions of things of religions, and many other things: As what way we came to the country. Having a chart of the whole world, I showed him, through the Strait of Magellan. At which he wondered, and thought me to lie. Thus, from one thing to another, I abode with him till mid-night. (from William Adams' letter to his wife)\n", "Adams wrote that Ieyasu denied the Jesuits' request for execution on the ground that:\n", "we as yet had not done to him nor to none of his land any harm or damage; therefore against Reason or Justice to put us to death. If our country had wars the one with the other, that was no cause that he should put us to death; with which they were out of heart that their cruel pretence failed them. For which God be forever praised. (William Adams' letter to his wife)\n", "Ieyasu ordered the crew to sail the \"Liefde\" from Bungo to Edo where, rotten and beyond repair, she sank.\n", "Section::::Japan's first western-style sailing ships.\n", "In 1604, Tokugawa ordered Adams and his companions to help Mukai Shōgen, who was commander-in-chief of the navy of Uraga, to build Japan's first Western-style ship. The sailing ship was built at the harbour of Itō on the east coast of the Izu Peninsula, with carpenters from the harbour supplying the manpower for the construction of an 80-ton vessel. It was used to survey the Japanese coast. The \"shōgun\" ordered a larger ship of 120 tons to be built the following year; it was slightly smaller than the \"Liefde\", which was 150 tons. According to Adams, Tokugawa \"came aboard to see it, and the sight whereof gave him great content\". In 1610, the 120-ton ship (later named \"San Buena Ventura\") was lent to shipwrecked Spanish sailors. They sailed it to New Spain, accompanied by a mission of twenty-two Japanese led by Tanaka Shōsuke.\n", "Following the construction, Tokugawa invited Adams to visit his palace whenever he liked and \"that always I must come in his presence.\"\n", "Other survivors of the \"Liefde\" were also rewarded with favours, and were allowed to pursue foreign trade. Most of the survivors left Japan in 1605 with the help of the \"daimyō\" of Hirado. Although Adams did not receive permission to leave Japan until 1613, Melchior van Santvoort and Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn engaged in trade between Japan and Southeast Asia and reportedly made a fortune. Both of them were reported by Dutch traders as being in Ayutthaya in early 1613, sailing richly cargoed \"junks.\"\n", "In 1609 Adams contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who wished to establish direct trade contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain. Adams is also recorded as having chartered Red Seal Ships during his later travels to Southeast Asia. (The \"Ikoku Tokai Goshuinjō\" has a reference to Miura Anjin receiving a \"shuinjō\", a document bearing a red Shogunal seal authorising the holder to engage in foreign trade, in 1614.)\n", "Section::::Western samurai.\n", "Taking a liking to Adams, the \"shōgun\" appointed him as a diplomatic and trade advisor, bestowing great privileges upon him. Ultimately, Adams became his personal advisor on all things related to Western powers and civilization. After a few years, Adams replaced the Jesuit Padre João Rodrigues as the Shogun's official interpreter. Padre Valentim Carvalho wrote: \"After he had learned the language, he had access to Ieyasu and entered the palace at any time\"; he also described him as \"a great engineer and mathematician\".\n", "Adams had a wife and children in England, but Ieyasu forbade the Englishman to leave Japan. He was presented with two swords representing the authority of a Samurai. The Shogun decreed that William Adams the pilot was dead and that Miura Anjin (三浦按針), a samurai, was born. According to the \"shōgun\", this action \"freed\" Adams to serve the Shogunate permanently, effectively making Adams' wife in England a widow. (Adams managed to send regular support payments to her after 1613 via the English and Dutch companies.) Adams also was given the title of \"hatamoto\" (bannerman), a high-prestige position as a direct retainer in the \"shōgun\"s court.\n", "Adams was given generous revenues: \"For the services that I have done and do daily, being employed in the Emperor's service, the emperor has given me a living\" (\"Letters\"). He was granted a fief in Hemi (Jpn: 逸見) within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka City, \"with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be my slaves or servants\" (\"Letters\"). His estate was valued at 250 \"koku\" (a measure of the yearly income of the land in rice, with one koku defined as the quantity of rice sufficient to feed one person for one year). He finally wrote \"God hath provided for me after my great misery\" (\"Letters\"), by which he meant the disaster-ridden voyage that had initially brought him to Japan.\n", "Adams's estate was located next to the harbour of Uraga, the traditional point of entrance to Edo Bay. There he was recorded as dealing with the cargoes of foreign ships. John Saris related that when he visited Edo in 1613, Adams had resale rights for the cargo of a Spanish ship at anchor in Uraga Bay.\n", "Adams' position gave him the means to marry Oyuki (お雪), the adopted daughter of Magome Kageyu. He was a highway official who was in charge of a packhorse exchange on one of the grand imperial roads that led out of Edo (roughly present-day Tokyo). Although Magome was important, Oyuki was not of noble birth, nor high social standing. Adams may have married from affection rather than for social reasons. Adams and Oyuki had a son Joseph and a daughter Susanna. Adams was constantly traveling for work. Initially, he tried to organise an expedition in search of the Arctic passage that had eluded him previously.\n", "Adams had a high regard for Japan, its people, and its civilisation:\n", "The people of this Land of Japan are good of nature, courteous above measure, and valiant in war: their justice is severely executed without any partiality upon transgressors of the law. They are governed in great civility. I mean, not a land better governed in the world by civil policy. The people be very superstitious in their religion, and are of diverse opinions.\n", "Section::::Establishment of the Dutch East India Company in Japan.\n", "In 1604 Ieyasu sent the \"Liefde\"'s captain, Jacob Quaeckernaeck, and the treasurer, Melchior van Santvoort, on a \"shōgun\"-licensed Red Seal Ship to Patani in Southeast Asia. He ordered them to contact the Dutch East India Company trading factory, which had just been established in 1602, in order to bring more western trade to Japan and break the Portuguese monopoly. In 1605, Adams obtained a letter of authorization from Ieyasu formally inviting the Dutch to trade with Japan. \n", "Hampered by conflicts with the Portuguese and limited resources in Asia, the Dutch were not able to send ships to Japan until 1609. Two Dutch ships, commanded by Jacques Specx, \"De Griffioen\" (the \"Griffin\", 19 cannons) and \"Roode Leeuw met Pijlen\" (the \"Red lion with arrows\", 400 tons, 26 cannons), were sent from Holland and reached Japan on 2 July 1609. The men of this Dutch expeditionary fleet established a trading base or \"factory\" on Hirado Island. Two Dutch envoys, Puyck and van den Broek, were the official bearers of a letter from Prince Maurice of Nassau to the court of Edo. Adams negotiated on behalf of these emissaries. The Dutch obtained free trading rights throughout Japan and to establish a trading factory there. (By contrast, the Portuguese were allowed to sell their goods only in Nagasaki at fixed, negotiated prices.)\n", "The Hollandes be now settled (in Japan) and I have got them that privilege as the Spaniards and Portingals could never get in this 50 or 60 years in Japan.\n", "After obtaining this trading right through an edict of Tokugawa Ieyasu on 24 August 1609, the Dutch inaugurated a trading factory in Hirado on 20 September 1609. The Dutch preserved their \"trade pass\" (Dutch: \"Handelspas\") in Hirado and then Dejima as a guarantee of their trading rights during the following two centuries that they operated in Japan.\n", "Section::::Establishment of an English trading factory.\n", "In 1611, Adams learned of an English settlement in Banten, Indonesia. He wrote asking them to convey news of him to his family and friends in England. He invited them to engage in trade with Japan which \"the Hollanders have here an Indies of money.\"\n", "In 1613, the English captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship \"Clove,\" intending to establish a trading factory for the British East India Company. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) already had a major post at Hirado.\n", "Saris criticized Adams for his praise of Japan and adoption of Japanese customs:\n", "He persists in giving \"admirable and affectionated commendations of Japan. It is generally thought amongst us that he is a naturalized Japaner.\" (John Saris)\n", "In Hirado, Adams refused to stay in English quarters, residing instead with a local Japanese magistrate. The English noted that he wore Japanese dress and spoke Japanese fluently. Adams estimated the cargo of the \"Clove\" was of little value, essentially broadcloth, tin and cloves (acquired in the Spice Islands), saying that \"such things as he had brought were not very vendible\".\n", "Adams traveled with Saris to Suruga, where they met with Ieyasu at his principal residence in September. The Englishmen continued to Kamakura where they visited the noted Kamakura Great Buddha. (Sailors etched their names of the Daibutsu, made in 1252.) They continued to Edo, where they met Ieyasu's son Hidetada, who was nominally \"shōgun\", although Ieyasu retained most of the decision-making powers. During that meeting, Hidetada gave Saris two varnished suits of armour for King James I. As of 2015, one of these suits of armour is housed in the Tower of London, the other is on display in the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds. The suits were made by Iwai Yozaemon of Nanbu. They were part of a series of presentation armours of ancient 15th-century Dō-maru style.\n", "On their return, the English party visited Tokugawa again. He conferred trading privileges to the English by a Red Seal permit, giving them \"free license to abide, buy, sell and barter\" in Japan. The English party returned to Hirado on 9 October 1613.\n", "At this meeting, Adams asked for and obtained Tokugawa's authorisation to return to his home country. But, he finally declined Saris' offer to take him back to England: \"I answered him I had spent in this country many years, through which I was poor... [and] desirous to get something before my return\". His true reasons seem to lie rather with his profound antipathy for Saris: \"The reason I would not go with him was for diverse injuries done against me, which were things to me very strange and unlooked for.\" (William Adams letters)\n", "Adams accepted employment with the newly founded Hirado trading factory, signing a contract on 24November 1613, with the East India Company for the yearly salary of 100 English Pounds. This was more than double the regular salary of 40 Pounds earned by the other factors at Hirado. Adams had a lead role, under Richard Cocks and together with six other compatriots (Tempest Peacock, Richard Wickham, William Eaton, Walter Carwarden, Edmund Sayers and William Nealson), in organising this new English settlement.\n", "Adams had advised Saris against the choice of Hirado, which was small and far away from the major markets in Osaka and Edo; he had recommended selection of Uraga near Edo for a post, but Saris wanted to keep an eye on the Dutch activities.\n", "During the ten-year operations of the East Indian Company (1613 and 1623), only three English ships after the \"Clove\" brought cargoes directly from London to Japan. They were invariably described as having poor value on the Japanese market. The only trade which helped support the factory was that organised between Japan and South-East Asia; this was chiefly Adams selling Chinese goods for Japanese silver:\n", "Were it not for hope of trade into China, or procuring some benefit from Siam, Pattania and Cochin China, it were no staying in Japon, yet it is certen here is silver enough & may be carried out at pleasure, but then we must bring them commodities to their liking. (Richard Cocks' diary, 1617)\n", "Section::::Religious rivalries.\n", "The Portuguese and other Catholic religious orders in Japan considered Adams a rival as an English Protestant. After Adams' power had grown, the Jesuits tried to convert him, then offered to secretly bear him away from Japan on a Portuguese ship. The Jesuits' willingness to disobey the order by Ieyasu prohibiting Adams from leaving Japan showed that they feared his growing influence. Catholic priests asserted that he was trying to discredit them. In 1614, Carvalho complained of Adams and other merchants in his annual letter to the Pope, saying that \"by false accusation [Adams and others] have rendered our preachers such objects of suspicion that he [Ieyasu] fears and readily believes that they are rather spies than sowers of the Holy Faith in his kingdom.\" \n", "Ieyasu, influenced by Adams' counsels and disturbed by unrest caused by the numerous Catholic converts, expelled the Portuguese Jesuits from Japan in 1614. He demanded that Japanese Catholics abandon their faith. Adams apparently warned Ieyasu against Spanish approaches as well.\n", "Section::::Character.\n", "After fifteen years spent in Japan, Adams had a difficult time establishing relations with the English arrivals. He initially shunned the company of the newly arrived English sailors in 1613 and could not get on good terms with Saris. But Richard Cocks, the head of the Hirado factory, came to appreciate Adams' character and what he had acquired of Japanese self-control. In a letter to the East India Company Cocks wrote:\n", "Section::::Participation in Asian trade.\n", "Adams later engaged in various exploratory and commercial ventures. He tried to organise an expedition to the legendary Northwest Passage from Asia, which would have greatly reduced the sailing distance between Japan and Europe. Ieyasu asked him if \"our countrimen could not find the northwest passage\" and Adams contacted the East India Company to organise manpower and supplies. The expedition never got underway.\n", "In his later years, Adams worked for the English East Indian Company. He made a number of trading voyages to Siam in 1616 and Cochinchina in 1617 and 1618, sometimes for the English East India Company, sometimes for his own account. He is recorded in Japanese records as the owner of a Red Seal Ship of 500 tons.\n", "Given the few ships that the Company sent from England and the poor trading value of their cargoes (broadcloth, knives, looking glasses, Indian cotton, etc.), Adams was influential in gaining trading certificates from the \"shōgun\" to allow the Company to participate in the Red Seal system. It made a total of seven junk voyages to Southeast Asia with mixed profit results. Four were led by William Adams as captain. Adams renamed a ship he acquired in 1617 as \"Gift of God;\" he sailed it on his expedition that year to Cochinchina. The expeditions he led are described more fully below.\n", "Section::::Participation in Asian trade.:1614 Siam expedition.\n", "In 1614, Adams wanted to organise a trade expedition to Siam to bolster the Company factory's activities and cash situation. He bought and upgraded a 200-ton Japanese junk for the Company, renaming her as \"Sea Adventure\"; and hired about 120 Japanese sailors and merchants, as well as several Chinese traders, an Italian and a Castilian (Spanish) trader. The heavily laden ship left in November 1614, during the typhoon season. The merchants Richard Wickham and Edmund Sayers of the English factory's staff also joined the voyage.\n", "The expedition was to purchase raw silk, Chinese goods, sappan wood, deer skins and ray skins (the latter used for the handles of Japanese swords). The ship carried £1250 in silver and £175 of merchandise (Indian cottons, Japanese weapons and lacquerware). The party encountered a typhoon near the Ryukyu Islands (modern Okinawa) and had to stop there to repair from 27 December 1614 until May 1615. It returned to Japan in June 1615 without having completed any trade.\n", "Section::::Participation in Asian trade.:1615 Siam expedition.\n", "Adams left Hirado in November 1615 for Ayutthaya in Siam on the refitted \"Sea Adventure,\" intent on obtaining sappanwood for resale in Japan. His cargo was chiefly silver (£600) and the Japanese and Indian goods unsold from the previous voyage.\n", "He bought vast quantities of the high-profit products. His partners obtained two ships in Siam in order to transport everything back to Japan. Adams sailed the \"Sea Adventure\" to Japan with 143 tonnes of sappanwood and 3700 deer skins, returning to Hirado in 47 days. (The return trip took from 5 June and 22 July 1616). Sayers, on a hired Chinese junk, reached Hirado in October 1616 with 44 tons of sappanwood. The third ship, a Japanese junk, brought 4,560 deer skins to Nagasaki, arriving in June 1617 after the monsoon.\n", "Less than a week before Adams' return, Ieyasu had died. Adams accompanied Cocks and Eaton to court to offer Company presents to the new ruler, Hidetada. Although Ieyasu's death seems to have weakened Adams' political influence, Hidetada agreed to maintain the English trading privileges. He also issued a new Red Seal permit (Shuinjō) to Adams, which allowed him to continue trade activities overseas under the \"shōgun\"s protection. His position as \"hatamoto\" was also renewed.\n", "On this occasion, Adams and Cocks also visited the Japanese Admiral Mukai Shōgen Tadakatsu, who lived near Adams' estate. They discussed plans for a possible invasion of the Catholic Philippines.\n", "Section::::Participation in Asian trade.:1617 Cochinchina expedition.\n", "In March 1617, Adams set sail for Cochinchina, having purchased the junk Sayers had brought from Siam and renamed it the \"Gift of God\". He intended to find two English factors, Tempest Peacock and Walter Carwarden, who had departed from Hirado two years before to explore commercial opportunities on the first voyage to South East Asia by the Hirado English Factory. Adams learned in Cochinchina that Peacock had been plied with drink, and killed for his silver. Carwarden, who was waiting in a boat downstream, realised that Peacock had been killed and hastily tried to reach his ship. His boat overturned and he drowned.\n", "Adams sold a small cargo of broadcloth, Indian piece goods and ivory in Cochinchina for the modest amount of £351.\n", "Section::::Participation in Asian trade.:1618 Cochinchina expedition.\n", "In 1618, Adams is recorded as having organised his last Red Seal trade expedition to Cochinchina and Tonkin (modern Vietnam), the last expedition of the English Hirado Factory to Southeast Asia. The ship, a chartered Chinese junk, left Hirado on 11 March 1618 but met with bad weather that forced it to stop at Ōshima in the northern Ryukyus. The ship sailed back to Hirado in May.\n", "Those expeditions to Southeast Asia helped the English factory survive for some time—during that period, sappanwood resold in Japan with a 200% profit—until the factory fell into bankruptcy due to high expenditures.\n", "Section::::Death and family legacy.\n", "Adams died at Hirado, north of Nagasaki, on 16 May 1620, at the age of 55. He was buried in Nagasaki-ken, where his grave marker may still be seen. In 2019 Japanese archaeologists announced the discovery of bones at the site believed to be those of Adams. His gravesite is next to a memorial to Saint Francis Xavier. In his will, he left his townhouse in Edo, his fief in Hemi, and 500 British pounds to be divided evenly between his family in England and his family in Japan. Cocks wrote: \"I cannot but be sorrowfull for the loss of such a man as Capt William Adams, he having been in such favour with two Emperors of Japan as never any Christian in these part of the world.\" (Cocks's diary)\n", "Cocks remained in contact with Adams' Japanese family, sending gifts; in March 1622, he offered silks to Joseph and Susanna. On the Christmas after Adams's death, Cocks gave Joseph his father's sword and dagger. Cocks records that Hidetada transferred the lordship from William Adams to his son Joseph Adams with the attendant rights to the estate at Hemi: He (Hidetada) has confirmed the lordship to his son, which the other emperor (Ieyasu) gave to the father. (Cocks's diary) Adams' son kept the title of Miura Anjin, and was a successful trader until Japan closed against foreign trading in 1635; he disappeared from historical records at that time.\n", "Cocks administered Adams's trading rights (the shuinjō) for the benefit of Adams's children, Joseph and Susanna. He carried this out conscientiously. In 1623, three years after Adams's death, the unprofitable English trading factory was dissolved by the East India Company. The Dutch traded on Adams's children's behalf via the Red Seal ships.\n", "By 1629, only two of Adams's shipmates from 1600 survived in Japan. Melchior van Santvoort and Vincent Romeyn lived privately in Nagasaki.\n", "Section::::Honors for Adams.\n", "BULLET::::- A town in Edo (modern Tokyo), Anjin-chō (in modern-day Nihonbashi) was named for Adams, who had a house there. He is annually celebrated on 15 June.\n", "BULLET::::- A village and a railroad station in his fiefdom, Anjinzuka (安針塚, \"Burial mound of the Pilot\") in modern Yokosuka, were named for him.\n", "BULLET::::- In the city of Itō, Shizuoka, the Miura Anjin Festival is held annually on 10 August. On the seafront at Itō is a monument to Adams. Next to it is a plaque inscribed with Edmund Blunden's poem, \"To the Citizens of Ito\", which commemorates Adams' achievement.\n", "BULLET::::- Adams' birth town, Gillingham, has held a Will Adams Festival every September since 2000. Since the late 20th century, both Itō and Yokosuka have become sister cities of Gillingham.\n", "BULLET::::- A monument to Adams was installed in Watling Street, Gillingham (Kent), opposite Darland Avenue. The monument was unveiled 11 May 1934 by his excellency Tsuneo Matsudaira GCVO, Japanese ambassador to the Court of St James.\n", "BULLET::::- A roundabout named Will Adams Roundabout with a Japanese theme just along from the Gillingham monument to Adams with two roads named after the Gillingham sister cities \"Ito Way\" and \"Yokosuka Way\"\n", "Section::::Representation in other media.\n", "BULLET::::- James Clavell based his best-selling novel \"Shōgun\" (1975) on Adams' life, changing the name of his protagonist to \"John Blackthorne\". This was adapted as a popular TV mini-series, \"Shōgun\" (1980). It was also adapted as a Broadway production, \"\" (1990), and the video game \"James Clavell's Shōgun\" (1989).\n", "There were numerous earlier works of fiction based on Adams.\n", "BULLET::::- William Dalton wrote \"Will Adams, The First Englishman in Japan: A Romantic Biography\" (London, 1861). Dalton had never been to Japan and his book reflects romanticised Victorian British notions of the \"exotic\" Asia.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Blaker's \"The Needlewatcher\" (London, 1932) is the least romantic of the novels; he consciously attempted to de-mythologize Adams and write a careful historical work of fiction.\n", "BULLET::::- James Scherer's \"Pilot and Shōgun\" dramatises a series of incidents based on Adams' life.\n", "BULLET::::- American Robert Lund wrote \"Daishi-san\" (New York, 1960).\n", "BULLET::::- Christopher Nicole's \"Lord of the Golden Fan\" (1973) portrays Adams as sexually frustrated in England and freed by living in Japan, where he has numerous encounters. The work is considered light pornography.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2002, Giles Milton's historical biography \"Samurai William\" (2002) is based on historical sources, especially Richard Cocks's diary.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2002 alternate history novel \"Ruled Britannia\" by Harry Turtledove features a brief appearance by Adams, piloting cargo and passengers between England and Ostend, both of which are puppet states of the Habsburg Empire in this timeline.\n", "BULLET::::- In the second season of \"Heroes\", a story set in samurai-era Japan features an Englishman who seems to be based on Adams.\n", "BULLET::::- A book series called \"Young Samurai\" is about a young English boy who is ship wrecked in Japan, and is trained as a samurai.\n", "BULLET::::- Adams also serves as the template for the protagonist in the PlayStation 4 and PC video game \"Nioh\" (2017), but with supernatural and historical fiction elements.\n", "BULLET::::- In a 1995 interview, Ted Koplar of World Event Productions admitted \"Denver the Last Dinosaur\" was an allegory for the life and times of Adams.\n", "Section::::Representation in other media.:Depiction.\n", "According to Professor Derek Massarella of Chuo University:\n", "There is however one genuine contemporary image. \"It is a derivative drawing of William Adams, which appears to be based in a sketch attributed to Dorothy Burmingham (from a description given by Malchior von Santvoot). The original drawing is to be found at the Rotterdam Maritime Museum [whose specialist Marcel Kroon considers it to be from Adams' time]. A copy is preserved at the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.\" \n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Anglo-Japanese relations\n", "BULLET::::- Jan Joosten – known in Japanese as \"Yan Yōsuten\", was a Dutch colleague of Adams, and the only known Dutch samurai. The Yaesu neighbourhood in Chūō, Tokyo was named for him.\n", "BULLET::::- Henry Schnell – known in Japanese as \"Hiramatsu Buhei\", was a Prussian arms dealer, who served the Aizu domain as a military instructor and procurer of weapons.\n", "BULLET::::- Eugène Collache – French Navy officer, who fought for the \"shōgun\" during the Boshin War (1868–1869).\n", "BULLET::::- Jules Brunet (1838–1911) – French officer who fought for the \"shōgun\" in the Boshin War\n", "BULLET::::- Ernest Mason Satow (1843–1929) – British scholar, diplomat and Japanologist\n", "BULLET::::- Hendrick Hamel (1630–1692) – first European to live in the Joseon-dynasty era in Korea (1666) and write about it\n", "BULLET::::- Yasuke (b. c. 1556) – a black (African) retainer briefly in the service of the Japanese warlord Nobunaga Oda\n", "BULLET::::- List of foreign-born samurai in Japan\n", "BULLET::::- List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868\n", "Section::::Notes.\n", "Section::::Notes.:References.\n", "BULLET::::- \"England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan\", by C. W. Hillary (1905)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Letters written by the English Residents in Japan\", ed. by N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams's Letters reprinted from Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt Society, 1850)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Diary of Richard Cocks\", with preface by N. Murakami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883)\n", "BULLET::::- Hildreth, Richard, \"Japan as it was and is\" (1855)\n", "BULLET::::- John Harris, \"Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca\" (1764), i. 856\n", "BULLET::::- \"Voyage of John Saris\", edited by Sir Ernest M. Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Asiatic Society of Japan Transactions\", xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four formerly unpublished letters of Adams are printed;\n", "BULLET::::- \"Collection of State Papers; East Indies, China and Japan.\" The MS. of his logs written during his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Samurai William: The Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan\", by Giles Milton (UK 2002: )\n", "BULLET::::- \"William Adams and Early English Enterprise in Japan\", by Anthony Farrington and Derek Massarella \n", "BULLET::::- \"Adams the Pilot: The Life and Times of Captain William Adams: 1564–1620\", by William Corr, Curzon Press, 1995\n", "BULLET::::- \"The English Factory in Japan 1613–1623\", ed. by Anthony Farrington, British Library, 1991. (Includes all of William Adams' extant letters, as well as his will.)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A World Elsewhere. Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries\", by Derek Massarella, Yale University Press, 1990.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Recollections of Japan\", Hendrik Doeff,\n", "Section::::Notes.:Hardcopy.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Needle-Watcher: The Will Adams Story, British Samurai\" by Richard Blaker\n", "BULLET::::- \"Servant of the Shogun\" by Richard Tames. Paul Norbury Publications, Tenterden, Kent, England..\n", "BULLET::::- \"Samurai William: The Englishman Who Opened Japan,\" by Giles Milton; ; December 2003\n", "Section::::Notes.:External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Williams Adams- Blue Eyed Samurai, Meeting Anjin\n", "BULLET::::- \"Learning from Shogun. Japanese history and Western fantasy\"\n", "BULLET::::- William Adams and Early English enterprise in Japan\n", "BULLET::::- William Adams – The First Englishman In Japan, full text online, Internet Archive\n", "BULLET::::- Will Adams Memorial\n" ] }

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"Tokugawa%20Hidetada", "varnish", "suit%20of%20armour", "James%20I%20of%20England", "Tower%20of%20London", "Royal%20Armouries%20Museum", "Leeds", "Nanbu%20Domain", "D%C5%8D-maru", "Red%20seal%20ships", "Richard%20Cocks", "Uraga%2C%20Kanagawa", "Northwest%20Passage", "Ayutthaya%20Kingdom", "Cochinchina", "Red%20Seal%20Ship", "Cochinchina", "Siam", "junk%20%28ship%29", "typhoon", "Ryukyu%20Islands", "Okinawa", "sappanwood", "monsoon", "Hidetada", "hatamoto", "Mukai%20Sh%C5%8Dgen%20Tadakatsu", "Tonkin", "Vietnam", "Amami%20%C5%8Cshima", "Ryukyu%20Islands", "Hirado", "Nagasaki%2C%20Nagasaki", "Francis%20Xavier", "Red%20Seal%20Ships", "Melchior%20van%20Santvoort", "Vincent%20Romeyn", "Edo", "Nihonbashi", "Anjinzuka%20Station", "Anjinzuka", "It%C5%8D%2C%20Shizuoka", "Shizuoka%20Prefecture", "Edmund%20Blunden", "Gillingham%2C%20Medway", "Tsuneo%20Matsudaira", "James%20Clavell", "Sh%C5%8Dgun%20%28novel%29", "John%20Blackthorne", "Sh%C5%8Dgun%20%281980%20miniseries%29", "James%20Clavell%27s%20Sh%C5%8Dgun", "William%20Dalton%20%28author%29", "James%20Scherer%20%28author%29", "Robert%20Lund", "Christopher%20Nicole", "Giles%20Milton", "alternate%20history", "Ruled%20Britannia", "Harry%20Turtledove", "Ostend", "Heroes%20%28U.S.%20TV%20series%29", "Young%20Samurai", "PlayStation%204", "Nioh", "Denver%20the%20Last%20Dinosaur", "Chuo%20University", "Anglo-Japanese%20relations", "Jan%20Joosten%20van%20Lodensteijn", "Yaesu", "Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D%2C%20Tokyo", "Edward%20and%20Henry%20Schnell", "Aizu", "Eug%C3%A8ne%20Collache", "French%20Navy", "Boshin%20War", "Jules%20Brunet", "Boshin%20War", "Ernest%20Mason%20Satow", "scholar", "diplomat", "Japanologist", "Hendrick%20Hamel", "Joseon", "Korea", "Yasuke", "retainer%20%28medieval%29", "Oda%20Nobunaga", "List%20of%20foreign-born%20samurai%20in%20Japan", "List%20of%20Westerners%20who%20visited%20Japan%20before%201868", "Richard%20Hildreth", "John%20Harris%20%28writer%29", 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{ "description": "English navigator who travelled to Japan", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q313866", "wikidata_label": "William Adams", "wikipedia_title": "William Adams (sailor, born 1564)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Anjin-sama", "Anjin Miura" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Astronomical object\n", "An astronomical object or celestial object is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms \"object\" and \"body\" are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial \"object\" is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures.\n", "Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified as both body and object: It is a \"body\" when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an \"object\" when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail.\n", "Section::::Galaxy and larger.\n", "The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy. Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe.\n", "The universe has a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters.\n", "Section::::Within a galaxy.\n", "The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surrounds newly formed stars.\n", "The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then its physical properties can cause it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.\n", "Section::::Categories by location.\n", "The table below lists the general categories of bodies and objects by their location or structure.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of light sources\n", "BULLET::::- List of Solar System objects\n", "BULLET::::- List of Solar System objects by size\n", "BULLET::::- Lists of astronomical objects\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Monthly skymaps for every location on Earth\n" ] }

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{ "description": "physical body of astronomically-significant size, mass, or role, naturally occurring in a universe", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q6999", "wikidata_label": "astronomical object", "wikipedia_title": "Astronomical object", "aliases": { "alias": [ "celestial body", "celestial object", "astronomical body" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Emanationism\n", "Emanationism is an idea in the cosmology or cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems. Emanation, from the Latin \"emanare\" meaning \"to flow from\" or \"to pour forth or out of\", is the mode by which all things are derived from the first reality, or principle. All things are derived from the first reality or perfect God by steps of degradation to lesser degrees of the first reality or God, and at every step the emanating beings are less pure, less perfect, less divine. Emanationism is a transcendent principle from which everything is derived, and is opposed to both creationism (wherein the universe is created by a sentient God who is separate from creation) and materialism (which posits no underlying subjective and/or ontological nature behind phenomena being immanent).\n", "Section::::Origins.\n", "Emanationism is a cosmological theory which asserts that all things \"flow\" from an underlying principle or reality, usually called the Absolute or Godhead. Any teachings which involve emanation are usually in opposition to creation ex nihilo as emanation advocates that everything has always existed and has not been \"created\" from nothing.\n", "Kleinham (2007) writes:\n", "Underlying the worldview of traditional cosmology is the idea that the universe is an emanation of a unitary divine principle. Although this idea has been blended with the revealed creationist doctrines of the major monotheistic religions, orthodox theologians have generally regarded it with suspicion. They have relegated it to the shadowy spheres of mysticism, pantheism, and the occult, which have always been at odds with orthodoxy. The traditional view is summed in the doctrine of emanation formulated by Plotinus.\n", "The primary classical exponent of emanationism was the Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus, wherein his work, the \"Enneads\", all things phenomenal and otherwise were an emanation ( \"aporrhoe\" (Ennead ΙΙ.3.2) or ἀπόρροια \"aporrhoia\" (II.3.11)) from the One (ἕν, \"hen\"). In 5.1.6, emanationism is compared to a diffusion from the One, of which there are three primary hypostases, the One, the Intellect (νοῦς, \"nous\"), and the Soul (ψυχή, \"psyche\"). \n", "Another advocate of emanationism was Michael Servetus, who was burned at the stake for his nontrinitarian cosmology.\n", "Section::::Occultism.\n", "Emanationism is a common teaching found in occult and esoteric writings. According to Owen (2005):\n", "Theosophy draws on Neoplatonic emanationism, in particular the concept of separation from and return to the Absolute, and reworks the Eastern concepts of karma and reincarnation to provide an evolutionary theory of both humankind and the universe.\n", "Theosophy teaches that human beings and all organisms including animals and all matter \"flow\" from a pure spiritual formation in the absolute to a material one over time to become materialised but later will return to the absolute after the cosmic cycle of life.\n", "As Morgan summarises: \"The Secret Doctrine laid out an emanationist view of the development of the physical universe, a process of ebb and flow in which spirit gradually unfolded itself in matter, attaining consciousness, and returning to spirit in a higher and more realised form.\" According to the emanationist cosmology of Madame Blavatsky all monads emerge from divine unity at the beginning of a cosmic cycle and return to this source at its close.\n", "Blavatsky in her book \"The Key to Theosophy\" (1889) wrote that: \"We believe in a universal divine principle, the root of all, from which all proceeds, and within which all shall be at the end of the great cycle of being.\"\n", "Samael Aun Weor had taught emanationism from his studies with the Kabbalah and Gnosticism. He mapped out a complex esoteric cosmology with matter flowing from different planes of existence all existing in the absolute. As Dawson (2007) comments: \n", "As with esoteric thought in general, Weor holds that the universe originated in the ordering activity of the absolute upon chaotic primordial matter, giving rise to (emanating) the subsequent planes of the created order (Pleroma).\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Anathem\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion\"\n", "BULLET::::- Panentheism\n", "BULLET::::- Aeon (Gnosticism)\n", "BULLET::::- Emanation in the Eastern Orthodox Church\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Neoplatonism and Emanationism Many articles on Emanationism\n", "BULLET::::- Emanation and Ascent in Hermetic Kabbalah 1.4 Mbyte PDF - Colin Low 2004. Presentation and notes on emanation and the roots of Hermetic Kabbalah\n", "BULLET::::- Emanationism\n", "BULLET::::- Enneads\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Morris Motors\n", "Morris Motors Limited was a British privately owned motor vehicle manufacturing company formed in 1919 to take over the assets of William Morris's WRM Motors Limited and continue production of the same vehicles. By 1926 its production represented 42 per cent of British car manufacture—a remarkable expansion rate attributed to William Morris's practice of buying in major as well as minor components and assembling them in his own factory. Self-financing through his enormous profits Morris did borrow some money from the public in 1926 and later shared some of Morris Motors' ownership with the public in 1936 when the new capital was used by Morris Motors to buy many of his other privately held businesses.\n", "Though it merged into larger organisations in 1952, the Morris name remained in use until 1984, when British Leyland's Austin Rover Group decided to concentrate on the more popular Austin brand.\n", "Until 2014 Morris Oxford vehicles (based on the 1954-59 Oxford) were manufactured with periodic enhancements in India by Hindustan Motors.\n", "Part of Morris's manufacturing complex at Cowley, Oxford is now BMW Group's Plant Oxford, factory of the MINI marque.\n", "The Morris trademark is currently owned by the China-based automotive company SAIC after being transferred from bankrupt subsidiary Nanjing Automotive.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "WRM Motors Ltd began in 1912 when bicycle manufacturer William Morris moved on from the sale, hire, and repair of cars to car manufacturing. He planned a new light car assembled from bought-in components. In this way he was able to retain ownership by keeping within the bounds of his own capital resources.\n", "A factory was opened in 1913 at former Oxford Military College at Cowley, Oxford, United Kingdom where Morris's first car, the 2-seat Morris Oxford \"Bullnose\" was assembled. Nearly all the major components were bought in.\n", "In 1914 a coupé and van were added to the line-up, but the Bullnose chassis was too short and the 1018 cc engine too small to make a much-needed 4-seat version of the car. White and Poppe, who made the engine, were unable to supply the volume of units that Morris required, so Morris turned to Continental of Detroit, Michigan for the supply of a 1548 cc engine. Gearboxes and axles were also sourced in the US.\n", "In spite of the outbreak of the First World War the orders were maintained and, from mid-1915 a new larger car, the 2-seat and 4-seat Morris Cowley was introduced.\n", "Section::::History.:Inter-war years.\n", "After the war the Continental engine was no longer available so Morris arranged for Hotchkiss of France to make a near copy in their Coventry factory. This was used to power new versions of the basic Cowley and more up-market Morris Oxford cars.\n", "With a reputation for producing high-quality cars and a policy of cutting prices, Morris's business continued to grow and increase its share of the British market overtaking Ford to become in 1924 the UK's biggest car manufacturer, holding a 51% share of the home market and remaining enormously profitable.\n", "Possessed of a very large cash income Morris had a policy of personally buying up suppliers' businesses. For example, in 1923 he bought Hotchkiss's Coventry business which later became Morris Engines branch. He also brought in F G Woollard which became Morris Commercial Cars to lead the re-organization of their engine production from batch to flow, thus increasing output from less than 300 units per week to 1200. By 1924 the factory was making 2000 units a week with only a small increase in work space and labour force.\n", "Cecil Kimber, head of Morris's own original 1909-founded Morris Garage sales hire and repair operation in Oxford, began building sporting versions of Morris cars in 1924 labelling them MG. They were so successful a separate MG factory was soon established south of Oxford in Abingdon, Oxfordshire.\n", "Having admired Budd's all-steel bodies Morris founded The Pressed Steel Company of Great Britain Limited in 1926 as a joint venture with Edward G Budd Manufacturing Company - Budd International of Philadelphia, USA. Pressed Steel's factory was located over the road from Morris's factory at Cowley and supplied Morris and many other motor manufacturers. Morris withdrew from the venture in mid-1930. Budd sold their share to British interests at the beginning of 1936.\n", "The small car market was entered in 1928 with the Leonard Lord-designed Morris Minor, using an 847 cc engine from Morris's newly acquired Wolseley Motors. Lord had been sent there to modernise the works and Wolseley's products. The Minor was to provide the base for the MG Midgets. This timely spread into the small car market helped Morris through the economic depression of the 1930s. At the 1934 London Motor Show the Minor was replaced by the Morris Eight, a direct response to the Ford Model Y and, though Leonard Lord's handiwork, heavily based on it.\n", "In 1932 W R Morris appointed Lord Managing Director of Morris Motors Limited and Lord swept through the Morris works, updating the production methods, introducing a proper moving assembly line and creating Europe's largest integrated car plant. But Morris and Lord fell out, and after 15 years Lord left in 1936—threatening to \"take Cowley apart brick by brick\". Lord moved to Austin and they were to meet again in BMC—Morris, as Lord Nuffield, its first chairman. Lord succeeded him.\n", "As of 1 July 1935 Morris Motors acquired from W R Morris, now Lord Nuffield, in exchange for a further issue of ordinary shares to him, the car manufacturing businesses of Wolseley Motors Limited and The MG Car Company Limited. A separate private company, Wolseley Aero Engines Limited, was then formed to continue the development of his aviation interests. In 1936 Lord Nuffield sold Morris Commercial Cars Limited, his commercial vehicle enterprise, to Morris Motors.\n", "BULLET::::- Car production in Britain 1919-1938 (per cent)\n", "In 1938 William Morris, Baron Nuffield was raised to Viscount Nuffield. The same year he transferred his newly acquired Riley car business to Morris Motors Limited for £100.\n", "Section::::History.:Iron Lung.\n", "Visiting London in 1938 during a polio epidemic Lord Nuffield saw a Both Iron Lung in use. He commissioned an improved design which could be produced using the techniques of car assembly and arranged production of approximately 1700 machines at the Cowley works, which he donated to hospitals throughout all parts of Britain and the British Empire.\n", "Both-Nuffield respirators were able to be produced by the thousand at about one-thirteenth the cost of the American design.\n", "Section::::Significant subsidiaries.\n", "Section::::Significant subsidiaries.:Second World War.\n", "In the summer of 1938 Morris agreed to build equip and manage at government expense a huge new factory at Castle Bromwich specifically to manufacture Supermarine Spitfires. Nuffield's management failed, no Spitfires were delivered and from 1941 the plant had to be run by Vickers. After a major air raid damaged the Morris Bodies factory, the premises switched to the production of jerry cans, producing millions of these versatile containers for use during the rest of the war and following the ending of hostilities. The Cowley plant was turned over to aircraft repair and production of Tiger Moth pilot trainers, as well as \"mine sinkers\" based on a design produced at the same plant during the First World War.\n", "Section::::Significant subsidiaries.:Post-Second World War production.\n", "Production restarted after the Second World War, with the pre-war Eight and Ten designs. In 1948 the Eight was replaced by what is probably the most famous Morris car, the Morris Minor designed by Alec Issigonis (who later went on to design the Mini) and reusing the small car name from 1928. The Ten was replaced by a new 1948 Morris Oxford MO, styled like a larger version of the Minor. A later Morris Oxford (the 1956 Morris Oxford III) was the basis for the design of India's Hindustan Ambassador, which continued in production until 2014.\n", "They used six engines and five (and a half) car bodies, of which the \"specialist\" three were obsolescent, the rest very closely related if not identical.\n", "Section::::Significant subsidiaries.:BMC.\n", "In 1952 the Nuffield Organisation merged with its old rival the Austin Motor Company to form the British Motor Corporation (BMC). Nuffield brought the Morris, MG, Riley and Wolseley marques into the merger. Leonard Lord was in charge, which led to Austin's domination of the organisation. Badge-engineering was important to BMC and for many years the various marques would be seen on several families of similar vehicles.\n", "Section::::Significant subsidiaries.:British Leyland.\n", "In 1966, BMC acquired Jaguar to create British Motor Holdings (BMH), which subsequently merged with Leyland Motors in 1968 to form the British Leyland Motor Corporation (BLMC), and subsequently, in 1975, the nationalised British Leyland Limited (BL). The Cowley complex remained the second largest single facility in the BL empire (after Longbridge), but BL's history was a turbulent one – BMC was close to financial ruin, and the newly installed Leyland management failed to turn its fortunes around.\n", "With the replacement for the Morris Marina and Leyland Princess being delayed into the 1980s, the Marina was restyled in 1980 to become the Morris Ital, while the Princess was restyled for 1982 to become the Austin Ambassador. British Leyland later confirmed that the Morris brand would be discontinued on the all-new replacement for these two cars, which was finally launched in April 1984 as the Austin Montego. \n", "The Morris Ital (essentially a facelifted Marina) was the last Morris-badged passenger car, with production ending in the summer of 1984. The last \"Morris\" of all was a van variant of the Austin Metro, before the Morris brand was finally completely abandoned in 1987.\n", "After much restructuring of BL in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the former Morris plant at Cowley and its sister site the former Pressed Steel plant were turned over to the production of Austin and Rover-badged vehicles. They continued to be used by BL's Austin Rover Group and its successor the Rover Group, which was eventually bought by BMW, and then by a management consortium, leading to the creation of MG Rover.\n", "None of the former Morris buildings now exist. British Aerospace sold the site in 1992; it was then demolished and replaced with the Oxford Business Park. The adjacent former Pressed Steel site (now known as Plant Oxford) is owned and operated by BMW, who use it to assemble the new MINI.\n", "The rights to the \"Morris\" marque are currently owned by Nanjing Automobile (Group) Corporation.\n", "The history of William Morris's business is commemorated in the Morris Motors Museum at the Oxford Bus Museum.\n", "Post-Morris cars to have been built at Cowley include the Austin/MG Maestro, Austin/MG Montego, Rover 600, Rover 800 and (for a short time) the Rover 75.\n", "Section::::Badge.\n", "The Morris badge shows an ox fording the River Isis, the traditional emblem of William Morris's home town of Oxford, used in the coat of arms of Oxford.\n", "Section::::Car models (excludes light vans).\n", "BULLET::::- 1913–1926 - Morris Oxford bullnose (12 or 14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1915–1931 - Morris Cowley \"bullnose and flatnose\" (12 or 14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1923–1924 - Morris Oxford Six F series (18 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926–1930 - Morris Oxford flatnose (12 or 14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1926–1929 - Morris Oxford 15.9 and 16/40 (16 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1927–1929 - Morris Six (18 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1929–1935 - Morris Isis (18 or 25 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1928–1932 - Morris Minor (8 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1929–1935 - Morris Oxford Six, Sixteen and Twenty (16 or 20 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1931–1934 - Morris Cowley (12 or 14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1931–1933 - Morris Major (15 hp then 14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1932–1948 - Morris Ten (10 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1933–1935 - Morris Ten Six (12 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1933–1935 - Morris Cowley Six (14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1933–1939 - Morris \"Big Six\" Sixteen, Eighteen, Twenty-One, and Twenty-Five\n", "BULLET::::- 1934–1939 - Morris Twelve (12 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1935–1939 - Morris Fourteen (14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1935–1948 - Morris Eight (8 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1948–1952 - Morris Minor MM (8 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1952–1956 - Morris Minor\n", "BULLET::::- 1956–1971 - Morris Minor 1000\n", "BULLET::::- 1948–1954 - Morris Oxford MO (14 hp)\n", "BULLET::::- 1948–1953 - Morris Six MS\n", "BULLET::::- 1954–1956 - Morris Oxford Series II\n", "BULLET::::- 1954–1959 - Morris Cowley\n", "BULLET::::- 1955–1958 - Morris Isis\n", "BULLET::::- 1956–1959 - Morris Oxford Series III\n", "BULLET::::- 1957–1960 - Morris Marshal (BMC Australia)\n", "BULLET::::- 1958–1964 - Morris Major (BMC Australia)\n", "BULLET::::- 1959–1971 - Morris Oxford Farina\n", "BULLET::::- 1959–1969 - Morris Mini Minor\n", "BULLET::::- 1964–1968 - Morris Mini Moke (United Kingdom)\n", "BULLET::::- 1966–1973 - Morris Mini Moke (Australia)\n", "BULLET::::- 1962–1971 - Morris 1100\n", "BULLET::::- 1967–1971 - Morris 1300\n", "BULLET::::- 1968–???? - Morris 11/55 (South African market variant of Morris 1100)\n", "BULLET::::- 1969–1972 - Morris 1500 (Australia)\n", "BULLET::::- 1966–1975 - Morris 1800\n", "BULLET::::- 1972–1975 - Morris 2200\n", "BULLET::::- 1969–1972 - Morris Nomad (Australia)\n", "BULLET::::- 1971–1980 - Morris Marina\n", "BULLET::::- 1980–1984 - Morris Ital\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- MG\n", "BULLET::::- List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Catalogue of the Morris Motors archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 206506, "parentid": 906738018, "revid": 906738475, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-17T21:57:22Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morris%20Motors&oldid=906738475" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Rule by decree\n", "Rule by decree is a style of governance allowing quick, unchallenged creation of law by a single person or group, and is used primarily by dictators, absolute monarchs and military leaders.\n", "The expression is also sometimes used when describing actions of democratic governments that are perceived to unduly bypass parliamentarian or popular scrutiny.\n", "Rule by decree allows the ruler to arbitrarily create law, without approval by a legislative assembly.\n", "When a state of emergency, such as martial law, is in place, rule by decree is common. While rule by decree is easily susceptible to the whims and corruption of the person in power, it is also highly efficient: a law can take weeks or months to pass in a legislature, but can be created with the stroke of a pen by a leader ruling by decree. This is what makes it valuable in emergency situations. Thus, it is allowed by many constitutions, including the French, Argentine and Indian constitutions.\n", "Section::::Lex Titia and Second Triumvirate.\n", "One of the first examples of rule by decree was in the ancient Roman Republic when, after the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, his successor, Gaius Octavian (Augustus), general Mark Antony and succeeding pontifex maximus Aemilius Lepidus seized power in the Second Triumvirate, officially recognized by the senate by the Lex Titia decree. The resolution, which gave the three 'triumvirs' authoritarian powers for five years, was enacted and reinstated consecutive in 38 BC. It finally collapsed in 33/32 BC, after the downfall of Lepidus, leading to the Final war of the Roman Republic and the total collapse of republican government.\n", "Section::::Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February 1933.\n", "The most prominent example in history is the Reichstag Fire Decree. German President Paul von Hindenburg was convinced by Adolf Hitler to issue a decree suspending basic civil rights indefinitely. As a result of this decree, Nazi authorities were able to constitutionally suppress or imprison their opposition, which in turn paved the way for the one-party rule of the Third Reich. The ensuing state of exception, which suspended the Constitution without repealing it, lasted until the end of the Third Reich in 1945.\n", "Section::::Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes.\n", "Some democratic leaders, such as the presidents of Mexico, France and Argentina may rule by decree in national emergencies, subject to constitutional and other legal limitations. In the case of France this power has been used only once, by Charles de Gaulle in 1961 during the Algerian War.\n", "Other modern political concepts, such as the French decrees, Orders in Council in the British Commonwealth and American executive orders are partially based on this notion of decrees, although they are far more limited in scope and generally subject to judicial review.\n", "Section::::Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes.:India.\n", "During the Indian Emergency from 1975 to 1977, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had laws passed that allowed her to rule by decree.\n", "Section::::Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes.:Ireland.\n", "Ireland's Emergency Powers Act allows the government to rule by decrees called \"Emergency Powers Orders\" in any aspect of national life, if the parliament invokes the emergency clause in Article 28(3) of the Constitution. The Act however allows the lower house to void specific EPOs in a free vote or end the state of emergency at any time.\n", "Section::::Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes.:Russia.\n", "From 23 September (given actual effect from 4 October after the armed disbanding of the Supreme Soviet) to 12 December 1993, rule by decree (ukase) was imposed in Russia by President Boris Yeltsin, during transition from the Russian Constitution of 1978 (which was modelled after the obsolete Soviet Constitution of 1977) to the current 1993 Constitution.\n", "Section::::Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes.:Venezuela.\n", "Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez was granted executive power by the National Assembly to rule by decree multiple times throughout his tenure, passing hundreds of laws. Chávez ruled Venezuela by decree in 2000, 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011 and 2012. Between 2004 and 2006 alone, Chávez declared 18 \"emergencies\" to rule by decree.\n", "Chávez's successor, Nicolás Maduro, has also ruled by decree multiple times since he was elected in April 2013. President Maduro has ruled Venezuela by decree for the majority of the period from 19 November 2013 through 2018.\n", "Section::::Giorgio Agamben's critique of the use of decrees-law.\n", "Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben has claimed that there has been an explosion in the use of various types of decrees (decree-law, presidential decrees, executive orders, etc.) since World War I. According to him, this is the sign of a \"generalization of the state of exception\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Enabling act\n", "BULLET::::- The Emergency (India)\n", "BULLET::::- Carlos Ibáñez del Campo's rule in Chile during the Presidential Republic era\n", "BULLET::::- Executive order\n", "BULLET::::- State of Emergency\n", "BULLET::::- Decree\n", "BULLET::::- Dictatorship\n", "BULLET::::- Article 48 of the 1919 constitution of Germany (the Weimar Constitution)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mexican cuisine\n", "Mexican cuisine began about 9000 years ago, when agricultural communities such as the Maya formed, domesticating maize, creating the standard process of corn nixtamalization, and establishing their foodways. Successive waves of other Mesoamerican groups brought with them their own cooking methods. These included the Olmec, Teotihuacanos, Toltec, Huastec, Zapotec, Mixtec, Otomi, Purépecha, Totonac, Mazatec, and Mazahua. \n", "The Mexica establishment of the Aztec Empire created a multi-ethnic society where many different foodways became infused. The staples are native foods, such as corn (maize), beans, squash, amaranth, chia, avocados, tomatoes, tomatillos, cacao, vanilla, agave, turkey, spirulina, sweet potato, cactus, and chili pepper. \n", "After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century, Europeans introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals (beef, pork, chicken, goat, and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese and milk), and rice. While the Spanish initially tried to impose their own diet on the country, this was not possible.\n", "African and Asian influences were also introduced into the indigenous cuisine during this era as a result of African slavery in New Spain and the Manila-Acapulco Galleons.\n", "Over the centuries, this resulted in regional cuisines based on local conditions, such as those in Oaxaca, Veracruz and the Yucatán Peninsula. Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure and popular traditions of Mexico. The most important example of this connection is the use of mole for special occasions and holidays, particularly in the South and Central regions of the country. For this reason and others, traditional Mexican cuisine was inscribed in 2010 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.\n", "Section::::Basic elements.\n", "Mexican cuisine is as complex as other ancient cuisines, such as those of India, China and Japan, with techniques and skills developed over thousands of years of history. It is created mostly with ingredients native to Mexico, as well as those brought over by the Spanish conquistadors, with some new influences since then. Mexican cuisine has been influenced by its proximity to the US-Mexican border. For example, burritos were thought to have been invented for easier transportation of beans by wrapping them in tortillas for field labor. Modifications like these brought Mexican cuisine to the United States, where states like Arizona further adapted burritos by deep frying them, creating the modern chimichanga\n", "In addition to staples, such as corn and chile peppers, native ingredients include tomatoes, squashes, avocados, cocoa and vanilla, as well as ingredients not generally used in other cuisines, such as edible flowers, vegetables like huauzontle and papaloquelite, or small criollo avocados, whose skin is edible.\n", "Vegetables play an important role in Mexican cuisine. Common vegetables include zucchini, cauliflower, corn, potatoes, spinach, Swiss chard, mushrooms, jitomate (red tomato), green tomato, etc. Other traditional vegetable ingredients include chiles, huitlacoche (corn fungus), huauzontle, and nopal (cactus leaves) to name a few.\n", "European contributions include pork, chicken, beef, cheese, herbs and spices, as well as some fruits.\n", "Tropical fruits, many of which are indigenous to Mexico and the Americas, such as guava, prickly pear, sapote, mangoes, bananas, pineapple and cherimoya (custard apple) are popular, especially in the center and south of the country.\n", "Section::::Basic elements.:Corn.\n", "Despite the introduction of wheat and rice to Mexico, the basic starch remains corn in almost all areas of the country and is the base of many recipes (e.g. corn tortillas, atole, pozol, menudo, tamal). While it is eaten fresh, most corn is dried, nixtamalized and ground into a dough called \"masa\". This dough is used both fresh and fermented to make a wide variety of dishes from drinks (atole, pozol, etc.) to tamales, sopes, and much more. However, the most common way to eat corn in Mexico is in the form of a tortilla, which accompanies almost every dish. Tortillas are made of corn in most of the country, but other versions exist, such as wheat in the north or plantain, yuca and wild greens in Oaxaca.\n", "Section::::Basic elements.:Chili peppers.\n", "The other basic ingredient in all parts of Mexico is the chile pepper. Mexican food has a reputation for being very spicy, but it has a wide range of flavors and while many spices are used for cooking, not all are spicy. Many dishes also have subtle flavors. Chiles are indigenous to Mexico and their use dates back thousands of years. They are used for their flavors and not just their heat, with Mexico using the widest variety. If a savory dish or snack does not contain chile pepper, hot sauce is usually added, and chile pepper is often added to fresh fruit and sweets.\n", "The importance of the chile goes back to the Mesoamerican period, where it was considered to be as much of a staple as corn and beans. In the 16th century, Bartolomé de las Casas wrote that without chiles, the indigenous people did not think they were eating. Even today, most Mexicans believe that their national identity would be at a loss without chiles and the many varieties of sauces and salsas created using chiles as their base.\n", "Many dishes in Mexico are defined by their sauces and the chiles those sauces contain (which are usually very spicy), rather than the meat or vegetable that the sauce covers. These dishes include entomatada (in tomato sauce), adobo or adobados, pipians and moles. A hominy soup called pozole is defined as white, green or red depending on the chile sauce used or omitted. Tamales are differentiated by the filling which is again defined by the sauce (red or green chile pepper strips or mole). Dishes without a sauce are rarely eaten without a salsa or without fresh or pickled chiles. This includes street foods, such as tacos, tortas, soup, sopes, tlacoyos, tlayudas, gorditas and sincronizadas. For most dishes, it is the type of chile used that gives it its main flavor.\n", "Section::::Basic elements.:Spanish contributions.\n", "Some of the main contributions of the Spanish were several kind of meat, dairy products and wheat to name few, as the Mesoamerican diet contained very little meat besides domesticated turkey, and dairy products were absent. The Spanish also introduced the technique of frying in pork fat. Today, the main meats found in Mexico are pork, chicken, beef, goat, and sheep. Native seafood and fish remains popular, especially along the coasts.\n", "Cheesemaking in Mexico has evolved its own specialties. It is an important economic activity, especially in the north, and is frequently done at home. The main cheese making areas are Chihuahua, Oaxaca, Querétaro, and Chiapas. Goat cheese is still made, but it is not as popular and is harder to find in stores.\n", "Section::::Food and society.\n", "Section::::Food and society.:Home cooking.\n", "In most of Mexico, especially in rural areas, much of the food is consumed in the home with the most traditional Mexican cooking done domestically based on local ingredients. Cooking for the family is usually considered to be women’s work, and this includes cooking for celebrations as well. Traditionally girls have been considered ready to marry when they can cook, and cooking is considered a main talent for housewives.\n", "The main meal of the day in Mexico is the \"comida\", meaning 'meal' in Spanish. This refers to dinner or supper. It sometimes begins with soup, often chicken broth with pasta or a \"dry soup\", which is pasta or rice flavored with onions, garlic or vegetables. The main course is meat served in a cooked sauce with salsa on the side, accompanied with beans and tortillas and often with a fruit drink.\n", "In the evening, it is common to eat leftovers from the comida or sweet bread accompanied by coffee or chocolate. Breakfast can consist of meat in broth (such as pancita), tacos, enchiladas or meat with eggs. This is usually served with beans, tortillas, and coffee or juice.\n", "Section::::Food and society.:Food and festivals.\n", "Mexican cuisine is elaborate and often tied to symbolism and festivals, one reason it was named as an example of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Many of the foods of Mexico are complicated because of their relation to the social structure of the country. Food preparation, especially for family and social events, is considered to be an investment in order to maintain social relationships. Even the idea of flavor is considered to be social, with meals prepared for certain dinners and certain occasions when they are considered the most tasty.\n", "The ability to cook well, called \"sazón\" (lit. seasoning) is considered to be a gift generally gained from experience and a sense of commitment to the diners. For the Day of the Dead festival, foods such as tamales and mole are set out on altars and it is believed that the visiting dead relatives eat the essence of the food. If eaten afterwards by the living it is considered to be tasteless. In central Mexico, the main festival foods are mole, barbacoa, carnitas and mixiotes. They are often prepared to feed hundreds of guests, requiring groups of cooks. The cooking is part of the social custom meant to bind families and communities.\n", "Mexican regional home cooking is completely different from the food served in most Mexican restaurants outside Mexico, which is usually some variety of Tex-Mex. Some of Mexico’s traditional foods involved complex or long cooking processes. Before industrialization, traditional women spent several hours a day boiling dried corn then grinding it on a metate to make the dough for tortillas, cooking them one-by-one on a comal griddle. In some areas, tortillas are still made this way. Sauces and salsas were also ground in a mortar called a molcajete. Today, blenders are more often used, though the texture is a bit different. Most people in Mexico would say that those made with a molcajete taste better, but few do this now.\n", "The most important food for festivals and other special occasions is mole, especially mole poblano in the center of the country. Mole is served at Christmas, Easter, Day of the Dead and at birthdays, baptisms, weddings and funerals, and tends to be eaten only for special occasions because it is such a complex and time-consuming dish. While still dominant in this way, other foods have become acceptable for these occasions, such as barbacoa, carnitas and mixiotes, especially since the 1980s. This may have been because of economic crises at that time, allowing for the substitution of these cheaper foods, or the fact that they can be bought ready-made or may already be made as part of the family business.\n", "Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as \"tamal\" in Spanish. This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico. It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico. Like mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts. Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas. They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics.\n", "Section::::Food and society.:Street food.\n", "Mexican street food is one of the most varied parts of the cuisine. It can include tacos, quesadillas, pambazos, tamales, huaraches, alambres, al pastor, and food not suitable to cook at home, including barbacoa, carnitas, and since many homes in Mexico do not have or make use of ovens, roasted chicken. One attraction of street food in Mexico is the satisfaction of hunger or craving without all the social and emotional connotation of eating at home, although longtime customers can have something of a friendship/familial relationship with a chosen vendor.\n", "The best known of Mexico's street foods is the taco, whose origin is based on the pre-Hispanic custom of picking up other foods with tortillas as utensils were not used. The origin of the word is in dispute, with some saying it is derived from Nahuatl and others from various Spanish phrases. Tacos are not eaten as the main meal; they are generally eaten before midday or late in the evening. Just about any other foodstuff can be wrapped in a tortilla, and in Mexico, it varies from rice, to meat (plain or in sauce), to cream, to vegetables, to cheese, or simply with plain chile peppers or fresh salsa. Preferred fillings vary from region to region with pork generally found more often in the center and south, beef in the north, seafood along the coasts, and chicken and lamb in most of the country.\n", "Another popular street food, especially in Mexico City and the surrounding area is the torta. It consists of a roll of some type, stuffed with several ingredients. This has its origins in the 19th century, when the French introduced a number of new kinds of bread. The torta began by splitting the roll and adding beans. Today, refried beans can still be found on many kinds of tortas. In Mexico City, the most common roll used for tortas is called \"telera\", a relatively flat roll with two splits on the upper surface. In Puebla, the preferred bread is called a cemita, as is the sandwich. In both areas, the bread is stuffed with various fillings, especially if it is a hot sandwich, with beans, cream (mayonnaise is rare) and some kind of hot chile pepper.\n", "The influence of American fast food on Mexican street food grew during the late 20th century. One example of this is the craving of the hot dog, but prepared Sonoran style. They are usually boiled then wrapped in bacon and fried together. They are served in the usual bun, but the condiments are typically a combination of diced tomatoes, onions and jalapeño peppers.\n", "Along the US-Mexican border, specifically dense areas like Tijuana, Mexican vendors sell their food like fruit melanged with Tajin spice to people crossing the border via carts. In recent years, these food carts have been threatened by tightened border security at the Port of Entry. Both US and Mexican governments have proposed a project that would widen the streets of the border, allowing for more people to pass through the border. Widening the border would decimate neighboring mercados that rely on the business of travelers.\n", "Besides food, street vendors also sell various kinds of drinks (including aguas frescas, tejuino, and tepache) and treats (such as bionicos, tostilocos, and raspados). Most tamale stands will sell atole as a standard accompaniment.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Pre-Hispanic period.\n", "Around 7000 BCE, the indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America hunted game and gathered plants, including wild chile peppers. Corn was not yet cultivated, so one main source of calories was roasted agave hearts. By 1200 BCE, corn was domesticated and a process called nixtamalization, or treatment with lye, was developed to soften corn for grinding and improve its nutritional value. This allowed the creation of tortillas and other kinds of flat breads. The indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica had numerous stories about the origin of corn, usually related to being a gift of one or more gods, such as Quetzalcoatl.\n", "The other staple was beans, eaten with corn and some other plants as a complimentary protein. Despite this, studies of bones have shown problems with the lack of protein in the indigenous diet , as meat was difficult to obtain. Other protein sources included amaranth, domesticated turkey, insects such as grasshoppers, beetles and ant larvae, iguanas, and turtle eggs on the coastlines. Vegetables included squash and their seeds; chilacayote; jicama, a kind of sweet potato; and edible flowers, especially those of squash. The chile pepper was used as food, ritual and as medicine.\n", "When the Spanish arrived, the Aztecs had sophisticated agricultural techniques and an abundance of food, which was the base of their economy. It allowed them to expand an empire, bringing in tribute which consisted mostly of foods the Aztecs could not grow themselves. According to Bernardino de Sahagún, the Nahua peoples of central Mexico ate corn, beans, turkey, fish, small game, insects and a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, pulses, seeds, tubers, wild mushrooms, plants and herbs that they collected or cultivated.\n", "Section::::History.:Post-conquest.\n", "Mexican educator Justo Sierra said that \"the grocer, not the conquistador, is the real Spanish father of Mexican society.\"\n", "After the Conquest, the Spanish introduced a variety of foodstuffs and cooking techniques from Europe. Spanish cooking at that time was already a mixture of ingredients because of eight centuries of Arab influence. The original aim of the introduction was to reproduce their home cuisine, but over time it was incorporated with native ingredients and cooking techniques. Introduced foods included olive oil, rice, onions, garlic, oregano, coriander, cinnamon, cloves, and many other herbs and spices. More importantly, they introduced domesticated animals, such as pigs, cows, chickens, goats and sheep for meat and milk, raising the consumption of protein. Cheese became the most important dairy product. The most important cooking technique introduced by the Spanish was frying.\n", "Despite the domination of Spanish culture, Mexican cuisine has maintained its base of corn, beans and chile peppers. One reason for this was the overwhelming population of indigenous people in the earlier colonial period, and the fact that many ingredients for Spanish cooking were not available or very expensive in Mexico. One of the main avenues for the mixing of the two cuisines was in convents.\n", "For example, the Spanish brought rice to Mexico and it has since grown well in Veracruz. New World tomatoes eventually replaced the use of expensive Spanish saffron, as well as other local ingredients. Sugar cane was brought to the country and grew as well, leading to the creation of many kinds of sweets, especially local fruits in syrup. A sugar-based candy craft called alfeñique was adapted, but often with indigenous themes, especially today for Day of the Dead.\n", "During the 19th century, Mexico experienced an influx of various immigrants, including French, Lebanese, German, Chinese and Italian, which have had some effect on the food. During the French intervention in Mexico, French food became popular with the upper classes. An influence on these new trends came from chef Tudor, who was brought to Mexico by the Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. One lasting evidence of this is the variety of breads and sweet breads, such as bolillos, conchas and much more, which can be found in Mexican bakeries. The Germans brought beer brewing techniques and the Chinese added their cuisine to certain areas of the country. This led to Mexico characterizing its cuisine more by its relation to popular traditions rather than on particular cooking techniques.\n", "Since the 20th century, there have been an interchange of food influences between Mexico and the United States. Mexican cooking was of course still practiced in what is now the Southwest United States after the Mexican–American War, but Diana Kennedy, in her book \"The Cuisines of Mexico\" (published in 1972), drew a sharp distinction between Mexican food and Tex-Mex.\n", "Tex-Mex food was developed from Mexican and Anglo influences, and was traced to the late 19th century in Texas. It still continues to develop with flour tortillas becoming popular north of the border only in the latter 20th century. From north to south, much of the influence has been related to food industrialization, as well as the greater availability overall of food, especially after the Mexican Revolution. One other very visible sign of influence from the United States is the appearance of fast foods, such as hamburgers, hot dogs and pizza.\n", "In the latter 20th century, international influence in Mexico has led to interest and development of haute cuisine. In Mexico, many professional chefs are trained in French or international cuisine, but the use of Mexican staples and flavors is still favored, including the simple foods of traditional markets. It is not unusual to see some quesadillas or small tacos among the other hors d'oeuvres at fancy dinner parties in Mexico.\n", "Professional cookery in Mexico is growing and includes an emphasis upon traditional methods and ingredients. In the cities, there is interest in publishing and preserving what is authentic Mexican food. This movement is traceable to 1982 with the Mexican Culinary Circle of Mexico City. It was created by a group of women chefs and other culinary experts as a reaction to the fear of traditions being lost with the increasing introduction of foreign techniques and foods. In 2010, Mexico’s cuisine was recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.\n", "Section::::Beverages.\n", "Corn in Mexico is not only eaten, but also drunk as a beverage. Corn is the base of a hot drink called atole, which is then flavored with fruit, chocolate, rice or other flavors. Fermented corn is the base of a cold drink, which goes by different names and varieties, such as tejuino, pozol and others. Aguas frescas are flavored drinks usually made from fruit, water and sugar. Beverages also include hibiscus iced tea, one made from tamarind and one from rice called \"horchata\". One variant of coffee is café de olla, which is coffee brewed with cinnamon and raw sugar. Many of the most popular beverages can be found sold by street vendors and juice bars in Mexico.\n", "Chocolate played an important part in the history of Mexican cuisine. The word \"chocolate\" originated from Mexico's Aztec cuisine, derived from the Nahuatl word \"xocolatl\". Chocolate was first drunk rather than eaten. It was also used for religious rituals. The Maya civilization grew cacao trees and used the cacao seeds it produced to make a frothy, bitter drink. The drink, called \"xocoatl\", was often flavored with vanilla, chile pepper, and \"achiote\".\n", "Alcoholic beverages from Mexico include tequila, pulque, aguardiente, mezcal and charanda. Wine, rum and beer are also produced. The most common alcoholic beverage consumed with food in Mexico is beer, followed by tequila. A classic margarita, a popular cocktail, is composed of tequila, cointreau and lime juice.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Chiapas.\n", "Like elsewhere in Mexico, corn is the dietary staple and indigenous elements are still strong in the cuisine. Along with a chile called simojovel, used nowhere else in the country, the cuisine is also distinguished by the use of herbs, such as chipilín and hierba santa. Like in Oaxaca, tamales are usually wrapped in banana leaves (or sometimes with the leaves of hoja santa), but often chipilín is incorporated into the dough. As in the Yucatán, fermented corn is drunk as a beverage called pozol, but here it is usually flavored with all-natural cacao.\n", "The favored meats are beef, pork and chicken (introduced by the Spanish), especially in the highlands, which favors the raising of livestock. The livestock industry has also prompted the making of cheese, mostly done on ranches and in small cooperatives, with the best known from Ocosingo, Rayón and Pijijiapan. Meat and cheese dishes are frequently accompanied by vegetables, such as squash, chayote, and carrots.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Mexico City.\n", "The main feature of Mexico City cooking is that it has been influenced by those of the other regions of Mexico, as well as a number of foreign influences. This is because Mexico City has been a center for migration of people from all over Mexico since pre-Hispanic times. Most of the ingredients of this area’s cooking are not grown in situ, but imported from all of the country (such as tropical fruits).\n", "Street cuisine is very popular, with taco stands, and lunch counters on every street. Popular foods in the city include barbacoa (a specialty of the central highlands), birria (from western Mexico), cabrito (from the north), carnitas (originally from Michoacán), mole sauces (from Puebla and central Mexico), tacos with many different fillings, and large sub-like sandwiches called tortas, usually served at specialized shops called 'Torterías'. There are eateries that specialize in pre-Hispanic food, including dishes with insects. This is also the area where most of Mexico’s haute cuisine can be found.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Northern Mexico.\n", "The foods eaten in what is now the north of Mexico have differed from those in the south since the pre-Hispanic era. Here, the indigenous people were hunter-gatherers with limited agriculture and settlements because of the arid land.\n", "When the Europeans arrived, they found much of the land in this area suitable for raising cattle, goats and sheep. This led to the dominance of meat, especially beef, in the region, and some of the most popular dishes include machaca, arrachera and cabrito. The region's distinctive cooking technique is grilling, as ranch culture has promoted outdoor cooking done by men.\n", "The ranch culture has also prompted cheese production and the north produces the widest varieties of cheese in Mexico. These include queso fresco (fresh farmer's cheese), ranchero (similar to Monterey Jack), cuajada (a mildly sweet, creamy curd of fresh milk), requesón (similar to cottage cheese or ricotta), Chihuahua’s creamy semi-soft queso menonita, and fifty-six varieties of asadero (smoked cheese).\n", "Another important aspect of northern cuisine is the presence of wheat, especially in the use of flour tortillas. The area has at least forty different types of flour tortillas. The main reason for this is that much of the land supports wheat production, introduced by the Spanish. These large tortillas allowed for the creation of burritos, usually filled with machaca in Sonora, which eventually gained popularity in the Southwest United States.\n", "The variety of foodstuffs in the north is not as varied as in the south of Mexico, because of the mostly desert climate. Much of the cuisine of this area is dependent on food preservation techniques, namely dehydration and canning. Dried foods include meat, chiles, squash, peas, corn, lentils, beans and dried fruit. A number of these are also canned. Preservation techniques change the flavor of foods; for example, many chiles are less hot after drying.\n", "In Northeastern Mexico, during the Spanish colonial period, Nuevo León was founded and settled by Spanish families of Jewish origin (Crypto-Jews). They contributed significantly to the regional cuisine with dishes, such as Pan de Semita or \"Semitic Bread\" (a type of bread made without leavening), capirotada (a type of dessert), and cabrito or \"baby goat\", which is the typical food of Monterrey and the state of Nuevo León, as well as some regions of Coahuila.\n", "The north has seen waves of immigration by the Chinese, Mormons, and Mennonites, who have influenced the cuisines in areas, such as Chihuahua and Baja California. Most recently, Baja Med cuisine has emerged in Ensenada and elsewhere in Baja California, combining Mexican and Mediterranean flavors.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Oaxaca.\n", "The cooking of Oaxaca remained more intact after the Conquest, as the Spanish took the area with less fighting and less disruption of the economy and food production systems. However, it was the first area to experience the mixing of foods and cooking styles, while central Mexico was still recuperating. Despite its size, the state has a wide variety of ecosystems and a wide variety of native foods. Vegetables are grown in the central valley, seafood is abundant on the coast and the area bordering Veracruz grows tropical fruits.\n", "Much of the state’s cooking is influenced by that of the Mixtec and, to a lesser extent, the Zapotec. Later in the colonial period, Oaxaca lost its position as a major food supplier and the area’s cooking returned to a more indigenous style, keeping only a small number of foodstuffs, such as chicken and pork. It also adapted mozzarella, brought by the Spanish, and modified it to what is now known as Oaxaca cheese.\n", "One major feature of Oaxacan cuisine is its seven mole varieties, second only to mole poblano in importance. The seven are Negro (black), Amarillo (yellow), Coloradito (little red), Mancha Manteles (table cloth stainer), Chichilo (smoky stew), Rojo (red), and Verde (green).\n", "Corn is the staple food in the region. Tortillas are called blandas and are a part of every meal. Corn is also used to make empanadas, tamales and more. Black beans are favored, often served in soup or as a sauce for enfrijoladas. Oaxaca’s regional chile peppers include pasilla oaxaqueña (red, hot and smoky), along with amarillos (yellow), chilhuacles, chilcostles and costeños. These, along with herbs, such as hoja santa, give the food its unique taste.\n", "Another important aspect to Oaxacan cuisine is chocolate, generally consumed as a beverage. It is frequently hand ground and combined with almonds, cinnamon and other ingredients.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Veracruz.\n", "The cuisine of Veracruz is a mix of indigenous, Afro-Mexican and Spanish. The indigenous contribution is in the use of corn as a staple, as well as vanilla (native to the state) and herbs called acuyo and hoja santa. It is also supplemented by a wide variety of tropical fruits, such as papaya, mamey and zapote, along with the introduction of citrus fruit and pineapple by the Spanish. The Spanish also introduced European herbs, such as parsley, thyme, marjoram, bay laurel, cilantro and others, which characterize much of the state’s cooking. They are found in the best known dish of the region Huachinango a la veracruzana, a red snapper dish.\n", "The African influence is from the importation of slaves through the Caribbean, who brought foods with them, which had been introduced earlier to Africa by the Portuguese. As it borders the Gulf coast, seafood figures prominently in most of the state. The state’s role as a gateway to Mexico has meant that the dietary staple of corn is less evident than in other parts of Mexico, with rice as a heavy favorite. Corn dishes include garnachas (a kind of corn cake), which are readily available especially in the mountain areas, where indigenous influence is strongest.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Western Mexico.\n", "West of Mexico City are the states of Michoacán, Jalisco and Colima, as well as the Pacific coast. The cuisine of Michoacan is based on the Purepecha culture, which still dominates most of the state. The area has a large network of rivers and lakes providing fish. Its use of corn is perhaps the most varied. While atole is drunk in most parts of Mexico, it is made with more different flavors in Michoacán, including blackberry, cascabel chile and more. Tamales come in different shapes, wrapped in corn husks. These include those folded into polyhedrons called corundas and can vary in name if the filling is different. In the Bajío area, tamales are often served with a meat stew called churipo, which is flavored with cactus fruit.\n", "The main Spanish contributions to Michoacán cuisine are rice, pork and spices. One of the best-known dishes from the state is morisquesta, which is a sausage and rice dish, closely followed by carnitas, which is deep-fried pork. The latter can be found in many parts of Mexico, often claimed to be authentically Michoacán. Other important ingredients in the cuisine include wheat (where bread symbolizes fertility) found in breads and pastries. Another is sugar, giving rise to a wide variety of desserts and sweets, such as fruit jellies and ice cream, mostly associated with the town of Tocumbo. The town of Cotija has a cheese named after it. The local alcoholic beverage is charanda, which is made with fermented sugar cane.\n", "The cuisine of the states of Jalisco and Colima is noted for dishes, such as birria, chilayo, menudo and pork dishes. Jalisco’s cuisine is known for tequila with the liquor produced only in certain areas allowed to use the name. The cultural and gastronomic center of the area is Guadalajara, an area where both agriculture and cattle raising have thrived. The best-known dish from the area is birria, a stew of goat, beef, mutton or pork with chiles and spices.\n", "An important street food is tortas ahogadas, where the torta (sandwich) is drowned in a chile sauce. Near Guadalajara is the town of Tonalá, known for its pozole, a hominy stew, reportedly said in the 16th century, to have been originally created with human flesh. The area which makes tequila surrounds the city. A popular local drink is tejuino, made from fermented corn. Bionico is also a popular dessert in the Guadalajara area.\n", "On the Pacific coast, seafood is common, generally cooked with European spices along with chile, and is often served with a spicy salsa. Favored fish varieties include marlin, swordfish, snapper, tuna, shrimp and octopus. Tropical fruits are also important. The cuisine of the Baja California Peninsula is especially heavy on seafood, with the widest variety. It also features a mild green chile pepper, as well as dates, especially in sweets.\n", "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Yucatán.\n", "The food of the Yucatán peninsula is distinct from the rest of the country. It is based primarily on Mayan food with influences from the Caribbean, Central Mexican, European (especially French) and Middle Eastern cultures. As in other areas of Mexico, corn is the basic staple, as both a liquid and a solid food. One common way of consuming corn, especially by the poor, is a thin drink or gruel of white corn called by such names as pozol or keyem.\n", "One of the main spices in the region is the annatto seed, called achiote in Spanish. It gives food a reddish color and a slightly peppery smell with a hint of nutmeg. Recados are seasoning pastes, based on achiote (recado rojo) or a mixture of habanero and charcoal called chirmole both used on chicken and pork.\n", "Recado rojo is used for the area’s best-known dish, cochinita pibil. Pibil refers to the cooking method (from the Mayan word \"p'ib\", meaning \"buried\") in which foods are wrapped, generally in banana leaves, and cooked in a pit oven. Various meats are cooked this way. Habaneros are another distinctive ingredient, but they are generally served as (or part of) condiments on the side rather than integrated into the dishes.\n", "A prominent feature of Yucatán cooking is tropical fruits, such as tamarind, plums, mamey, avocados and bitter oranges, the latter often used in the region's distinctive salsas. Honey was used long before the arrival of the Spanish to sweeten foods and to make a ritual alcoholic drink called balché. Today, a honey liquor called xtabentun is still made and consumed in the region. The coastal areas feature several seafood dishes, based on fish like the Mero, a variety of grunt and Esmedregal, which is fried and served with a spicy salsa based on the x'catic pepper and achiote paste. Other dishes include conch fillet (usually served raw, just marinated in lime juice), cocount flavored shrimp and lagoon snails.\n", "Traditionally, some dishes are served as entrées, such as the brazo de reina (a type of tamale made from chaya) and papadzules (egg tacos seasoned in a pumpkin seed gravy).\n", "Street food in the area usually consists of Cochinita Pibil Tacos, Lebanese-based Kibbeh, Shawarma Tacos, snacks made from hardened corn dough called piedras, and fruit-flavored ices.\n", "Section::::Mexican food outside Mexico.\n", "Mexican cuisine is offered in a few fine restaurants in Europe and the United States. Sometimes landrace corn from Mexico is imported and ground on the premises.\n", "Section::::Mexican food outside Mexico.:United States.\n", "Mexican food in the United States is based on the food of northern Mexico. Chili con carne and chimichangas are examples of American food with Mexican-origins known as Tex-Mex. With the growing ethnic Mexican population in the United States, more authentic Mexican food is gradually appearing in the United States. One reason is that Mexican immigrants use food as a means of combating homesickness, and for their descendants, it is a symbol of ethnicity. Alternatively, with more Americans experiencing Mexican food in Mexico, there is a growing demand for more authentic flavors.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Aztec cuisine\n", "BULLET::::- Latin American cuisine\n", "BULLET::::- List of Mexican dishes\n", "BULLET::::- List of Mexican restaurants\n", "BULLET::::- List of restaurants in Mexico\n", "BULLET::::- Moctezuma's Table\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Pilcher, Jeffrey M. \"Planet Taco: A Global History of Mexican Food\" (Oxford University Press, 2012) online review\n", "BULLET::::- Pilcher, Jeffrey M. \"Que Vivan Los Tamales! Food and the Making of Mexican National Identity\" (1998)\n" ] }

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"Nahuatl", "Chocolate", "Maya%20civilization", "Annatto", "tequila", "pulque", "aguardiente", "mezcal", "charanda", "Wine", "rum", "beer", "margarita", "cointreau", "chipil%C3%ADn", "Ocosingo", "Ray%C3%B3n%2C%20Chiapas", "Pijijiapan", "chayote", "taco%20stand", "barbacoa", "birria", "cabrito", "carnitas", "Michoac%C3%A1n", "Mole%20%28sauce%29", "Puebla", "Torta%23Mexican%20sandwich", "machaca", "arrachera", "cabrito", "Cheeses%20of%20Mexico", "Sonora", "Southwest%20United%20States", "Nuevo%20Le%C3%B3n", "Crypto-Jews", "cabrito", "Coahuila", "Chinese%20immigration%20to%20Mexico", "Mormon%20colonies%20in%20Mexico", "Mennonites%20in%20Mexico", "Baja%20California", "Baja%20Med", "Ensenada%2C%20Baja%20California", "Baja%20California", "Mixtec%20people", "Zapotec%20peoples", "mozzarella", "Oaxaca%20cheese", "Mole%20sauce", "chocolate", "Afro-Mexican", "hoja%20santa", "papaya", "Mamey%20%28disambiguation%29", "zapote", "parsley", "thyme", "marjoram", "bay%20laurel", "cilantro", "Huachinango%20a%20la%20veracruzana", "Michoac%C3%A1n", "Jalisco", "Colima", "Pur%C3%A9pecha", "Fish%20as%20food", "atole", "corunda", "Baj%C3%ADo", "Opuntia", "Cotija%2C%20Michoac%C3%A1n", "charanda", "Menudo%20%28soup%29", "Guadalajara", "birria", "tortas%20ahogadas", "Tonal%C3%A1%2C%20Jalisco", "pozole", "tejuino", "Bionico", "Baja%20California%20Peninsula", "Date%20%28fruit%29", "Caribbean%20cuisine", "Middle%20Eastern%20cuisine", "pozol", "achiote", "recado%20rojo", "chirmole", "cochinita%20pibil", "Habanero", "tamarind", "Pouteria%20sapota", "bitter%20orange", "balch%C3%A9", "Xtabentun%20%28liqueur%29", "Grouper", "Haemulidae", "Cobia", "achiote%20paste", "Chaya%20%28plant%29", "Kibbeh", "landrace", "Mexican%20cuisine%20in%20the%20United%20States", "Chili%20con%20carne", "chimichanga", "Tex-Mex", "Aztec%20cuisine", "Latin%20American%20cuisine", "List%20of%20Mexican%20dishes", "List%20of%20Mexican%20restaurants", "List%20of%20restaurants%20in%20Mexico", "Moctezuma%27s%20Table", 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{ "description": "culinary traditions of Mexico", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q207965", "wikidata_label": "Mexican cuisine", "wikipedia_title": "Mexican cuisine", "aliases": { "alias": [ "cuisine of Mexico", "Mexican food" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Catherine of Braganza\n", "Catherine of Braganza (; 25 November 1638 – 31 December 1705) was queen consort of England, of Scotland and of Ireland from 1662 to 1685, as the wife of King Charles II. She was the daughter of King John IV, who became the first king of Portugal from the House of Braganza in 1640 after overthrowing the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs over Portugal. Catherine served as regent of Portugal during the absence of her brother in 1701 and during 1704–1705, after her return to her homeland as a widow.\n", "Owing to her devotion to the Roman Catholic faith in which she had been raised, Catherine was unpopular in England. She was a special object of attack by the inventors of the Popish Plot. In 1678 the murder of Edmund Berry Godfrey was ascribed to her servants, and Titus Oates accused her of an intention to poison the king. These charges, the absurdity of which was soon shown by cross-examination, nevertheless placed the queen for some time in great danger. On 28 November Oates accused her of high treason, and the English House of Commons passed an order for the removal of her and of all Roman Catholics from the Palace of Whitehall. Several further depositions were made against her, and in June 1679 it was decided that she should stand trial, which threat however was lifted by the king's intervention, for which she later showed him much gratitude.\n", "She produced no heirs for the king, having suffered three miscarriages. Her husband kept many mistresses, most notably Barbara Palmer, whom Catherine was forced to accept as one of her Ladies of the Bedchamber. By his mistresses Charles fathered numerous illegitimate offspring, which he acknowledged.\n", "Catherine is credited with introducing the British to tea-drinking, which was then widespread among the Portuguese nobility.\n", "Section::::Early life and family.\n", "Catherine was born at the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa, as the second surviving daughter of John, 8th Duke of Braganza and his wife, Luisa de Guzmán. Following the Portuguese Restoration War, her father was acclaimed King John IV of Portugal, on 1 December 1640. With her father's new position as one of Europe's most important monarchs, Portugal then possessing a widespread colonial empire, Catherine became a prime choice for a wife for European royalty, and she was proposed as a bride for John of Austria, François de Vendôme, duc de Beaufort, Louis XIV and Charles II. The consideration for the final choice was due to her being seen as a useful conduit for contracting an alliance between Portugal and England, after the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 in which Portugal was arguably abandoned by France. Despite her country's ongoing struggle with Spain, Catherine enjoyed a happy, contented childhood in her beloved Lisbon.\n", "Commonly regarded as the power behind the throne, Queen Luisa was also a devoted mother who took an active interest in her children's upbringing and personally supervised her daughter's education. Catherine is believed to have spent most of her youth in a convent close by the royal palace where she remained under the watchful eye of her protective mother. It appears to have been a very sheltered upbringing, with one contemporary remarking that Catherine, \"was bred hugely retired\" and \"hath hardly been ten times out of the palace in her life\". Catherine's older sister, Joana, Princess of Beira, died in 1653, leaving Catherine as the eldest surviving child of her parents. Her husband was chosen by Luisa, who acted as regent of her country following her husband's death in 1656.\n", "Section::::Marriage.\n", "Negotiations for the marriage began during the reign of King Charles I, were renewed immediately after the Restoration, and on 23 June 1661, in spite of Spanish opposition, the marriage contract was signed. England secured Tangier (in North Africa) and the Seven Islands of Bombay (in India), trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies, religious and commercial freedom in Portugal, and two million Portuguese crowns (about £300,000). In return Portugal obtained British military and naval support (which would prove to be decisive) in her fight against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine. She arrived at Portsmouth on the evening of 13–14 May 1662, but was not visited there by Charles until 20 May. The following day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies – a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.\n", "On 30 September 1662 the married couple entered London as part of a large procession, which included the Portuguese delegation and many members of the court. There were also minstrels and musicians, among them ten playing shawms and twelve playing Portuguese bagpipes, those being the new Queen’s favourite instruments. The procession continued over a large bridge, especially designed and built for the occasion, which led into the palace where Henrietta Maria, the Queen Mother waited, along with the British court and nobility. This was followed by feasting and firework displays.\n", "Catherine possessed several good qualities, but had been brought up in a convent, secluded from the world, and was scarcely a wife Charles would have chosen for himself. Her mother in law the Dowager Queen Henrietta Maria was pleased with her and Henrietta wrote that she is \"The best creature in the world, from whom I have so much affection, I have the joy to see the King love her extremely. She is a Saint!\". In reality, Catherine's personal charms were not potent enough to wean Charles away from the society of his mistresses, and in a few weeks after her arrival she became aware of her painful and humiliating position as the wife of a licentious king.\n", "Little is known of Catherine's own thoughts on the match. While her mother plotted to secure an alliance with England and thus support in Portugal's fight for independence, and her future husband celebrated his restoration by dallying with his mistresses, Catherine's time had been spent in the sombre seclusion of her convent home, with little opportunity for fun or frivolity. Even outside the convent her actions were governed by the strict etiquette of the royal court of Portugal. By all accounts Catherine grew into a quiet, even-tempered young woman.\n", "At the time of her marriage she was already twenty-three, something which was not lost on her critics, and had long since resigned herself to the necessity of making a grand match abroad. Contented and serene, Catherine's response on being told of her impending nuptials was to request permission to make a pilgrimage to a favourite shrine of hers in Lisbon. Devoted to her beloved Portugal, as she set sail for England any distress she may have felt at leaving her family and her home was no doubt lessened by the knowledge that her marriage had been hailed as \"the welcomest news that ever came to the Portuguese people\".\n", "Catherine became pregnant and miscarried at least three times, and during a severe illness in 1663, she imagined, for a time, that she had given birth. Charles comforted her by telling her she had indeed given birth to two sons and a daughter. Her position was a difficult one, and though Charles continued to have children by his many mistresses, he insisted she be treated with respect, and sided with her against his mistresses when he felt she was not receiving the respect she was due.\n", "After her three miscarriages, it seemed to be more and more unlikely that the queen would bear an heir. Royal advisors urged the monarch to seek a divorce, hoping that the new wife would be Protestant and fertile – but Charles refused. This eventually led to her being made a target by courtiers. Throughout his reign, Charles firmly dismissed the idea of divorcing Catherine, and she remained faithful to Charles throughout their marriage.\n", "Section::::Queen consort (1662–1685).\n", "Catherine was not a particularly popular choice of queen since she was a Roman Catholic.\n", "Her religion prevented her from being crowned, as Roman Catholics were forbidden to take part in Anglican services. She initially faced hardships due to the language barrier, the king's infidelities and the political conflicts between Roman Catholics and Anglicans. Over time, her quiet decorum, loyalty and genuine affection for Charles changed the public's perception of her.\n", "Although her difficulties with the English language persisted, as time went on, the once rigidly formal Portuguese Infanta mellowed and began to enjoy some of the more innocent pleasures of the court. She loved to play cards and shocked devout Protestants by playing on Sundays. She enjoyed dancing and took great delight in organising masques. She had a great love for the countryside and picnics; fishing and archery were also favourite pastimes. In a far cry from her convent-days the newly liberated Catherine displayed a fondness for the recent trend of court ladies wearing men's clothing, which we are told, \"showed off her pretty, neat legs and ankles\"; and she was even reported to have considered leading the way in wearing shorter dresses, which would show off her feet. In 1670, on a trip to Audley End with her ladies-in-waiting, the once chronically shy Catherine attended a country fair disguised as a village maiden, but was soon discovered and, due to the large crowds, forced to make a hasty retreat. And when in 1664 her favourite painter, Jacob Huysmans, a Flemish Catholic, painted her as St Catherine, it promptly set a trend among court ladies.\n", "She did not involve herself in English politics, instead she kept up an active interest in her native country. Anxious to re-establish good relations with the Pope and perhaps gain recognition for Portuguese independence, she sent Richard Bellings, later her principal secretary, to Rome with letters for the pope and several cardinals. In 1669 she involved herself in the last-ditch effort to relieve Candia in Crete, which was under siege by the Turks and whose cause Rome was promoting, although she failed to persuade her husband to take any action. In 1670, as a sign of her rising favour with the pontiff she requested, and was granted, devotional objects. In 1670 Charles II ordered the building of a Royal yacht HMY \"Saudadoes\" for her, used for pleasure trips on the Thames and to maintain communications with the Queen's homeland of Portugal, making the journey twice.\n", "Catherine fainted when Charles's official mistress, Barbara Palmer was presented to her. Charles insisted on making Palmer Catherine's Lady of the Bedchamber. After this incident, Catherine withdrew from spending time with the king, declaring she would return to Portugal rather than openly accept the arrangement with Palmer. Clarendon failed to convince her to change her mind. Charles then dismissed nearly all the members of Catherine's Portuguese retinue, after which she stopped actively resisting, which pleased the king, however she participated very little in court life and activities.\n", "Section::::Catholicism.\n", "Though known to keep her faith a private matter, her religion and proximity to the king made her the target of anti-Catholic sentiment. Catherine occupied herself with her faith. Her piety was widely known and was a characteristic in his wife that the King greatly admired; in his letters to his sister, Catherine's devoutness is described almost with awe. Her household contained between four and six priests, and in 1665, Catherine decided to build a religious house east of St James's to be occupied by thirteen Portuguese Franciscans of the order of St Peter of Alcantara. It was completed by 1667 and would become known as The Friary.\n", "In 1675 the stress of a possible revival of the divorce project indirectly led to another illness, which Catherine's physicians claimed and her husband cannot fail to have noted, was \"due as much to mental as physical causes\". In the same year, all Irish and English Catholic priests were ordered to leave the country, which left Catherine dependent upon foreign priests. As increasingly harsher measures were put in place against Catholics, Catherine appointed her close friend and adviser, the devoutly Catholic Francisco de Mello, former Portuguese Ambassador to England, as her Lord Chamberlain. It was an unusual and controversial move but \"wishing to please Catherine and perhaps demonstrate the futility of moves for divorce, the King granted his permission. De Mello was dismissed the following year for ordering the printing of a Catholic book, leaving the beleaguered Catherine even more isolated at court\". One consolation was that Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth, who replaced Barbara Palmer as reigning mistress, always treated the Queen with proper deference; the Queen in return showed her gratitude by using her own influence to protect Louise during the Popish Plot.\n", "Section::::Catholicism.:Popish plot.\n", "The Test Act of 1673 had driven all Catholics out of public office, and anti-Catholic feelings intensified in the years to come. Although she was not active in religious politics, in 1675 Catherine was criticised for supposedly supporting the idea of appointing a bishop to England who, it was hoped, would resolve the internal disputes of Catholics. Critics also noted the fact that, despite orders to the contrary, English Catholics attended her private chapel.\n", "As the highest-ranking Catholic in the country, Catherine was an obvious target for Protestant extremists, and it was hardly surprising that the Popish Plot of 1678 would directly threaten her position. However, Catherine was completely secure in her husband's favour (\"she could never do anything wicked, and it would be a horrible thing to abandon her\" he told Gilbert Burnet), and the House of Lords, most of whom knew her and liked her, refused by an overwhelming majority to impeach her. Relations between the royal couple became notably warmer: Catherine wrote of Charles' \"wonderful kindness\" to her and it was noted that his visits to her apartments became longer and more frequent.\n", "Section::::Later life and death.\n", "At Charles' final illness in 1685, she showed anxiety for his reconciliation with the Roman Catholic faith, and she exhibited great grief at his death. When he lay dying in 1685, he asked for Catherine, but she sent a message asking that her presence be excused and \"to beg his pardon if she had offended him all his life.\" He answered, \"Alas poor woman! she asks for my pardon? I beg hers with all my heart; take her back that answer.\" Later in the same year, she unsuccessfully interceded with James II for the life of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Charles's illegitimate son and leader of the Monmouth Rebellion – even though Monmouth in rebellion had called upon the support represented by the staunch Protestants opposed to the Catholic Church.\n", "Catherine remained in England, living at Somerset House, through the reign of James and his deposition in the Glorious Revolution by William III and Mary II. She remained in England partly because of a protracted lawsuit against her former Lord Chamberlain, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, over money that she claimed as part of her allowance and that he claimed was part of the perquisite of his office. Catherine's fondness for money is one of the more unexpected features of her character: her brother-in-law James, who was himself notably avaricious, remarked that she always drove a hard bargain.\n", "Initially on good terms with William and Mary, her position deteriorated as the practice of her religion led to misunderstandings and increasing isolation. A bill was introduced to Parliament to limit the number of Catherine's Catholic servants, and she was warned not to agitate against the government.\n", "She finally returned to Portugal in March 1692. In 1703, she supported the Treaty of Methuen between Portugal and England. She acted as regent for her brother, Peter II, in 1701 and 1704–05. She died at the Bemposta Palace in Lisbon on 31 December 1705 and was buried at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora Lisbon.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Catherine is often credited with the introduction of tea drinking to Britain, although Samuel Pepys makes reference to drinking tea for the first time in his diary entry for 25 September 1660, prior to Catherine's emigration to England and marriage to Charles. It is more likely that she popularised the drink, which was unusual in Britain at the time. Beyond tea, her arrival brought and promulgated goods such as cane, lacquer, cottons, and porcelain.\n", "Queens, a borough of New York City, was supposedly named after Catherine of Braganza, since she was queen when Queens County was established in 1683. Queens' naming is consistent with those of Kings County (the borough of Brooklyn, originally named after her husband, King Charles II) and Richmond County (the borough of Staten Island, named after his illegitimate son, the 1st Duke of Richmond). However, there is no historical evidence that Queens County was named in her honor, neither is there a document from the time proclaiming it so. Some written histories of Queens skip over the monarch entirely and make no mention of her. \n", "After the tri-centennial of the establishment of Queens County in 1983, a group of Portuguese-Americans began raising money to erect a 35-foot statue of Queen Catherine on the East River waterfront in Long Island City. The sculptor of the proposed statue was Audrey Flack. The project was well advanced when opposition arose. Historians objected on the grounds that there was no evidence that Queens was actually named after her, and further that a British monarch was an inappropriate subject for a public monument. African-Americans objected to the statue on the grounds that the British and Portuguese royal houses benefited from the African slave trade. Irish-Americans objected to any statue of a British monarch. The controversy forced Borough President Claire Shulman to withdraw her support, and the statue was never erected. A quarter-scale model survives at the site of Expo '98 in Lisbon, Portugal, facing west across the Atlantic.\n", "Novelists, notably Margaret Campbell Barnes in \"With All My Heart\", Jean Plaidy in her Charles II trilogy and Susanna Gregory in her \"Thomas Chaloner\" mystery novels, usually portray the Queen in a sympathetic light. So did Alison Macleod in her 1976 biography of the queen, \"The Portingale\". \n", "Catherine's marriage had an important result for the later history of India and of the British Empire, though the Queen personally had little to do with it: soon after acquiring the Seven Islands of Bombay as part of her dowry, Charles II rented them to the East India Company which moved its Presidency there – resulting in Bombay/Mumbai eventually growing to become one of the main cities of India.\n", "Section::::Arms.\n", "The royal arms of the British monarch are impaled with the royal arms of her father. For supporters, she used the crowned lion of England on the dexter side, and on the sinister, the wyvern Vert of Portugal.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of English consorts\n", "BULLET::::- History of tea in the United Kingdom\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Plaidy, Jean. (2008). \"The Merry Monarch's Wife: The Story of Catherine of Braganza.\" Broadway.\n", "BULLET::::- Plaidy, Jean. (2005). \"The Loves of Charles II: The Stuart Saga.\" Broadway.\n", "BULLET::::- Koen, Karleen. (2006). \"Dark Angels.\" Broadway.\n", "BULLET::::- Sousa, Manuel E. (1995). \"Catherine of Braganza.\" Howell Press Inc.\n", "BULLET::::- Elsna, Hebe. (1967). \"Catherine of Braganza : Charles II's Queen.\" Hale.\n", "BULLET::::- Mackay, Janet. (1937).\"Catherine of Braganza.\" J. Long, Limited; First Edition.\n", "BULLET::::- Barnes, Margaret Campbell. (1951). \"With All My Heart: The Love Story of Catherine of Braganza.\" Macrae-Smith Company.\n", "Section::::External links.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q176253", "wikidata_label": "Catherine of Braganza", "wikipedia_title": "Catherine of Braganza", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Phagocytosis\n", "Phagocytosis () is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm) , giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis pinocytosis.\n", "In a multicellular organism's immune system, phagocytosis is a major mechanism used to remove pathogens and cell debris. The ingested material is then digested in the phagosome. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and small mineral particles are all examples of objects that may be phagocytized. Some protozoa use phagocytosis as means to obtain nutrients.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Phagocytosis was first noted by Canadian physician William Osler (1876), and later studied and named by Élie Metchnikoff (1880, 1883).\n", "Section::::In immune system.\n", "Phagocytosis is one of the main mechanisms of the innate immune defense. It is one of the first processes responding to infection, and is also one of the initiating branches of an adaptive immune response. Although most cells are capable of phagocytosis, some cell types perform it as part of their main function. These are called 'professional phagocytes.' Phagocytosis is old in evolutionary terms, being present even in invertebrates.\n", "Section::::In immune system.:Professional phagocytic cells.\n", "Neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, osteoclasts and eosinophils can be classified as professional phagocytes. The first three have the greatest role in immune response to most infections.\n", "The role of neutrophils is patrolling the bloodstream and rapid migration to the tissues in large numbers only in case of infection. There they have direct microbicidal effect by phagocytosis. After ingestion, neutrophils are efficient in intracellular killing of pathogens. Neutrophils phagocytose mainly via the Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1 and 3. The microbicidal effect of neutrophils is due to a large repertoire of molecules present in pre-formed granules. Enzymes and other molecules prepared in these granules are proteases, such as collagenase, gelatinase or serine proteases, myeloperoxidase, lactoferrin and antibiotic proteins. Degranulation of these into the phagosome, accompanied by high reactive oxygen species production (oxidative burst) is highly microbicidal.\n", "Monocytes, and the macrophages that mature from them, leave blood circulation to migrate through tissues. There they are resident cells and form a resting barrier. Macrophages initiate phagocytosis by mannose receptors, scavenger receptors, Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1, 3 and 4. Macrophages are long-lived and can continue phagocytosis by forming new lysosomes.\n", "Dendritic cells also reside in tissues and ingest pathogens by phagocytosis. Their role is not killing or clearance of microbes, but rather breaking them down for antigen presentation to the cells of the adaptive immune system.\n", "Section::::In immune system.:Initiating receptors.\n", "Receptors for phagocytosis can be divided into two categories by recognised molecules. The first, opsonic receptors, are dependent on opsonins. Among these are receptors that recognise the Fc part of bound IgG antibodies, deposited complement or receptors, that recognise other opsonins of cell or plasma origin. Non-opsonic receptors include lectin-type receptors, Dectin receptor, or scavenger receptors. Some phagocytic pathways require a second signal from pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activated by attachment to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which leads to NF-κB activation.\n", "Section::::In immune system.:Initiating receptors.:Fcγ Receptors.\n", "Fcγ receptors recognise IgG coated targets. The main recognised part is the Fc fragment. The molecule of the receptor contain an intracellular ITAM domain or associates with an ITAM-containing adaptor molecule. ITAM domains transduce the signal from the surface of the phagocyte to the nucleus. For example activating receptors of human macrophages are FcγRI, FcγRIIA, and FcγRIII. Fcγ receptor mediated phagocytosis includes formation of protrusions of the cell called a 'phagocytic cup' and activates an oxidative burst in neutrophils.\n", "Section::::In immune system.:Initiating receptors.:Complement receptors.\n", "These receptors recognise targets coated in C3b, C4b and C3bi from plasma complement. The extracellular domain of the receptors contains a lectin-like complement-binding domain. Recognition by complement receptors is not enough to cause internalisation without additional signals. In macrophages, the CR1, CR3 and CR4 are responsible for recognition of targets. Complement coated targets are internalised by 'sinking' into the phagocyte membrane, without any protrusions.\n", "Section::::In immune system.:Initiating receptors.:Mannose receptors.\n", "Mannose and other pathogen-associated sugars, such as fucose, are recognised by the mannose receptor. Eight lectin-like domains form the extracellular part of the receptor. The ingestion mediated by the mannose receptor is distinct in molecular mechanisms from Fcγ receptor or complement receptor mediated phagocytosis.\n", "Section::::In immune system.:Phagosome.\n", "Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome is the organelle formed by phagocytosis of material. It then moves toward the centrosome of the phagocyte and is fused with lysosomes, forming a phagolysosome and leading to degradation. Progressively, the phagolysosome is acidified, activating degradative enzymes.\n", "Degradation can be oxygen-dependent or oxygen-independent.\n", "BULLET::::- Oxygen-dependent degradation depends on NADPH and the production of reactive oxygen species. Hydrogen peroxide and myeloperoxidase activate a halogenating system, which leads to the creation of hypochlorite and the destruction of bacteria.\n", "BULLET::::- Oxygen-independent degradation depends on the release of granules, containing enzymes such as lysozymes, and cationic proteins such as defensins. Other antimicrobial peptides are present in these granules, including lactoferrin, which sequesters iron to provide unfavourable growth conditions for bacteria. Other enzymes like hyaluronidase, lipase, collagenase, elastase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease also play an important role in preventing the spread of infection and degradation of essential microbial biomolecules leading to cell death.\n", "Leukocytes generate hydrogen cyanide during phagocytosis, and can kill bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens by generating several other toxic chemicals.\n", "Some bacteria, for example \"Treponema pallidum\", \"Escheria coli\" and \"Staphylococcus aureus\", are able to avoid phagocytosis by several mechanisms.\n", "Section::::In apoptosis.\n", "Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as calreticulin, phosphatidylserine (from the inner layer of the plasma membrane), annexin A1, oxidised LDL and altered glycans. These molecules are recognised by receptors on the cell surface of the macrophage such as the phosphatidylserine receptor or by soluble (free-floating) receptors such as thrombospondin 1, GAS6, and MFGE8, which themselves then bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and alpha-v beta-3 integrin. Defects in apoptotic cell clearance is usually associated with impaired phagocytosis of macrophages. Accumulation of apoptotic cell remnants often causes autoimmune disorders; thus pharmacological potentiation of phagocytosis has a medical potential in treatment of certain forms of autoimmune disorders.\n", "Section::::In protists.\n", "In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition which takes place by absorption.\n", "BULLET::::- In some, such as amoeba, phagocytosis takes place by surrounding the target object with pseudopods, as in animal phagocytes. In humans, the amoebozoan \"Entamoeba histolytica\" can phagocytose red blood cells.\n", "BULLET::::- Ciliates also engage in phagocytosis. In ciliates there is a specialized groove or chamber in the cell where phagocytosis takes place, called the cytostome or mouth.\n", "As in phagocytic immune cells, the resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes, forming a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, and the released nutrients are diffused or transported into the cytosol for use in other metabolic processes.\n", "Mixotrophy can involve phagotrophic nutrition and phototrophic nutrition.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Active transport\n", "BULLET::::- Antigen presentation\n", "BULLET::::- Antigen presenting cell\n", "BULLET::::- Emperipolesis\n", "BULLET::::- Endosymbionts in protists\n", "BULLET::::- Paracytophagy\n", "BULLET::::- Phagoptosis\n", "BULLET::::- Pinocytosis\n", "BULLET::::- Residual body\n", "BULLET::::- Cell wall\n" ] }

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{ "description": "An endocytosis process that results in the engulfment of external particulate material by phagocytes. The particles are initially contained within phagocytic vacuoles (phagosomes), which then fuse with primary lysosomes to effect digestion of the par", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q184726", "wikidata_label": "phagocytosis", "wikipedia_title": "Phagocytosis", "aliases": { "alias": [ "GO:0006909" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Musical ensemble\n", "A musical ensemble, also known as a music group or musical group, is a group of people who perform instrumental or vocal music, with the ensemble typically known by a distinct name. Some music ensembles consist solely of instruments, such as the jazz quartet or the orchestra. Some music ensembles consist solely of singers, such as choirs and doo wop groups. In both popular music and classical music, there are ensembles in which both instrumentalists and singers perform, such as the rock band or the Baroque chamber group for basso continuo (harpsichord and cello) and one or more singers. In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the sounds of musical instrument families (such as piano, strings, and wind instruments) or group together instruments from the same instrument family, such as string ensembles (e.g., string quartet) or wind ensembles (e.g., wind quintet). Some ensembles blend the sounds of a variety of instrument families, such as the orchestra, which uses a string section, brass instruments, woodwinds and percussion instruments, or the concert band, which uses brass, woodwinds and percussion. \n", "In jazz ensembles or combos, the instruments typically include wind instruments (one or more saxophones, trumpets, etc.), one or two chordal \"comping\" instruments (electric guitar, piano, or Hammond organ), a bass instrument (bass guitar or double bass), and a drummer or percussionist. Jazz ensembles may be solely instrumental, or they may consist of a group of instruments accompanying one or more singers. In rock and pop ensembles, usually called rock bands or pop bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards (piano, electric piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer, etc.), one or more singers, and a rhythm section made up of a bass guitar and drum kit.\n", "Music ensembles typically have a leader. In jazz bands, rock and pop groups and similar ensembles, this is the band leader. In classical music, orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor. In orchestra, the concertmaster (principal first violin player) is the instrumentalist leader of the orchestra. In orchestras, the individual sections also have leaders, typically called the \"principal\" of the section (e.g., the leader of the viola section is called the \"principal viola\"). Conductors are also used in jazz big bands and in some very large rock or pop ensembles (e.g., a rock concert that includes a string section, a horn section and a choir which are accompanying a rock band's performance).\n", "Section::::Classical chamber music.\n", "In Western classical music, smaller ensembles are called chamber music ensembles. The terms duet, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet and dectet describe groups of two up to ten musicians, respectively. A group of eleven musicians, such as found in \"The Carnival of the Animals\", is called either a \"hendectet\" or an \"undectet\" (see Latin numerical prefixes). A soloist playing unaccompanied (e.g., a pianist playing a solo piano piece or a cellist playing a Bach suite for unaccompanied cello) is not an ensemble because it only contains one musician.\n", "Section::::Classical chamber music.:Four parts.\n", "Section::::Classical chamber music.:Four parts.:Strings.\n", "A string quartet consists of two violins, a viola and a cello. There is a vast body of music written for string quartets, as it is seen as an important genre in classical music.\n", "Section::::Classical chamber music.:Four parts.:Wind.\n", "A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet and a bassoon. A brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone and a tuba. A saxophone quartet consists of a soprano saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone, and a baritone saxophone.\n", "Section::::Classical chamber music.:Five parts.\n", "The string \"quintet\" is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass. Terms such as \"piano quintet\" or \"clarinet quintet\" frequently refer to a string quartet \"plus\" a fifth instrument. Mozart's Clarinet Quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello and a clarinet, the last being the exceptional addition to a \"normal\" string quartet.\n", "Some other quintets in classical music are the wind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and horn; the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one horn, a trombone and a tuba; and the reed quintet, consisting of an oboe, a soprano clarinet, a saxophone, a bass clarinet, and a bassoon.\n", "Section::::Classical chamber music.:Six or more instruments.\n", "Classical chamber ensembles of six (sextet), seven (septet), or eight musicians (octet) are fairly common; use of latinate terms for larger groups is rare, except for the nonet (nine musicians). In most cases, a larger classical group is referred to as an orchestra of some type or a concert band. A small orchestra with fifteen to thirty members (violins, violas, four cellos, two or three double basses, and several woodwind or brass instruments) is called a chamber orchestra. A sinfonietta usually denotes a somewhat smaller orchestra (though still not a chamber orchestra). Larger orchestras are called symphony orchestras (see below) or philharmonic orchestras.\n", "A pops orchestra is an orchestra that mainly performs light classical music (often in abbreviated, simplified arrangements) and orchestral arrangements and medleys of popular jazz, music theater, or pop music songs. A string orchestra has only string instruments, i.e., violins, violas, cellos and double basses.\n", "A symphony orchestra is an ensemble usually comprising at least thirty musicians; the number of players is typically between fifty and ninety-five and may exceed one hundred. A symphony orchestra is divided into families of instruments. In the string family, there are sections of violins (I and II), violas, cellos (often eight), and basses (often from six to eight). The standard woodwind section consists of flutes (one doubling piccolo), oboes (one doubling English horn), soprano clarinets (one doubling bass clarinet), and bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon). The standard brass section consists of horns, trumpets, trombones, and tuba. The percussion section includes the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks, etc.). In Baroque music (1600–1750) and music from the early Classical period music (1750–1820), the percussion parts in orchestral works may only include timpani.\n", "A concert band is a large classical ensemble generally made up of between 40 and 70 musicians from the woodwind, brass, and percussion families, along with the double bass. The concert band has a larger number and variety of wind instruments than the symphony orchestra, but does not have a string section (although a single double bass is common in concert bands). The woodwind section of a concert band consists of piccolo, flutes, oboes (one doubling English horn), bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon), soprano clarinets (one doubling E clarinet, one doubling alto clarinet), bass clarinets (one doubling contrabass clarinet or contra-alto clarinet), alto saxophones (one doubling soprano saxophone), tenor saxophone, and baritone saxophone. The brass section consists of horns, trumpets or cornets, trombones, euphoniums, and tubas. The percussion section consists of the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks, etc.).\n", "When orchestras perform baroque music (from the 17th century and early 18th century), they may also use a harpsichord or pipe organ, playing the continuo part. When orchestras perform Romantic-era music (from the 19th century), they may also use harps or unusual instruments such as the wind machine or cannons. When orchestras perform music from the 20th century or the 21st century, occasionally instruments such as electric guitar, theremin, or even an electronic synthesizer may be used.\n", "Section::::Jazz ensembles.\n", "Section::::Jazz ensembles.:Three parts.\n", "In jazz, there are several types of trios. One type of jazz trio is formed with a piano player, a bass player and a drummer. Another type of jazz trio that became popular in the 1950s and 1960s is the organ trio, which is composed of a Hammond organ player, a drummer, and a third instrumentalist (either a saxophone player or an electric jazz guitarist). In organ trios, the Hammond organ player performs the bass line on the organ bass pedals while simultaneously playing chords or lead lines on the keyboard manuals. Other types of trios include the \"drummer-less\" trio, which consists of a piano player, a double bassist, and a horn (saxophone or trumpet) or guitar player; and the jazz trio with a horn player (saxophone or trumpet), double bass player, and a drummer. In the latter type of trio, the lack of a chordal instrument means that the horn player and the bassist have to imply the changing harmonies with their improvised lines.\n", "Section::::Jazz ensembles.:Four parts.\n", "Jazz quartets typically add a \"horn\" (the generic jazz name for saxophones, trombones, trumpets, or any other wind or brass instrument commonly associated with jazz) to one of the jazz trios described above. Slightly larger jazz ensembles, such as quintets (five instruments) or sextets (six instruments) typically add other soloing instruments to the basic quartet formation, such as different types of saxophones (e.g., alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, etc.) or an additional chordal instrument.\n", "Section::::Jazz ensembles.:Larger ensembles.\n", "The lineup of larger jazz ensembles can vary considerably, depending on the style of jazz being performed. In a 1920s-style dixieland jazz band, a larger ensemble would be formed by adding a banjo player, woodwind instruments, as with the clarinet, or additional horns (saxophones, trumpets, trombones) to one of the smaller groups. In a 1930s-style Swing big band, a larger ensemble is formed by adding \"sections\" of like instruments, such as a saxophone section, a trumpet section and a trombone section, which perform arranged \"horn lines\" to accompany the ensemble. Some Swing bands also added a string section for a lush sound. In a 1970s-style jazz fusion ensemble, a larger ensemble is often formed by adding additional percussionists or sometimes a saxophone player, who would \"double\" or \"triple\" (meaning that they would also be proficient at the clarinet, flute or both). Larger jazz ensembles are also formed by the addition of other soloing instruments.\n", "Section::::Rock and pop bands.\n", "Section::::Rock and pop bands.:Two parts.\n", "Two-member rock and pop bands are relatively rare, because of the difficulty in providing all of the musical elements which are part of the rock or pop sound (vocals, chords, bass lines, and percussion or drumming). Two-member rock and pop bands typically omit one of these musical elements. In many cases, two-member bands will omit a drummer, since guitars, bass guitars, and keyboards can all be used to provide a rhythmic pulse.\n", "Examples of two-member bands are The Carpenters, Japandroids, Local H, Pet Shop Boys, Hella, Flight of the Conchords, Death from Above 1979, Francis Xavier, I Set My Friends on Fire, Middle Class Rut, The Pity Party, Little Fish, The White Stripes, Big Business, Two Gallants, Lightning Bolt, The Ting Tings, The Black Box Revelation, Satyricon, The Black Keys, Twenty One Pilots, Tenacious D, Simon and Garfunkel, Hall & Oates, Johnossi, The Pack A.D., Air Supply and Royal Blood.\n", "When electronic sequencers became widely available in the 1980s, this made it easier for two-member bands to add in musical elements that the two band members were not able to perform. Sequencers allowed bands to pre-program some elements of their performance, such as an electronic drum part and a synth-bass line. Two-member pop music bands such as Soft Cell, Blancmange, Yazoo and Erasure used pre-programmed sequencers.\n", "W.A.S.P. guitarist Doug Blair is also known for his work in the two-piece progressive rock band signal2noise, where he acts as the lead guitarist and bassist at the same time, thanks to a special custom instrument he invented (an electric guitar with five regular guitar strings paired with three bass guitar strings). Heisenflei of Los Angeles duo The Pity Party plays drums, keyboards, and sings simultaneously. Providence-based Lightning Bolt is a two-member band. Bassist Brian Gibson augments his playing with delay pedals, pitch shifters, looping devices and other pedals, occasionally creating harmony. Local H, Blood Red Shoes, PS I Love You, The Redmond Barry's and Warship are other prominent two-person experimental rock bands.\n", "Section::::Rock and pop bands.:Three parts.\n", "The smallest ensemble that is commonly used in rock music is the trio format. In a hard rock or blues-rock band, or heavy metal rock group, a \"power trio\" format is often used, which consists of an electric guitar player, an electric bass guitar player and a drummer, and typically one or more of these musicians also sing (sometimes all three members will sing, e.g. Bee Gees or Alkaline Trio). Some well-known power trios with the guitarist on lead vocals are The Jimi Hendrix Experience, Stevie Ray Vaughan and Double Trouble, Nirvana, Violent Femmes, Gov't Mule, Green Day, The Minutemen, Triumph, Shellac, Sublime, Chevelle, Muse, The Jam, Short Stack, and ZZ Top.\n", "A handful of others with the bassist on vocals include Primus, Motörhead, The Police, The Melvins, MxPx, Blue Cheer, Rush, The Presidents of the United States of America, Venom, and Cream. Some power trios feature two lead vocalists. For example, in the band blink-182 vocals are split between bassist Mark Hoppus and guitarist Tom DeLonge, or in the band Dinosaur Jr., guitarist J. Mascis is the primary songwriter and vocalist, but bassist Lou Barlow writes some songs and sings as well.\n", "An alternative to the power trio are organ trios formed with an electric guitarist, a drummer and a keyboardist. Although organ trios are most commonly associated with 1950s and 1960s jazz organ trio groups such as those led by organist Jimmy Smith, there are also organ trios in rock-oriented styles, such as jazz-rock fusion and Grateful Dead-influenced jam bands such as Medeski Martin & Wood. In organ trios, the keyboard player typically plays a Hammond organ or similar instrument, which permits the keyboard player to perform bass lines, chords, and lead lines, one example being hard rock band Zebra. A variant of the organ trio are trios formed with an electric bassist, a drummer and an electronic keyboardist (playing synthesizers) such as the progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Triumvirat, and Atomic Rooster. Another variation is to have a vocalist, a guitarist and a drummer, an example being Yeah Yeah Yeahs. Another variation is two guitars, a bassist, and a drum machine, examples including Magic Wands and Big Black.\n", "A power trio with the guitarist on lead vocals is a popular record company lineup, as the guitarist and singer will usually be the songwriter. Therefore, the label only has to present one \"face\" to the public. The backing band may or may not be featured in publicity. If the backup band is not marketed as an integral part of the group, this gives the record company more flexibility to replace band members or use substitute musicians. This lineup often leads to songs that are fairly simple and accessible, as the frontman (or frontwoman) will have to sing and play guitar at the same time.\n", "Section::::Rock and pop bands.:Four parts.\n", "The four-piece band is the most common configuration in rock and pop music.\n", "Another common formation was a vocalist, electric guitarist, bass guitarist, and a drummer (e.g. The Who, The Monkees, Led Zeppelin, Queen, Ramones, Sex Pistols, Red Hot Chili Peppers, R.E.M., Blur, The Smiths, Echo and the Bunnymen, The Stone Roses, Creed, Black Sabbath, Van Halen, Rage Against the Machine, Gym Class Heroes, The Stooges, Joy Division, and U2.) Instrumentally, these bands can be considered as trios. This format is popular with new bands, as there are only two instruments that need tuning, the melody and chords formula prevalent with their material is easy to learn, four members are commonplace to work with, the roles are clearly defined and generally are: instrumental melody line, rhythm section which plays the chords or countermelody, and vocals on top.\n", "In some early rock bands, keyboardists were used, performing on piano (e.g. The Seeds and The Doors) with a guitarist, singer, drummer and keyboardist. Some bands will have a guitarist, bassist, drummer, and keyboard player (for example, Talking Heads, Gerry and the Pacemakers, Small Faces, King Crimson, The Guess Who, Pink Floyd, Queen, Coldplay, The Killers and Blind Faith).\n", "Some bands will have the bassist on lead vocals, such as Thin Lizzy, The Chameleons, Skillet, Pink Floyd, Motörhead, NOFX, +44, Slayer, The All-American Rejects or even the lead guitarist, such as Death, Dire Straits, Megadeth and Creedence Clearwater Revival. Some bands, such as The Beatles, Dire Straits and Metallica have a lead guitarist, a rhythm guitarist and a bassist that all sing lead and backing vocals, that also play keyboards regularly, as well as a drummer.\n", "Section::::Rock and pop bands.:Five parts.\n", "Five-piece bands have existed in rock music since the development of the genre. The Beach Boys, The Rolling Stones (until 1993), Aerosmith, Def Leppard, AC/DC, Oasis, Pearl Jam, Guns N' Roses, Radiohead, The Strokes, The Yardbirds, 311 and The Hives are examples of the common vocalist, lead guitar, rhythm guitar, bass, and drums lineup whilst other bands such as Judas Priest have two guitarists who equally share lead and rhythm parts. An alternative to the five-member lineup replaces the rhythm guitarist with a keyboard–synthesizer player (examples being the bands Journey, Elbow, Dream Theater, Genesis, Jethro Tull, The Zombies, The Animals, Bon Jovi, Yes, Fleetwood Mac, Marilyn Manson and Deep Purple, all of which consist of a vocalist, guitarist, bassist, keyboardist, and a drummer) or with a turntablist such as Deftones, Hed PE, Incubus or Limp Bizkit.\n", "Alternatives include a keyboardist, guitarist, drummer, bassist, and saxophonist, such as The Sonics, The Dave Clark 5, and Sam the Sham and the Pharaohs. Another alternative is three guitarists, a bassist and a drummer, such as Foo Fighters, Radiohead, and The Byrds. Some five-person bands feature two guitarists, a keyboardist, a bassist and a drummer, with one or more of these musicians (typically one of the guitarists) handling lead vocals on top of their instrument (examples being Children of Bodom, Styx, Sturm und Drang, Relient K, Ensiferum and the current line up of Status Quo). In some cases, typically in cover bands, one musician plays either rhythm guitar or keyboards, depending on the song (one notable band being Firewind, with Bob Katsionis handling this particular role).\n", "Other times, the vocalist will bring another musical \"voice\" to the table, most commonly a harmonica or percussion; Mick Jagger, for example, played harmonica and percussion instruments like maracas and tambourine whilst singing at the same time. Keith Relf of the Yardbirds played harmonica frequently, though not often while also singing. Ozzy Osbourne was also known to play the harmonica on some occasions (i.e. \"The Wizard\" by Black Sabbath). Vocalist Robert Brown of lesser known steampunk band Abney Park plays harmonica, accordion, and darbuka in addition to mandolin. Flutes are also commonly used by vocalists, most notably Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull and Ray Thomas of the Moody Blues, though these are difficult to play while singing at the same time.\n", "A less common lineup is to have lead vocals, two guitarists of varying types and two drummers, e.g. Adam and the Ants.\n", "Section::::Rock and pop bands.:Larger rock ensembles.\n", "Although they are quite uncommon, larger bands have long been a part of rock and pop music, in part due to the influence of the \"singer accompanied with orchestra\" model inherited from popular big-band jazz and swing and popularized by Frank Sinatra and Ella Fitzgerald.To create larger ensembles, rock bands often add an additional guitarist, an additional keyboardist, additional percussionists or second drummer, an entire horn section, and even a flautist. An example of a six-member rock band is Toto with a lead vocalist, guitarist, bassist, two keyboard players, and drummer. The American heavy metal band Slipknot is composed of nine members, with a vocalist, two guitarists, a drummer, a bassist, two custom percussionists/backing vocalists, a turntablist, and a sampler/keyboardist. \n", "In larger groups (such as The Band), instrumentalists could play multiple instruments, which enabled the ensemble to create a wider variety of instrument combinations. More modern examples of such a band are Arcade Fire and Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros.\n", "More rarely, rock or pop groups will be accompanied in concerts by a full or partial symphony orchestra, where lush string-orchestra arrangements are used to flesh out the sound of slow ballads.\n", "Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca started doing performances in the late 1970s with orchestras consisting of ten to hundred (Branca) and even four hundred guitars.\n", "Some groups have a large number of members that all play the same instrument, such as guitar, keyboard, horns or strings.\n", "Section::::Electronic music groups.\n", "Electronic music groups typically use electronic musical instruments such as synthesizers, sequencers, samplers and electronic drums to produce music. The production technique of music programming is also widely used in electronic music. Examples include Kraftwerk, Daft Punk, The Chemical Brothers, Faithless and Apollo 440.\n", "Electronic dance music groups usually consist of two to three members, and are mainly producers, DJs and remixers, whose work is solely produced in a studio or with the use of a digital audio workstation. Examples include Basement Jaxx, Flip & Fill, Tin Tin Out, The Chainsmokers, Cheat Codes, Cash Cash and Major Lazer.\n", "Section::::Role of women.\n", "Women have a high prominence in many popular music styles as singers. However, professional women instrumentalists are uncommon in popular music, especially in rock genres such as heavy metal. \"[P]laying in a band is largely a male homosocial activity, that is, learning to play in a band is largely a peer-based... experience, shaped by existing sex-segregated friendship networks. As well, rock music \"...is often defined as a form of male rebellion vis-à-vis female bedroom culture.\" In popular music, there has been a gendered \"distinction between public (male) and private (female) participation\" in music. \"[S]everal scholars have argued that men exclude women from bands or from the bands' rehearsals, recordings, performances, and other social activities.\" \"Women are mainly regarded as passive and private consumers of allegedly slick, prefabricated – hence, inferior – pop music..., excluding them from participating as high status rock musicians.\" One of the reasons that there are rarely mixed gender bands is that \"bands operate as tight-knit units in which homosocial solidarity – social bonds between people of the same sex... – plays a crucial role.\" In the 1960s pop music scene, \"[s]inging was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument...simply wasn't done.\"\n", "\"The rebellion of rock music was largely a male rebellion; the women—often, in the 1950s and '60s, girls in their teens—in rock usually sang songs as personæ utterly dependent on their macho boyfriends...\". Philip Auslander says that \"Although there were many women in rock by the late 1960s, most performed only as singers, a traditionally feminine position in popular music\". Though some women played instruments in American all-female garage rock bands, none of these bands achieved more than regional success. So they \"did not provide viable templates for women's on-going participation in rock\". In relation to the gender composition of heavy metal bands, it has been said that \"[h]eavy metal performers are almost exclusively male\" \"...[a]t least until the mid-1980s\" apart from \"...exceptions such as Girlschool.\" However, \"...now [in the 2010s] maybe more than ever–strong metal women have put up their dukes and got down to it\", \"carv[ing] out a considerable place for [them]selves.\"\n", "When Suzi Quatro emerged in 1973, \"no other prominent female musician worked in rock simultaneously as a singer, instrumentalist, songwriter, and bandleader\". According to Auslander, she was \"kicking down the male door in rock and roll and proving that a female \"musician\" ... and this is a point I am extremely concerned about ... could play as well if not better than the boys\".\n", "Section::::Musical drama.\n", "Sung dramas such as operas and musicals usually have numbers where several of the principals are singing together, either on their own or with the chorus. Such numbers (\"duets\", \"trios\", etc.) are also referred to as 'ensembles'.\n", "Section::::Other western musical ensembles.\n", "A choir is a group of voices. By analogy, sometimes a group of similar instruments in a symphony orchestra are referred to as a choir. For example, the woodwind instruments of a symphony orchestra could be called the woodwind choir.\n", "A group that plays popular music or military music is usually called a band; a drum and bugle corps is a type of the latter. These bands perform a wide range of music, ranging from arrangements of jazz orchestral, or popular music to military-style marches. Drum corps perform on brass and percussion instruments only. Drum and Bugle Corps incorporate costumes, hats, and pageantry in their performances.\n", "Other band types include:\n", "BULLET::::- Brass bands: groups consisting of around 30 brass and percussion players;\n", "BULLET::::- Jug bands;\n", "BULLET::::- Mexican Mariachi groups typically consist of at least two violins, two trumpets, one Spanish guitar, one vihuela (a high-pitched, five-string guitar), and one Guitarrón (a Mexican acoustic bass that is roughly guitar-shaped), and one or more singers.\n", "BULLET::::- Marching bands and military bands, dating back to the Ottoman military bands.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- All-female band\n", "BULLET::::- Boy band\n", "BULLET::::- Girl group\n", "BULLET::::- Live band karaoke\n", "BULLET::::- Music industry\n", "BULLET::::- Percussion ensemble\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Bands and Musician Listing\n", "BULLET::::- Vivre Musicale\n" ] }

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{ "description": "group of people who perform instrumental and/or vocal music, with the ensemble typically known by a distinct name", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2088357", "wikidata_label": "musical ensemble", "wikipedia_title": "Musical ensemble", "aliases": { "alias": [ "musical group", "group", "music group", "ensemble" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Andy McCoy\n", "Antti Hulkko (born 11 October 1962), better known as Andy McCoy, is a Finnish musician. He is most famous for his role as the lead guitarist and main songwriter of Hanoi Rocks, but has also played with Iggy Pop.\n", "McCoy's works cover a wide range of music genres, including rock 'n' roll, punk rock, flamenco, glam punk, glam rock, blues rock and hard rock. He is also known to be an avid painter.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Hanoi Rocks (1979–1985, 2001–2009).\n", "Before Hanoi Rocks, McCoy had become well known in his home country, Finland, due to his work in the punk rock band Pelle Miljoona Oy. During this time McCoy was talking with Matti Fagerholm (better known as Michael Monroe) to start a band of their own, but because McCoy was currently in Pelle Miljoona Oy, he told Monroe to start the band without him in 1979. After McCoy left Pelle Miljoona Oy, he joined Monroe in Hanoi Rocks, with another former-Pelle Miljoona Oy member, Sam Yaffa. At this point, the Hanoi Rocks line-up consisted of Michael Monroe (lead vocals), Andy McCoy (lead guitar), Nasty Suicide (rhythm guitar), Sam Yaffa (bass) and Swedish Gyp Casino (drums).\n", "Hanoi Rocks released their first album in 1981 titled \"Bangkok Shocks, Saigon Shakes, Hanoi Rocks\", with eight out of ten tracks written by McCoy. The album was produced by Andy McCoy and Michael Monroe who were known as \"The Muddy Twins\". In 1982 Hanoi Rocks recorded and released their second studio album \"Oriental Beat\" in London. The original cover's back side featured Andy McCoy's then girlfriend Anna's naked breasts painted blue and red with \"Hanoi Roxx\" written across it. After the album's release, the band moved to London the same year, and subsequently fired drummer Gyp Casino before hiring Hanoi Rocks fan Nicholas Dingley, better known as Razzle, as drummer. The line-up with Razzle is considered the definitive version of Hanoi Rocks. Later that year the band released \"Self Destruction Blues\", which had Razzle on the cover, but he didn't play on the album, because it was actually a compilation of old singles. The tour for the album took the band to Asia for the first time. The next year 1983, the band released \"Back to Mystery City\" and after that, in 1984, the band worked with producer Bob Ezrin, and released \"Two Steps from the Move\". Before this, McCoy had written most of the songs by himself, but for this album Bob Ezrin helped McCoy with the writing, along with Monroe. He also got some help with the lyrics from legendary Ian Hunter (of Mott The Hoople). After Razzle's death, Sam Yaffa left the band due to personal differences with McCoy (amongst other reasons he was now engaged to Anna, McCoy's former girlfriend known from the \"Oriental Beat\" cover). The band tried out new members (amongst them The Clash ex-drummer Terry Chimes and bassist René Berg), but things didn't work out, so the band disbanded in 1985.\n", "In 2001 McCoy and Michael Monroe started working together again and decided to reform Hanoi Rocks with two new members on guitar and bass, with Michael Monroe's solo career drummer, Lacu. They released \"Twelve Shots on the Rocks\" that same year. In 2005 they released \"Another Hostile Takeover\" with new members Andy Christell on bass and Conny Bloom on guitar (both formerly of the Electric Boys). In 2007 the band released the album \"Street Poetry\". In 2008 Andy McCoy and Michael Monroe stated that they had taken the band as far as they could and so they decided to end the band. Hanoi Rocks played 8 sold out farewell gigs in 6 days at Tavastia Club, Helsinki. The original guitarist Nasty Suicide appeared as a special guest on three of the last gigs.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Other work (1985–1999, 2009–2012).\n", "After Hanoi Rocks' break-up in 1985, McCoy continued with his next project \"The Cherry Bombz\" which featured the last Hanoi line-up (except Michael Monroe), which consisted of Nasty Suicide, drummer Terry Chimes, bass player Timo Kaltio and vocalist Anita Chellemah of Toto Coelo fame (previously scoring a hit with \"I Eat Cannibals\"). The band was perceived as being the next stage of Hanoi Rocks. The music of The Cherry Bombz was actually very similar to that of Hanoi Rocks'. The band played a handful of shows in Europe and in the United States in 1985 and 1986 and released two EPs and a live album and video, but never a full-length studio album. In 1986, Timo Kaltio was replaced by bassist Dave Tregunna (Sham 69, Lords of the New Church), but the group broke up the next year.\n", "McCoy also worked with Nasty Suicide under the moniker \"The Suicide Twins\" and released the album \"Silver Missiles And Nightingales\" (which was the original working tile for \"Two Steps from the Move\") in 1986, which also featured a guest appearance by René Berg. \"The Suicide Twins\" project disbanded in 1987\n", "McCoy spent the rest of 1987 not doing much, except releasing his memoir titled \"Andy McCoy – From Hanoi to Eternity\", but nothing else. In 1988 McCoy released his first solo-album titled \"Too Much Ain't Enough.\" For the rest of 1988 McCoy did some acoustic gigs in Finland, moved to London and then to Los Angeles. Next McCoy struck a record deal with BMG. McCoy also became the first Finnish artist to have a gold record in the US, when Samantha Fox recorded a cover of The Suicide Twins' song \"The Best Is Yet to Come\". The rest of 1988 and some of 1989 McCoy spent touring as the guitarist for Iggy Pop. In 1989 McCoy appeared on the U.K. Subs' album \"Killing Time\".\n", "In the beginning of the 1990s, McCoy lived in Los Angeles with his son and new girlfriend, Johnny Thunders' cousin Angela Nicoletti (former girlfriend of Izzy Stradlin). McCoy formed the band Shooting Gallery and married Angela in October 1991. Shooting Gallery toured as an opening act for Kiss during a U.S. tour and also released an album in 1992, before breaking-up that same year. Shooting Gallery shortly came back and toured in Finland with Gyp Casino on drums in 1994, but again disbanded that same year.\n", "In 1995 McCoy's second solo-album \"Building on Tradition\" was released and, aside from Hanoi Rocks, it became McCoy's biggest success. The album's biggest hit \"Strung Out\" was originally meant for Shooting Gallery, but it was not recorded until the second solo-album. For the tour for \"Building on Tradition\", McCoy assembled the band Live Ammo, which featured McCoy (guitar, vocals), Angela McCoy (vocals), Dan Lagerstedt (guitar, vocals), Andy Christell (bass), Gyp Casino (drums) and Christian André (keyboards). Christell had to soon leave the band for family reasons, so Lagerstedt started to play bass. André was also fired from the band, and they soon disbanded.\n", "Also in 1995, McCoy appeared on The 69 Eyes' songs \"Vietnamese Baby\" and the song \"Wild Talk\" from the album Savage Garden. Next McCoy returned to his childhood passion: painting (which he still does).\n", "In 1996, McCoy and Pete Malmi reformed their old band Briard after 20 years. The new Briard (which also included Angela McCoy) released a new album simply titled \"Briard\". That same year filmmaker Pekka Lehto started the filming for the movie \"The Real McCoy\", a half-real, half-fictional bio-pic on McCoy. The film was released in 1999.\n", "After Hanoi officially ended in 2009, Andy McCoy formed a band called \"The Real McCoy Band\", but this band broke up after just three shows, when guitarist Chris Shiflett returned to the US after his son contracted swine flu.\n", "After 2009, McCoy was recruited as lead guitarist for Grease Helmet, a new Helsinki-based band. The first album of the band was released in September 2012. Besides working with Grease Helmet, McCoy has also performed with several other bands including the new band for a Finnish punk singer, Pelle Miljoona (which he had played before joining Hanoi Rocks) as well as Bam Margera's band in which he toured in Australia in 2015.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Besides music, Andy McCoy is an avid painter and he also makes a lot of his own and his wife's clothes, along with designing jewellery, scarfs and other accessories. Andy McCoy held his first Art Exhibition \"McCoy Hits Canvas\" at The Cable Factory in Helsinki in 2010.\n", "On 27 July 2009 a statue of Andy McCoy (Sculpted in Wood by Matti Hulkko) was erected in the main square of Pelkosenniemi. All proceeds went to charity for newcomers in the music business.\n", "McCoy's autobiography \"Sheriff McCoy: Outlaw Legend of Hanoi Rocks\" was published in English translation on 17 September 2009 by Bazillion Points Books.\n", "McCoy was previously married to Anastasia Maisonneuve, the ex-girlfriend of his Hanoi Rocks bandmate Michael Monroe, and the former common-law wife of musician Stiv Bators. She and McCoy have a son together named Sebastian. McCoy has been married to Angela Nicoletti since 1991.\n", "McCoy entered Finland's Celebrity Big Brother on 3 September 2013.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "When Acey Slade was asked \" Who is the best guitarist in rock right now?\" He replied: \"Andy McCoy. Period. When Dave Grohl met Andy McCoy he said \"I have met my first Rockstar.\" That's a pretty good reason\".\n", "McCoy is a friend of Bam Margera (professional skater and \"Jackass\" star). McCoy made his appearance in \"Viva la Bam\", \"\" and appeared several times on radio Bam. Bam Margera has a tattoo of Andy McCoy on his right arm.\n", "Section::::Discography.\n", "Section::::Discography.:Solo.\n", "BULLET::::- Too Much Ain't Enough (1988)\n", "BULLET::::- Building on Tradition (1995)\n", "BULLET::::- The Real McCoy – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1999)\n", "BULLET::::- R'n'R Memorabilia – The Best Solo Tracks So Far! (2003)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Briard.\n", "BULLET::::- I Really Hate Ya – 7\" (1977)\n", "BULLET::::- Fuck the Army – 7\" (1978)\n", "BULLET::::- Chirpy Chirpy Cheap Cheap – 7\" (1979)\n", "BULLET::::- Miss World – LP (1983)\n", "BULLET::::- Briard (1996)\n", "BULLET::::- Miss World – rerelease with 15 bonus songs (2005)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Pelle Miljoona Oy.\n", "BULLET::::- Moottoritie on kuuma (1980)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Suicide Twins.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Silver Missiles And Nightingales\" (1986)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Cherry Bombz.\n", "BULLET::::- Cherry Bombz/Hot Girls in Love (Mini-LP) (1985)\n", "BULLET::::- House of Ecstasy (EP) (1986)\n", "BULLET::::- Coming Down Slow (Live) (1987)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Shooting Gallery.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shooting Gallery\" 1992 (Mercury records)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Grease Helmet.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease Helmet\" (2012)\n", "Section::::Discography.:Guest appearances.\n", "BULLET::::- Maukka Perusjätkä: Ennen kolmatta maailmansotaa (1980)\n", "BULLET::::- Pete Malmi: Malmi Re-released 2005 (1981)\n", "BULLET::::- Urban Dogs: Urban Dogs (McCoy on guitar on \"A Bridge Too Far\" and \"Human Beings\") (1983)\n", "BULLET::::- Fallen Angels: Fallen Angels (McCoy on additional guitar) (1983)\n", "BULLET::::- Fallen Angels: In Loving Memory (McCoy on additional guitar) (1986)\n", "BULLET::::- UK Subs: Killing Time (McCoy plays guitar on \"Drag Me Down\") (1988)\n", "BULLET::::- Snatches of Pink: Bent With Pray (McCoy plays guitar on \"Screams\") (1992)\n", "BULLET::::- The 69 Eyes: Savage Garden (\"Wild Talk\" with/by McCoy) (1995)\n", "BULLET::::- The 69 Eyes: Velvet Touch (McCoy plays guitar on \"TV Eye\") (1995)\n", "BULLET::::- Juice Leskinen: Kiveä ja sämpylää (1996)\n", "BULLET::::- XL5: Taas Mennään (Guitar by McCoy) (1996)\n", "BULLET::::- 22 Pistepirkko: Downhill City (McCoy on the song \"Let The Romeo Weep\") (1999)\n", "BULLET::::- Hidria Spacefolk: Balansia (McCoy on slide guitar on \"Pajas\") (2004)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- A gallery of Andy McCoys paintings\n", "BULLET::::- A profile \"Kaksi minää – 22 ihmistä kertoo, millainen on oikea Andy McCoy\" giving a detailed look on Andy McCoy's personality\n", "BULLET::::- Andy McCoy interview at WickedInfo.com\n", "BULLET::::- \"SHERIFF MCCOY: Outlaw Legend of Hanoi Rocks, by Andy McCoy\"\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Finnish musician", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1705347", "wikidata_label": "Andy McCoy", "wikipedia_title": "Andy McCoy", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Antti Hulkko" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Matsu Islands\n", "The Matsu Islands (; Fuzhou dialect: Mā-cū liĕk-dō̤ or less frequently, ; Fuzhou dialect: Mā-cū dō̤) are a minor archipelago of 36 islands and islets in the East China Sea administered as Lienchiang County (; Fuzhou dialect: Lièng-gŏng gâing) under streamlined Fujian Province, Republic of China (Taiwan). It is the smallest county in the ROC free area.\n", "Only a small area of what is historically Lienchiang County is under the control of the ROC. The People's Republic of China (PRC) administers the part of the historical county on mainland China as Lianjiang County, which claims the entire archipelago to be its Mazu Township (; Mā-cū hiŏng). The ROC also controls two other archipelagos along the coast of Fujian, namely the Kinmen Islands and the Wuqiu Islands, which together make up Kinmen County.\n", "Section::::Name.\n", "The Lienchiang name is derived from the original Lianjiang County of Fujian province in Mainland China. In April 2003, the county government started considering changing the name to Matsu County to avoid confusion with the county of the same name on the mainland. Some local people opposed the name change because they felt it reflected the pro-independence viewpoint of the Democratic Progressive Party.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Yuan Dynasty.\n", "Mainlanders from Fujian and Zhejiang started migrating to the islands during the Yuan Dynasty. Most of the people on Matsu came from Houguan () (today Changle, Fujian). The popular net fishing industry had established the base for development of Fuao settlement and industrial development of the region over several hundred years.\n", "Section::::History.:Ming Dynasty.\n", "Some crewmen of Zheng He temporarily stayed on the islands.\n", "Section::::History.:Qing Dynasty.\n", "During the early Qing Dynasty, pirates gathered here and the residents left temporarily. In contrast with Taiwan and Penghu, the Matsu Islands were not ceded to the Japanese Empire via the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Neither were they occupied by Japanese troops during World War II because they were not important militarily. Due to its strategic location for the only route for spice road, the British established the Dongyong Lighthouse in Dongyin Island in 1912 to facilitate ships navigation.\n", "Section::::History.:Republic of China.\n", "In 1911, the Qing Dynasty was toppled after the Xinhai Revolution on 10 October 1911 and the Republic of China (ROC) was established on 1 January 1912. Matsu Islands was subsequently governed under the administration of Fukien Province of the ROC. On 1 August 1927, the Nanchang Uprising broke out between the ruling Nationalist Party of China (KMT) and Communist Party of China (CPC) which marked the beginning of Chinese Civil War. After years of war, the CPC finally managed to take over mainland China from KMT and established the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949 which also covers the Lianjiang County of Fujian. The KMT subsequently retreated from mainland China to Taiwan in end of 1949.\n", "After their retreat, the KMT retained the offshore part from the original Lianjiang County located on Matsu Islands, and also all of Kinmen County. In July 1958 the PRC began massing forces opposite the two islands and began bombarding them on 23 August, triggering the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis. On 4 September 1958, the PRC announced the extension of its territorial waters by 20 kilometres (12 mi) to include the two islands. However, after talks were held between the USA and PRC in Warsaw, Poland later that month, a ceasefire was agreed and the status quo reaffirmed.\n", "The phrase \"Quemoy and Matsu\" became part of American political language in the 1960 U.S. presidential election. During the debates, both candidates, Vice-President Richard Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy, pledged to use American forces if necessary to protect Taiwan from invasion by the PRC, which the United States did not recognize as a legitimate government. But the two candidates had different opinions about whether to use American forces to protect Taiwan's forward positions, Quemoy and Matsu, also. In fact, Senator Kennedy stated that these islands - as little as 9 kilometres (5.5 mi) off the coast of China and as much as 170 kilometres (106 mi) from Taiwan - were strategically indefensible and were not essential to the defense of Taiwan. On the contrary, Vice-President Nixon maintained that since Quemoy and Matsu were in the \"area of freedom,\" they should not be surrendered to the Communists as a matter of \"principle.\"\n", "Self governance of the county resumed in 1992 after the normalization of the political warfare with the mainland and the abolishment of Battle Field Administration on 7 November 1992. Afterwards, the local constructions progressed tremendously. In 1999, the islands were designated under Matsu National Scenic Area Administration. In January 2001, direct cargo and passenger shipping started between Matsu and Fujian Province of the PRC. Since 1 January 2015, tourists from mainland China could directly apply the Exit and Entry Permit upon arrival in Matsu Islands. This privilege also applies to Penghu and Kinmen as means to boost tourism in the outlying islands of Taiwan.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "The Matsu Islands comprise 19 islands and islets, which include five major islands, which are Nangan, Dongju and Xiju (both in Juguang Township), Beigan and Dongyin. Minor islands include Liang (), Gaodeng (), Daqiu () and Xiaoqiu (), which are all belong to the Beigan Township.\n", "Dongyin is the northernmost and Dongju is the southernmost.\n", "BULLET::::- Dongyin is 100 nautical miles (190 km) from Keelung, Taiwan, 180 to the Penghu islands, and slightly over 10 nautical miles (19 km) from the Chinese Mainland.\n", "BULLET::::- The soil is not ideal for farming.\n", "BULLET::::- The highest point is on Beigan, 298 metres.\n", "Areas: \n", "BULLET::::- Nangan:\n", "BULLET::::- Beigan:\n", "BULLET::::- Dongyin:\n", "BULLET::::- Juguang islands: see Juguang\n", "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n", "Average annual temperature is 18.6 °C, with the average low being at 13 °C and average high at 29 °C. The daily temperature varies greatly during day and night. The region experiences subtropical maritime climate, which is influenced by monsoon and ocean currents and its geographic location. Matsu has four seasons, where during winter it is cold and wet, during summer and spring it is foggy and during autumn the weather is generally stable.\n", "Section::::Government.\n", "Matsu Islands is administered as Lienchiang County under the Fujian Provincial Government. Nangan Township is the county seat which houses the Lienchiang County Government and Lienchiang County Council. The county is headed by a magistrate which is elected every four years in the ROC local elections. The incumbent magistrate is Liu Cheng-ying of Kuomintang.\n", "Section::::Government.:Administrative divisions.\n", "Lienchiang County is divided into four rural townships. It is further divided into 22 villages and 137 neighborhoods (鄰). Lienchiang County is the only county in Taiwan which does not have a city or an urban township.\n", "All townships, except Juguang, are named after the largest island in its jurisdictional area, but most townships also include other islets.\n", "Section::::Government.:Politics.\n", "Lienchang County voted one Kuomintang legislator out of one seat to be in the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.\n", "Section::::Government.:Cross-Strait Relations.\n", "Since March 2019, the Lienchiang Cross-Strait Matters Forum started as an official forum between Lianchiang County of the Republic of China and Lianjiang County of the People's Republic of China to discuss matters regarding the two sides.\n", "Section::::Demographics and culture.\n", "Section::::Demographics and culture.:Population.\n", "The majority of native Matsu Islands residents originated from Northern Fujian. Several of the islands of Matsu are not inhabited permanently. Some of these are garrisoned by soldiers from the Republic of China Armed Forces stationed in the county since the end of Chinese Civil War in 1949 and during the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1954 and 1958 respectively. Due to that high military demand large numbers of military personnel stationed on the islands produced unprecedented population growth in the county. The population reached its peak in 1971 with a total of 17,088 people. After those period of high growth the population decreased year after year due to the poor economic growth which resulted in mass youth emigration due to lack of employment opportunities. In recent years the population in the county has gradually increased because of immigration. The population has stabilized and become stable due to the improved transportation between Taiwan Island and Matsu Islands as well as mass construction projects.\n", "Section::::Demographics and culture.:Language.\n", "Mandarin Chinese is the official language of Lienchiang County. The native language spoken by Matsu residents is Matsu dialect, a subdialect of Fuzhou dialect.\n", "Section::::Demographics and culture.:Name.\n", "Chen (陳) is the most common surname, then Lin (林), Wang (王), Tsao (曹) and Liu (劉).\n", "Section::::Demographics and culture.:Belief.\n", "Matsu, though named after the goddess Matsu, is written with a different character that has a different tone. But the Matsu Islands are not the birthplace of the goddess as the human Lin Muoniang - Meizhou Island is — but her death place (on a seaport named after her on Nangan Island).\n", "The Matsu Nangan Tianhou Temple (), a temple dedicated to the goddess, contains the sarcophagus of Lin Muoniang. It is, however, not as popular as the Meizhou temple.\n", "Most Taiwanese pilgrims to Meizhou start off their journey in the Matsu Islands because they are the closest ROC-controlled territory to Meizhou, which is controlled by the PRC.\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "Due to its geographically remote location, the manufacturing business of Matsu has never been fully developed. Among them, the wine making industry of Matsu Distillery is the most distinguished feature. Tourism and service businesses are still not prominent.\n", "However, most of its commercial tradings focus on retail businesses and restaurants for stationed military consumption. Farm products of Matsu include rice, sugar cane, tea plant, orange. Sea animals, such as fish, clams, and jellyfish, are also popular exports due to its nature as the major traditional industry in Matsu. However, the flourish of fishing ground is almost exhausted by arbitrary fish bombing by Mainland China fishing boats, while the population of fishes is decreasing as well.\n", "In July 2012, Matsu residents voted in favor for the establishment of casinos, which led the path of the prospect gaming industries in the county and the passing on of Gaming Act ().\n", "Section::::Energy and environment.\n", "Section::::Energy and environment.:Power generation.\n", "The islands are powered up by their fuel-fired (diesel) Zhushan Power Plant located in Cingshuei Village of Nangan Township with a capacity of 15.4 MW commissioned on 22 March 2010. The other power plant is Xiju Power Plant in Xiju Island of Juguang Township.\n", "Section::::Energy and environment.:Pollution.\n", "Generally, the environment of Matsu Islands is still good. The major source of pollution is from family and military households waste. There are however concerns that the continued lack of modern sewage facilities results in household waste seeping into groundwater.\n", "Section::::Tourism.\n", "One of the most promising resources for local economy is tourism. Lienchiang County Government is making an effort to attract more visitors to the Matsu Islands, especially among foreigners.\n", "Nangan is the capital of Matsu and it is noted for its granite tunnel and the Iron Fort. It has two interconnected main roads.\n", "The Beihai Tunnels are manmade granite tunnels. Both tunnels were remarkable for their time, and they took great effort to construct. The tunnel in Nangan was built in 1968. The completion of Beihai Tunnel took the effort of thousands of men. The 700 metre tunnel has a width of 10 metres and a height of 16 metres. It was completed in 820 days with shovels, spades and explosives; the tunnel also took the life of a platoon of soldiers. The tunnel was considered a military location and was not opened to the public until 1990.\n", "The Iron Fort is located on the Southwest side of Nangan island. Located by a small cliff, it is a vulnerable spot for outside attacks or illegal smuggling of materials. With that in mind, the fort was built for defence. It is equipped with multiple machinegun rooms and rudimentary living facilities. It is now open to the public, and although most of the equipment has been removed from the site, the site itself brings back a vivid image of what it was like for soldiers at that time.\n", "Museums in Matsu including the Matsu Folk Culture Museum, Ching-Kuo Memorial Hall and War and Peace Memorial Park Exhibition Center.\n", "Section::::Tourism.:Nature.\n", "Since 1990, the county controls the , which spreads across eight islands and islets in Nangan, Beigan and Tongyin Townships. It contains 30 species in 15 orders, mostly gulls and terns. In 2000, four pairs of the critically endangered Chinese crested tern, previously thought to be extinct, were discovered nesting on the Matsu Islands, giving them global conservation importance.\n", "There are also mosses and ferns rare or absent elsewhere in the ROC.\n", "Cetacean species that have become rare along Chinese coasts are still present here such as false killer whales and finless porpoises, providing opportunistic observations at times. Finless porpoises in this areas are generally smaller than other subspecies, and it is unique that two subspecies inhabit in this region where Matsu region is the northern limit for one of these.\n", "Section::::Transportation.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Air.\n", "Both Nangan and Beigan have airports which are the Matsu Nangan Airport and Matsu Beigan Airport respectively. Dongyin and Juguang (in Xiju Island) house heliports which only operates during winter time and priority is given to local residents to travel to Nangan.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Water.\n", "Due to the fact that the main airport is located in Nangan, boats are the main form of transportation between the islands in the county.\n", "There are two ferry rides to Mainland China. One arrives at Mawei District of Fuzhou and departs from Fuao Harbor at Nangan Township in which the journey normally takes 90 minutes while in Nangan. Another arrives at Huangqi () of Lianjiang and departs from Beigan Township in which the journey takes only 20 minutes.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Road.\n", "Due to their size, travelling by motorized scooter is an ideal way to get around the main islands such as Nangan and Beigan. Both Islands have regular buses and taxis are also economical.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Lianjiang County\n", "BULLET::::- Administrative divisions of the Republic of China\n", "BULLET::::- Township (Republic of China)\n", "BULLET::::- List of cities in the Republic of China\n", "BULLET::::- List of islands of the Republic of China\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Lienchiang County Government Official Website\n", "BULLET::::- Military importance from www.globalsecurity.org\n", "BULLET::::- Smaller map (from CNN)\n", "BULLET::::- Name change: \"Taipei Times\" article\n", "BULLET::::- Matzu Scenic Area\n", "BULLET::::- Satellite image of the Nangan and Beigan islands by Google Maps\n" ] }

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{ "description": "minor archipelago of 19 islands and islets in Fujian Province, ROC", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q609255", "wikidata_label": "Matsu Islands", "wikipedia_title": "Matsu Islands", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Lienchiang County" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206515, "parentid": 904059764, "revid": 905030235, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-06T10:04:36Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matsu%20Islands&oldid=905030235" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Simple living\n", "Simple living encompasses a number of different voluntary practices to simplify one's lifestyle. These may include, for example, reducing one's possessions, generally referred to as \"minimalism\", or increasing self-sufficiency. Simple living may be characterized by individuals being satisfied with what they have rather than want. Although asceticism generally promotes living simply and refraining from luxury and indulgence, not all proponents of simple living are ascetics. Simple living is distinct from those living in forced poverty, as it is a voluntary lifestyle choice.\n", "Adherents may choose simple living for a variety of personal reasons, such as spirituality, health, increase in quality time for family and friends, work–life balance, personal taste, financial sustainability, frugality, or reducing stress. Simple living can also be a reaction to materialism and conspicuous consumption. Some cite socio-political goals aligned with the environmentalist, anti-consumerist or anti-war movements, including conservation, degrowth, social justice, and tax resistance.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Religious and spiritual.\n", "A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living. Early examples include the Śramaṇa traditions of Iron Age India, Gautama Buddha, and biblical Nazirites.\n", "The biblical figure Jesus is said to have lived a simple life. He is said to have encouraged his disciples \"to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics.\" \n", "Various notable individuals have claimed that spiritual inspiration led them to a simple living lifestyle, such as Benedict of Nursia, Francis of Assisi, Ammon Hennacy, Leo Tolstoy, Rabindranath Tagore, Albert Schweitzer, and Mahatma Gandhi.\n", "Traditions of simple living stretch back to antiquity, finding resonance with leaders such as Zarathustra, Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius and Jesus was heavily stressed in both Greco-Roman culture and Judeo-Christian ethics. Diogenes, a major figure in the ancient Greek philosophy of Cynicism, claimed that a simple life was necessary for virtue, and was said to have lived in a wine jar.\n", "Plain people are Christian groups who have for centuries practised lifestyles in which some forms of wealth or technology are excluded for religious or philosophical reasons. Groups include the Shakers, Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Amana Colonies, Bruderhof, Old German Baptist Brethren, Harmony Society, and some Quakers. There is a Quaker belief called \"Testimony of simplicity\" that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Some tropes about complete rejection of technology in these groups are not accurate though. The Amish do use some modern technology, after assessing its impact on the community. Reports that the Bruderhof don't have electricity are also false. \n", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau strongly praised the simple life in many of his writings, especially in his \"Discourse on the Arts and Sciences\" (1750) and \"Discourse on Inequality\" (1754).\n", "Section::::History.:Secular.\n", "Epicureanism, based on the teachings of the Athens-based philosopher Epicurus, flourished from about the fourth century BC to the third century AD. Epicureanism upheld the untroubled life as the paradigm of happiness, made possible by carefully considered choices. Specifically, Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasure of partaking in it. He therefore concluded that what is necessary for happiness, bodily comfort, and life itself should be maintained at minimal cost, while all things beyond what is necessary for these should either be tempered by moderation or completely avoided.\n", "Henry David Thoreau, an American naturalist and author, is often considered to have made the classic secular statement advocating a life of simple and sustainable living in his book \"Walden\" (1854). Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of Walden Pond.\n", "In Victorian Britain, Henry Stephens Salt, an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of \"Simplification, the saner method of living\". Other British advocates of the simple life included Edward Carpenter, William Morris, and the members of the \"Fellowship of the New Life\". Carpenter popularised the phrase the \"Simple Life\" in his essay \"Simplification of Life\" in his \"England's Ideal\" (1887).\n", "C.R. Ashbee and his followers also practised some of these ideas, thus linking simplicity with the Arts and Crafts movement. British novelist John Cowper Powys advocated the simple life in his 1933 book \"A Philosophy of Solitude\". John Middleton Murry and Max Plowman practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s.\n", "Irish poet Patrick Kavanagh championed a \"right simplicity\" philosophy based on ruralism in some of his work.\n", "George Lorenzo Noyes, a naturalist, mineralogist, development critic, writer, and artist, is known as the Thoreau of Maine. He lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Vanderbilt Agrarians of the Southern United States advocated a lifestyle and culture centered upon traditional and sustainable agrarian values as opposed to the progressive urban industrialism which dominated the Western world at that time.\n", "Thorstein Veblen warned against the conspicuous consumption of the materialistic society with \"The Theory of the Leisure Class\" (1899); Richard Gregg coined the term \"voluntary simplicity\" in \"The Value of Voluntary Simplicity\" (1936). From the 1920s, a number of modern authors articulated both the theory and practice of living simply, among them Gandhian Richard Gregg, economists Ralph Borsodi and Scott Nearing, anthropologist-poet Gary Snyder, and utopian fiction writer Ernest Callenbach. E. F. Schumacher argued against the notion that \"bigger is better\" in \"Small Is Beautiful\" (1973); and Duane Elgin continued the promotion of the simple life in \"Voluntary Simplicity\" (1981). The Australian academic Ted Trainer practices and writes about simplicity, and established The Simplicity Institute at Pigface Point, some 20 km from the University of New South Wales to which it is attached. A secular set of nine values was developed with the \"Ethify Yourself\" project in Austria, having a simplified life style in mind and accompanied by an online book (2011). In the United States voluntary simplicity started to garner more public exposure through a movement in the late 1990s around a popular \"simplicity\" book, \"The Simple Living Guide\" by Janet Luhrs. Around the same time, minimalism (a similar movement) started to also show its light into the public eye.\n", "Section::::Changing mindset.\n", "Living simply involves different lifestyle habits. When trying to achieve a simple living lifestyle, the idea of it sounds satisfying, but the essence of this practice is to do it repeatedly. Danny Dover, Author of book \"The Minimalist Mindset\", states ideas are simply just thoughts, but implementing and acting on these ideas in our own lives is what will make it habitual, and allowing a change in mindset. Leo Babauta believes finding beauty and joy in less, is what advocates the thought of \"more is better\" to be untrue. It is quality over quantity that minimalists prefer to follow. There is meaning and what they own holds a true value to them rather than just having things to have. This mindset has spread among many individuals due to influences of other people living this lifestyle. Joshua Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus share their story of what they used to see life for. The constant additions that are never ending in this worlds are what drove their impulses to keep buying and filling this void of acceptance and approval. Realizing there was this emptiness of being able to get anything they want, there was no meaning behind what they had. This called for a change in mindset with what they see as important and truly valuable before they can begin any other practices or lifestyle habits. \n", "Section::::Practices.\n", "Section::::Practices.:Reducing consumption, work time, and possessions.\n", "Some people practice simple living by reducing consumption. By lowering expenditure on goods or services, the time spent earning money can be reduced. The time saved may be used to pursue other interests, or help others through volunteering. Some may use the extra free time to improve their quality of life, for example pursuing creative activities such as art and crafts. Developing a detachment from money has led some individuals, such as Suelo and Mark Boyle, to live with no money at all. Reducing expenses may also lead to increasing savings, which can lead to financial independence and the possibility of early retirement.\n", "The 100 Thing Challenge is a grassroots movement to whittle down personal possessions to one hundred items, with the aim of de-cluttering and simplifying life. The small house movement includes individuals who chose to live in small, mortgage-free, low-impact dwellings, such as log cabins or beach huts.\n", "Those who follow simple living may hold a different value over their homes. Joshua Becker suggests simplifying the place that they live for those who desire to live this lifestyle. He addresses the fact that the purpose of a home is a place for safety and belonging. Many get caught up over all of the space they have in their house and feel the need to buy stuff to fill it. This is something that must be reflected upon because it raises the question of if it is just pleasing to the eye, or if it is truly needed. \n", "Section::::Practices.:Increasing self-sufficiency.\n", "One way to simplify life is to get back-to-the-land and grow your own food, as increased self-sufficiency reduces dependency on money and the economy. Tom Hodgkinson believes the key to a free and simple life is to stop consuming and start producing. This is a sentiment shared by an increasing number of people, including those belonging to the millennial generation such as writer and eco blogger Jennifer Nini, who left the city to live off-grid, grow food, and \"be a part of the solution; not part of the problem.\"\n", "Forest gardening, developed by simple living adherent Robert Hart, is a low-maintenance plant-based food production system based on woodland ecosystems, incorporating fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines and perennial vegetables. Hart created a model forest garden from a 0.12 acre orchard on his farm at Wenlock Edge in Shropshire.\n", "The idea of food miles, the number of miles a given item of food or its ingredients has travelled between the farm and the table, is used by simple living advocates to argue for locally grown food. This is now gaining mainstream acceptance, as shown by the popularity of books such as \"The 100-Mile Diet,\" and Barbara Kingsolver's \"Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life.\" In each of these cases, the authors devoted a year to reducing their carbon footprint by eating locally.\n", "City dwellers can also produce fresh home grown fruit and vegetables in pot gardens or miniature indoor greenhouses. Tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, Swiss chard, peas, strawberries, and several types of herbs can all thrive in pots. Jim Merkel says that a person \"could sprout seeds. They are tasty, incredibly nutritious, and easy to grow... We grow them in wide mouthed mason jars with a square of nylon window screen screwed under a metal ring\". Farmer Matt Moore spoke on this issue: \"How does it affect the consumer to know that broccoli takes 105 days to grow a head? [...] The supermarket mode is one of plenty — it's always stocked. And that changes our sense of time. How long it takes to grow food — that's removed in the marketplace. They don't want you to think about how long it takes to grow, because they want you to buy right now\". One way to change this viewpoint is also suggested by Mr. Moore. He placed a video installation in the produce section of a grocery store that documented the length of time it took to grow certain vegetables. This aimed to raise awareness in people of the length of time actually needed for gardens.\n", "The do it yourself ethic refers to the principle of undertaking necessary tasks oneself rather than having others, who are more skilled or experienced, complete them for you.\n", "Section::::Practices.:Reconsidering technology.\n", "People who practice simple living have diverse views on the role of technology. The American political activist Scott Nearing was skeptical about how humanity would use new technology, citing destructive inventions such as nuclear weapons. Those who eschew modern technology are often referred to as Luddites or neo-Luddites. Although simple living is often a secular pursuit, it may still involve reconsidering personal definitions of appropriate technology, as Anabaptist groups such as the Amish or Mennonites have done.\n", "Technological proponents see cutting-edge technologies as a way to make a simple lifestyle within mainstream culture easier and more sustainable. They argue that the internet can reduce an individual's carbon footprint through telecommuting and lower paper usage. Some have also calculated their energy consumption and have shown that one can live simply and in an emotionally satisfying way by using much less energy than is used in Western countries. Technologies they may embrace include computers, photovoltaic systems, wind and water turbines.\n", "Technological interventions that appear to simplify living may actually induce side effects elsewhere or at a future point in time. Evgeny Morozov warns that tools like the internet can facilitate mass surveillance and political repression. The book \"Green Illusions\" identifies how wind and solar energy technologies have hidden side effects and can actually increase energy consumption and entrench environmental harms over time. Authors of the book \"Techno-Fix\" criticize technological optimists for overlooking the limitations of technology in solving agricultural problems.\n", "Advertising is criticised for encouraging a consumerist mentality. Many advocates of simple living tend to agree that cutting out, or cutting down on, television viewing is a key ingredient in simple living. Some see the Internet, podcasting, community radio, or pirate radio as viable alternatives.\n", "Section::::Practices.:Simplifying diet.\n", "Another practice is the adoption of a simplified diet. Diets that may simplify domestic food production and consumption include vegan diets and the Gandhi diet. In the United Kingdom, the Movement for Compassionate Living was formed by Kathleen and Jack Jannaway in 1984 to spread the vegan message and promote simple living and self-reliance as a remedy against the exploitation of humans, animals, and the Earth.\n", "Section::::Politics and activism.\n", "Section::::Politics and activism.:Environmentalism.\n", "Simple living may be undertaken by environmentalists. For example, Green parties often advocate simple living as a consequence of their \"four pillars\" or the \"Ten Key Values\" of the Green Party of the United States. This includes, in policy terms, their rejection of genetic engineering and nuclear power and other technologies they consider to be hazardous. The Greens' support for simplicity is based on the reduction in natural resource usage and environmental impact. This concept is expressed in Ernest Callenbach's \"green triangle\" of ecology, frugality and health.\n", "Many with similar views avoid involvement even with green politics as compromising simplicity, however, and advocate forms of green anarchism that attempt to implement these principles at a smaller scale, e.g. the ecovillage. Deep ecology, a belief that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans, proposes wilderness preservation, human population control and simple living.\n", "Section::::Politics and activism.:Anti-war.\n", "The alleged relationship between economic growth and war, when fought for control and exploitation of natural and human resources, is considered a good reason for promoting a simple living lifestyle. Avoiding the perpetuation of the resource curse is a similar objective of many simple living adherents.\n", "Opposition to war has led peace activists, such as Ammon Hennacy and Ellen Thomas, to a form of tax resistance in which they reduce their income below the tax threshold by taking up a simple living lifestyle. These individuals believe that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical or destructive activities such as war, and paying taxes inevitably funds these activities.\n", "Section::::Politics and activism.:Art.\n", "The term Bohemianism has been used to describe a long tradition of both voluntary and involuntary poverty by artists who devote their time to artistic endeavors rather than paid labor.\n", "In May 2014, a story on NPR suggested that positive attitudes towards living in poverty for the sake of art are becoming less common among young American artists, and quoted one recent graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design as saying \"her classmates showed little interest in living in garrets and eating ramen noodles.\"\n", "Section::::Economics.\n", "A new economics movement has been building since the UN conference on the environment in 1972, and the publication that year of \"Only One Earth\", \"The Limits to Growth\", and \"Blueprint For Survival\", followed in 1973 by \"Small Is Beautiful: Economics As If People Mattered.\"\n", "Recently, David Wann has introduced the idea of “simple prosperity” as it applies to a sustainable lifestyle. From his point of view, and as a point of departure for what he calls real sustainability, “it is important to ask ourselves three fundamental questions: what is the point of all our commuting and consuming? What is the economy for? And, finally, why do we seem to be unhappier now than when we began our initial pursuit for rich abundance?” In this context, simple living is the opposite of our modern quest for affluence and, as a result, it becomes less preoccupied with quantity and more concerned about the preservation of cities, traditions and nature.\n", "A reference point for this new economics can be found in James Robertson's \"A New Economics of Sustainable Development,\" and the work of thinkers and activists, who participate in his \"Working for a Sane Alternative\" network and program. According to Robertson, the shift to sustainability is likely to require a widespread shift of emphasis from raising incomes to reducing costs.\n", "The principles of the new economics, as set out by Robertson, are the following:\n", "BULLET::::- systematic empowerment of people (as opposed to making and keeping them dependent), as the basis for people-centred development\n", "BULLET::::- systematic conservation of resources and the environment, as the basis for environmentally sustainable development\n", "BULLET::::- evolution from a “wealth of nations” model of economic life to a one-world model, and from today's inter-national economy to an ecologically sustainable, decentralising, multi-level one-world economic system\n", "BULLET::::- restoration of political and ethical factors to a central place in economic life and thought\n", "BULLET::::- respect for qualitative values, not just quantitative values.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- (category)\n", "BULLET::::- Affluenza\n", "BULLET::::- Asceticism\n", "BULLET::::- Anti-consumerism\n", "BULLET::::- Black Bear Ranch\n", "BULLET::::- Corporate poverty\n", "BULLET::::- Deep ecology\n", "BULLET::::- Degrowth\n", "BULLET::::- Eye of a needle\n", "BULLET::::- Epicureanism\n", "BULLET::::- Homesteading\n", "BULLET::::- Intentional living\n", "BULLET::::- Jesus and the rich young man\n", "BULLET::::- Tiny house movement\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Helen and Scott Nearing (1970) \"The Good Life: Helen and Scott Nearing's Sixty Years of Self-Sufficient Living\", Schocken\n", "BULLET::::- Vernard Eller (1973) \"The Simple Life\",\n", "BULLET::::- Dolly Freed (1978) \"Possum Living: How to Live Well Without a Job and with (Almost) No Money\" 2010 edition\n", "BULLET::::- Duane Elgin (1981, revised 1993 and 2010) \"Voluntary Simplicity\", Harper,\n", "BULLET::::- Charles Long (1986) \"How to Survive Without a Salary: Living the Conserver Lifestyle\". 1996 edition\n", "BULLET::::- Wendell Berry (1990) \"What Are People For?\", North Point Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Vicki Robin and Joe Dominguez (1992) \"Your Money or Your Life\", Viking. \"Your Money or Your Life: Revised and Updated for the 21st Century\", published by Penguin Books in December 2008 by Vicki Robin with Monique Tilford and contributor Mark Zaifman.\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Romney (1992) \"Living Well on Practically Nothing\" 2001 edition\n", "BULLET::::- Janet Luhrs (1997) \"The Simple Living Guide: A Sourcebook for Less Stressful, More Joyful Living\",\n", "BULLET::::- Amy Dacyzyn (1998) \"The Complete Tightwad Gazette: Promoting Thrift as a Viable Alternative Lifestyle.\",\n", "BULLET::::- Deborah Taylor-Hough (2000) \"A Simple Choice: A practical guide for saving your time, money and sanity\", SourceBooks,\n", "BULLET::::- John de Graaf, David Wann and Thomas Naylor (2002) \"\",\n", "BULLET::::- Stephanie Mills (2002) \"Epicurean Simplicity\", Island Press,\n", "BULLET::::- Jacob Lund Fisker (2010) \"Early Retirement Extreme: A philosophical and practical guide to financial independence\",\n", "BULLET::::- Dave Bruno (2010) \"The 100 Thing Challenge\",\n", "BULLET::::- Marie Kondo (2014) \"The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up\",\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Testament Of Quaker Simplicity\n", "BULLET::::- The Good Life: An International Perspective by Amitai Etzioni\n" ] }

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{ "description": "lifestyle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q56092", "wikidata_label": "simple living", "wikipedia_title": "Simple living", "aliases": { "alias": [ "frugality" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206509, "parentid": 907298813, "revid": 908835403, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-08-01T09:19:28Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Simple%20living&oldid=908835403" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Leigh Hunt\n", "James Henry Leigh Hunt (19 October 178428 August 1859), best known as Leigh Hunt, was an English critic, essayist and poet.\n", "Hunt co-founded \"The Examiner\", a leading intellectual journal expounding radical principles. He was the centre of the Hampstead-based group that included William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb, known as the 'Hunt circle'. Hunt also introduced John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Robert Browning and Alfred Lord Tennyson to the public. \n", "Hunt's presence at Shelley's funeral on the beach near Viareggio was immortalised in the painting by Louis Édouard Fournier, although in reality Hunt did not stand by the pyre, as portrayed. Hunt was the inspiration for the Harold Skimpole character in Charles Dickens' novel \"Bleak House\".\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Early life.\n", "James Henry Leigh Hunt was born at Southgate, London, where his parents had settled after leaving the United States. His father Isaac, a lawyer from Philadelphia, and his mother, Mary Shewell, a merchant's daughter and a devout Quaker, had been forced to come to Britain because of their loyalist sympathies during the American War of Independence. \n", "Once in England, Issac Hunt became a popular preacher, but was unsuccessful in obtaining a permanent living. He was then employed by James Brydges, 3rd Duke of Chandos, as tutor to his nephew, James Henry Leigh. \n", "Section::::Biography.:Education.\n", "Leigh Hunt was educated at Christ's Hospital in Horsham, West Sussex from 1791 to 1799, a period that Hunt described in his autobiography. Thomas Barnes was a school friend of his. One of the boarding houses at Christ's Hospital is named after Hunt. \n", "As a boy, Hunt was an admirer of Thomas Gray and William Collins, writing many verses in imitation of them. A speech impediment, later cured, prevented Hunt from going to university. \"For some time after I left school,\" he says, \"I did nothing but visit my school-fellows, haunt the book-stalls and write verses.\" \n", "Hunt's first poems were published in 1801 under the title of \"Juvenilia\", introducing him into British literary and theatrical society. He began to write for the newspapers, and published in 1807 a volume of theatre criticism, and a series of \"Classic Tales\" with critical essays on the authors.\n", "Hunt's early essays were published by Edward Quin, editor and owner of \"The Traveller\".\n", "Section::::Biography.:Family.\n", "In 1809, Leigh Hunt married Marianne Kent (whose parents were Thomas and Ann). Over the next 20 years, the couple had ten children: Thornton Leigh (1810–73), John Horatio Leigh (1812–46), Mary Florimel Leigh (1813–49), Swinburne Percy Leigh (1816–27), Percy Bysshe Shelley Leigh (1817–99), Henry Sylvan Leigh (1819–76), Vincent Leigh (1823–52), Julia Trelawney Leigh (1826–72), Jacyntha Leigh (1828–1914), and Arabella Leigh (1829–30).\n", "Marianne Hunt, in poor health for most of her life, died on 26 January 1857 at age 69. Leigh Hunt made little mention of his family in his autobiography. Marianne's sister, Elizabeth Kent (Hunt's sister-in-law), became his amanuensis.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Newspapers.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Newspapers.:\"The Examiner\".\n", "In 1808, Hunt left the War Office, where he had been working as a clerk, to become editor of the \"The Examiner\", a newspaper founded by his brother, John Hunt. His brother Robert Hunt contributed to its columns. \n", "Robert Hunt's criticism earned the enmity of William Blake, who described the Examiner's office as containing a \"nest of villains\". Blake's response also included Leigh Hunt. Hunt had published several vitriolic reviews in 1808 and 1809 and had added Blake's name to a list of so-called \"quacks\".\n", "The Examiner soon acquired a reputation for unusual political independence; it would attack any worthy target, \"from a principle of taste,\" as John Keats expressed it. In 1813, the Examiner attacked the Prince Regent George. The British government tried the three Hunt brothers and sentenced them to two years in prison. Leigh Hunt served his term at the Surrey County Gaol. \n", "Leigh Hunt's visitors at Surrey County Gaol included Lord Byron, Thomas Moore, Lord Henry Brougham, and Charles Lamb. The stoicism with which Leigh Hunt bore his imprisonment attracted general attention and sympathy. His imprisonment allowed him many luxuries and access to friends and family, and Lamb described his decorations of the cell as something not found outside a fairy tale. When Jeremy Bentham called on him, he found Hunt playing battledore.\n", "From 1814 to 1817, Leigh Hunt and Hazlitt wrote a series of essays in \"The Examiner\" that they titled \"The Round Table\". These essays were published in two volumes in 1817 in \"The Round Table\". Twelve of the 52 essays were written by Hunt, the rest by Hazlitt.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Newspapers.:\"The Reflector\".\n", "From 1810 to 1811, Leigh Hunt edited a quarterly magazine, the \"Reflector\", for his brother John. He wrote \"The Feast of the Poets\" for publication. His work was a satire that offended many contemporary poets, particularly William Gifford.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Newspapers.:\"The Indicator\".\n", "From 1819 to 1821, Hunt edited \"The Indicator\", a weekly literary periodical published by Joseph Appleyard. Hunt probably wrote much of the content, which included reviews, essays, stories, and poems.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Newspapers.:\"The Companion\".\n", "From January to July 1828, Hunt edited \"The Companion\", a weekly literary periodical published by Hunt and Clarke. The journal dealt with books, theatrical productions and miscellaneous topics.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Poetry.\n", "In 1816, Hunt published the poem \"Story of Rimini\". This work was based on the tragic episode of Francesca da Rimini as told in Dante's \"Inferno\". \n", "Hunt's preference was decidedly for Chaucer's verse style, as adapted to modern English by John Dryden. This was in contrast to the epigrammatic couplet of Alexander Pope . The \"Story of Rimini\" is an optimistic narrative which runs contrary to the tragic nature of its subject. Hunt's flippancy and familiarity, often degenerating into the ludicrous, subsequently made him a target for ridicule and parody.\n", "In 1818, Hunt published a collection of poems entitled \"Foliage\", followed in 1819 by \"Hero and Leander\", and \"Bacchus and Ariadne\". In the same year he reprinted \"The Story of Rimini\" and \"The Descent of Liberty\" with the title of \"Poetical Works\". Hunt also started the \"Indicator\".\n", "Both Keats and Shelley belonged to a literary group that gathered around Hunt at Hampstead. The Hunt Circle also included Hazlitt, Lamb, Bryan Procter, Benjamin Haydon, Charles Cowden Clarke, C.W. Dilke, Walter Coulson and John Hamilton Reynolds. This group was known pejoratively as the Cockney School.\n", "Some of Hunt's most popular poems are \"Jenny kiss'd Me\", \"Abou Ben Adhem\" and \"A Night-Rain in Summer\".\n", "Section::::Biography.:Friendship with Keats and Shelley.\n", "Hunt maintained close friendships with both Keats and Shelley. Shelley's financial help saved Hunt from ruin. In return, Hunt provided Shelley with support during his family problems and defended him in the \"Examiner\". Hunt introduced Keats to Shelley and wrote a very generous appreciation of him in the \"Indicator.\" Keats seems, however, to have subsequently felt that Hunt's example as a poet had been in some respects detrimental to him.\n", "After Shelley's departure for Italy in 1818, Hunt experienced more financial difficulties. In addition, both his health and that of his wife Marianne failed. As a result, Hunt was forced to discontinue the \"Indicator\" (1819–1821), having, he says, \"almost died over the last numbers.\"\n", "Section::::Biography.:Trip to Italy.\n", "Shelley suggested that Hunt could join him and Byron in Italy to establish a quarterly magazine. The advantage is that they would be able to publish Liberal opinions without repression from the British government. Byron's motive for this proposal was allegedly to acquire more influence over the \"Examiner\" with Hunt out of England. However, Byron soon discovered that Hunt was no longer interested in the \"Examiner\". \n", "Leigh Hunt left England for Italy in November 1821, but storm, sickness and misadventure delayed his arrival until 1 July 1822. Thomas Love Peacock compared their voyage to that of the character Ulysses in Homer's Odyssey.\n", "Several weeks after Hunt arrived in Italy, Shelley died. Hunt was now virtually dependent upon Byron, who was not interested in supporting him and his family. Byron's friends also scorned Hunt. The \"Liberal\" lived through four quarterly numbers, containing contributions no less memorable than Byron's \"Vision of Judgment\" and Shelley's translations from \"Faust\".\n", "In 1823 Byron left Italy for Greece, abandoning the quarterly. Hunt remained in Genoa. Enjoying the Italian climate and culture, Hunt stayed in Italy until 1825. During this period, he created \"Ultra-Crepidarius: a Satire on William Gifford\" (1823), and his translation (1825) of Francesco Redi's \"Bacco in Toscana\".\n", "Section::::Biography.:Return to England.\n", "In 1825, due to a lawsuit with one of his brothers, Hunt returned to England. In 1828, Hunt published \"Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries\". The work was designed to counter what Hunt perceived as an inaccurate public image of Byron. The public was shocked that Hunt, who had been obliged to Byron for so much, would \"bite the hand that fed him\". Hunt especially writhed under the withering satire of Moore. \n", "During his later years, Hunt continued to suffer from poverty and sickness. He worked unremittingly, but one effort failed after another. Two journalistic ventures, the \"Tatler\" (1830–1832), a daily devoted to literary and dramatic criticism, and \"London Journal\" (1834–1835) failed, even though \"London Journal\" contained some of his best writing. Hunt's editorship (1837–1838) of the \"Monthly Repository\"was also unsuccessful. \n", "In 1832 Hunt published by subscription a collected edition of his poems. The subscribers included many of his opponents. Also in 1832, Hunt printed for private circulation \"Christianism\", the work afterwards published (1853) as \"The Religion of the Heart\". A copy sent to Thomas Carlyle secured his friendship, and Hunt went to live next door to him in Cheyne Row in 1833. \n", "Hunt's romance, \"Sir Ralph Esher\", about Charles II's was successful. \"Captain Sword and Captain Pen\", published in 1835, a spirited contrast between the victories of peace and the victories of war, deserves to be ranked among his best poems. \n", "In 1840 Hunt's play \"Legend of Florence\" had a successful engagement at Covent Garden, helping him financially. \"Lover's Amazements\", a comedy, was acted several years afterwards, and was printed in \"Journal\" (1850–1851); other plays remained in manuscript. \n", "Also in 1840 Hunt wrote introductory notices to the work of Sheridan and to Edward Moxon's edition of the works of William Wycherley, William Congreve, John Vanbrugh and George Farquhar, a work which furnished the occasion of Macaulay's essay on the Dramatists of the Restoration. The narrative poem \"The Palfrey\" was published in 1842.\n", "During the 1830's, Hunt also wrote for the \"Edinburgh Review\"\n", "Section::::Final years.\n", "In 1844 Mary Shelley and her son, on succeeding to the family estates, settled an annuity of £120 upon Hunt (Rossetti 1890). In 1847 Lord John Russell set up a pension of £200 for Hunt. \n", "With his finances in better shape, Hunt published the companion books \"Imagination and Fancy\" (1844) and \"Wit and Humour\" (1846). These were two volumes of selections from English poets, which displayed his refined, discriminating critical tastes. Hunt also published a book on the pastoral poetry of Sicily, \"A Jar of Honey from Mount Hybla\" (1848). \"The Town\" (2 vols., 1848) and \"Men, Women and Books\" (2 vols., 1847) are partly made up from former material. \"The Old Court Suburb\" (2 vols., 1855; ed. A Dobson, 2002) is a sketch of Kensington, where Hunt long resided. \n", "In 1850 Hunt published his \"Autobiography\" (3 vols.). It has been described as a naive and affected, but accurate, piece of self-portraiture. Hunt published \"A Book for a Corner\" (2 vols.) in 1849 and \"Table Talk\" appeared in 1851. In 1855, he published his narrative poems, both original and translated, under the title \"Stories in Verse\".\n", "Hunt died in Putney in London on 28 August 1859. He was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery. In September 1966 Christ's Hospital named one of its houses in the memory of Hunt.\n", "In a letter of 25 September 1853, Dickens stated that Hunt had inspired the character of Harold Skimpole in \"Bleak House\"; \"I suppose he is the most exact portrait that was ever painted in words! ... It is an absolute reproduction of a real man\". A contemporary critic commented, \"I recognized Skimpole instantaneously; ... and so did every person whom I talked with about it who had ever had Leigh Hunt's acquaintance.\" G. K. Chesterton suggested that Dickens \"May never once have had the unfriendly thought, 'Suppose Hunt behaved like a rascal!'; he may have only had the fanciful thought, 'Suppose a rascal behaved like Hunt!'\" (Chesterton 1906).\n", "Section::::Other works.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Amyntas, A Tale of the Woods\" (1820), a translation of Tasso's \"Aminta\"\n", "BULLET::::- , with Elizabeth Kent, published anonymously\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Seer, or Common-Places refreshed\" (2 pts., 1840–1841)\n", "BULLET::::- three of the \"Canterbury Tales\" in \"The Poems of Geoffrey Chaucer\" modernized (1841)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stories from the Italian Poets\" (1846)\n", "BULLET::::- compilations such as \"One Hundred Romances of Real Life\" (1843)\n", "BULLET::::- selections from Beaumont and Fletcher (1855)\n", "BULLET::::- with S Adams Lee, \"The Book of the Sonnet\" (Boston, 1867).\n", "His \"Poetical Works\" (2 vols.), revised by himself and edited by Lee, were printed at Boston in 1857, and an edition (London and New York) by his son, Thornton Hunt, appeared in 1860. Among volumes of selections are \"Essays\" (1887), ed. A. Symons; \"Leigh Hunt as Poet and Essayist\" (1889), ed. C. Kent; \"Essays and Poems\" (1891), ed. R. B. Johnson for the \"Temple Library\".\n", "Hunt's \"Autobiography\" was revised shortly before his death, and edited (1859) by Thornton Hunt, who also arranged his \"Correspondence\" (2 vols., 1862). Additional letters were printed by the Cowden Clarkes in their \"Recollections of Writers\" (1878). The \"Autobiography\" was edited (2 vols., 1903) with full bibliographical note by Roger Ingpen. \n", "A bibliography of Hunt's works was compiled by Alexander Ireland (\"List of the Writings of William Hazlitt and Leigh Hunt\", 1868). There are short lives of Hunt by Cosmo Monkhouse (\"Great Writers,\" 1893) and by RB Johnson (1896). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Volume 28 (2004).\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Blainey, Ann. \"Immortal Boy.\" 1985.\n", "BULLET::::- Blunden, Edmund, \"The Examiner Examined\". Cobden-Sanderson, 1928\n", "BULLET::::- Cox, Jeffrey N., \"Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and their Circle\". Cambridge University Press, 1999.\n", "BULLET::::- Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, \"Leigh Hunt and the London Literary Scene: A Reception History of His Major Works, 1805–1828\". Routledge, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Holden, Anthony, \"The Wit in the Dungeon: The Life of Leigh Hunt\". Little, Brown, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Lulofs, Timothy J. and Hans Ostrom, \"Leigh Hunt: A Reference Guide.\" Boston: G.K. Hall, 1985.\n", "BULLET::::- Roe, Nicholas, \"Fiery Heart: The First Life of Leigh Hunt\". Pimlico, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- The Autobiography of Leigh Hunt (3rd Edition) – With an introduction by Edmund Blunden, Oxford University Press \"The World's Classics\" Series 1928\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Archival material at\n", "BULLET::::- Leigh Hunt Letters – The University of Iowa Libraries\n", "BULLET::::- Essays by Leigh Hunt at Quotidiana.org\n", "BULLET::::- Selection of poems by Leigh Hunt\n", "BULLET::::- \"Leigh Hunt and Anna Maria Dashwood: A Shelleyan Romance\" by Eleanor M. Gates\n", "BULLET::::- \"An imprisoned wit\" article on the life and writings of Leigh Hunt in \"The Times Literary Supplement\" by Kelly Grovier\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mrs. Shelley\" by Lucy M. Rossetti (1890)\n", "BULLET::::- Ann Blainey, \"Immortal Boy: A Portrait of Leigh Hunt\". New York: St. Martins, 1985.\n", "BULLET::::- Leigh Hunt at the National Portrait Gallery\n", "BULLET::::- Hunt's house in the Vale of Health, Hampstead\n", "BULLET::::- Hunt's house in Chelsea\n" ] }

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Dilke", "Walter Coulson", "John Hamilton Reynolds", "Jenny kiss'd Me", "Italy", "Liberal", "Thomas Love Peacock", "Ulysses", "Homer", "Odyssey", "Vision of Judgment", "Faust", "Greece", "Genoa", "Francesco Redi", "Monthly Repository", "Thomas Carlyle", "Cheyne Row", "Charles II", "Covent Garden", "Sheridan", "Edward Moxon", "William Wycherley", "William Congreve", "John Vanbrugh", "George Farquhar", "Macaulay", "Edinburgh Review", "Mary Shelley", "annuity", "Lord John Russell", "Sicily", "Kensington", "Putney", "Kensal Green Cemetery", "G. K. Chesterton", "Tasso's", "Aminta", "Elizabeth Kent", "Canterbury Tales", "Boston", "Thornton Hunt", "Roger Ingpen", "Alexander Ireland", "Cosmo Monkhouse", "Hans Ostrom", "Leigh Hunt Letters – The University of Iowa Libraries", "Essays by Leigh Hunt at Quotidiana.org", "Selection of poems by Leigh Hunt", "\"Leigh Hunt and Anna Maria Dashwood: A Shelleyan Romance\"", "\"An imprisoned wit\"", "\"Mrs. Shelley\"", "Ann Blainey, \"Immortal Boy: A Portrait of Leigh Hunt\". 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{ "description": "English critic, essayist, poet and writer", "enwikiquote_title": "Leigh Hunt", "wikidata_id": "Q655213", "wikidata_label": "Leigh Hunt", "wikipedia_title": "Leigh Hunt", "aliases": { "alias": [ "James Henry Leigh Hunt" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206532, "parentid": 903842355, "revid": 904772277, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-04T12:36:36Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leigh%20Hunt&oldid=904772277" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Penghu\n", "The Penghu (Hokkien POJ: \"Phîⁿ-ô͘\"  or \"Phêⁿ-ô͘\" ) or Pescadores Islands are an archipelago of 90 islands and islets in the Taiwan Strait. The largest city is Magong, located on the largest island, which is also named Magong. Covering an area of , the archipelago collectively forms of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and is the second smallest county, after Lienchiang.\n", "Section::::Name.\n", "The traditional name of the islands, the Pescadores, comes from the Portuguese name \"Ilhas dos Pescadores\" (\"Fishermen Islands\"). The European Portuguese pronunciation is but, in English, it is typically closer to Classical Portuguese's: . The islands have also been called \"Pehoe\" from the Minnan name \"Phêⁿ-ô·\". Using romanization based on the Mandarin pronunciation for the Chinese name, the islands have also been referred to as 'Penghu Liehtao'.\n", "\"Pescadores\" was also the name given by the Spanish expedition of Hernando de Grijalva in 1537 to the Micronesian atoll Kapingamarangi.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Finds of fine red cord-marked pottery indicate that Penghu was visited by people from southwestern Taiwan around 5,000 years ago, though not settled permanently.\n", "Han Chinese from southern Fujian began to establish fishing communities on the islands in the 9th and 10th centuries, and representatives were intermittently stationed there by the Southern Song and Yuan governments from around 1170.\n", "Wang Dayuan gave a detailed first-hand account of the islands in his \"Daoyi Zhilüe\" (1349).\n", "Section::::History.:Ming dynasty.\n", "In the 15th century, the Ming ordered the evacuation of the islands as part of their maritime ban. When these restrictions were removed in the late 16th century, legal fishing communities were re-established on the islands. These fishermen worshipped at the Mazu Temple that gave Magong its name and themselves gave rise to the Portuguese and English name \"Pescadores\". The Ming established a military presence in 1603.\n", "At this time, the Dutch East India Company was trying to force China to open a port in Fujian to Dutch trade and expel the Portuguese from Macau.\n", "When the Dutch were defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of Macau in 1622, they seized Penghu, built a fort there, and threatened raids on Chinese ports and shipping unless the Chinese allowed trading with them on Penghu and that China not trade with Manila.\n", "In response, the Chinese governor of Fujian demanded that the Dutch withdraw from Penghu to Taiwan, where the Chinese would permit them to engage in trade.\n", "The Dutch continued to raid the Fujian coast between October 1622 and January 1624 to force their demands, but were unsuccessful.\n", "In 1624, the new governor of Fujian sent a fleet of 40–50 warships with 5,000 troops to Penghu and expelled the Dutch, who moved to Fort Zeelandia on Taiwan.\n", "Section::::History.:Qing dynasty.\n", "For a period in the mid-17th century, Taiwan and the archipelago were ruled by the Koxinga kingdom (Kingdom of Tungning), which was overthrown by the Qing dynasty in 1683 after the Battle of Penghu.\n", "The Penghu archipelago was captured by the French in March 1885, in the closing weeks of the Sino-French War, and evacuated four months later. The Pescadores Campaign was the last campaign of Admiral Amédée Courbet, whose naval victories during the war had made him a national hero in France. Courbet was among several French soldiers and sailors who succumbed to cholera during the French occupation of Penghu. He died aboard his flagship \"Bayard\" in Makung harbour on 11 June 1885.\n", "Section::::History.:Empire of Japan.\n", "Towards the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, having defeated the Qing in northern China, Japan sought to ensure that it obtained Penghu and Taiwan in the final settlement. In March 1895, the Japanese defeated the Chinese garrison on the islands and occupied Makung. The Japanese occupation of Penghu, with its fine harbor, gave the Imperial Japanese Navy an advanced base from which their short-range coal-burning ships could control the Taiwan Straits and thus prevent more Chinese troops from being sent to Taiwan. This action persuaded the Chinese negotiators at Shimonoseki that Japan was determined to annex Taiwan, and, after Penghu, Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula had been ceded to Japan in the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Shimonoseki in April, helped to ensure the success of the Japanese invasion of Taiwan in May.\n", "Penghu County was then called the Hōko Prefecture by the Japanese government of Taiwan. During World War II, Makō (Makung) was a major base for the Imperial Japanese Navy and the embarkation point for the invasion of the Philippines.\n", "Section::::History.:Republic of China.\n", "In the Cairo Declaration of 1943, the United States, the United Kingdom and China stated it to be their purpose that \"all the territories that Japan has stolen from the Chinese, such as Formosa and The Pescadores, shall be restored to the Republic of China\". On 26 July 1945, the three governments issued the Potsdam Declaration, declaring that \"the terms of the Cairo Declaration shall be carried out\". However, the United States and the United Kingdom regard the aforementioned documents as merely wartime statements of intention with no binding force in law.\n", "Following the surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur issued General Order No. 1, which directed Japanese forces to surrender to the Allied Powers and facilitate the occupation of Japanese territories by the Allied Powers. In the Treaty of San Francisco, signed in 1951 and coming into effect in 1952, Japan renounced sovereignty over Taiwan and Penghu, but left their final disposition unsettled. The archipelago has been administered by the Republic of China since 1945.\n", "Boat people fleeing Vietnam in the 1970s and 1980s and rescued by Taiwan's ships in the South China Sea were sent to the Penghu.\n", "On 25 May 2002, China Airlines Flight 611, a Boeing 747-200 aircraft flying from Taipei to Hong Kong, disintegrated and exploded over the Islands. The wreckage slammed into the Taiwan Strait, a couple of miles off the coast. All 225 passengers and crew on board were killed.\n", "Section::::Government.\n", "Penghu County is administered by Penghu County Government headed by Magistrate Lai Feng-wei of the Kuomintang and headquartered at the Penghu County Hall.\n", "Section::::Government.:Administrative divisions.\n", "Penghu County is divided into 1 city and 5 rural townships. It is further divided into 97 villages. Like Lienchiang County, Penghu County has no urban townships. The county seat is located at Magong City where it houses the Penghu County Hall and Penghu County Council.\n", "The main islands of Magong City/Huxi Township, Baisha Township, and Xiyu Township are the three most populous islands and are connected via bridges. Two shorter bridges connect Huxi and Baisha. The Penghu Great Bridge connecting Baisha and Xiyu is the longest bridge in Taiwan.\n", "Section::::Government.:Politics.\n", "The county elects a single representative to the Legislative Yuan. In the 2016 Republic of China legislative election, this seat was won by the Democratic Progressive Party with 55.4% of the vote.\n", "Section::::Political dispute.\n", "Despite the controversy over the political status of Taiwan, both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China agree that Penghu is a county in (their own respective) \"Taiwan Province\" (Taiwan Province, Republic of China and Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China). However, geographically, the island of Taiwan does not include Penghu, although it is closer to Taiwan than mainland China. Thus, Penghu is listed separately from \"Taiwan\" in some contexts, e.g. the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu (the official WTO name for the Republic of China) in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Cairo Declaration, and the Treaty of San Francisco (see above).\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "Due to its restricted geography, fisheries have been the main industry for Penghu. The Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau of the Penghu County Government governs matters related to agriculture and fisheries in Penghu. In 2016, the bureau placed a ban on the harvesting of sea urchins due to their declining population. However, the ban was lifted in 2017 but catches are limited only to those species larger than in diameter.\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "Education-related matters in Penghu County are administered under the Education Department of the Penghu County Government. The county houses the National Penghu University of Science and Technology.\n", "Section::::Energy.\n", "Penghu is powered by the Chienshan Power Plant, a 140 MW diesel-fired power plant commissioned in 2001, and the Hujing Power Plant on Table Island. On 24 December 2010, the \"Taiwan-Penghu Undersea Cable Project\" of Taipower was approved by the Executive Yuan to connect the electrical grid in Taiwan Island to Penghu.\n", "Under a wind power development project approved in 2002 by the Executive Yuan, the ROC government plans to set up a total of 200 wind turbines in Penghu within 10 years. However, only 14 turbines have been set up . On 1 October 2015, Taipower announced the construction of another 11 new wind turbines across the island, of which 6 will be constructed in Huxi Township and 5 in Baisha Township.\n", "The current total desalination capacity of the county to provide clean water to its residents is 15,500 m per day. To reduce its groundwater use, in November 2015 the county secured a contract of building an additional desalination plant with 4,000 m capacity per day, construction of which is expected to be completed by May 2018.\n", "Section::::Tourism.\n", "The Penghu National Scenic Area was established in the early 1990s, comprising most of the islands and islets of the archipelago. Tourism has since become one of the main sources of income of the county.\n", "Historical sites include Central Street, Mazu Temple, Four-eyed Well, Penghu Reclamation Hall, Qimei Lighthouse, Siyu Eastern Fort, Jinguitou Fortress and Siyu Western Fort. Museums in the county are Chuwan Crab Museum, Ocean Resources Museum, Chang Yu-sheng Memorial Museum and Penghu Living Museum. Other attractions in the county include the Double-Heart of Stacked Stones, Fenggui Cave, Little Taiwan, Whale Cave, Xiaomen Geology Gallery and South Penghu Marine National Park.\n", "Since 1 January 2015, tourists from Mainland China can directly apply for the Exit & Entry Permit upon arrival in Penghu. This privilege also applies to Kinmen and the Matsu Islands as a means to boost tourism in the outlying islands of Taiwan.\n", "Section::::Drug smuggling.\n", "As a lightly populated outlying island, Penghu presents as a trans-shipment hub for drug smuggling into Taiwan from China and the Philippines. The area has become a focus for a drug crackdown in recent years. \n", "In 2016, Chou Meng-hsiang (周盟翔), chief prosecutor of the Penghu District Prosecutors Office,\"“led an investigation team in Taiwan, including officers from the Coast Guard Administration, in a bid to bring (a) drug trafficking ring to justice.”\" A joint investigation with Philippine and Chinese authorities spanning one and a half years resulted in the seizure of \"“22.6 kilograms of amphetamine, 11.4 kilograms of ephedrine, and about 40 kilograms of calcium chloride”\" with an estimated value of NT$123 million.\n", "Eight suspects were arrested in Cagayan, a small island in northern Philippines, but no Taiwanese nationals were charged in relation to the importation scheme.\n", "In 2017, media reported \"“the biggest-ever haul of drugs in the county’s history”\" when 506 kg of ephedrine was seized from a Chinese fishing boat off Penghu \"“as part of an ongoing crackdown on the area drug trade”\".\n", "Ephedrine smuggling has increased in recent years as it has a similar structure to amphetamines and can be easily converted into methamphetamine. According to a Focus Taiwan report, \"“(It) can then be sold for ten times the price, in this case that would be more than NT$1 billion (US$33.33 million).”\" \n", "Despite the size of the drug seizure, only the five crew members of the Chinese fishing boat were detained in the operation, with authorities \"“unable to find the Taiwanese ship which should have turned up to take delivery of the drugs”\". It was unclear from media reports how the Taiwanese side of the smuggling operation knew to abort the rendezvous. The suppliers of the shipment also evaded capture. It was believed the drugs were destined to be transported from Penghu for distribution on Taiwan.\n", "Section::::Transport.\n", "Penghu is served by Magong Airport in Magong City and Qimei Airport in Qimei Township. Both airports opened in 1977. Daily Air Corporation operates flights between Penghu to Kaohsiung.\n", "Magong Harbor hosts ferry connections with Kaohsiung, Tainan, Chiayi and Kinmen.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Administrative divisions of the Republic of China\n", "BULLET::::- List of cities in Taiwan\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Penghu County Government\n", "BULLET::::- Penghu Tour Official Website\n", "BULLET::::- 澎湖研究學術研討會 第1-8屆論文輯全球資訊網-歷屆論文 (Traditional Chinese)\n", "BULLET::::- Living Museum (Copyright © 2012 Culture Taiwan)\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 206519, "parentid": 905541134, "revid": 907453736, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-23T00:50:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penghu&oldid=907453736" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council\n", "The Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council (, ) was a co-operation agency operating in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, now replaced by HSL and HSY. The organisation had a few responsibilities, most notably regional public transport and waste management. It was subordinated to the city councils of the four participating cities (Helsinki, Vantaa, Espoo and Kauniainen). Furthermore, transport cooperation also included neighboring municipalities of Kerava and Kirkkonummi.\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "The Metropolitan Council used €155.6 million in 2002 and its income was €160.3 million. Traffic and waste management make up 97% of its expenditure. About 70% of the income consisted of customer fees for public transport and waste management.\n", "Section::::Transportation management.\n", "The Metropolitan Council grouped together different Public Transportation companies operating in the Metropolitan area, such as HKL, operator of the metro, Suomenlinna ferry service and bus services within the Helsinki region, and published a timetable of all public transport quarterly, and provided a public transport route planner service on the Internet. It also ran ticketing and prices, fixing prices at the same level for all public transportation, irrespective of method or transportation company. These services are now (since January 1, 2010) provided by Helsingin seudun liikenne.\n", "Most tickets were bought using the electronic travel cards, a smart card service run by Buscom. These travel cards supported two types of payment for trips:\n", "If the same travel card was loaded with both value and period, period took priority when applicable to the current zone. If the period ran out, or the passenger travelled to a zone where the period was not applicable, value was used instead.\n", "The travel cards were bought through certain shops and Public Transport Information Centres.\n", "The Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council managed the following zones before 2010:\n", "BULLET::::- Helsinki\n", "BULLET::::- Espoo and Kauniainen\n", "BULLET::::- Vantaa\n", "BULLET::::- Regional traffic 1: Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa\n", "BULLET::::- Regional traffic 2: Espoo, Kauniainen, Vantaa, Kerava and Kirkkonummi (excluding Helsinki)\n", "BULLET::::- Entire region: Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen, Vantaa, Kerava and Kirkkonummi\n", "Section::::Mission.\n", "The mission of the Metropolitan Council was to improve the capital area's development by high quality public transports, waste management and air protection. In addition a \"development planning unit\" has the purpose to increase cooperation between the four town-administrations involved, particularly regarding planning of land use.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council – A now defunct site\n", "BULLET::::- HSL – Helsinki Regional Transport Authority\n", "BULLET::::- HSY – Helsinki Region Environmental Services Authority\n", "BULLET::::- Journey Planner\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Mare (disambiguation)\n", "A mare is a female horse.\n", "Mare is the Latin word for \"sea\".\n", "Mare may also refer to:\n", "Section::::People.\n", "BULLET::::- Surname\n", "BULLET::::- Mare (surname)\n", "BULLET::::- Ahmed Marzooq (also known as just \"Mare\"; born 1976), Maldivian football player and manager\n", "BULLET::::- Walter de la Mare (1873–1956), English poet and writer\n", "BULLET::::- Given name\n", "BULLET::::- Mare Kandre (1962–2005), Swedish writer of Estonian origin\n", "BULLET::::- Mare Tommingas (born 1959), Estonian ballet dancer and choreographer\n", "BULLET::::- Mare Teichmann (born 1945), Estonian psychologist and academic\n", "BULLET::::- Mare Winningham (born 1959), American actress and singer\n", "Section::::Places.\n", "BULLET::::- Maré, a commune in the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia\n", "BULLET::::- Maré Island, the second-largest of the Loyalty Islands\n", "BULLET::::- Maire, Netherlands, also known as Mare, former village in Zeeland, Netherlands\n", "BULLET::::- Märe, a mountain in the Bernese Alps in Switzerland\n", "BULLET::::- Maré, Rio de Janeiro, a favela in Rio, Brazil\n", "BULLET::::- Weston-super-Mare, a town in North Somerset, England\n", "BULLET::::- Mare', a town in Syria\n", "Section::::Places.:In Romania.\n", "BULLET::::- Baia Mare, a municipality in Romania\n", "BULLET::::- Sânnicolau Mare, town in Timiş County, Romania\n", "BULLET::::- Satu Mare County, is a county (judeţ) in Romania\n", "BULLET::::- Vânju Mare, a town in Mehedinţi County, Romania\n", "BULLET::::- Târnava Mare River, a river in Romania\n", "BULLET::::- Someşul Mare River, a river in Romania\n", "Section::::Places.:Geography.\n", "BULLET::::- Mare Nostrum, another name for the Mediterranean Sea\n", "BULLET::::- Kraken Mare, a large body of liquid on Saturn's moon Titan\n", "BULLET::::- Lunar mare, a basaltic plain on Earth's moon\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "BULLET::::- Mare (band), an experimental band on Hydra Head Records\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mare\" (Diamá Song), 2014 song by Diamá\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mare\", a song by The Black Eyed Peas from their album \"The E.N.D.\"\n", "Section::::Physics.\n", "BULLET::::- microcalorimeter arrays for a Rhenium experiment (MARE): neutrino mass experiment based on the study of Re β spectrum\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Mare (folklore), a goblin of Germanic folklore\n", "BULLET::::- Mare's Leg, or Mare's Laig, a pistol first used in the fictional television series \"Wanted: Dead or Alive\"\n", "BULLET::::- Mare (TV series), Japanese television drama\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Mares (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Mare Island (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Satu Mare (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Valea Mare (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Mayor, a head of a town, district, city, etc.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "1825 in literature\n", "This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1825.\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "BULLET::::- February 19 – Franz Grillparzer's \"König Ottokars Glück und Ende\" (The Fortune and Fall of King Ottokar, published 1823) is first performed, at the Burgtheater in Vienna, after Caroline Augusta, Empress of Austria, urges her husband Francis I of Austria to lift the censorship restrictions on it.\n", "BULLET::::- April – Charles Lamb retires from his clerical post with the East India Company in London on superannuation.\n", "BULLET::::- May 6–June 15 – The two youngest Brontë sisters, Maria and Elizabeth, die at home at Haworth Parsonage aged 11 and 9, of consumption they have contracted at Cowan Bridge School.\n", "BULLET::::- May 6 – French bibliophile, translator, lawyer and politician (born 1754) dies, leaving a library of over half a million books, one of the greatest private book collections in history.\n", "BULLET::::- The first publication of Samuel Pepys' Diary (1660–1669) appears, edited by Lord Braybrooke from a transcription by Rev. John Smith.\n", "Section::::New books.\n", "Section::::New books.:Fiction.\n", "BULLET::::- John and Michael Banim – \"Tales of the O'Hara Family\"\n", "BULLET::::- Lydia Maria Child – \"The Rebels\"\n", "BULLET::::- Sarah Green – \"Parents and Wives\"\n", "BULLET::::- Wilhelm Hauff – \"Der Mann im Mond\" (The Man in the Moon)\n", "BULLET::::- Barbara Hofland – \"Moderation\"\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Walter Scott\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Betrothed\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Talisman\"\n", "Section::::New books.:Children.\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Hack –\"English Stories. Third Series, Reformation under the Tudor Princes\"\n", "Section::::New books.:Drama.\n", "BULLET::::- Aleksander Griboyedov – \"Woe from Wit\" (part published)\n", "BULLET::::- James Sheridan Knowles – \"William Tell\"\n", "BULLET::::- Harriet Lee – \"The Three Strangers\"\n", "BULLET::::- Alexander Pushkin – \"Boris Godunov\" (published 1831, but approved for the stage only in 1866)\n", "Section::::New books.:Poetry.\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Laetitia Barbauld – \"Works\"\n", "BULLET::::- Felicia Hemans – \"The Forest Sanctuary\"\n", "BULLET::::- Esaias Tegnér – \"Frithiol's Saga\"\n", "Section::::New books.:Non-fiction.\n", "BULLET::::- Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin – \"Physiologie du goût\" (The Physiology of Taste)\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel Taylor Coleridge – \"Aids to Reflection\"\n", "BULLET::::- George Gleig – \"The Subaltern\"\n", "BULLET::::- William Hazlitt – \"The Spirit of the Age\"\n", "BULLET::::- Sarah Kemble Knight – \"The Journal of Madam Knight\"\n", "BULLET::::- John Claudius Loudon – \"The Encyclopaedia of Agriculture\"\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Moore – \"Memoirs of the Life of Richard Brinsley Sheridan\"\n", "BULLET::::- Harriette Wilson – \"The Memoirs of Harriette Wilson, Written by Herself\"\n", "Section::::Births.\n", "BULLET::::- January 11 – Bayard Taylor, American poet (died 1878)\n", "BULLET::::- February 13 – Julia C. R. Dorr, American author (died 1913)\n", "BULLET::::- February 18 – Mór Jókai, Hungarian novelist and dramatist (died 1904)\n", "BULLET::::- March 3 – Annie Keary, English novelist, poet and children's writer (died 1879)\n", "BULLET::::- March 16 – Lucy Virginia French, American author (died 1881)\n", "BULLET::::- April 3 – William Billington, English poet and publican (died 1884)\n", "BULLET::::- April 20 – Emma Jane Guyton (Worboise), English novelist and magazine editor (died 1887)\n", "BULLET::::- April 24 – R. M. Ballantyne, Scottish writer of juvenile fiction (died 1894)\n", "BULLET::::- May 21 – Nancy H. Adsit, American art writer, lecturer, educator (died 1902)\n", "BULLET::::- June 7 – R. D. Blackmore, English novelist (died 1900)\n", "BULLET::::- June 14 – Mary Elizabeth Beauchamp, English-born American author and educator (died 1903)\n", "BULLET::::- July 2 – Richard Henry Stoddard, American critic and poet (died 1903)\n", "BULLET::::- July 13 – Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren, American writer, translator, and anti-suffragist (died 1889)\n", "BULLET::::- October 19 – Jeanette Granberg, Swedish playwright and translator (died 1857)\n", "BULLET::::- October 23 – Walter Gregor, Scottish folklorist, linguist and pastor (died 1897)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Unknown date\" – Annie French Hector (pseudonym Mrs Alexander), Irish-born novelist (died 1902)\n", "Section::::Deaths.\n", "BULLET::::- March 9 – Anna Laetitia Barbauld, English poet, essayist and children's author (born 1743)\n", "BULLET::::- April 23 – Maler Müller, German poet, dramatist and painter (born 1749)\n", "BULLET::::- June 4 – Morris Birkbeck, American writer and social reformer (born 1764)\n", "BULLET::::- June 11 – Helen Craik, Scottish novelist and poet (born c. 1751)\n", "BULLET::::- August 10 – Joseph Harris (Gomer), Welsh poet and journalist (born 1773)\n", "BULLET::::- November 7 – Charlotte Dacre, English poet and Gothic novelist (born c. 1772)\n", "BULLET::::- November 25 – Desfontaines-Lavallée, French novelist and dramatist (born 1733)\n", "BULLET::::- December 5 – Mary Whateley (Mary Darwall), English poet (born 1738)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Unknown dates\"\n", "BULLET::::- Huang Peilie (黄丕烈), Chinese bibliophile (born 1763)\n", "BULLET::::- Shen Fu (沈復), Chinese novelist and chronicler (born 1763)\n", "Section::::Awards.\n", "BULLET::::- Chancellor's Gold Medal – Edward Bulwer-Lytton\n" ] }

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R. Dorr", "1913", "February 18", "Mór Jókai", "1904", "March 3", "Annie Keary", "1879", "March 16", "Lucy Virginia French", "1881", "April 3", "William Billington", "1884", "April 20", "Emma Jane Guyton", "1887", "April 24", "R. M. Ballantyne", "1894", "May 21", "Nancy H. Adsit", "1902", "June 7", "R. D. Blackmore", "1900", "June 14", "Mary Elizabeth Beauchamp", "1903", "July 2", "Richard Henry Stoddard", "1903", "July 13", "Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren", "1889", "October 19", "Jeanette Granberg", "1857", "October 23", "Walter Gregor", "1897", "Annie French Hector", "1902", "March 9", "Anna Laetitia Barbauld", "1743", "April 23", "Maler Müller", "1749", "June 4", "Morris Birkbeck", "1764", "June 11", "Helen Craik", "August 10", "Joseph Harris (Gomer)", "1773", "November 7", "Charlotte Dacre", "November 25", "Desfontaines-Lavallée", "1733", "December 5", "Mary Whateley", "1738", "Huang Peilie", "bibliophile", "1763", "Shen Fu", "1763", "Chancellor's Gold Medal", "Edward Bulwer-Lytton" ], "href": [ "February%2019", "Franz%20Grillparzer", "K%C3%B6nig%20Ottokars%20Gl%C3%BCck%20und%20Ende", "1823%20in%20literature", "Burgtheater", "Caroline%20Augusta%20of%20Bavaria", "Francis%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor", "Charles%20Lamb", "East%20India%20Company", "superannuation", "May%206", "June%2015", "Bront%C3%AB%20sisters", "Maria%20Bront%C3%AB", "Elizabeth%20Bront%C3%AB", "Haworth%20Parsonage", "Consumption%20%28disease%29", "Cowan%20Bridge%20School", "May%206", "Samuel%20Pepys", "Lord%20Braybrooke", "John%20Banim", "Michael%20Banim", "Lydia%20Maria%20Child", "Sarah%20Green%20%28novelist%29", "Wilhelm%20Hauff", "Barbara%20Hofland", "Walter%20Scott", "The%20Betrothed%20%281825%29", "The%20Talisman%20%28Scott%20novel%29", "Maria%20Hack", "Aleksander%20Griboyedov", "Woe%20from%20Wit", "James%20Sheridan%20Knowles", "Harriet%20Lee", "Alexander%20Pushkin", "Boris%20Godunov%20%28play%29", "Anna%20Laetitia%20Barbauld", "Felicia%20Hemans", "Esaias%20Tegn%C3%A9r", "Jean%20Anthelme%20Brillat-Savarin", "Samuel%20Taylor%20Coleridge", "George%20Gleig%20%28priest%29", "William%20Hazlitt", "The%20Spirit%20of%20the%20Age", "Sarah%20Kemble%20Knight", "John%20Claudius%20Loudon", "Thomas%20Moore", "Memoirs%20of%20the%20Life%20of%20Richard%20Brinsley%20Sheridan", "Harriette%20Wilson", "January%2011", "Bayard%20Taylor", "1878%20in%20literature", "February%2013", "Julia%20C.%20R.%20Dorr", "1913%20in%20literature", "February%2018", "M%C3%B3r%20J%C3%B3kai", "1904%20in%20literature", "March%203", "Annie%20Keary", "1879%20in%20literature", "March%2016", "Lucy%20Virginia%20French", "1881%20in%20literature", "April%203", "William%20Billington%20%28poet%29", "1884%20in%20literature", "April%2020", "Emma%20Jane%20Guyton", "1887%20in%20literature", "April%2024", "R.%20M.%20Ballantyne", "1894%20in%20literature", "May%2021", "Nancy%20H.%20Adsit", "1902%20in%20literature", "June%207", "R.%20D.%20Blackmore", "1900%20in%20literature", "June%2014", "Mary%20Elizabeth%20Beauchamp", "1903%20in%20literature", "July%202", "Richard%20Henry%20Stoddard", "1903%20in%20literature", "July%2013", "Madeleine%20Vinton%20Dahlgren", "1889%20in%20literature", "October%2019", "Jeanette%20Granberg", "1857%20in%20literature", "October%2023", "Walter%20Gregor", "1897%20in%20literature", "Annie%20French%20Hector", "1902%20in%20literature", "March%209", "Anna%20Laetitia%20Barbauld", "1743%20in%20literature", "April%2023", "Maler%20M%C3%BCller", "1749%20in%20literature", "June%204", "Morris%20Birkbeck", "1764%20in%20literature", "June%2011", "Helen%20Craik", "August%2010", "Joseph%20Harris%20%28Gomer%29", "1773%20in%20literature", "November%207", "Charlotte%20Dacre", "November%2025", "Desfontaines-Lavall%C3%A9e", "1733%20in%20literature", "December%205", "Mary%20Whateley", "1738%20in%20literature", "Huang%20Peilie", "bibliophile", "1763%20in%20literature", "Shen%20Fu", "1763%20in%20literature", "Chancellor%27s%20Gold%20Medal", "Edward%20Bulwer-Lytton%2C%201st%20Baron%20Lytton" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "literature-related events during 1825", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2476215", "wikidata_label": "1825 in literature", "wikipedia_title": "1825 in literature", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206579, "parentid": 899272699, "revid": 902541889, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-19T14:52:25Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1825%20in%20literature&oldid=902541889" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Maidenhead\n", "Maidenhead is a large market town in Berkshire, England, on the south-western bank of the River Thames. With an estimated population of 67,441, Maidenhead is the largest town in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead. The town is situated west of Charing Cross, London, northeast of the county town of Reading, southeast of Oxford, east-south-east of Henley-on-Thames and northwest of Windsor.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The antiquary John Leland claimed that the area around Maidenhead's present town centre was a small Roman settlement called Alaunodunum. He stated that it had all but disappeared by the end of the Roman occupation. Although his source is unknown, there is documented and physical evidence of Roman settlement in the town. There are two well known villa sites in the town, one being in the suburb of Cox Green, and the other just west of the town centre on Castle Hill. This villa sat on the route of the Camlet Way which was a Roman road linking Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) and Colchester (Camulodunum) via St Albans,(Verulamium) and passes through the present town centre. Remnants of the road have been unearthed at various locations nearby, but its exact route is unclear.\n", "Maidenhead's name stems from the riverside area where the first \"New wharf\" or \"Maiden Hythe\" was built, as early as Saxon times. In the year 870, an army of Danes invaded the kingdom of Wessex. They disembarked from their longboats by the wharf and ferry crossing at Maidenhead and fought their way overland to Reading where they set up camp and made it their regional power base. The area of the present town centre was originally a small Anglo-Saxon town known as \"South Ellington\". The town would have likely developed on the Camlet Way on the site of Alaunodunum as the Bath Road was not re-routed until the 13th century. Maidenhead is recorded in the Domesday Book as the settlement of Ellington in the hundred of Beynhurst.\n", "A wooden bridge was erected across the river in about 1280 to replace the ferry in South Ellington. The Great West Road to Reading, Gloucester and Bristol was diverted over the new bridge. Previously, it had kept to the north bank and crossed the Thames by ford at Cookham, and the medieval town, later to become Maidenhead grew up on the site of Alaunodunum and South Ellington, between the new bridge and the bottom of Castle Hill. Within a few years a new wharf was constructed next to the bridge to replace the old Saxon wharf which needed replacing. At this time, the South Ellington name was dropped with the town becoming known as Maidenhythe. The earliest record of this name change is in the Bray Court manorial rolls of 1296.\n", "The new bridge and wharf led to the growth of medieval Maidenhead as a river port and market town. The market was held outside the old town hall which was set back from the High Street to form the market square. Maidenhead also became the main stopping point for coaches on journeys between London, Gloucester and Bath and the town became populated with numerous inns. By the mid 18th century, Maidenhead had become one of the busiest coaching towns in England with over ninety coaches a day passing through the town. The late 18th-century Bear Hotel on the High Street is the best of the town's old coaching inns surviving to this day.\n", "The current Maidenhead Bridge, a local landmark, dates from 1777 and was built at a cost of £19,000.\n", "King Charles I met his children for the last time before his execution in 1649 at the Greyhound Inn\n", "on the High Street, the site of which is now a branch of the NatWest Bank. A plaque commemorates their meeting.\n", "When the Great Western Railway came to the town, it began to expand. Muddy roads were replaced and public services were installed. The High Street began to change again, and substantial Victorian red brick architecture began to appear throughout the town. Maidenhead became its own entity in 1894, being split from the civil parishes of both Bray and Cookham.\n", "Maidenhead Citadel Corps of the Salvation Army was first opened in the town in the mid-1880s. Maidenhead Citadel Band was soon founded in 1886 by Bandmaster William Thomas, who later became mayor of the town.\n", "By Edwardian times, nearby Boulter's Lock became a favoured resort, especially on Ascot Sunday, and Skindles Hotel developed a reputation for illicit liaisons.\n", "Section::::Governance.\n", "The town is part of the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead, with an urban population of around 95,000. Currently Cllr Simon Dudley is the Leader of the Conservative held cabinet. It was previously an independent municipal borough.\n", "The town of Maidenhead was formerly part of the Windsor and Maidenhead Parliament constituency, a conservative safe seat. The Boundary Committee abolished this constituency after the 1992 general election since the electorate was growing too large, splitting it into Windsor and Maidenhead.\n", "Maidenhead has been held by the Conservative Party in every election since its foundation in 1997. Theresa May was elected MP in 1997 and has represented Maidenhead ever since. As MP, she took a series of ministerial positions, and was appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 13 July 2016. May stood down as Prime Minister on 24 July 2019, but will continue to serve as MP for Maidenhead.\n", "It is today one of the safest Conservative seats in the country, with the Conservatives having a 35 percentage point lead over the second largest party (Labour) in 2017.\n", "The mayor of Windsor & Maidenhead is Councillor Sayonara Luxton (Conservative).\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "The Maidenhead urban area includes urban and suburban regions within the bounds of the town, called Maidenhead Court, North Town, Furze Platt (which in 2012 gained a conservation area), Pinkneys Green, Highway, Tittle Row, Boyn Hill, Fishery and Bray Wick; as well as built-up areas in surrounding civil parishes: Cox Green and Altwood in Cox Green parish, Woodlands Park in White Waltham parish, and part of Bray Wick in Bray parish. Bray village is linked to Maidenhead by the exclusive Fishery Estate which lies on the banks of the Thames. To the east, on the opposite side of the river from Maidenhead, is the large village of Taplow in Buckinghamshire which almost adjoins the suburban village of Burnham, Buckinghamshire, which is in itself part of the urban area of the large, industrial town of Slough. To the north are the Cookhams, Cookham Village, Cookham Rise and Cookham Dean. To the west is the area of Pinkneys Green. These lie south of the Berkshire-Buckinghamshire border, which is formed by the River Thames (which then bends southwards to form the Maidenhead-Taplow border). To the south is the village of Holyport. Continuing by road to the South-East leads to the historic, royal twin towns of Windsor and Eton.\n", "Maidenhead was originally the planned western terminus for the Crossrail line (to and through London) until Reading station, situated southwest of Maidenhead, was chosen.\n", "Maidenhead lies immediately west of the Taplow ridge; a wooded spur of the Chilterns which rises dramatically above one of the most scenic stretches of the Thames. The ridge is crowned by the spectacular Cliveden House which can be seen from various parts of the town.\n", "Maidenhead has a site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in the northern outskirts of the town called Cannoncourt Farm Pit, where the largest hand axe of the paleolithic era in Britain was discovered. The town also has a local nature reserve called The Gullet.\n", "On 12 July 1901 Maidenhead entered the UK Weather Records with the \"Highest 60-min total\" rainfall at . As of July 2015, this record remains.\n", "Section::::Landmarks.\n", " Maidenhead clock tower was built for Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee and is located outside the railway station. Maidenhead Bridge was built in 1777. It takes the A4 over the Thames to join Maidenhead to Taplow.\n", "All Saints' Church, Boyne Hill was completed in 1857 is one of the finest examples of the early work of the architect G. E. Street. The site is also regarded by many as the premier architectural site in the town. The church, consecrated on 2 December 1857 by Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, became the first ecclesiastical parish in the Borough of Maidenhead.\n", "Boulter's Lock is a lock on the river Thames on the east side of Maidenhead. It adjoins Ray Mill Island.\n", "In addition the town has a range of various statues which form part of a recognisable image of the town, including the 'Boy and the Boat' location at the top end of the High Street, near the Methodist Church.\n", "Section::::Character.\n", "Maidenhead has a long history of settlement, going back to the Anglo-Saxon and Roman periods. Despite this, there are no visible architectural remains in the present day town to show this. \n", "Although there are attractive residential and green areas in and around Maidenhead, the historic heart of the town has been redeveloped, primarily with office space, high technology company headquarters and apartments, making it one of the key business and commuter towns of the Silicon Corridor. This has happened in piecemeal fashion over the last forty years and unfortunately, Maidenhead town centre has lost most many historic buildings and much of its traditional English market town character. The High Street and Bridge Street areas only possess one heavily restored Medieval building and a handful of Georgian buildings in the Chapel Arches area.\n", "Research by the New Economics Foundation rated Maidenhead as an example of a clone town and the town centre is regarded as in need of improvement. In December 2007, the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead set up the Partnership for the Regeneration of Maidenhead (PRoM), which in October 2008 launched a comprehensive 20 Year Vision and Action Plan for rejuvenating the town centre. Launch of the plan coincided with confirmation by central government that Maidenhead will be part of the new Crossrail project. PRoM's plans highlight five key developments which will help shape the town for the future. A large new retail and residential development called 'The Landing' is due for construction shortly. Additionally there will be an upgraded train station and transport interchange, movement of the leisure centre, bowls club and improved links between Kidwells Park and the High Street. \n", "The Chapel Arches retail development is under construction. Part of the scheme involves restoring the old Thames tributaries which run through a historic section of the town centre as an attractive feature and amenity in the town. New apartments, boutique stores and restaurants, bars, and cafes are to be a feature of this new waterfront quarter of the town centre. The adjoining historic section of the High Street around the 18th Century Chapel Arches Bridge has been restored as part of the development. Existing Georgian and Victorian buildings have been rejuvenated and the adjoining new builds have been sensitively constructed in the same historic style to bring back a sense of history and lost heritage to this part of the town centre.\n", "Maidenhead was home to the conference that agreed on the Maidenhead Locator System standard in 1980. It is located in grid square .\n", "The average house price in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in 2011 was £461,421.\n", "Section::::Community facilities.\n", "Maidenhead offers High Street shopping facilities including Nicholson's Centre, a shopping centre on the site of Nicholson's brewery. The town also offers an eight-screen Odeon multiplex cinema and the Magnet Leisure Centre which is scheduled to be replaced by a state of the art leisure centre. The local authority also provides a Shopmobility service, where those with physical disabilities can borrow mobility scooters to navigate around the town. \n", "Maidenhead Heritage Centre and Museum was established in 1993 and moved to permanent premises in a former pub in Park Street in 2006.\n", "In the Boyne Hill area there is Norden Farm Centre for the Arts (an arts centre including a theatre).\n", "Waltham Place Estate on Church Hill includes an ornamental garden integrated within a organic and biodynamic farm estate. It is promoted by the Campaign to Protect Rural England.\n", "The Reitlinger Open Space on Guards Club Road is named after Henry Reitlinger, a leading collector of fine art. On his death in 1950, the collection was vested in a trust, the Henry Reitlinger Bequest. The trustees were his adopted daughter, Mrs. M. Cocke, and a Maidenhead solicitor, who chose to house the collection at Oldfield House, now a private residence; the building dates back to 1892.\n", "The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead has announced that a new leisure centre is to be built in the town to replace the now outdated Magnet Leisure Centre located north of Kidwells Park .\n", "The new facility is expected to open at the end of 2020; with the council claiming there will be no break in service from the old Magent Leisure Centre.\n", "The town also has various community centres, the most noticeable being 4 Marlow Road, a youth and community centre, located to the side of Kidwells Park near the town centre, various activities take place, including scheduled youth drop in times as well as classes in dance being provided privately in the large sports and dance studios that it boasts.\n", "Section::::Transport.\n", "The (Brunel-built) Great Western Main Line passes through the town, calling at Maidenhead railway station and offering frequent, direct services to London, Reading, Newbury, Didcot and Oxford. Additionally, there are less frequent direct services to Banbury, Hereford, Worcester and Great Malvern. It passes over Brunel's Maidenhead Railway Bridge (known locally as the Sounding Arch), famous for its flat brick arches. Maidenhead Station is the beginning of the Marlow Branch Line from Maidenhead to Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Furze Platt railway station on this branch also serves the northern area of Maidenhead. Rail services have been provided by Great Western since 2003-04.\n", "Local bus services are provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, Arriva Shires & Essex and Courtney Buses. There are also evening bus services from Slough provided by Reading Buses rather than First (as in the daytime), under the 'Thames Valley' brand\n", "The A4 runs through the town and crosses the Thames over Maidenhead Bridge. The town lies adjacent to junction 8/9 on the M4 motorway and is accessed via the A404(M) and A308(M). The A308(M), A404(M) and A404 form the Marlow and Maidenhead bypass which also acts as an important link between the M4, to the south of the town, and M40 at High Wycombe.\n", "The River Thames runs to the east of the town centre, and York Stream, which runs through the town centre, connects to the Thames via a system of disused waterways. A renewal scheme is in progress to reopen these waterways. The Jubilee River, part of the flood defence scheme, begins above Boulter's Lock nearby.\n", "The Crossrail project that is expected to be fully opened in autumn 2019, after previously being expected to be completed by December 2018. In the initial plan for Crossrail, Maidenhead was expected to become the terminus for the line, which will be known as the Elizabeth Line. However, after consultation Crossrail Limited and Transport for London decided to extend this to Reading, which also serves as a major hub for the Great Western route. The route will double the current timetable from 4 services an hour (operated by the exciting Great Western Railway route) to 8 services an hour (combining both Elizabeth Line and GWR services).\n", "Section::::Employment.\n", "Maidenhead is in England's Silicon Corridor along the M4 motorway west of London. Many residents commute to work in London, or to the towns of Slough and Reading.\n", "Maidenhead's industries include: software, plastics, pharmaceuticals, printing and telecommunications.\n", "The town also has an office for the Department for Work and Pensions, a local Jobcentre Plus which is located in Park Street. It is open 9am - 5pm Monday to Friday (10am on Wednesday) and offers help in finding employment, including the National Careers Service. In addition, as part of the UK Government roll out of the new social care benefit system, Maidenhead is now a Universal Credit Full Service area. \n", "Section::::Sport.\n", "Situated on the River Thames, the town is a rowing centre. Maidenhead Rowing Club organises the Maidenhead Regatta which, along with Marlow Regatta and Henley Regatta, is often seen as a testing ground for olympic rowing athletes. Maidenhead has often seen winners go on to represent the United Kingdom at the Olympic games.\n", "The town's football team, Maidenhead United, play at York Road, which is the oldest football ground in the world continuously used by the same team. Maidenhead United were crowned champions of National League South at the end of the 2016/17 season. Due to this, the team were automatically promoted to the National League (fifth tier of English Football) for the 2017/18 season.\n", "The Maidenhead Rugby Club was founded in 1921 and is the largest organised sports team in the town. It consists of four men's teams, a women's team and a large youth programme. The men's team attracts international talent from all over the world including American Tobin Thompson and Fijian Antinio Mawara.\n", "In September 2011 the town hosted the first ever Maidenhead Half Marathon.\n", "The town is also home to Maidenhead Sailing Club at Summerleaze Lake which is home to one of the largest Albacore fleets in the area.\n", "Maidenhead Golf Club was founded in 1896 and is situated close by the town centre and station in Shoppenhangers Road. The course was designed by the eminent golf architect Harry S. Colt.\n", "FPD- A Senior social football team has played teams from the twin towns starting with a home and away leg with Bad Godesberg. Future fixtures against St-Cloud and Frascati to follow.\n", "Section::::Institutions.\n", "The local newspaper is \"The Maidenhead Advertiser\".\n", "Maidenhead has been the home of Maidenhead Citadel Band of the Salvation Army since 1886.\n", "The head office of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is based in Maidenhead on Marlow Road. Furthermore, various private companies have their head offices located around the town including, Johnson & Johnson, the American multi-national pharmaceutical. \n", "The schools listed below consist of various types of schools including Free Schools and Academies. \n", "Section::::Institutions.:Further educational institutions.\n", "BULLET::::- Berkshire College of Agriculture is based in Maidenhead.\n", "Although the town only has the one college, most students entering college level education travel to the various establishments in the area, including the Windsor Forest Colleges Group (formerly East Berkshire College) in both Windsor (Berkshire) and Langley, Slough as well as The Henley College in Oxfordshire and Reading College (Berkshire) \n", "Section::::Institutions.:Secondary schools.\n", "BULLET::::- Altwood Church of England School\n", "BULLET::::- Cox Green School\n", "BULLET::::- Desborough College (previously Maidenhead Grammar School)\n", "BULLET::::- Furze Platt Senior School\n", "BULLET::::- Newlands Girls' School (previously County High School for Girls, Maidenhead)\n", "Section::::Institutions.:Primary schools.\n", "BULLET::::- All Saints C of E Junior School\n", "BULLET::::- Courthouse Junior School\n", "BULLET::::- Furze Platt Infant School (caters for Reception - Year 2)\n", "BULLET::::- Furze Platt Junior School (caters for Year 3-6)\n", "BULLET::::- Holyport Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- Larchfield\n", "BULLET::::- Lowbrook Academy\n", "BULLET::::- Oldfield Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- Riverside Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- St Edmund Campion Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- St. Lukes C of E School\n", "BULLET::::- St. Mary's Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- Wessex Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- White Waltham C of E Primary School\n", "BULLET::::- Woodlands Park Primary School\n", "Section::::Institutions.:Independent schools.\n", "BULLET::::- Beech Lodge School (co-ed 7-17)\n", "BULLET::::- Claires Court (all-through 3-18:- co-ed Nursery [3-5]; girls [4-16] & boys [4-16] in a diamond shape; co-ed Sixth Form)\n", "BULLET::::- Herries School (co-ed 3-11)\n", "BULLET::::- Highfield School (boys 2-4; girls 2–11)\n", "BULLET::::- St Piran's School (co-ed 3–11)\n", "Redroofs School for the Performing Arts (co-ed 9-18 full time and all ages for weekly classes)\n", "Section::::Twin towns.\n", "Maidenhead is twinned with:\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, France (since 1957)\n", "BULLET::::- Bad Godesberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany (since 1960)\n", "BULLET::::- Frascati, Lazio, Italy (since 1972)\n", "BULLET::::- Kortrijk (Courtrai) West Flanders, Belgium (since 1981)\n", "Each year youths from the four towns and Berlin-Steglitz (twinned with Bad Godesberg) compete against one another in sports such as volleyball, football, athletics and swimming in the Twin Towns Sports Competition, hosted in turn by each of the five towns. In Maidenhead town centre there are roads named after three of the twin towns (Bad Godesberg Way, Frascati Way and St Cloud Way). Local schools often participate in student exchanges with pupils being exchanged between schools within the twinned towns.\n", "Section::::Notable people and businesses.\n", "A number of notable figures can be counted amongst Maidenhead's current and former residents. The actress Diana Dors (1931–1984) resided for much of her life in the town, in several properties, while the broadcaster Richard Dimbleby (1913–1965) lived for sometime on Boulter's Island. Maidenhead's riverside location has also drawn many celebrities, including former broadcaster Michael Parkinson (b. 1935). The Spice Girls shared a house in Maidenhead for a year preceding their rise to stardom. In her 1988 LWT special, \"An Audience with Victoria Wood\", Victoria Wood said: \"The celebrities have flocked [to the studio]. I know that Maidenhead and Barnes are like ghost towns this evening.\"\n", "Author Hugh Lofting (1886–1947), creator of \"Doctor Dolittle\", was born in Maidenhead.\n", "Essayist and novelist Nick Hornby (b. 1957) was educated at Maidenhead Grammar School (now Desborough School), as were children's television presenter and radio show host Toby Anstis (b. 1968), author and broadcaster John O'Farrell (b. 1962), athlete Mark Richardson (b. 1972) and well known \"Dragon\" Peter Jones (b. 1966).\n", "The film director brothers Roy (1913–2001) and John Boulting(1913–1985) were born in Bray village on the outskirts of Maidenhead in November 1913.\n", "Professional footballer Andy King grew up in Maidenhead, and attended Furze Platt Senior School. He plays for Leicester City and helped them win the Premier League title in 2016.\n", "Pinkneys Green in the town was home to Sir Nicholas Winton (1909–2015), whose heroic efforts rescued 669 Jewish children from Czechoslovakia just before the outbreak of World War II. There is a statue of him at Maidenhead Railway Station.\n", "Arthur and Ron Hacker formed the company Hacker Radio Ltd in Maidenhead in 1959, producers of fine transistor radios that for a time in the 1970s brandished the Royal Warrant of Appointment\n", "The town was also home to Colonel Sir Walter de Frece (1870–1935) and Lady Matilda de Frece, better known as Vesta Tilley (1864–1952).\n", "Former disabled London Marathon competitor Patrick Sheehy lived in the town for just over 3 years.\n", "Edd China (born 1971), an English TV presenter, mechanic, motor specialist and inventor lives and works here.\n", "Mary Ann Browne (1812–1845) was a British poet and writer of musical scores.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead\n", "BULLET::::- Local community and forum website\n" ] }

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{ "description": "town and unparished area in Berkshire, England", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q238803", "wikidata_label": "Maidenhead", "wikipedia_title": "Maidenhead", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206470, "parentid": 907844281, "revid": 907882091, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-25T22:23:16Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maidenhead&oldid=907882091" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Figurehead (object)\n", "A figurehead is a carved wooden decoration found at the bow of ships, generally of a design related to the name or role of a ship. They were predominant between the 16th and 20th centuries, and modern ships' badges fulfill a similar role.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Although earlier ships had often had some form of bow ornamentation (e.g. the eyes painted on the bows of Greek and Phoenician galleys, the Roman practice of putting carvings of their deities on the bows of their galleys, and the Viking ships of ca. A.D. 800–1100), the general practice was introduced with the galleons of the 16th century, as the figurehead as such could not come to be until ships had an actual stemhead structure on which to place it. The menacing appearance of toothy and bug-eyed figureheads on Viking ships also had the protective function of warding off evil spirits. The Egyptians placed figures of holy birds on the prow while the Phoenicians used horses representing speed. The Ancient Greeks used boars' heads to symbolise acute vision and ferocity while Roman boats often mounted a carving of a centurion representing valour in battle. In northern Europe, serpents, bulls, dolphins and dragons were customary and by the 13th Century, the swan was used representing grace and mobility.\n", "In Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, it was once believed that spirits/faeries called Kaboutermannekes (gnomes, little men, faeries) dwelt in the figureheads. The spirit guarded the ship from sickness, rocks, storms, and dangerous winds. If the ship sank, the Kaboutermannekes guided the sailors' souls to the Land of the Dead. To sink without a Kaboutermanneke condemned the sailor's soul to haunt the sea forever, so Dutch sailors believed. A similar belief was found in early Scandinavia/Vikings. \n", "During the period from the 17th to the 18th centuries the carved subjects of figureheads varied from representations of saints to patriotic emblems such as the unicorns or lions popular on English ships. When the ship was named after a royal or naval personage the head and bust of the individual might be shown. \n", "As with the stern ornamentation, the purpose of the figurehead was often to indicate the name of the ship in a non-literate society (albeit in a sometimes very convoluted manner); and always, in the case of naval ships, to demonstrate the wealth and might of the owner. At the height of the Baroque period, some ships boasted gigantic figureheads, weighing several tons and sometimes twinned on both sides of the bowsprit.\n", "A large figurehead, being carved from massive wood and perched on the very foremost tip of the hull, adversely affected the sailing qualities of the ship. This, and cost considerations, led to figureheads being made dramatically smaller during the 18th century, and in some cases they were abolished altogether around 1800. After the Napoleonic wars they made something of a comeback, but were then often in the form of a small waist-up bust rather than the oversized full figures previously used. The clipper ships of the 1850s and 1860s customarily had full figureheads, but these were relatively small and light. During their final stage of common usage figureheads ranged in length from about 18 inches (45 centimetres) to 9 feet (2.7 metres). \n", "Section::::History.:Decline in use.\n", "Figureheads as such died out with the military sailing ship. In addition the vogue for ram bows meant that there was no obvious place to mount one on battleships. An exception was HMS \"Rodney\" which was the last British battleship to carry a figurehead. Smaller ships of the Royal Navy continued to carry them. The last example may well have been the sloop HMS \"Cadmus\" launched in 1903. Early steamships sometimes had gilt scroll-work and coats-of-arms at their bows. This practice lasted up until about World War I. The 1910 German liner SS \"Imperator\" originally sported a large bronze figurehead of an eagle (the Imperial German symbol) standing on a globe. The few extra feet of length added by the figurehead made the \"Imperator\" the longest ship in the world at the time of her launch.\n", "It is still common practise for warships to carry ships' badges, large plaques mounted on the superstructure with a unique design relating to the ship's name or role. For example, Type 42 Destroyers of the Royal Navy, which are named after British cities, carry badges depicting the coat of arms of their namesake.\n", "On smaller vessels, the billethead might be substituted. This was a smaller, nonfigural carving, most often a curl of foliage.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Hood ornament\n", "BULLET::::- Winged victory\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Figurehead Archive\n", "BULLET::::- Telegraph Gallery (17 images)\n", "BULLET::::- History Trust of South Australia\n", "BULLET::::- Figureheads\n", "BULLET::::- The Mariners' Museum Figurehead Collection\n", "BULLET::::- Figureheads from the Vestfold Museums's (Norwegian) collections on DigitalMuseum \n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7, 7, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 ], "start": [ 56, 63, 201, 106, 116, 127, 178, 230, 311, 414, 578, 90, 291, 334, 502, 87, 180, 357, 505, 540, 50, 180, 206, 283, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 59, 67, 214, 111, 126, 133, 191, 241, 318, 422, 589, 106, 298, 349, 509, 95, 192, 369, 516, 554, 63, 197, 216, 295, 25, 26, 34, 41, 44, 23, 54, 93 ], "text": [ "bow", "ship", "ships' badges", "Greek", "Phoenician", "galley", "their deities", "Viking ship", "galleon", "stemhead", "evil spirit", "Kaboutermannekes", "Baroque", "Napoleonic wars", "clipper", "ram bows", "HMS \"Rodney\"", "HMS \"Cadmus\"", "World War I", "SS \"Imperator\"", "ships' badges", "Type 42 Destroyer", "Royal Navy", "coat of arms", "Hood ornament", "Winged victory", "The Figurehead Archive", "Telegraph Gallery (17 images)", "History Trust of South Australia", "Figureheads", "The Mariners' Museum Figurehead Collection", "Figureheads from the Vestfold Museums's (Norwegian) collections on DigitalMuseum " ], "href": [ "Bow%20%28ship%29", "ship", "ships%27%20badges", "Ancient%20Greece", "Phoenicia", "galley", "Religion%20in%20ancient%20Rome", "Viking%20ship", "galleon", "Stem%20%28ship%29%23Stemhead", "demon", "Klabautermann", "Baroque", "Napoleonic%20wars", "clipper", "Naval%20ram", "HMS%20Rodney%20%281884%29", "HMS%20Cadmus%20%281903%29", "World%20War%20I", "SS%20Imperator", "ships%27%20badges", "Type%2042%20Destroyer", "Royal%20Navy", "coat%20of%20arms", "Hood%20ornament", "Victoria%20%28mythology%29", "http%3A//www.figureheads.co.uk/", "https%3A//www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatpicturegalleries/7299378/Ship-figureheads.html%3Fimage%3D1", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120205201641/http%3A//www.history.sa.gov.au/maritime/collections/figureheads.htm", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20030922095345/http%3A//www.history.sa.gov.au/maritime/collections/figureheads.htm", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20130707051917/http%3A//www.marinersmuseum.org/collections/figurehead-collection", "http%3A//digitaltmuseum.no/folder/8d3c4fbf-69fb-422d-a51f-3085aecb9f00" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "carved wooden decoration found at the prow of a ship", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q729329", "wikidata_label": "figurehead", "wikipedia_title": "Figurehead (object)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "figureheads" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "USS O-12 (SS-73)\n", "USS \"O-12\" (SS-73) was an O-class submarine of the United States Navy. These later O-boats, \"O-11\" through \"O-16\", were designed by Lake Torpedo Boat to different specifications than the earlier Electric Boat designs. They performed poorly as compared to the Electric Boat units, and are sometimes considered a separate class. The ship was launched in 1917 and entered service with the Navy in 1918 in the Panama Canal Zone.\n", "Taken out of service by the US Navy in 1924, the submarine was leased for use in Artic exploration in 1930 sponsored by William Randolph Hearst. Renamed Nautilus, the submarine suffered significant damage while exploring the Arctic in 1931 and having recorded significant data while there, Hearst considered the venture a failure. Having returned to Norway to repair the damage, the submarine was returned to the United States Navy there, and they had the submarine towed down a fjord and scuttled in November 1931. \n", "Section::::Service history.\n", "The submarine's keel was laid down on 6 March 1916 by the Lake Torpedo Boat Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut. \"O-12\" was launched on 29 September 1917, sponsored by Mrs. Homer S. Cummings, and commissioned on 18 October 1918 with Lieutenant Commander J.E. Austin in command. \"O-12\" spent much of her career as a unit of Submarine Division 1, based at Coco Solo, Panama Canal Zone. In 1921, she was awarded a Battle Efficiency Pennant and trophy for gunnery (gun and torpedo). She decommissioned on 17 June 1924 after just five and a half years of service, and was placed in reserve at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.\n", "Section::::Service history.:\"Nautilus\" Arctic Expedition.\n", "Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 July 1930, ex-\"O-12\" transferred to the United States Shipping Board for conversion by the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was leased at the rate of one dollar per year to Lake and Danenhower, Inc., of Bridgeport, Connecticut, for use on Hubert Wilkins's and Lincoln Ellsworth's Arctic Expedition of geophysical investigation. The lease required that she either be returned to the Navy for disposal, or scuttled in at least of water.\n", "On 24 March 1931, she was re-christened \"Nautilus\". As Prohibition prevented the use of an alcoholic beverage, she was baptised not with the traditional champagne but rather with a bucket of ice cubes. Great French writer Jules Verne's grandson was present at the event, under the French flag, along of course with Sir Hubert's new-wed wife, actress Suzanne Bennett.\n", "Simon Lake equipped \"Nautilus\" with several clever devices for under-ice operations. One was a mechanical probe, much like a trolley pole, that would scrape along the bottom of the ice cap to indicate how much clearance the submarine had below the ice. Others included drills supposedly capable of cutting through of ice to reach fresh air. The vessel's torpedo chamber was converted into a moon pool, when its water-tight door was closed, pressure was equalized, so a trap door could be opened, allowing the lowering of scientific instruments. These innovations were tested only cursorily before the boat put to sea.\n", "\"Nautilus\" with her crew of 20 men was commanded by Captain Sloan Danenhower, son of John Wilson Danenhower, who served aboard during her Arctic expedition. \"Nautilus\", on 4 June 1931, began the crossing from New York City, United States, to Plymouth, England, the first leg of the voyage that was planned to take them up the coasts of the North Sea to Spitsbergen and conclude with a dramatic rendezvous at the North Pole with the German airship \"Graf Zeppelin\". On that first leg, however, \"Nautilus\" encountered a violent storm. Both engines failed, leaving the boat adrift. She was rescued and initially towed into Cork Harbour in Southern Ireland on 22 June where her batteries were re-charged, before being towed to England by where she was repaired.\n", "On 5 August, very late in the year to begin an Arctic expedition, \"Nautilus\" began making her way through the English Channel and along the Norwegian coast. Another storm again damaged the boat, carrying away her bridge and giving her a permanent list, but after a stop in Tromsø on 11 August, she successfully reached Spitsbergen, and Wilkins allowed but a single day for repairs.\n", "The crew carried out the planned scientific experiments as they pushed on northward, but thick pack ice hindered their progress. The boat was ill-equipped to deal with the extreme cold, lacking insulation and heaters. The fresh water system froze and the hull developed slow leaks.\n", "After ten days, \"Nautilus\" reached 82°N, the farthest north any vessel had reached under its own power, and preparations began to dive and proceed under the ice. However, the boat refused to respond; the stern planes had been carried away at some unknown earlier time. Without them, the submarine could not control its depth while submerged, and the expedition had to be aborted.\n", "On 31 August, under financial pressure from newspaperman William Randolph Hearst, who had initially promised to pay for the expedition but who indicated by telegraph that Wilkins would not be paid if he did not continue, Wilkins ordered the submarine onward. Captain Danenhower ordered \"Nautilus\" trimmed down by the bow, and deliberately rammed an ice floe in an attempt to force the boat under. The manoeuvre worked in that \"Nautilus\" submerged, and became the first submarine to operate under the polar ice cap. However, her unconventional method of diving caused significant damage to her upper works. She was out of radio contact for days, was presumed lost, and rescue efforts were planned. In fact, she had actually travelled only a short distance under the ice before resurfacing through a polynya, but her radios had been badly damaged, requiring days to repair.\n", "The scientific crew continued their experiments, and their findings became the first paper published by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. On 20 September, \"Nautilus\" returned to Spitsbergen carrying invaluable data and with all crew alive. Hearst, however, considered the expedition a failure and carried out his threat, refusing to pay for the expedition.\n", "Section::::Service history.:Fate.\n", "Following the expedition, \"O-12\" was returned to the Navy Department. On 30 November 1931 she was towed three miles down the \"Byfjorden\" (a Norwegian fjord just outside Bergen) and scuttled in of water. In 1981 Norwegian divers found her wreck.\n", "In 1959, was the first submarine to surface at the North Pole and the second submarine (after in 1958) to reach the North Pole. Her crew conducted a tribute to Sir George Hubert Wilkins and scattered his ashes over the North Pole.\n", "In 2010 the research submersible \"JAGO\" dove to try to locate and inspect \"Nautilus\".\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nautilus\" (Submarine) Photograph Collection\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q3062337", "wikidata_label": "USS O-12", "wikipedia_title": "USS O-12 (SS-73)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206570, "parentid": 903765802, "revid": 904907383, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-05T12:45:47Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20O-12%20(SS-73)&oldid=904907383" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Maria (given name)\n", "Maria is a feminine given name. It is given in many languages influenced by Latin Christianity. \n", "It has its origin as the feminine form of the Roman name Marius (see Maria (gens)), and, after Christianity religion has spread across the Roman empire, it became the Latinised form of the name of Miriam: Mary, mother of Jesus.\n", "\"Maria\" (Μαρία) is a form of the name used in the New Testament, standing alongside \"Mariam\" Μαριάμ.\n", "It reflects the Syro-Aramaic name \"Maryam\", which is in turn derived from the Biblical Hebrew name \"Miriam\".\n", "As a result of their similarity and syncretism, the Latin original name Maria and the Hebrew-derived Maria combined to form a single name.\n", "The name is also sometimes used as a male (middle) name. This was historically the case in many Central European countries and still is the case in countries with strong Catholic traditions, where it signified patronage of the Virgin Mary (French-speakers often did the same with Marie).\n", "Besides Maria, Mother of Jesus (see Blessed Virgin Mary or Virgin Mary), there are three other women named Maria in the New Testament: Maria Magdalena and Maria Salomé, disciples of Jesus and Maria Betânia, sister of Lazarus. In Quranic tradition, the name is rendered \"Maryam\", but Arabic reflects the Christian given name as \"Mārya\" مارية or \"Māryā\" ماريا \"Mārya al-Qibiṭiyya\", a Coptic Egyptian woman who was a bondmaid to prophet Muhammad .\n", "Section::::Variants and usage.\n", "\"Maria\" was a frequently given name in southern Europe even in the medieval period. \n", "In addition to the simple name, there arose a tradition of naming girls after specific titles of Mary, feast days associated with Mary and specific Marian apparitions (such as \"Maria de los Dolores\", \"Maria del Pilar\", \"Maria del Carmen\" etc., whence the derived given names of \"Dolores\", \"Pilar\", \"Carmen\" etc.). By contrast, in northern Europe the name only rose to popularity after the Reformation.\n", "Because the name is so frequent in Christian tradition, a tradition of giving compound names has developed, with a number of such compounds themselves becoming very popular. \n", "Examples include Anna+Maria (Anne-Marie, Marianne, etc.)\n", "Maria+Luisa (French Marie-Louise,)\n", "Margarita+Maria (English Margaret Mary, French Marguerite Marie etc.),\n", "Maria+Antonia (Italian Maria Antonia, French Marie-Antoinette etc.)\n", "Maria+Helena (Italian Maria Elena, Spanish María Elena), \n", "Maria+Teresa,\n", "among numerous others.\n", "As a feminine given name, Maria ranked 109th in the United States as of 2015, down from rank 31 held during 1973–1975.\n", "Spelling variants of \"Maria\" include: Mária (Hungarian, Slovakian), María (Galician, Spanish), Máire and Muire (Irish), Marya, Marija (transliterated from Cyrillic), Maria (Polish). Due to a very strong devotion of Irish and Polish Catholics to the Blessed Virgin Mary, a special exception is made for two other forms of her name — Muire and Maryja — no one else may take that name similar to the way the name Jesus is not used in most languages. The English form \"Mary\" is derived via French \"Marie\".\n", "A great number of hypocoristic forms are in use in numerous languages.\n", "Maryam and Miriam have numerous variants, such as \n", "Georgian Mariami (Georgian)\n", "Mariamma, biblical Mariamme, Mariamne\n", "Məryəm (Azerbaijani)\n", "Meryem (Kurdish, Turkish)\n", "Myriam (French)\n", "The spelling in Semitic abjads is \"mrym\": Aramaic ܡܪܝܡ, Hebrew מרים, Arabic مريم.\n", "Cyrillic has Марыя (Marýja) (Belarusian), Мария (Maríja) (Russian, Bulgarian).\n", "Georgian uses მარიამ (Mariam), მარია (Maria); Armenian: Մարիամ.\n", "Chinese has adopted the spelling 瑪麗 (simplified 玛丽, pinyin Mǎlì).\n", "The variant Mariah (usually pronounced /məˈraɪə/) was rarely given in the United States prior to the 1990s, when it bounced in popularity, from rank 562 in 1989 to rank 62 in 1998, in imitation of the name of singer Mariah Carey (whose \"Vision of Love\" topped the charts in 1990).\n", "Section::::Variants and usage.:Masculine name.\n", "\"Maria\" is used as a part of masculine given names in Roman Catholic tradition.\n", "Section::::People named Maria.\n", "Section::::People named Maria.:Female.\n", "BULLET::::- Maria of Russia (several people)\n", "BULLET::::- Maria al-Qibtiyya\n", "BULLET::::- María Conchita Alonso (born 1957), American singer/songwriter and actress\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Ahtisa Manalo, Miss International Philippines 2018\n", "BULLET::::- María Azambuya (1944 – 2011), Uruguayan actress and theatre director\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Bamford (born 1970), American stand-up comedian, actress, and voice actress\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Beig (1920 – 2018), German author\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Bello (born 1967), American actress and writer\n", "BULLET::::- María Belón (born 1966), Spanish physician and motivational speaker\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Brink (born 1977), American singer and songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Beasley, American inventor\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Callas (1923 – 1977), Greek-American soprano\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Cole (1922 – 2012), American jazz singer\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Christina (several people)\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Dallas, New Zealand singer\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Edgeworth (1768 – 1849), Anglo-Irish writer of adults' and children's literature\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Louise Eve (1848-?), American poet\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Harfanti (born 1992), Miss World Indonesia 2015\n", "BULLET::::- María Holly (born 1932), widow of rock and roll pioneer Buddy Holly\n", "BULLET::::- Maria James (1793–1868), Welsh-born American poet\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Jane Jewsbury (1800–1833), English writer, poet, literary reviewer\n", "BULLET::::- María José (several people)\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Kanellis (born 1982), American professional wrestler\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Kekkonen, Finnish erotic actress\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Brace Kimball (1852–1933), American educator, elocutionist, writer\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Lauterbach (1987-2007), American murder victim\n", "BULLET::::- Maria White Lowell (1821-1853), American poet, abolitionist\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Mandl (1912–1948), Austrian Nazi SS commandant of the female camp at Auschwitz concentration camp executed for war crimes\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Mazina (born 1964), Russian Olympic champion épée fencer\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Montessori, Italian educator\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Ozawa (born 1986), Japanese actress\n", "BULLET::::- Princess Maria Pia of Bourbon-Parma (born 1934)\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Palmer (1917 – 1981), Austrian-born American actress\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Rahajeng (born 1991), Miss World Indonesia 2014\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Rasputin (1898 – 1977), memoirist\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Reynolds (1768 – 1828), wife of James Reynolds\n", "BULLET::::- María Elena Salinas, American broadcast journalist, news anchor, and author\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Selena (born 1990), Indonesian beauty pageant titleholder who won Puteri Indonesia 2011\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Sharapova (born 1987), Russian professional tennis player\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Shriver (born 1955), American journalist and activist\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Theresa (several people)\n", "BULLET::::- María Valverde (born 1987), Spanish actress\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Eulália Vares, Brazilian mathematical statistician and probability theorist\n", "Section::::People named Maria.:Fictional characters.\n", "BULLET::::- Maria (West Side Story), the main female protagonist from the musical \"West Side Story\", which is based on Romeo and Juliet\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Jackson, a character from \"The Sarah Jane Adventures\"\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Robotnik, a character in the \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" video game series\n", "BULLET::::- Mary, a character from item number \"Mera Naam Mary Hai\" from film Brothers, portrayed by Kareena Kapoor.\n", "Section::::People named Maria.:Male.\n", "BULLET::::- Gian Maria Visconti (1388–1412)\n", "BULLET::::- Filippo Maria Visconti (1392–1447)\n", "BULLET::::- Giovanni Maria Nanino (1543/4–1607)\n", "BULLET::::- Giovanni Maria Trabaci (c. 1575–1647)\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Maria Wingfield (1550–1631)\n", "BULLET::::- Antonio Maria Vassallo (c. 1620–64/73)\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826)\n", "BULLET::::- Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926)\n", "BULLET::::- Erich Maria Remarque (1898–1970)\n", "BULLET::::- José María Mariano Escrivá y Albás, more commonly known as Saint Josemaría (1902–75)\n", "BULLET::::- Carlo Maria Giulini (1914–2005), Italian conductor\n", "BULLET::::- Maria Emanuel, Margrave of Meissen, head of the deposed Royal Saxon branch of the House of Wettin (d. 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- Klaus Maria Brandauer (1943-)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Maria (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Hurricane Maria\n", "BULLET::::- Mariah (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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"Lazarus", "Quranic tradition", "\"Mārya al-Qibiṭiyya\"", "Coptic", "Egyptian", "bondmaid", "Muhammad", "titles of Mary", "Marian apparition", "Maria de los Dolores", "Maria del Pilar", "Maria del Carmen", "Dolores", "Pilar", "Carmen", "Anna", "Marianne", "Luisa", "Margarita", "Margaret Mary", "Antonia", "Marie-Antoinette", "Helena", "Teresa", "Slovakian", "Galician", "Máire", "Muire", "Polish", "Irish and Polish Catholics", "Blessed Virgin Mary", "Jesus", "Mary", "Marie", "hypocoristic", "Maryam", "Miriam", "Georgian", "Mariamme", "Mariamne", "Azerbaijani", "Kurdish", "Turkish", "Semitic abjad", "Mariah", "Mariah Carey", "Vision of Love", "Maria of Russia", "Maria al-Qibtiyya", "María Conchita Alonso", "Maria Ahtisa Manalo", "María Azambuya", "Maria Bamford", "Maria Beig", "Maria Bello", "María Belón", "Maria Brink", "Maria Beasley", "Maria Callas", "Maria Cole", "Maria Christina", "Maria Dallas", "Maria Edgeworth", "Maria Louise Eve", "Maria Harfanti", "María Holly", "Maria James", "Maria Jane Jewsbury", "María José", "Maria Kanellis", "Maria Kekkonen", "Maria Brace Kimball", "Maria Lauterbach", "Maria White Lowell", "Maria Mandl", "Maria Mazina", "Maria Montessori", "Maria Ozawa", "Princess Maria Pia of Bourbon-Parma", "Maria Palmer", "Maria Rahajeng", "Maria Rasputin", "Maria Reynolds", "María Elena Salinas", "Maria Selena", "Maria Sharapova", "Maria Shriver", "Maria Theresa", "María Valverde", "Maria Eulália Vares", "Maria (West Side Story)", "West Side Story", "Romeo and Juliet", "Maria Jackson", "Maria Robotnik", "Mera Naam Mary Hai", "Brothers", "Kareena Kapoor", "Gian Maria Visconti", "Filippo Maria Visconti", "Giovanni Maria Nanino", "Giovanni Maria Trabaci", "Edward Maria Wingfield", "Antonio Maria Vassallo", "Carl Maria von Weber", "Rainer Maria Rilke", "Erich Maria Remarque", "José María Mariano Escrivá y Albás", "Carlo Maria Giulini", "Maria Emanuel, Margrave of Meissen", "House of Wettin", "Klaus Maria Brandauer", "Maria (disambiguation)", "Hurricane Maria", "Mariah (disambiguation)" ], "href": [ "Latin%20Christianity", "Marius%20%28name%29", "Maria%20%28gens%29", "Mary%2C%20mother%20of%20Jesus", "New%20Testament", "Syro-Aramaic", "Biblical%20Hebrew", "Miriam%20%28name%29", "syncretism", "Central%20Europe", "Virgin%20Mary", "Marie%20%28given%20name%29", "Mary%20%28mother%20of%20Jesus%29", "Blessed%20Virgin%20Mary", "Virgin%20Mary", "Mary%20Magdalene", "Salome%20%28disciple%29", "Mary%20of%20Bethany", "Lazarus%20of%20Bethany", "Mary%20in%20Islam", "Maria%20al-Qibtiyya", "Copts", "Egyptians", "bondmaid", "Muhammad", "titles%20of%20Mary", "Marian%20apparition", "Our%20Lady%20of%20Sorrows", "Our%20Lady%20of%20the%20Pillar", "Our%20Lady%20of%20Mount%20Carmel", "Dolores%20%28given%20name%29", "Pilar%20%28given%20name%29", "Carmen%20%28given%20name%29", "Anna%20%28given%20name%29", "Marianne%20%28name%29", "Luisa%20%28disambiguation%29", "Margarita", "Margaret%20Mary", "Antonia%20%28name%29", "Marie-Antoinette", "Helena%20%28given%20name%29", "Teresa", "Slovakian%20language", "Galician%20language", "M%C3%A1ire", "Muire", "Polish%20language", "Roman%20Catholicism", "Blessed%20Virgin%20Mary", "Jesus", "Mary%20%28name%29", "Marie%20%28given%20name%29", "hypocoristic", "Maryam%20%28name%29", "Miriam%20%28name%29", "Georgian%20language", "Mariamme", "Mariamne%20%28name%29", "Azerbaijani%20language", "Kurdish%20language", "Turkish%20language", "Semitic%20abjad", "Mariah%20%28given%20name%29", "Mariah%20Carey", "Vision%20of%20Love", "Maria%20of%20Russia%20%28disambiguation%29", "Maria%20al-Qibtiyya", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Conchita%20Alonso", "Maria%20Ahtisa%20Manalo", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Azambuya", "Maria%20Bamford", "Maria%20Beig", "Maria%20Bello", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Bel%C3%B3n", "Maria%20Brink", "Maria%20Beasley", "Maria%20Callas", "Maria%20Cole", "Maria%20Christina%20%28disambiguation%29", "Maria%20Dallas", "Maria%20Edgeworth", "Maria%20Louise%20Eve", "Maria%20Harfanti", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Holly", "Maria%20James%20%28poet%29", "Maria%20Jane%20Jewsbury", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Jos%C3%A9", "Maria%20Kanellis", "Maria%20Kekkonen", "Maria%20Brace%20Kimball", "Murder%20of%20Maria%20Lauterbach", "Maria%20White%20Lowell", "Maria%20Mandl", "Maria%20Mazina", "Maria%20Montessori", "Maria%20Ozawa", "Princess%20Maria%20Pia%20of%20Bourbon-Parma", "Maria%20Palmer", "Maria%20Rahajeng", "Maria%20Rasputin", "Maria%20Reynolds", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Elena%20Salinas", "Maria%20Selena", "Maria%20Sharapova", "Maria%20Shriver", "Maria%20Theresa%20%28disambiguation%29", "Mar%C3%ADa%20Valverde", "Maria%20Eul%C3%A1lia%20Vares", "Maria%20%28West%20Side%20Story%29", "West%20Side%20Story", "Romeo%20and%20Juliet", "Maria%20Jackson", "Maria%20Robotnik", "Mera%20Naam%20Mary%20Hai", "Brothers%20%282015%20film%29", "Kareena%20Kapoor", "Gian%20Maria%20Visconti", "Filippo%20Maria%20Visconti", "Giovanni%20Maria%20Nanino", "Giovanni%20Maria%20Trabaci", "Edward%20Maria%20Wingfield", "Antonio%20Maria%20Vassallo", "Carl%20Maria%20von%20Weber", "Rainer%20Maria%20Rilke", "Erich%20Maria%20Remarque", "Jos%C3%A9%20Mar%C3%ADa%20Mariano%20Escriv%C3%A1%20y%20Alb%C3%A1s", "Carlo%20Maria%20Giulini", "Maria%20Emanuel%2C%20Margrave%20of%20Meissen", "House%20of%20Wettin", "Klaus%20Maria%20Brandauer", "Maria%20%28disambiguation%29", "Hurricane%20Maria", "Mariah%20%28disambiguation%29" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "female given name; for Maria as a male name see Q25413386", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q325872", "wikidata_label": "Maria", "wikipedia_title": "Maria (given name)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Maria (first name)", "Maria (given name)" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206567, "parentid": 907497664, "revid": 907500471, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-23T10:19:06Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maria%20(given%20name)&oldid=907500471" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Mesopotamia\n", "Mesopotamia is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders.\n", "The Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.\n", "Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with western parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the Sassanid Persians. The division of Mesopotamia between Roman (Byzantine from AD 395) and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the Levant from Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra.\n", "Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having \"inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture\".\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The regional toponym \"Mesopotamia\" (, \"[land] between rivers\"; \"bilād ar-rāfidayn\"; \"miyān rudān\"; \"Beth Nahrain\" \"land of rivers\") comes from the ancient Greek root words μέσος (\"mesos\") \"middle\" and ποταμός (\"potamos\") \"river\" and translates to \"(Land) between two/the rivers\". It is used throughout the Greek Septuagint (c. 250 BC) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent \"Naharaim\". An even earlier Greek usage of the name \"Mesopotamia\" is evident from \"The Anabasis of Alexander\", which was written in the late 2nd century AD, but specifically refers to sources from the time of Alexander the Great. In the \"Anabasis\", Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria.\n", "The Aramaic term \"biritum/birit narim\" corresponded to a similar geographical concept. Later, the term Mesopotamia was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of Iraq and southeastern Turkey. The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia.\n", "A further distinction is usually made between Northern or Upper Mesopotamia and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the \"Jazira\", is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.\n", "In modern academic usage, the term \"Mesopotamia\" often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like \"Syria\", \"Jazira\", and \"Iraq\" being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued that these later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the Taurus Mountains. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf.\n", "The arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.\n", "Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times, and has added to the cultural mix.\n", "Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units. These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The pre-history of the Ancient Near East begins in the Lower Paleolithic period. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script in the Uruk IV period (c. 4th millennium BC), and the documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the mid-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire prehistory ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC, or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as Iraq. In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed and socially complex states.\n", "The region was one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was invented, along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yellow River in China. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, Assur and Babylon, as well as major territorial states such as the city of Eridu, the Akkadian kingdoms, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the various Assyrian empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon of Akkad (who established the Akkadian Empire), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), Ashur-uballit II and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire).\n", "Scientists analysed DNA from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in Germany. They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's Turkey and Iraq.\n", "Section::::History.:Periodization.\n", "BULLET::::- Pre- and protohistory\n", "BULLET::::- Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000–8700 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700–6800)\n", "BULLET::::- Jarmo (7500-5000 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Hassuna (~6000 BC–? BC), Samarra (~5700–4900 BC) and Halaf cultures (~6000–5300 BC) cultures\n", "BULLET::::- Ubaid period (~5900–4400 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Uruk period (~4400–3100 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Jemdet Nasr period (~3100–2900 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Early Bronze Age\n", "BULLET::::- Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Akkadian Empire (~2350–2100 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Early Assyrian kingdom (24th to 18th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Middle Bronze Age\n", "BULLET::::- Early Babylonia (19th to 18th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- First Babylonian dynasty (18th to 17th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Minoan eruption (c. 1620 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Late Bronze Age\n", "BULLET::::- Old Assyrian period (16th to 11th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Middle Assyrian period (c. 1365–1076 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Kassites in Babylon, (c. 1595–1155 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Late Bronze Age collapse (12th to 11th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Iron Age\n", "BULLET::::- Syro-Hittite states (11th to 7th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Classical antiquity\n", "BULLET::::- Persian Babylonia, Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Parthian Babylonia (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Osroene (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Adiabene (1st to 2nd century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Hatra (1st to 2nd century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Roman Mesopotamia (2nd to 7th centuries AD), Roman Assyria (2nd century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Late Antiquity\n", "BULLET::::- Palmyrene Empire (3nd century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Asōristān (3rd to 7th century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Euphratensis (mid-4th century AD to 7th century AD)\n", "BULLET::::- Muslim conquest (mid-7th century AD)\n", "Section::::Language and writing.\n", "The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate. Along with Sumerian, Semitic languages were also spoken in early Mesopotamia. Subartuan a language of the Zagros, perhaps related to the Hurro-Urartuan language family is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts. Akkadian came to be the dominant language during the Akkadian Empire and the Assyrian empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes. Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Old Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and then the Achaemenid Empire: the official lect is called Imperial Aramaic. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD.\n", "Early in Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means \"wedge-shaped\", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from pictograms. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the É, a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.\n", "The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.\n", "During the third millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerian and the Akkadian language users, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.\n", "Section::::Language and writing.:Literature.\n", "Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that \"he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn.\" Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.\n", "A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.\n", "Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sîn-lēqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.\n", "Section::::Science and technology.\n", "Section::::Science and technology.:Mathematics.\n", "Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle. The Sumerian calendar was based on the seven-day week. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if pi were fixed at 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used pi as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.\n", "Section::::Science and technology.:Astronomy.\n", "From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when Limmu lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.\n", "The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.\n", "During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.\n", "In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy.\n", "The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).\n", "Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.\n", "Section::::Science and technology.:Medicine.\n", "The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the \"Diagnostic Handbook\" written by the \"ummânū\", or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).\n", "Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the \"Diagnostic Handbook\" introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.\n", "The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's \"Diagnostic Handbook\" was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.\n", "Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his \"Diagnostic Handbook\". These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.\n", "Section::::Science and technology.:Technology.\n", "Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces.\n", "According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes' screw may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times. Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.\n", "Section::::Religion and philosophy.\n", "Ancient Mesopotamian religion was the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the pantheon. The Sumerians also posed philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods.\n", "Section::::Religion and philosophy.:Philosophy.\n", "The numerous civilizations of the area influenced the Abrahamic religions, especially the Hebrew Bible; its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the Book of Genesis.\n", "Giorgio Buccellati believes that the origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogues, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs. Babylonian reason and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.\n", "The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was axiomatic and is comparable to the \"ordinary logic\" described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms. Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine.\n", "Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy. In particular, the Babylonian text \"Dialogue of Pessimism\" contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the Sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of dialectic, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the Socratic method. The Ionian philosopher Thales was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas.\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Festivals.\n", "Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:\n", "BULLET::::1. The Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)\n", "BULLET::::2. The phase of the annual agricultural cycle\n", "BULLET::::3. Equinoxes and solstices\n", "BULLET::::4. The local mythos and its divine Patrons\n", "BULLET::::5. The success of the reigning Monarch\n", "BULLET::::6. The Akitu, or New Year Festival (First full moon after spring equinox)\n", "BULLET::::7. Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)\n", "Section::::Culture.:Music.\n", "Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events.\n", "The Oud (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument used by the Mesopotamians. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat, playing right-handed. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck varieties. The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.)\n", "Section::::Culture.:Games.\n", "Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses. They also played \"majore\", a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now known as the \"Royal Game of Ur\".\n", "Section::::Culture.:Family life.\n", "Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtar and Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the \"\"en\"\", or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses, a man. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as many others, has suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a \"council of elders\" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Burials.\n", "Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets. Deceased children were put in big \"jars\" which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.\n", "Section::::Economy and agriculture.\n", "Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC. Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit, but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial banking. It was comparable in some ways to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more \"anything goes\" approach.\n", "In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word Ensi was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. Villeins are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.\n", "The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds, and clay (for building materials). With irrigation, the food supply in Mesopotamia was comparable to the Canadian prairies.\n", "The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slave). Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.\n", "Section::::Government.\n", "The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of its independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.\n", "Section::::Government.:Kings.\n", "The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the City of Gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “shepherd”, as kings had to look after their people.\n", "Section::::Government.:Power.\n", "When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus, and Arpad. They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors also had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was also responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule. He was known as “the law maker”, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant \"the gateway of the gods.\" It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning.\n", "Section::::Government.:Warfare.\n", "With the end of the Uruk phase, walled cities grew and many isolated Ubaid villages were abandoned indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king Lugalbanda was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC but was not common until about 2500 BC. An Early Dynastic II king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against Humbaba guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later Stele of the Vultures at the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over the neighbouring rival city of Umma is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre. From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states. When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.\n", "Section::::Government.:Laws.\n", "City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes of Urukagina and Lipit Ishtar have been found. The most renowned of these was that of Hammurabi, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the Code of Hammurabi (created c. 1780 BC), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves\n", "Section::::Art.\n", "The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BC until the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculpture was also painted.\n", "The Protoliterate period, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion. A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived. Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a \"Ram in a Thicket\", the \"Copper Bull\" and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur.\n", "From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not. The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BC, and may also be moulded. Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them; the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type, and the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and solid late one.\n", "The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round (and also five legs, so that both views seem complete). Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.\n", "Section::::Architecture.\n", "The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.\n", "Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities. The ziggurat is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the Ishtar Gate from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.\n", "The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Frankfort, Henri, \"The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient\", Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art),\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien\", Brepols, 1996 .\n", "BULLET::::- Benoit, Agnès; 2003. \"Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien\", Manuels de l'Ecole du Louvre.\n", "BULLET::::- Bottéro, Jean; 1987. \"Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux\", Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », .\n", "BULLET::::- Bottéro, Jean; 1995. \"Mesopotamia: writing, reasoning and the gods\". Trans. by Zainab Bahrani and Marc Van de Mieroop, University of Chicago Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. \"Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen\", München,\n", "BULLET::::- Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. \"Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris.\" München 2005 (4. Aufl.),\n", "BULLET::::- Joannès, Francis; 2001. \"Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne\", Robert Laffont.\n", "BULLET::::- Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. \"Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris\", Stuttgart,\n", "BULLET::::- Kuhrt, Amélie; 1995. \"The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 B.C\". 2 Vols. Routledge: London and New York.\n", "BULLET::::- Liverani, Mario; 1991. \"Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia\". Editori Laterza: Roma.\n", "BULLET::::- Matthews, Roger; 2005. \"The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC\", Turnhout 2005,\n", "BULLET::::- Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. \"Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization\". The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.\n", "BULLET::::- Pollock, Susan; 1999.\" Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was\". Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.\n", "BULLET::::- Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. \"Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history\". Routledge: London and New York.\n", "BULLET::::- Roux, Georges; 1964. \"Ancient Iraq\", Penguin Books.\n", "BULLET::::- Silver, Morris; 2007. \"Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi\", Antiguo Oriente 5: 89–112.\n", "BULLET::::- Snell, Daniel (ed.); 2005. \"A Companion to the Ancient Near East\". Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Van de Mieroop, Marc; 2004. \"A history of the ancient Near East. ca 3000–323 BC\". Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Ancient Mesopotamia – timeline, definition, and articles at Ancient History Encyclopedia\n", "BULLET::::- Mesopotamia – introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum\n", "BULLET::::- By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, 1920 \"(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)\"\n", "BULLET::::- A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 \"(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu &   format)\"\n", "BULLET::::- Mesopotamian Archaeology, by Percy S.P. Pillow, 1912 \"(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu &   format)\"\n", "BULLET::::- Mesopotamia, 1920\n" ] }

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{ "description": "area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q11767", "wikidata_label": "Mesopotamia", "wikipedia_title": "Mesopotamia", "aliases": { "alias": [ "ancient Mesopotamia" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "John Blackwood (publisher)\n", "John Blackwood FRSE (1818–1879) was a Scottish publisher, sixth son of William Blackwood. John succeeded his father as editor of the business in 1834, on William's death. Four years later he was joined by Major William Blackwood, who continued in the firm until his death in 1861. Five of William Blackwood's seven sons played a role in the running of the company, William Blackwood and Sons.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "He was born at 2 Salisbury Road in south Edinburgh on 7 December 1818.\n", "Educated at the High School and University of Edinburgh, he early displayed literary tastes, which procured for him the nickname of 'the little editor.'\n", "At the close of his college career he spent three years in continental travel. \n", "Soon after his return, his father having meanwhile died and been succeeded by two of his elder brothers, he entered, in 1839, to learn business, the house of a then eminent London publishing firm.\n", "In 1840, he was entrusted with the superintendence of the branch which his brother's Edinburgh house was establishing in London. \n", "He occupied this position for six years, during which his office in Pall Mall became a literary rendezvous, among his visitors being Lockhart of the 'Quarterly Review,' Delane of the 'Times,' and Thackeray, with the last two of whom he formed an intimate friendship.\n", "One of his functions was to procure recruits for 'Blackwood's Magazine,' then edited by his eldest brother, and to him was due the connection formed with it by the first Lord Lytton, who began in 1842 to contribute to it his translation of the poems and ballads of Schiller. \n", "In 1845, he returned to Edinburgh on the death of his eldest brother, whom he succeeded in the editorship of 'Blackwood's Magazine.' \n", "In 1852, by the death of another elder brother, he became virtual head of the publishing business also, and he retained both positions until his death. As an editor he was critical and suggestive, as well as appreciative. \n", "As a publisher he preferred quality to the production of quantity ; in both capacities he displayed hereditary acumen and liberality.\n", "He quickly discerned the genius of George Eliot, forthwith accepting and publishing in his magazine the first instalment of her earliest fiction the 'Scenes of Clerical Life,' which had been sent to him without the name of the author, for whom thus early he predicted a great career as a novelist. \n", "This commencement of a business connection was soon followed by a personal acquaintance between author and publisher, which ripened into intimacy. \n", "In her husband's biography of George Eliot there are many indications of her readiness to accept Blackwood's friendly criticisms and suggestions, and of her grateful regard for him. \n", "On hearing of the probably fatal termination of his last illness she wrote : \n", "All her books, after the 'Scenes of Clerical Life,' were, with one exception, first published by his firm. \n", "Although Blackwood was a staunch conservative and the conductor of the chief monthly organ of conservatism, he always welcomed, whether as editor or publisher, what he considered to be literary ability, without regard to the political or religious opinions of its possessors. \n", "A genial and convivial host and companion, he delighted to dispense, at his house in Edinburgh, and his country house, Strathtyrum, near St. Andrews, a liberal hospitality to authors with whom he had formed a business connection. \n", "To his magazine he contributed directly only occasional obituary notices of prominent contributors.\n", "In later life his Edinburgh address was 3 Randolph Crescent on the southern edge of the Moray Estate.\n", "He died at Strathtyrum House near St Andrews on 29 October 1879. He is buried on a small west-facing section of wall on the southern edge of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. A secondary memorial to John is within his father's family vault in Old Calton Burial Ground.\n", "The Blackwood family still live to this day in Ayrshire, Scotland around the Doon Valley Area and other parts of Ayrshire.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Attribution\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Porter, Mary Blackwood (Mrs. Gerald Porter), \"Annals of a Publishing House: John Blackwood, by his Daughter Mrs. Gerald Porter\". Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood and Sons, 1898.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Elam\n", "Elam (; Elamite: \"haltamti\"; Sumerian: \"NIM.MA\"; \"ʿÊlām\"; \"Ūvja\") was an ancient Pre-Iranian civilization centered in the far west and southwest of what is now modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name \"Elam\" stems from the Sumerian transliteration \"elam(a)\", along with the later Akkadian \"elamtu\", and the Elamite \"haltamti.\" Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. In classical literature Elam was also known as Susiana ( ; \"Sousiānḗ\"), a name derived from its capital Susa.\n", "Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered a language isolate unrelated to the much later arriving Persian and Iranic languages. In accordance with geographical and archaeological matches, some historians argue that the Elamites comprise a large portion of the ancestors of the modern day Lurs, whose language, Luri, split from Middle Persian.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The Elamite language endonym of Elam as a country appears to have been \"Haltamti\".\n", "Exonyms included the Sumerian names \"NIM.MA\"𒉏𒈠𒆠 and \"ELAM\", the Akkadian \"Elamû\" (masculine/neuter) and \"Elamītu\" (feminine) meant \"resident of Susiana, Elamite\".\n", "In prehistory, Elam was centered primarily in modern Khuzestān and Ilam. The name Khuzestān is derived ultimately from the Old Persian \"Hūjiya\" () meaning Susa/Elam. In Middle Persian this became \"Huź\" \"Susiana\", and in modern Persian \"Xuz\", compounded with the toponymic suffix \"-stån\" \"place\".\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around the river Karun. In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The great ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area \"Susiana\", referring to the country around Susa.\n", "Another ancient geographer, Strabo, viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographical regions. He referred to Elam (\"land of the Elymaei\") as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan.\n", "Disagreements over the location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts. Some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent.\n", "The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since the discovery of ancient Anshan, and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history, the definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars argued that the centre of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it, and not at Susa in lowland Khuzistan.\n", "Potts disagrees suggesting that the term 'Elam' was primarily constructed by the Mesopotamians to describe the area in general terms, without referring specifically either to the lowlanders or the highlanders,\n", "\"Elam is not an Iranian term and has no relationship to the conception which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan is coterminous with Elam is to misunderstand the artificiality and indeed the alienness of Elam as a construct imposed from without on the peoples of the southwestern highlands of the Zagros mountain range, the coast of Fars and the alluvial plain drained by the Karun-Karkheh river system.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian (Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian) sources. The history of Elam is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period:\n", "BULLET::::- Proto-Elamite: c. 3200 – c. 2700 BC (Proto-Elamite script in Susa)\n", "BULLET::::- Old Elamite period: c. 2700 – c. 1500 BC (earliest documents until the Sukkalmah Dynasty)\n", "BULLET::::- Middle Elamite period: c. 1500 – c. 1100 BC (Anzanite dynasty until the Babylonian invasion of Susa)\n", "BULLET::::- Neo-Elamite period: c. 1100 – 540 BC (characterized Assyrian and Median influence. 539 BC marks the beginning of the Achaemenid period.)\n", "Section::::History.:Proto-Elamite (c. 3200 – c. 2700 BC).\n", "Proto-Elamite civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam: Anshan (modern Khuzestan Province), Awan (modern Lorestan Province) and Shimashki (modern Kerman). References to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed the same territory, in different eras (see Hanson, Encyclopædia Iranica). To this core Shushiana (modern Khuzestan) was periodically annexed and broken off. In addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau; such as Warakshe, Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city of Kashan) and Jiroft in Kerman Province. The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as a response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure.\n", "The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of the river Karun. It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation. During its early history, it fluctuated between submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22—17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of the Uruk period. Proto-Elamite influence from the Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty. The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the king Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to the Sumerian king list. Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards.\n", "The Proto-Elamite states in Jiroft and Zabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity.\n", "In ancient Luristan, bronze-making tradition goes back to the mid-3rd millennium BC, and has many Elamite connections. Bronze objects from several cemeteries in the region date to the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) I, and to Ur-III period c. 2900–2000 BC. These excavations include Kalleh Nisar, Bani Surmah, Chigha Sabz, Kamtarlan, Sardant, and Gulal-i Galbi.\n", "Section::::History.:Old Elamite period (c.2700 – c.1500 BC).\n", "The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or \"Avan\"; c. 2400 – c. 2100) and Simashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.\n", "Section::::History.:Old Elamite period (c.2700 – c.1500 BC).:Awan dynasty.\n", "The Awan dynasty (2350-2150 BC) was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperor Sargon of Akkad, who not only defeated the Awan king Luhi-ishan and subjected Susa, but attempted to make the East Semitic Akkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone, and metal) from the Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. With the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great great-grandson, Shar-kali-sharri, Elam declared independence under the last Avan king, Kutik-Inshushinak (c. 2240 – c. 2220), and threw off the Akkadian language, promoting in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign, the Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Guti, another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke a language isolate.\n", "Section::::History.:Old Elamite period (c.2700 – c.1500 BC).:Shimashki dynasty.\n", "About a century later, the Sumerian king Shulgi of the Neo-Sumerian Empire retook the city of Susa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from the Sumerians of Mesopotamia and also Gutians from northwestern Iran, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea. Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan. But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC, the Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by king Kindattu, the sixth king of Simashki, managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity, ending the third dynasty of Ur. The Akkadian kings of Isin, successor state to Ur, managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Nanna that the Elamites had plundered.\n", "Section::::History.:Old Elamite period (c.2700 – c.1500 BC).:Sukkalmah dynasty.\n", "The succeeding dynasty, often called the Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770) after \"Great regents\", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian Empire, and Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia, being younger by approximately sixty years than the Akkadian speaking Old Assyrian Empire in Upper Mesopotamia, and almost seventy-five years older than the Old Babylonian Empire. This period is confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BC Kudur-mabuk, apparently king of another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin, succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa.\n", "Notable Eparti dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Sirukdukh (c. 1850), who entered various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states; Siwe-Palar-Khuppak, who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as \"Father\" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari, Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, and even Hammurabi of Babylon; and Kudur-Nahhunte, who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of the Old Assyrian Empire. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short lived Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595).\n", "Section::::History.:Trade with the Indus Valley civilization.\n", "Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago. Trade between the Indus Valley Civilization and the cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation as Susa. Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly \"Trubinella Pyrum\" and \"Fasciolaria Trapezium\", have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia and Susa dating from around 2500-2000 BCE. Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Susa in the excavation of the tell of the citadel. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans.\n", "Exchanges seem to have waned after 1900 BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Elamite period (c.1500 – c.1100 BC).\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Elamite period (c.1500 – c.1100 BC).:Anshan and Susa.\n", "The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an \"Elamisation\" of Susa, and the kings took the title \"king of Anshan and Susa\". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. The Kidinuids (c. 1500 – 1400) are a group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, \"king of Susa and of Anshan\", and by calling themselves \"servant of Kirwashir\", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its founding Susa was known as a central power location for the Elamites and for later Persian dynasties. Susa's power would peek during the Middle Elamite period when it would be the regions capital.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Elamite period (c.1500 – c.1100 BC).:Kassite invasions.\n", "Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400 – 1210), ten rulers are known, though their number was possibly larger. Some of them married Kassite princesses. The Kassites were also a Language Isolate speaking people from the Zagros Mountains who had taken Babylonia shortly after its sacking by the Hittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of Babylon Kurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne by Ashur-uballit I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230) another Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV, fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kassite-Babylonian power waned, as they became dominated by the northern Mesopotamian Middle Assyrian Empire. Kiddin-Khutran of Elam repulsed the Kassites by defeating Enlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 BC and Adad-shuma-iddina around 1222–1217. Under the Igehalkids, Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Elamite period (c.1500 – c.1100 BC).:Elamite Empire.\n", "Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Babylonia (which was also being ravaged by the empire of Assyria during this period), and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity—building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Babylonia, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues of Marduk and Manishtushu, the Manishtushu Obelisk, the Stele of Hammurabi and the stele of Naram-Sin. In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed by Ashur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte, the Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddin, and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years before being ejected by the native Akkadian speaking Babylonians. The Elamites then briefly came into conflict with Assyria, managing to take the Assyrian city of Arrapha (modern Kirkuk) before being ultimately defeated and having a treaty forced upon them by Ashur-Dan I.\n", "Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably of an incestuous relation of Kutir-Nakhkhunte's with his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned the statue of Marduk, but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I. He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of the Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, for after the death of this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries.\n", "Section::::History.:Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BC).\n", "Section::::History.:Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BC).:Neo-Elamite I (c. 1100 – c. 770 BC).\n", "Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians, Chaldeans and other peoples against the powerful Neo Assyrian Empire (911-605 BC); the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought unsuccessfully with the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian forces under Shamshi-Adad V (823–811).\n", "Section::::History.:Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BC).:Neo-Elamite II (c. 770 – 646 BC).\n", "The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration of Indo-European speaking Iranians to the Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the \"powerful Medes\", i.e. the actual Medes, Persians, Parthians, Sagartians, Margians, Bactrians, Sogdians etc.. Among these pressuring tribes were the \"Parsu\", first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah, but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Persia proper. These newly arrived Iranian peoples were also conquered by Assyria, and largely regarded as vassals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire until the late 7th century.\n", "More details are known from the late 8th century BC, when the Elamites were allied with the Chaldean chieftain Merodach-baladan to defend the cause of Babylonian independence from Assyria. Khumbanigash (743–717) supported Merodach-baladan against Sargon II, apparently without success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II (716–699), was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's son Sennacherib, who defeated the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians and dethroned Merodach-baladan for a second time, installing his own son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the Babylonian throne in 700.\n", "Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II, the last Elamite to claim the old title \"king of Anshan and Susa\", was murdered by his brother Khallushu, who managed to briefly capture the Assyrian governor of Babylonia Ashur-nadin-shumi and the city of Babylon in 694 BC. Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor of Khumma-Menanu III (692–689). Khumma-Menanu recruited a new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Assyrians at the battle of Halule in 691. Both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib only two years later, and its Elamite allies defeated in the process.\n", "The reigns of Khumma-Khaldash I (688–681) and Khumma-Khaldash II (680–675) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raided Sippar. At the beginning of Esarhaddon's reign in Assyria (681–669), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besieged Ur, but was routed by the Assyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword.\n", "Urtaku (674–664) for some time wisely maintained good relations with the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668–627), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku was killed in battle during a failed Elamite attack on Assyria.\n", "His successor Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak (664–653) attacked Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal following the battle of the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Susa itself was sacked and occupied by the Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassal Median state to the north fell to the invading Scythians and Cimmerians under Madius, and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, the \"Parsu\" (Persians) to Anshan which their king Teispes captured that same year, turning it for the first time into an Indo-Iranian kingdom under Assyrian dominance that would a century later become the nucleus of the Achaemenid dynasty. The Assyrians successfully subjugated and drove the Scythians and Cimmerians from their Iranian colonies, and the Persians, Medes and Parthians remained vassals of Assyria.\n", "During a brief respite provided by the civil war between Ashurbanipal and his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin whom their father Esarhaddon had installed as the vassal king of Babylon, the Elamites both gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, and indulged in fighting among themselves, so weakening the Elamite kingdom that in 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. A succession of brief reigns continued in Elam from 651 to 640, each of them ended either due to usurpation, or because of capture of their king by the Assyrians. In this manner, the last Elamite king, Khumma-Khaldash III, was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who annexed and destroyed the country.\n", "In a tablet unearthed in 1854 by Henry Austin Layard, Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought:\n", "Section::::History.:Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BC).:Neo-Elamite III (646–539 BC).\n", "The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada, a petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms, the united Elamite nation having been destroyed and colonised by the Assyrians. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak) still called themselves \"king of Anzan and of Susa\" or \"enlarger of the kingdom of Anzan and of Susa\", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance.\n", "The various Assyrian Empires, which had been the dominant force in the Near East, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, North Africa, Arabian peninsula and East Mediterranean for much of the period from the first half of the 14th century BC, began to unravel after the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC, descending into a series of bitter internal civil wars which also spread to Babylonia. The Iranian Medes, Parthians, Persians and Sagartians, who had been largely subject to Assyria since their arrival in the region around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule.\n", "The Medians took control of Elam during this period. Cyaxares the king of the Medes, Persians, Parthians and Sagartians entered into an alliance with a coalition of fellow former vassals of Assyria, including Nabopolassar of Babylon and Chaldea, and also the Scythians and Cimmerians, against Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria, who was faced with unremitting civil war in Assyria itself. This alliance then attacked a disunited and war weakened Assyria, and between 616 BC and 599 BC at the very latest, had conquered its vast empire which stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to Egypt, Libya and the Arabian Peninsula, and from Cyprus and Ephesus to Persia and the Caspian Sea.\n", "The major cities in Assyria itself were gradually taken; Arrapha (modern Kirkuk and Kalhu (modern Nimrud) in 616, Ashur, Dur-Sharrukin and Arbela (modern Erbil) in 613, Nineveh falling in 612, Harran in 608 BC, Carchemish in 605 BC, and finally Dur-Katlimmu by 599 BC. Elam, already largely destroyed and subjugated by Assyria, thus became easy prey for the Median dominated Iranian peoples, and was incorporated into the Median Empire (612-546 BC) and then the succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546-332 BC), with Assyria suffering the same fate. (see Achaemenid Assyria, Athura).\n", "The prophet Ezekiel describes the status of their power in the 12th year of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity in 587 BC:\n", "Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title \"king\", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa.\n", "Section::::History.:Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BC).:Elymais (187 BC- 224 AD).\n", "Elymaïs was the location of the death of Antiochus III the Great who was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel in 187 BC. Following the rise and fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Seleucid Empire, a new dynasty of Elamite rulers established Elymais from 147 BC to 224 AD, usually under the suzerainty of the Parthian Empire, until the advent of the unified Sasanian Empire in 224 AD.\n", "Section::::Art.\n", "Section::::Art.:Statuettes.\n", "Dated to approximately the twelfth century BCE, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which showed a ruler and his performance of a ritual action were intended to eternalize the effectiveness of such deeds. Found near the Temple of Inshushinak in Susa, these statuettes would have been considered charged with beneficial power.\n", "While archaeologists cannot be certain that the location where these figures were found indicates a date before or in the time of the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak, stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BCE rather than to the first millennium.\n", "In general, any gold or silver statuettes which represent the king making a sacrifice not only served a religious function, but also revealed the significance of displaying wealth that should not be overlooked.\n", "Section::::Art.:Seals.\n", "Elamite seals reached their peak of complexity in the 4th millennium BCE when their shape became cylindrical rather than stamp-like. Seals were primarily used as a form of identification and were often made out of precious stones. Because seals for different time periods had different designs and themes, seals and seal impressions can be used to track the various phases of the Elamite Empire and can teach a lot about the empire in ways which other forms of documentation cannot.\n", "The seal pictured shows two seated figures holding cups with a man in front of them wearing a long robe next to a table. A man is sitting on a throne, presumably the king, and is in a wrapped robe. The second figure, perhaps his queen, is draped in a wide, flounced garment and is elevated on a platform beneath an overhanging vine. A crescent is shown in the field.\n", "Section::::Art.:Statue of Queen Napir-Asu.\n", "This life-size votive offering of Queen Napir-Asu was commissioned around 1300 BCE in Susa, Iran. It is made of copper using the lost-wax casting method and rests on a solid bronze frame that weighs 1750 kg (3760 lb). This statue is different from many other Elamite statues of women because it resembles male statues due to the wide belt on the dress and the patterns which closely resemble those on male statues.\n", "The inscription on the side of the statue curses anyone, specifically men, who attempts to destroy the statue: \"I, Napir-Asu, wife of Untash-Napirisha. He who would seize my statue, who would smash it, who would destroy its inscription, who would erase my name, may he be smitten by the curse of Napirisha, of Kiririsha, and of Inshushinka, that his name shall become extinct, that his offspring be barren, that the forces of Beltiya, the great goddess, shall sweep down on him. This is Napir-Asu's offering.\"\n", "Section::::Art.:Stele of Untash Napirisha.\n", "The stele of the Elamite king, Untash-Napirisha was believed to have been commissioned in the 12th century BCE. \n", "It was moved from the original religious capital of Chogha Zanbil to the city of Susa by the successor king, Shutruk-Nahnante. Four registers of the stele are left. The remains depict the god Inshushinak validating the legitimacy of who is thought to be Shutruk-Nahnante. In the periphery are two priestesses, deity hybrids of fish and women holding streams of water, and two half-man half-mouflon guardians of the sacred tree. The names of the two priestesses are carved on their arms.\n", "King Untash Napirisha dedicated the stele to the god Ishushinak. Like other forms of art in the ancient Near East, this one portrays a king ceremonially recognizing a deity. This stele is unique in that the acknowledgement between king and god is reciprocal.\n", "Section::::Religion.\n", "The Elamites practised polytheism. Knowledge about their religion is scant, and it appears to have been characterized by the \"ill-defined character of the individual gods and goddesses. ...Most of them were not only ineffable beings whose real name was either not uttered or was unknown, but also sublime ideas, not to be exactly defined by the human race.\" Worship also varied between localities.\n", "In the later period, Elam worshipped a supreme triad consisting of Inshushinak (originally the civic protector god of Susa, eventually the leader of the triad and guarantor of the monarchy), Kiririsha (an earth/mother goddess in southern Elam), and Khumban (a sky god). Other deities include Pinikir (a mother goddess, and possibly originally chief deity, in northern Elam, later supplanted by or identified with Kiririsha) and Jabru (a god of the underworld). There were also imported deities, such as Beltiya.\n", "Section::::Language.\n", "Elamite is traditionally thought to be a language isolate, and completely unrelated to the neighbouring Semitic, Sumerian (also an isolate), and the later Indo-European Iranian languages that came to dominate the region. It was written in a cuneiform adapted from the Semitic Akkadian script of Assyria and Babylonia, although the very earliest documents were written in the quite different \"Linear Elamite\" script. In 2006, two even older inscriptions in a similar script were discovered at Jiroft to the east of Elam, leading archaeologists to speculate that Linear Elamite had originally spread from further east to Susa. It seems to have developed from an even earlier writing known as \"proto-Elamite\", but scholars are not unanimous on whether or not this script was used to write Elamite or another language, as it has not yet been deciphered. Several stages of the language are attested; the earliest date back to the third millennium BC, the latest to the Achaemenid Empire.\n", "The Elamite language may have survived as late as the early Islamic period (roughly contemporary with the early medieval period in Europe). Among other Islamic medieval historians, Ibn al-Nadim, for instance, wrote that \"The Iranian languages are Fahlavi (Pahlavi), Dari (not to be confused with Dari Persian in modern Afghanistan), Khuzi, Persian and Suryani (Assyrian)\", and Ibn Moqaffa noted that \"Khuzi\" was the unofficial language of the royalty of Persia, \"Khuz\" being the corrupted name for Elam.\n", "Section::::Language.:Suggested relations to other language families.\n", "A minority of scholars have proposed that the Elamite language could be related to the Munda language of India, some to Mon–Khmer of Cambodia and some to the Dravidian languages, in contrast to the majority who denote it as a language isolate. David McAlpine believes Elamite may be related to the living Dravidian languages. This hypothesis is considered under the rubric of Elamo-Dravidian languages.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "The Assyrians had utterly destroyed the Elamite nation, but new polities emerged in the area after Assyrian power faded. Among the nations that benefited from the decline of the Assyrians were the Iranian tribes, whose presence around Lake Urmia to the north of Elam is attested from the 9th century BC in Assyrian texts. Some time after that region fell to Madius the Scythian (653 BC), Teispes, son of Achaemenes, conquered Elamite Anshan in the mid 7th century BC, forming a nucleus that would expand into the Persian Empire. They were largely regarded as vassals of the Assyrians, and the Medes, Mannaeans, and Persians paid tribute to Assyria from the 10th century BC until the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC. After his death, the Medes played a major role in the destruction of the weakened Assyrian Empire in 612 BC.\n", "The rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th century BC brought an end to the existence of Elam as an independent political power \"but not as a cultural entity\" (\"Encyclopædia Iranica\", Columbia University). Indigenous Elamite traditions, such as the use of the title \"king of Anshan\" by Cyrus the Great; the \"Elamite robe\" worn by Cambyses I of Anshan and seen on the famous winged genii at Pasargadae; some glyptic styles; the use of Elamite as the first of three official languages of the empire used in thousands of administrative texts found at Darius’ city of Persepolis; the continued worship of Elamite deities; and the persistence of Elamite religious personnel and cults supported by the crown, formed an essential part of the newly emerging Achaemenid culture in Persian Iran. The Elamites thus became the conduit by which achievements of the Mesopotamian civilizations were introduced to the tribes of the Iranian plateau.\n", "Conversely, remnants of Elamite had \"absorbed Iranian influences in both structure and vocabulary\" by 500 BC, suggesting a form of cultural continuity or fusion connecting the Elamite and the Persian periods.\n", "The name of \"Elam\" survived into the Hellenistic period and beyond. In its Greek form, \"Elymais\", it emerges as designating a semi-independent state under Parthian suzerainty during the 2nd century BC to the early 3rd century AD. In Acts 2:8-9 in the New Testament, the language of the \"Elamitēs\" is one of the languages heard at the Pentecost. From 410 onwards Elam (Beth Huzaye) was the senior metropolitan province of the Church of the East, surviving into the 14th century. Indian Carmelite historian John Marshal has proposed that the root of Carmelite history in the Indian subcontinent could be traced to the promise of restoration of Elam (Jeremiah 49:39).\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of rulers of Elam\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Quintana Cifuentes, E., \"Historia de Elam el vecino mesopotámico\", Murcia, 1997. \"Estudios Orientales\". IPOA-Murcia.\n", "BULLET::::- Quintana Cifuentes, E., \"Textos y Fuentes para el estudio del Elam\", Murcia, 2000.\" Estudios Orientales\". IPOA-Murcia.\n", "BULLET::::- Quintana Cifuentes, E.,\" La Lengua Elamita (Irán pre-persa)\", Madrid, 2010. Gram Ediciones.\n", "BULLET::::- Khačikjan, Margaret: \"The Elamite Language\", Documenta Asiana IV, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Istituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici, 1998\n", "BULLET::::- \"Persians: Masters of Empire\", Time-Life Books, Alexandria, Virginia (1995)\n", "BULLET::::- D. T. Potts, \"Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf\",\" Journal of Near Eastern Studies\", vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 111–119, (April 2006)\n", "BULLET::::- Potts, Daniel T.: \"The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State\", Cambridge University Press (1999) and\n", "BULLET::::- McAlpin, David W., \"Proto Elamo Dravidian: The Evidence and Its Implications\", American Philosophy Society (1981)\n", "BULLET::::- Vallat, François. 2010. \"The History of Elam\". The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Lengua e historia elamita, by Enrique Quintana\n", "BULLET::::- History of the Elamite Empire\n", "BULLET::::- Elamite Art\n", "BULLET::::- Stele of King Untash Napirisha\n", "BULLET::::- Statue of Queen Napir Asu\n", "BULLET::::- Elamite Seals\n", "BULLET::::- All Empires – The Elamite Empire\n", "BULLET::::- Elam in Ancient Southwest Iran\n", "BULLET::::- Persepolis Fortification Archive Project\n", "BULLET::::- Iran Before Iranians\n", "BULLET::::- Encyclopædia Iranica: Elam\n", "BULLET::::- Modelling population dispersal and language origins during the last 120,000 years\n", "BULLET::::- Hamid-Reza Hosseini, \"Shush at the foot of Louvre\" (\"Shush dar dāman-e Louvre\"), in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009, .Audio slideshow: (6 min 31 sec)\n", "BULLET::::- http://www.elamit.net/\n" ] }

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"Mari", "Shamshi-Adad I", "Assyria", "Hammurabi", "Kudur-Nahhunte", "Old Assyrian Empire", "Babylonian Empire", "Kassite", "Indus Valley Civilization", "Susa", "Carnelian", "Harappa", "Kidinuids", "Igihalkids", "Shutrukids", "Kirwashir", "Kassite", "Language Isolate", "Zagros Mountains", "Babylonia", "Hittite Empire", "Kurigalzu II", "Ashur-uballit I", "Middle Assyrian Empire", "Kashtiliash IV", "Middle Assyrian Empire", "Enlil-nadin-shumi", "Adad-shuma-iddina", "Akkadian", "Shutruk-Nakhkhunte", "Assyria", "Marduk", "Manishtushu", "Manishtushu Obelisk", "Stele of Hammurabi", "stele", "Naram-Sin", "Ashur-Dan I", "Zababa-shuma-iddin", "Babylonians", "Assyria", "Arrapha", "Kirkuk", "Ashur-Dan I", "Nebuchadnezzar I", "Ashur-resh-ishi I", "Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar", "Chaldea", "Neo Assyrian Empire", "Mar-biti-apla-ushur", "Marduk-balassu-iqbi", "Assyria", "Shamshi-Adad V", "Indo-European", "Iranians", "Medes", "Persians", "Parthians", "Sagartians", "Margians", "Bactrians", "Sogdians", "Parsu", "Lake Urmiah", "Iranian", "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "Chaldea", "Merodach-baladan", "Khumbanigash", "Sargon II", "Sennacherib", "Ashur-nadin-shumi", "Khallushu", "Sennacherib", "Kutir-Nakhkhunte", "Khumma-Menanu III", "battle of Halule", "Sennacherib", "Khumma-Khaldash I", "Khumma-Khaldash II", "Sippar", "Esarhaddon", "Assyria", "Ur", "Assyrians", "Urtaku", "Ashurbanipal", "Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak", "Ashurbanipal", "Ulaï", "Susa", "Median", "Scythians", "Cimmerians", "Madius", "Persians", "Anshan", "Teispes", "Indo-Iranian", "Assyria", "Achaemenid dynasty", "Assyrians", "Scythians", "Cimmerians", "Iran", "Persians", "Medes", "Parthians", "Ashurbanipal", "Shamash-shum-ukin", "Esarhaddon", "Babylon", "Khumma-Khaldash III", "Henry Austin Layard", "Assyrian Empire", "Near East", "Asia Minor", "Caucasus", "North Africa", "Arabian peninsula", "East Mediterranean", "Ashurbanipal", "Iranian", "Medes", "Parthians", "Persians", "Sagartians", "Cyaxares", "Medes", "Persians", "Parthians", "Sagartians", "Nabopolassar", "Babylon", "Chaldea", "Scythians", "Cimmerians", "Sin-shar-ishkun", "Caucasus Mountains", "Egypt", "Libya", "Arabian Peninsula", "Cyprus", "Ephesus", "Persia", "Caspian Sea", "Arrapha", "Kirkuk", "Kalhu", "Nimrud", "Ashur", "Dur-Sharrukin", "Arbela", "Erbil", "Nineveh", "Harran", "Carchemish", "Dur-Katlimmu", "Median", "Iranian peoples", "Median Empire", "Achaemenid Empire", "Achaemenid Assyria", "Babylonian Captivity", "Elymaïs", "Antiochus III the Great", "Bel", "Achaemenid Empire", "Seleucid Empire", "Elymais", "Parthian Empire", "Sasanian Empire", "Inshushinak", "Susa", "Napir-Asu", "lost-wax", "Untash-Napirisha", "Chogha Zanbil", "Shutruk-Nahnante", "polytheism", "Inshushinak", "Kiririsha", "Khumban", "Pinikir", "Jabru", "underworld", "Beltiya", "language isolate", "Semitic", "Sumerian", "Indo-European", "Iranian languages", "cuneiform", "Akkadian", "Assyria", "Babylonia", "\"Linear Elamite\" script", "Jiroft", "Susa", "Achaemenid Empire", "Islamic 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120,000 years", "Louvre" ], "href": [ "Elamite%20language", "Sumerian%20language", "Iran", "Khuzestan", "Ilam%20Province", "Iraq", "Sumerian%20language", "Akkadian%20%28language%29", "Elamite", "Ancient%20Near%20East", "classical%20literature", "Susa", "Cities%20of%20the%20Ancient%20Near%20East", "Chalcolithic", "Sumer", "Middle%20Bronze%20Age", "Iranian%20plateau", "Anshan%20%28Persia%29", "Persian%20people", "Achaemenid%20dynasty", "Elamite%20language", "language%20isolate", "Lurs", "Luri%20language", "Middle%20Persian", "endonym", "Exonym", "Sumerian%20language", "Akkadian%20language", "Khuzestan%20Province", "Ilam%20Province", "-stan", "Khuzestan", "Karun", "Ptolemy", "Strabo", "Anshan%20%28Persia%29", "Mesopotamia", "Sumer", "Akkadian%20literature", "Assyria", "Babylonia", "Proto-Elamite", "Sukkalmah%20Dynasty", "Tigris", "Euphrates", "Anshan%20%28Persia%29", "Khuzestan%20Province", "Awan%20dynasty", "Lorestan%20Province", "Kerman", "Susa", "Khuzestan", "Iranian%20plateau", 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{ "description": "ancient pre-Iranian civilization between 2700 and 539 BC", "enwikiquote_title": "Elam", "wikidata_id": "Q128904", "wikidata_label": "Elam", "wikipedia_title": "Elam", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Elamites", "Susiana" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206481, "parentid": 903479811, "revid": 907802092, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-25T11:27:07Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam&oldid=907802092" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Solar cycle\n", "The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is a nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun's activity. Levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material, the number and size of sunspots, solar flares, and coronal loops all exhibit a synchronized fluctuation, from active to quiet to active again, with a period of 11 years. This cycle has been observed for centuries by changes in the Sun's appearance and by terrestrial phenomena such as auroras.\n", "The changes on the Sun cause effects in space, in the Earth's atmosphere, and on Earth's surface. While the cycle is the dominant influence on solar activity, aperiodic fluctuations also occur.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "Solar cycles have an average duration of about 11 years. Solar maximum and solar minimum refer to periods of maximum and minimum sunspot counts. Cycles span from one minimum to the next.\n", "Section::::Observational history.\n", "The solar cycle was discovered in 1843 by Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, who after 17 years of observations noticed a periodic variation in the average number of sunspots.\n", "Schwabe was however preceded by Christian Horrebow who in 1775 wrote: \"it appears that after the course of a certain number of years, the appearance of the Sun repeats itself with respect to the number and size of the spots\" based on his observations of the sun from 1761 and onwards from the observatory Rundetaarn in Copenhagen. \n", "Rudolf Wolf compiled and studied these and other observations, reconstructing the cycle back to 1745, eventually pushing these reconstructions to the earliest observations of sunspots by Galileo and contemporaries in the early seventeenth century.\n", "Following Wolf's numbering scheme, the 1755–1766 cycle is traditionally numbered \"1\". Wolf created a standard sunspot number index, the Wolf index, which continues to be used today.\n", "The period between 1645 and 1715, a time of few sunspots, is known as the Maunder minimum, after Edward Walter Maunder, who extensively researched this peculiar event, first noted by Gustav Spörer.\n", "In the second half of the nineteenth century Richard Carrington and Spörer independently noted the phenomena of sunspots appearing at different solar latitudes at different parts of the cycle.\n", "The cycle's physical basis was elucidated by George Ellery Hale and collaborators, who in 1908 showed that sunspots were strongly magnetized (the first detection of magnetic fields beyond the Earth). In 1919 they showed that the magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs:\n", "BULLET::::- Is constant throughout a cycle;\n", "BULLET::::- Is opposite across the equator throughout a cycle;\n", "BULLET::::- Reverses itself from one cycle to the next.\n", "Hale's observations revealed that the complete magnetic cycle spans two solar cycles, or 22 years, before returning to its original state (including polarity). Because nearly all manifestations are insensitive to polarity, the \"11-year solar cycle\" remains the focus of research; however, the two halves of the 22-year cycle are typically not identical: the 11-year cycles usually alternate between higher and lower sums of Wolf's sunspot numbers (the Gnevyshev-Ohl rule).\n", "In 1961 the father-and-son team of Harold and Horace Babcock established that the solar cycle is a spatiotemporal magnetic process unfolding over the Sun as a whole. They observed that the solar surface is magnetized outside of sunspots, that this (weaker) magnetic field is to first order a dipole, and that this dipole undergoes polarity reversals with the same period as the sunspot cycle. Horace's Babcock Model described the Sun's oscillatory magnetic field as having a quasi-steady periodicity of 22 years. It covered the oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic field ingredients.\n", "Section::::Cycle history.\n", "Sunspot numbers over the past 11,400 years have been reconstructed using Carbon-14-based dendroclimatology. The level of solar activity beginning in the 1940s is exceptional – the last period of similar magnitude occurred around 9,000 years ago (during the warm Boreal period). The Sun was at a similarly high level of magnetic activity for only ~10% of the past 11,400 years. Almost all earlier high-activity periods were shorter than the present episode. Fossil records suggest that the Solar cycle has been stable for at least the last 700 million years. For example, the cycle length during the Early Permian is estimated to be 10.62 years and similarly in the Neoproterozoic.\n", "Until 2009 it was thought that 28 cycles had spanned the 309 years between 1699 and 2008, giving an average length of 11.04 years, but research then showed that the longest of these (1784–1799) may actually have been two cycles. If so then the average length would be only around 10.7 years. Since observations began cycles as short as 9 years and as long as 14 years have been observed, and if the cycle of 1784–1799 is double then one of the two component cycles had to be less than 8 years in length. Significant amplitude variations also occur.\n", "A list of historical \"grand minima\" of solar activity exists.\n", "Section::::Cycle history.:Recent cycles.\n", "Section::::Cycle history.:Recent cycles.:Cycle 25.\n", "There are many, often mutually contradictory predictions, based on different methods, for the forthcoming solar cycle 25, ranging from very weak to moderate magnitude. At present, it is expected that Solar Cycle 25 will be very similar to Solar Cycle 24. They anticipate that the Solar Cycle minimum before Cycle 25 will be long and deep, just as the minimum that preceded Cycle 24. They expect solar maximum to occur between 2023 and 2026 with a sunspot range of 95 to 130, given in terms of the revised sunspot number.\n", "Section::::Cycle history.:Recent cycles.:Cycle 24.\n", "The current solar cycle began on 4 January 2008, with minimal activity until early 2010. It is on track to have the lowest recorded sunspot activity since accurate records began in 1750. The cycle featured a \"double-peaked\" solar maximum. The first peak reached 99 in 2011 and the second in early 2014 at 101. It appears likely that Cycle 24 will end sometime between mid-2019 and late 2020.\n", "Section::::Cycle history.:Recent cycles.:Cycle 23.\n", "This cycle lasted 11.6 years, beginning in May 1996 and ending in January 2008. The maximum smoothed sunspot number (monthly number of sunspots averaged over a twelve-month period) observed during the solar cycle was 120.8 (March 2000), and the minimum was 1.7 . A total of 805 days had no sunspots during this cycle.\n", "Section::::Phenomena.\n", " Because the solar cycle reflects magnetic activity, various magnetically driven solar phenomena follow the solar cycle, including sunspots and coronal mass ejections.\n", "Section::::Phenomena.:Sunspots.\n", "The Sun's apparent surface, the photosphere, radiates more actively when there are more sunspots. Satellite monitoring of solar luminosity revealed a direct relationship between the Schwabe cycle and luminosity with a peak-to-peak amplitude of about 0.1%. Luminosity decreases by as much as 0.3% on a 10-day timescale when large groups of sunspots rotate across the Earth's view and increase by as much as 0.05% for up to 6 months due to faculae associated with large sunspot groups.\n", "The best information today comes from SOHO (a cooperative project of the European Space Agency and NASA), such as the MDI magnetogram, where the solar \"surface\" magnetic field can be seen.\n", "As each cycle begins, sunspots appear at mid-latitudes, and then move closer and closer to the equator until a solar minimum is reached. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram. Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots is calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce this time-series diagram.\n", "While magnetic field changes are concentrated at sunspots, the entire sun undergoes analogous changes, albeit of smaller magnitude.]\n", "Section::::Phenomena.:Coronal mass ejection.\n", "The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the solar surface, and emergence of magnetic flux produced by dynamo action in the solar interior. For reasons not yet understood in detail, sometimes these structures lose stability, leading to coronal mass ejections into interplanetary space, or flares, caused by sudden localized release of magnetic energy driving emission of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation as well as energetic particles. These eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called space weather.\n", "The occurrence frequency of coronal mass ejections and flares is strongly modulated by the cycle. Flares of any given size are some 50 times more frequent at solar maximum than at minimum. Large coronal mass ejections occur on average a few times a day at solar maximum, down to one every few days at solar minimum. The size of these events themselves does not depend sensitively on the phase of the solar cycle. A case in point are the three large X-class flares that occurred in December 2006, very near solar minimum; an X9.0 flare on Dec 5 stands as one of the brightest on record.\n", "Section::::Patterns.\n", "The Waldmeier effect names the observation that cycles with larger maximum amplitudes tend to take less time to reach their maxima than cycles with smaller amplitudes; maximum amplitudes are negatively correlated to the lengths of earlier cycles, aiding prediction.\n", "Solar maxima and minima also exhibit fluctuations at time scales greater than solar cycles. Increasing and decreasing trends can continue for periods of a century or more.\n", "The Schwabe Cycle is thought to be an amplitude modulation of the 87 year (70–100 year) Gleissberg cycle, named after Wolfgang Gleißberg. The Gleisberg cycle implied that the next solar cycle have a maximum smoothed sunspot number of about 145±30 in 2010 (instead 2010 was just after the cycle's solar minimum) and that the following cycle have a maximum of about 70±30 in 2023.\n", "Associated centennial variations in magnetic fields in the Corona and Heliosphere have been detected using Carbon-14 and beryllium-10 cosmogenic isotopes stored in terrestrial reservoirs such as ice sheets and tree rings and by using historic observations of Geomagnetic storm activity, which bridge the time gap between the end of the usable cosmogenic isotope data and the start of modern satellite data.\n", "These variations have been successfully reproduced using models that employ magnetic flux continuity equations and observed sunspot numbers to quantify the emergence of magnetic flux from the top of the solar atmosphere and into the Heliosphere, showing that sunspot observations, geomagnetic activity and cosmogenic isotopes offer a convergent understanding of solar activity variations.\n", "Section::::Patterns.:Hypothesized cycles.\n", "Periodicity of solar activity with periods longer than the sunspot cycle has been proposed, including:\n", "The 210 year Suess cycle (a.k.a. \"de Vries cycle\", named after Hans Eduard Suess and Hessel De Vries respectively) is recorded from radiocarbon studies, although \"little evidence of the Suess Cycle\" appears in the 400-year sunspot record.\n", "The Hallstatt cycle (named after a cool and wet period in Europe when glaciers advanced) is hypothesized to extend for approximately 2,400 years.\n", "An as yet unnamed cycle may extend over 6,000 years.\n", "In carbon-14 cycles of 105, 131, 232, 385, 504, 805 and 2,241 years have been observed, possibly matching cycles derived from other sources. Damon and Sonett proposed carbon 14-based medium- and short-term variations of periods 208 and 88 years; as well as suggesting a 2300-year radiocarbon period that modulates the 208-year period.\n", "During the Upper Permian 240 million years ago, mineral layers created in the Castile Formation show cycles of 2,500 years.\n", "Section::::Solar magnetic field.\n", "The Sun's magnetic field structures its atmosphere and outer layers all the way through the corona and into the solar wind. Its spatiotemporal variations lead to various measurable solar phenomena. Other solar phenomena are closely related to the cycle, which serves as the energy source and dynamical engine for the former.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Solar.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Solar.:Surface magnetism.\n", "Sunspots eventually decay, releasing magnetic flux in the photosphere. This flux is dispersed and churned by turbulent convection and solar large-scale flows. These transport mechanisms lead to the accumulation of magnetized decay products at high solar latitudes, eventually reversing the polarity of the polar fields (notice how the blue and yellow fields reverse in the Hathaway/NASA/MSFC graph above).\n", "The dipolar component of the solar magnetic field reverses polarity around the time of solar maximum and reaches peak strength at the solar minimum.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Space.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Space.:Spacecraft.\n", "CMEs (coronal mass ejections) produce a radiation flux of high-energy protons, sometimes known as solar cosmic rays. These can cause radiation damage to electronics and solar cells in satellites. Solar proton events also can cause single-event upset (SEU) events on electronics; at the same, the reduced flux of galactic cosmic radiation during solar maximum decreases the high-energy component of particle flux.\n", "CME radiation is dangerous to astronauts on a space mission who are outside the shielding produced by the Earth's magnetic field. Future mission designs (\"e.g.\", for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded \"storm shelter\" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event.\n", "Gleißberg developed a CME forecasting method that relies on consecutive cycles.\n", "On the positive side, the increased irradiance during solar maximum expands the envelope of the Earth's atmosphere, causing low-orbiting space debris to re-enter more quickly.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Space.:Galactic cosmic ray flux.\n", "The outward expansion of solar ejecta into interplanetary space provides overdensities of plasma that are efficient at scattering high-energy cosmic rays entering the solar system from elsewhere in the galaxy. The frequency of solar eruptive events is modulated by the cycle, changing the degree of cosmic ray scattering in the outer solar system accordingly. As a consequence, the cosmic ray flux in the inner solar system is anticorrelated with the overall level of solar activity. This anticorrelation is clearly detected in cosmic ray flux measurements at the Earth's surface.\n", "Some high-energy cosmic rays entering Earth's atmosphere collide hard enough with molecular atmospheric constituents that they occasionally cause nuclear spallation reactions. Fission products include radionuclides such as C and Be that settle on the Earth's surface. Their concentration can be measured in ice cores, allowing a reconstruction of solar activity levels into the distant past. Such reconstructions indicate that the overall level of solar activity since the middle of the twentieth century stands amongst the highest of the past 10,000 years, and that epochs of suppressed activity, of varying durations have occurred repeatedly over that time span.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Atmospheric.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Atmospheric.:Solar irradiance.\n", "The total solar irradiance (TSI) is the amount of solar radiative energy incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere. TSI variations were undetectable until satellite observations began in late 1978. A series of radiometers were launched on satellites from the 1970s to the 2000s. TSI measurements varied from 1360 to 1370 W/m across ten satellites. One of the satellites, the ACRIMSAT was launched by the ACRIM group. The controversial 1989–1991 \"ACRIM gap\" between non-overlapping ACRIM satellites was interpolated by the ACRIM group into a composite showing +0.037%/decade rise. Another series based on the ACRIM data is produced by the PMOD group and shows a −0.008%/decade downward trend. This 0.045%/decade difference impacts climate models.\n", "Solar irradiance varies systematically over the cycle, both in total irradiance and in its relative components (UV vs visible and other frequencies). The solar luminosity is an estimated 0.07 percent brighter during the mid-cycle solar maximum than the terminal solar minimum. Photospheric magnetism appears to be the primary cause (96%) of 1996–2013 TSI variation. The ratio of ultraviolet to visible light varies.\n", "TSI varies in phase with the solar magnetic activity cycle with an amplitude of about 0.1% around an average value of about 1361.5 W/m (the \"solar constant\"). Variations about the average of up to −0.3% are caused by large sunspot groups and of +0.05% by large faculae and the bright network on a 7-10-day timescale (see TSI variation graphics). Satellite-era TSI variations show small but detectable trends.\n", "TSI is higher at solar maximum, even though sunspots are darker (cooler) than the average photosphere. This is caused by magnetized structures other than sunspots during solar maxima, such as faculae and active elements of the \"bright\" network, that are brighter (hotter) than the average photosphere. They collectively overcompensate for the irradiance deficit associated with the cooler, but less numerous sunspots. The primary driver of TSI changes on solar rotational and sunspot cycle timescales is the varying photospheric coverage of these radiatively active solar magnetic structures.\n", "Energy changes in UV irradiance involved in production and loss of ozone have atmospheric effects. The 30 HPa Atmospheric pressure level changed height in phase with solar activity during solar cycles 20–23. UV irradiance increase caused higher ozone production, leading to stratospheric heating and to poleward displacements in the stratospheric and tropospheric wind systems.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Atmospheric.:Short-wavelength radiation.\n", "With a temperature of 5870 K, the photosphere emits a proportion of radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and above. However, hotter upper layers of the Sun's atmosphere (chromosphere and corona) emit more short-wavelength radiation. Since the upper atmosphere is not homogeneous and contains significant magnetic structure, the solar ultraviolet (UV), EUV and X-ray flux varies markedly over the cycle.\n", "The photo montage to the left illustrates this variation for soft X-ray, as observed by the Japanese satellite Yohkoh from after August 30, 1991, at the peak of cycle 22, to September 6, 2001, at the peak of cycle 23. Similar cycle-related variations are observed in the flux of solar UV or EUV radiation, as observed, for example, by the SOHO or TRACE satellites.\n", "Even though it only accounts for a minuscule fraction of total solar radiation, the impact of solar UV, EUV and X-ray radiation on the Earth's upper atmosphere is profound. Solar UV flux is a major driver of stratospheric chemistry, and increases in ionizing radiation significantly affect ionosphere-influenced temperature and electrical conductivity.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Atmospheric.:Solar radio flux.\n", "Emission from the Sun at centimetric (radio) wavelength is due primarily to coronal plasma trapped in the magnetic fields overlying active regions. The F10.7 index is a measure of the solar radio flux per unit frequency at a wavelength of 10.7 cm, near the peak of the observed solar radio emission. F10.7 is often expressed in SFU or solar flux units (1 SFU = 10 W m Hz). It represents a measure of diffuse, nonradiative coronal plasma heating. It is an excellent indicator of overall solar activity levels and correlates well with solar UV emissions.\n", "Sunspot activity has a major effect on long distance radio communications, particularly on the shortwave bands although medium wave and low VHF frequencies are also affected. High levels of sunspot activity lead to improved signal propagation on higher frequency bands, although they also increase the levels of solar noise and ionospheric disturbances. These effects are caused by impact of the increased level of solar radiation on the ionosphere.\n", "10.7 cm solar flux could interfere with point-to-point terrestrial communications.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Atmospheric.:Clouds.\n", "Speculations about the effects of cosmic-ray changes over the cycle potentially include:\n", "BULLET::::- Changes in ionization affect the aerosol abundance that serves as the condensation nucleus for cloud formation. During solar minima more cosmic rays reach Earth, potentially creating ultra-small aerosol particles as precursors to Cloud condensation nuclei. Clouds formed from greater amounts of condensation nuclei are brighter, longer lived and likely to produce less precipitation.\n", "BULLET::::- A change in cosmic rays could cause an increase in certain types of clouds, affecting Earth's albedo.\n", "BULLET::::- It was proposed that, particularly at high latitudes, cosmic ray variation may impact terrestrial low altitude cloud cover (unlike a lack of correlation with high altitude clouds), partially influenced by the solar-driven interplanetary magnetic field (as well as passage through the galactic arms over longer timeframes), but this hypothesis was not confirmed.\n", "Later papers showed that production of clouds via cosmic rays could not be explained by nucleation particles. Accelerator results failed to produce sufficient, and sufficiently large, particles to result in cloud formation; this includes observations after a major solar storm. Observations after Chernobyl do not show any induced clouds.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Terrestrial.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Terrestrial.:Organisms.\n", "The impact of the solar cycle on living organisms has been investigated (see chronobiology). Some researchers claim to have found connections with human health.\n", "The amount of ultraviolet UVB light at 300 nm reaching the Earth varies by as much as 400% over the solar cycle due to variations in the protective ozone layer. In the stratosphere, ozone is continuously regenerated by the splitting of O molecules by ultraviolet light. During a solar minimum, the decrease in ultraviolet light received from the Sun leads to a decrease in the concentration of ozone, allowing increased UVB to reach the Earth's surface.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Terrestrial.:Radio communication.\n", "Skywave modes of radio communication operate by bending (refracting) radio waves (electromagnetic radiation) through the Ionosphere. During the \"peaks\" of the solar cycle, the ionosphere becomes increasingly ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays. This affects the propagation of the radio wave in complex ways that can either facilitate or hinder communications. Forecasting of skywave modes is of considerable interest to commercial marine and aircraft communications, amateur radio operators and shortwave broadcasters. These users occupy frequencies within the High Frequency or 'HF' radio spectrum that are most affected by these solar and ionospheric variances. Changes in solar output affect the maximum usable frequency, a limit on the highest frequency usable for communications.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Terrestrial.:Climate.\n", "Both long-term and short-term variations in solar activity are proposed to potentially affect global climate, but it has proven challenging to show any link between solar variation and climate.\n", "Early research attempted to correlate weather with limited success, followed by attempts to correlate solar activity with global temperature. The cycle also impacts regional climate. Measurements from the SORCE's Spectral Irradiance Monitor show that solar UV variability produces, for example, colder winters in the U.S. and northern Europe and warmer winters in Canada and southern Europe during solar minima.\n", "Three proposed mechanisms mediate solar variations' climate impacts:\n", "BULLET::::- Total solar irradiance (\"Radiative forcing\").\n", "BULLET::::- Ultraviolet irradiance. The UV component varies by more than the total, so if UV were for some (as yet unknown) reason having a disproportionate effect, this might affect climate.\n", "BULLET::::- Solar wind-mediated galactic cosmic ray changes, which may affect cloud cover.\n", "The sunspot cycle variation of 0.1% has small but detectable effects on the Earth's climate. Camp and Tung suggest that solar irradiance correlates with a variation of 0.18 K ±0.08 K (0.32 °F ±0.14 °F) in measured average global temperature between solar maximum and minimum.\n", "Other effects include one study which found a relationship with wheat prices, and another one that found a weak correlation with the flow of water in the Paraná River. Eleven-year cycles have been found in tree-ring thicknesses and layers at the bottom of a lake hundreds of millions of years ago.\n", "The current scientific consensus, most specifically that of the IPCC, is that solar variations only play a marginal role in driving global climate change, since the measured magnitude of recent solar variation is much smaller than the forcing due to greenhouse gases. Also, solar activity in the 2010s was not higher than in the 1950s (see above), whereas global warming had risen markedly. Otherwise, the level of understanding of solar impacts on weather is low.\n", "Solar cycle also affects the orbital decay of Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) objects by affecting the density at the upper thermospheric levels.\n", "Section::::Solar dynamo.\n", "The 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton solar dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the Convection zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon known as the Hale cycle.\n", "During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number. At solar minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare and the poloidal field is at maximum strength. During the next cycle, differential rotation converts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change in the polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field.\n", "Although the tachocline has long been thought to be the key to generating the Sun's large-scale magnetic field, recent research has questioned this assumption. Radio observations of brown dwarfs have indicated that they also maintain large-scale magnetic fields and may display cycles of magnetic activity. The Sun has a radiative core surrounded by a convective envelope, and at the boundary of these two is the tachocline. However, brown dwarfs lack radiative cores and tachoclines. Their structure consists of a solar-like convective envelope that exists from core to surface. Since they lack a tachocline yet still display solar-like magnetic activity, it has been suggested that solar magnetic activity is only generated in the convective envelope.\n", "Section::::Speculated influence of the planets.\n", "It has long been theorized that the planets may have an influence on the solar cycle, with many speculative papers published through years. (In 1974 there was even a best-seller called \"The Jupiter Effect\" based on the idea.) For example, In 2012 a team led by José Abreu calculated the torque exerted by the planets on a non-spherical tachocline layer deep in the Sun and proposed an explanation of how the tiny tidal force can synchronize the solar dynamo. However, their results were shown to be an artifact of the incorrectly applied smoothing method leading to the aliasing. Moreover, the solar variability is known to be essentially stochastic and unpredictable beyond one solar cycle, which contradicts the idea of the deterministic planetary influence on solar dynamo.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- NOAA / NESDIS / NGDC (2002) Solar Variability Affecting Earth NOAA CD-ROM NGDC-05/01. This CD-ROM contains over 100 solar-terrestrial and related global data bases covering the period through April 1990.\n", "BULLET::::- Recent Total Solar Irradiance data updated every Monday\n", "BULLET::::- N0NBH Solar data and tools\n", "BULLET::::- Satellite Total Solar Irradiance Observations\n", "BULLET::::- SolarCycle24.com\n", "BULLET::::- Solar Physics Web Pages at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center\n", "BULLET::::- Science Briefs: Do Variations in the Solar Cycle Affect Our Climate System?. By David Rind, NASA GISS, January 2009\n", "BULLET::::- Yohkoh Public Outreach Project\n", "BULLET::::- Stanford Solar Center\n", "BULLET::::- NASA's Cosmos\n", "BULLET::::- Windows to the Universe: The Sun\n", "BULLET::::- SOHO Web Site\n", "BULLET::::- TRACE Web Site\n", "BULLET::::- Solar Influences Data Analysis Center\n", "BULLET::::- Animated explanation of the effect of the Solar Cycle on Sunspots in the Photosphere (University of South Wales)\n", "BULLET::::- SunSpotWatch.com (since 1999)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "periodic change in the Sun's activity", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q49385", "wikidata_label": "solar cycle", "wikipedia_title": "Solar cycle", "aliases": { "alias": [ "solar magnetic activity cycle", "sunspot cycles" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206555, "parentid": 907877723, "revid": 907972211, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-26T14:39:02Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle&oldid=907972211" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Presidential system\n", "A presidential system is a democratic and republican system of government where a head of government leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch. This head of government is in most cases also the head of state, which is called \"president\".\n", "In presidential countries, the executive is elected and is not responsible to the legislature, which cannot in normal circumstances dismiss it. Such dismissal is possible, however, in uncommon cases, often through impeachment.\n", "The title \"president\" has persisted from a time when such person personally presided over the governing body, as with the President of the Continental Congress in the early United States, prior to the executive function being split into a separate branch of government.\n", "A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system, where the head of government is elected to power through the legislative. There is also a hybrid system called semi-presidentialism.\n", "Countries that feature a presidential or semi-presidential system of government are not the exclusive users of the title of president. Heads of state of parliamentary republics, largely ceremonial in most cases, are called presidents. Dictators or leaders of one-party states, popularly elected or not, are also often called presidents.\n", "Presidentialism is the dominant form of government in the continental Americas, with 19 of its 22 sovereign states being presidential republics. It is also prevalent in Central and southern West Africa and in Central Asia. There are no presidential republics in Europe (except for Belarus) and Oceania.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "In a full-fledged presidential system, a politician is chosen directly by the public or indirectly by the winning party to be the head of government. Except for Belarus and Kazakhstan, this head of government is also the head of state, and is therefore called \"president\". The post of prime minister (also called premier) may also exist in a presidential system, but unlike in semi-presidential or parliamentary systems, the prime minister answers to the president and not to the legislature.\n", "The following characteristics apply generally for the numerous presidential governments across the world:\n", "BULLET::::- The executive can veto legislative acts and, in turn, a supermajority of lawmakers may override the veto. The veto is generally derived from the British tradition of royal assent in which an act of parliament can only be enacted with the assent of the monarch.\n", "BULLET::::- The president has a fixed term of office. Elections are held at regular times and cannot be triggered by a vote of confidence or other parliamentary procedures, although in some countries there is an exception which provides for the removal of a president who is found to have broken a law.\n", "BULLET::::- The executive branch is unipersonal. Members of the cabinet serve at the pleasure of the president and must carry out the policies of the executive and legislative branches. Cabinet ministers or executive departmental chiefs are not members of the legislature. However, presidential systems often need legislative approval of executive nominations to the cabinet, judiciary, and various lower governmental posts. A president generally can direct members of the cabinet, military, or any officer or employee of the executive branch, but cannot direct or dismiss judges.\n", "BULLET::::- The president can often pardon or commute sentences of convicted criminals.\n", "Section::::Subnational governments of the world.\n", "Subnational governments, usually states, may be structured as presidential systems. All of the state governments in the United States use the presidential system, even though this is not constitutionally required. On a local level, many cities use Council-manager government, which is equivalent to a parliamentary system, although the post of a city manager is normally a non-political position. Some countries without a presidential system at the national level use a form of this system at a subnational or local level. One example is Japan, where the national government uses the parliamentary system, but the prefectural and municipal governments have governors and mayors elected independently from local assemblies and councils.\n", "Section::::Advantages.\n", "Supporters generally claim four basic advantages for presidential systems:\n", "BULLET::::- Direct elections — in a presidential system, the president is often elected directly by the people. This makes the president's power more legitimate than that of a leader appointed indirectly. However, this is not a necessary feature of a presidential system. Some presidential states have an indirectly elected head of state.\n", "BULLET::::- Separation of powers — a presidential system establishes the presidency and the legislature as two parallel structures. This allows each structure to monitor and check the other, preventing abuses of power.\n", "BULLET::::- Speed and decisiveness — A president with strong powers can usually enact changes quickly. However, the separation of powers can also slow the system down.\n", "BULLET::::- Stability — a president, by virtue of a fixed term, may provide more stability than a prime minister, who can be dismissed at any time.\n", "Section::::Advantages.:Direct elections.\n", "In most presidential systems, the president is elected by popular vote, although some such as the United States use an electoral college (which is itself directly elected) or some other method. By this method, the president receives a personal mandate to lead the country, whereas in a parliamentary system a candidate might only receive a personal mandate to represent a constituency. That means a president can only be elected independently of the legislative branch.\n", "Section::::Advantages.:Separation of powers.\n", "A presidential system's separation of the executive from the legislature is sometimes held up as an advantage, in that each branch may scrutinize the actions of the other. In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from the legislature, making criticism of one by the other considerably less likely. A formal condemnation of the executive by the legislature is often considered a vote of no confidence. According to supporters of the presidential system, the lack of checks and balances means that misconduct by a prime minister may never be discovered. Writing about Watergate, Woodrow Wyatt, a former MP in the UK, said \"don't think a Watergate couldn't happen here, you just wouldn't hear about it.\" (ibid)\n", "Critics respond that if a presidential system's legislature is controlled by the president's party, the same situation exists. Proponents note that even in such a situation a legislator from the president's party is in a better position to criticize the president or his policies should he deem it necessary, since the immediate security of the president's position is less dependent on legislative support. In parliamentary systems, party discipline is much more strictly enforced. If a parliamentary backbencher publicly criticizes the executive or its policies to any significant extent then he/she faces a much higher prospect of losing his/her party's nomination, or even outright expulsion from the party. Even mild criticism from a backbencher could carry consequences serious enough (in particular, removal from consideration for a cabinet post) to effectively muzzle a legislator with any serious political ambitions.\n", "Despite the existence of the no confidence vote, in practice it is extremely difficult to stop a prime minister or cabinet that has made its decision. In a parliamentary system, if important legislation proposed by the incumbent prime minister and his cabinet is \"voted down\" by a majority of the members of parliament then it is considered a vote of no confidence. To emphasize that particular point, a prime minister will often declare a particular legislative vote to be a matter of confidence at the first sign of reluctance on the part of legislators from his or her own party. If a government loses a parliamentary vote of confidence, then the incumbent government must then either resign or call elections to be held, a consequence few backbenchers are willing to endure. Hence, a no confidence vote in some parliamentary countries, like Britain, only occurs a few times in a century. In 1931, David Lloyd George told a select committee: \"Parliament has really no control over the executive; it is a pure fiction.\" (Schlesinger 1982)\n", "By contrast, if a presidential legislative initiative fails to pass a legislature controlled by the president's party (e.g. the Clinton health care plan of 1993 in the United States), it may damage the president's political standing and that of his party, but generally has no immediate effect on whether or not the president completes his term.\n", "Section::::Advantages.:Speed and decisiveness.\n", "Some supporters of presidential systems claim that presidential systems can respond more rapidly to emerging situations than parliamentary ones. A prime minister, when taking action, needs to retain the support of the legislature, but a president is often less constrained. In \"Why England Slept\", future U.S. president John F. Kennedy argued that British prime ministers Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain were constrained by the need to maintain the confidence of the Commons.\n", "Other supporters of presidential systems sometimes argue in the exact opposite direction, however, saying that presidential systems can slow decision-making to beneficial ends. Divided government, where the presidency and the legislature are controlled by different parties, is said to restrain the excesses of both the coalition and opposition, and guarantee cross-partisan input into legislation. In the United States, Republican Congressman Bill Frenzel wrote in 1995:\n", "Section::::Advantages.:Stability.\n", "Although most parliamentary governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote, Italy, Israel, and the French Fourth Republic have all experienced difficulties maintaining stability. When parliamentary systems have multiple parties, and governments are forced to rely on coalitions, as they often do in nations that use a system of proportional representation, extremist parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas.\n", "Many people consider presidential systems more able to survive emergencies. A country under enormous stress may, supporters argue, be better off being led by a president with a fixed term than rotating premierships. France during the Algerian controversy switched to a semi-presidential system as did Sri Lanka during its civil war, while Israel experimented with a directly elected prime minister in 1992. In France and Sri Lanka, the results are widely considered to have been positive. However, in the case of Israel, an unprecedented proliferation of smaller parties occurred, leading to the restoration of the previous system of selecting a prime minister.\n", "The fact that elections are fixed in a presidential system is considered by supporters a welcome \"check\" on the powers of the executive, contrasting parliamentary systems, which may allow the prime minister to call elections whenever they see fit or orchestrate their own vote of no confidence to trigger an election when they cannot get a legislative item passed. The presidential model is said to discourage this sort of opportunism, and instead forces the executive to operate within the confines of a term they cannot alter to suit their own needs. \n", "Proponents of the presidential system also argue that stability extends to the cabinets chosen under the system, compared to a parliamentary system where cabinets must be drawn from within the legislative branch. Under the presidential system, cabinet members can be selected from a much larger pool of potential candidates. This allows presidents the ability to select cabinet members based as much or more on their ability and competency to lead a particular department as on their loyalty to the president, as opposed to parliamentary cabinets, which might be filled by legislators chosen for no better reason than their perceived loyalty to the prime minister. Supporters of the presidential system note that parliamentary systems are prone to disruptive \"cabinet shuffles\" where legislators are moved between portfolios, whereas in presidential system cabinets (such as the United States Cabinet), cabinet shuffles are unusual.\n", "Section::::Criticism and disadvantages.\n", "Critics generally claim three basic disadvantages for presidential systems:\n", "BULLET::::- Tendency towards authoritarianism – some political scientists say presidentialism raises the stakes of elections, exacerbates their polarization and can lead to authoritarianism (Linz).\n", "BULLET::::- Political gridlock – the separation of powers of a presidential system establishes the presidency and the legislature as two parallel structures. Critics argue that this can create an undesirable and long-term political gridlock whenever the president and the legislative majority are from different parties, which is common because the electorate usually expects more rapid results from new policies than are possible (Linz, Mainwaring and Shugart). In addition, this reduces accountability by allowing the president and the legislature to shift blame to each other.\n", "BULLET::::- Impediments to leadership change – presidential systems often make it difficult to remove a president from office early, for example after taking actions that become unpopular.\n", "A fourth criticism applies specifically to nations with a proportionally elected legislature and a presidency. Where the voters are virtually all represented by their votes in the proportional outcome, the presidency is elected on a winner-take-all basis. Two different electoral systems are therefore in play, potentially leading to conflicts that are based on the natural differences of the systems.\n", "Section::::Criticism and disadvantages.:Tendency towards authoritarianism.\n", "A prime minister without majority support in the legislature must either form a coalition or, if able to lead a minority government, govern in a manner acceptable to at least some of the opposition parties. Even with a majority government, the prime minister must still govern within (perhaps unwritten) constraints as determined by the members of his party—a premier in this situation is often at greater risk of losing his party leadership than his party is at risk of losing the next election. On the other hand, winning the presidency is a winner-take-all, zero-sum game. Once elected, a president might be able to marginalize the influence of other parties and exclude rival factions in his own party as well, or even leave the party whose ticket he was elected under. The president can thus rule without any party support until the next election or abuse his power to win multiple terms, a worrisome situation for many interest groups. Yale political scientist Juan Linz argues that:\n", "Constitutions that only require plurality support are said to be especially undesirable, as significant power can be vested in a person who does not enjoy support from a majority of the population.\n", "Some political scientists say that presidential systems are not constitutionally stable and have difficulty sustaining democratic practices, noting that presidentialism has slipped into authoritarianism in many of the countries in which it has been implemented. According to political scientist Fred Riggs, presidentialism has fallen into authoritarianism in nearly every country it has been attempted. Political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset pointed out that this has taken place in political cultures not conducive to democracy and that militaries have tended to play a prominent role in most of these countries. On the other hand, an often-cited list of the world's 22 older democracies includes only two countries (Costa Rica and the United States) with presidential systems.\n", "In a presidential system, the legislature and the president have equal mandates from the public. Conflicts between the branches of government might not be reconciled. When president and legislature disagree and government is not working effectively, there is a strong incentive to use extra-constitutional measures to break the deadlock. Of the three common branches of government, the executive is in the best position to use extra-constitutional measures, especially when the president is head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the military. By contrast, in a parliamentary system where the often-ceremonial head of state is either a constitutional monarch or (in the case of a parliamentary republic) an experienced and respected figure, given some political emergency there is a good chance that even a ceremonial head of state will be able to use emergency reserve powers to restrain a head of government acting in an emergency extra-constitutional manner – this is only possible because the head of state and the head of government are not the same person.\n", "Ecuador presented as a case study of democratic failures over the past quarter-century. Presidents have ignored the legislature or bypassed it altogether. One president had the National Assembly teargassed, while another disagreed with congress until he was kidnapped by paratroopers. From 1979 through 1988, Ecuador staggered through a succession of executive–legislative confrontations that created a near permanent crisis atmosphere in the policy. In 1984, President León Febres Cordero tried to physically bar new Congressionally appointed supreme court appointees from taking their seats.\n", "In Brazil, presidents have accomplished their objectives by creating executive agencies over which Congress had no say.\n", "Dana D. Nelson, in her 2008 book \"Bad for Democracy\", sees the office of the President of the United States as essentially undemocratic and characterizes \"presidentialism\" as worship of the president by citizens, which she believes undermines civic participation.\n", "Section::::Criticism and disadvantages.:Political gridlock.\n", "Some political scientists speak of the \"failure of presidentialism\" because the separation of powers of a presidential system often creates undesirable long-term political gridlock and instability whenever the president and the legislative majority are from different parties. This is common because the electorate often expects more rapid results than are possible from new policies and switches to a different party at the next election. These critics, including Juan Linz, argue that this inherent political instability can cause democracies to fail, as seen in such cases as Brazil and Chile.\n", "Section::::Criticism and disadvantages.:Political gridlock.:Lack of accountability.\n", "In such cases of gridlock, presidential systems are said by critics not to offer voters the kind of accountability seen in parliamentary systems. It is easy for either the president or the legislature to escape blame by shifting it to the other. Describing the United States, former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon said \"the president blames Congress, the Congress blames the president, and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington\". Years before becoming President, Woodrow Wilson (at the time, a fierce critic of the U.S. system of government) famously wrote \"how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping?\"\n", "An example is the increase in the federal debt of the United States that occurred during the presidency of Republican Ronald Reagan. Arguably, the deficits were the product of a bargain between President Reagan and the Democratic Speaker of the House of Representatives, Tip O'Neill. O'Neill agreed to tax cuts favored by Reagan, and in exchange Reagan agreed to budgets that did not restrain spending to his liking. In such a scenario, each side can say they are displeased with the debt, plausibly blame the other side for the deficit, and still claim success.\n", "Section::::Criticism and disadvantages.:Impediments to leadership change.\n", "Another alleged problem of presidentialism is that it is often difficult to remove a president from office early. Even if a president is \"proved to be inefficient, even if he becomes unpopular, even if his policy is unacceptable to the majority of his countrymen, he and his methods must be endured until the moment comes for a new election\". John Tyler was elected vice president and assumed the presidency because William Henry Harrison died after thirty days in office. Tyler blocked the Whig agenda, was loathed by his nominal party, but remained firmly in control of the executive branch. Most presidential systems provide no legal means to remove a president simply for being unpopular or even for behaving in a manner that might be considered unethical or immoral provided it is not illegal. This has been cited as the reason why many presidential countries have experienced military coups to remove a leader who is said to have lost his mandate.\n", "Parliamentary systems can quickly remove unpopular leaders by a vote of no confidence, a procedure that serves as a \"pressure release valve\" for political tension. Votes of no confidence are easier to achieve in minority government situations, but even if the unpopular leader heads a majority government, he or she is often in a less secure position than a president. Usually in parliamentary systems a basic premise is that if a premier's popularity sustains a serious enough blow and the premier does not as a matter of consequence offer to resign prior to the next election, then those members of parliament who would persist in supporting the premier will be at serious risk of losing their seats. Therefore, especially in parliaments with a strong party system, other prominent members of the premier's party have a strong incentive to initiate a leadership challenge in hopes of mitigating damage to their party. More often than not, a premier facing a serious challenge resolves to save face by resigning before being formally removed—Margaret Thatcher's relinquishing of her premiership being a prominent example.\n", "On the other hand, while removing a president through impeachment is allowed by most constitutions, impeachment proceedings often can be initiated only in cases where the president has violated the constitution or broken the law. Impeachment is often made difficult; by comparison the removal a party leader is normally governed by the (often less formal) rules of the party. Nearly all parties (including governing parties) have a relatively simple process for removing their leaders.\n", "Furthermore, even when impeachment proceedings against a sitting president are successful, whether by causing his removal from office or by compelling his resignation, the legislature usually has little or no discretion in determining the ousted president's successor, since presidential systems usually adhere to a rigid succession process which is enforced the same way regardless of how a vacancy in the presidency comes about. The usual outcome of a presidency becoming vacant is that a vice president automatically succeeds to the presidency. Vice presidents are usually chosen by the president, whether as a running mate who elected alongside the president or appointed by a sitting president, so that when a vice president succeeds to the presidency it is probable that he will continue many or all the policies of the former president. A prominent example of such an accession would be the elevation of Vice President Gerald Ford to the U.S. Presidency after Richard Nixon agreed to resign in the face of virtually certain impeachment and removal, a succession that took place notwithstanding the fact that Ford had only assumed the Vice Presidency after being appointed by Nixon to replace Spiro Agnew, who had also resigned due to scandal. In some cases, particularly when the would-be successor to a presidency is seen by legislators as no better (or even worse) than a president they wish to see removed, there may be a strong incentive to abstain from pursuing impeachment proceedings even if there are legal grounds to do so.\n", "Since prime ministers in parliamentary systems must always retain the confidence of the legislature, in cases where a prime minister suddenly leaves office there is little point in anyone without a reasonable prospect of gaining that legislative confidence attempting to assume the premiership. This ensures that whenever a premiership becomes vacant (or is about to become vacant), legislators from the premier's party will always play a key role in determining the leader's permanent successor. In theory this could be interpreted to support an argument that a parliamentary party ought to have the power to elect their party leader directly, and indeed, at least historically, parliamentary system parties' leadership electoral procedures usually called for the party's legislative caucus to fill a leadership vacancy by electing a new leader directly by and from amongst themselves, and for the whole succession process to be completed within as short a time frame as practical. Today, however, such a system is not commonly practiced and most parliamentary system parties' rules provide for a leadership election in which the general membership of the party is permitted to vote at some point in the process (either directly for the new leader or for delegates who then elect the new leader in a convention), though in many cases the party's legislators are allowed to exercise a disproportionate influence in the final vote.\n", "Whenever a leadership election becomes necessary on account of a vacancy arising suddenly, an interim leader (often informally called the \"interim prime minister\" in cases where this involves a governing party) will be selected by the parliamentary party, usually with the stipulation or expectation that the interim leader will not be a candidate for the permanent leadership. Some parties, such as the British Conservative Party, employ some combination of both aforementioned electoral processes to select a new leader. In any event, a prime minister who is forced to leave office due to scandal or similar circumstance will usually have little if any ability to influence his party on the final selection of a new leader and anyone seen to be having close ties to such a prime minister will have limited if any serious prospect of being elected the new leader. Even in cases when an outgoing prime minister is leaving office voluntarily, it is often frowned on for an outgoing or former premier to engage in any overt attempt to influence the election (for example, by endorsing a candidate in the leadership election), in part because a party in the process of selecting a new leader usually has a strong incentive to foster a competitive leadership election in order to stimulate interest and participation in the election, which in turn encourages the sale of party memberships and support for the party in general.\n", "Walter Bagehot criticized presidentialism because it does not allow a transfer in power in the event of an emergency.\n", "Opponents of the presidential system note that years later, Bagehot's observation came to life during World War II, when Neville Chamberlain was replaced with Winston Churchill.\n", "However, supporters of the presidential system question the validity of the point. They argue that if presidents were not able to command some considerable level of security in their tenures, their direct mandates would be worthless. They further counter that republics such as the United States have successfully endured war and other crises without the need to change heads of state. Supporters argue that presidents elected in a time of peace and prosperity have proven themselves perfectly capable of responding effectively to a serious crisis, largely due to their ability to make the necessary appointments to his cabinet and elsewhere in government or by creating new positions to deal with new challenges. One prominent, recent example would be the appointment of a Secretary of Homeland Security following the September 11 attacks in the United States.\n", "Some supporters of the presidential system counter that impediments to a leadership change, being that they are little more than an unavoidable consequence of the direct mandate afforded to a president, are thus a \"strength\" instead of a weakness in times of crisis. In such times, a prime minister might hesitate due to the need to keep parliament's support, whereas a president can act without fear of removal from office by those who might disapprove of his actions. Furthermore, even if a prime minister does manage to successfully resolve a crisis (or multiple crises), that does not guarantee and he or she will possess the political capital needed to remain in office for a similar, future crisis. Unlike what would be possible in a presidential system, a perceived crisis in the parliamentary system might give disgruntled backbenchers or rivals an opportunity to launch a vexing challenge for a prime minister's leadership.\n", "Finally, many have criticized presidential systems for their alleged slowness to respond to their citizens' needs. Often, the checks and balances make action difficult. Walter Bagehot said of the American system, \"the executive is crippled by not getting the law it needs, and the legislature is spoiled by having to act without responsibility: the executive becomes unfit for its name, since it cannot execute what it decides on; the legislature is demoralized by liberty, by taking decisions of others [and not itself] will suffer the effects\".\n", "Defenders of presidential systems argue that a parliamentary system operating in a jurisdiction with strong ethnic or sectarian tensions will tend to ignore the interests of minorities or even treat them with contempt – the first half century of government in Northern Ireland is often cited as an example – whereas presidential systems ensure that minority wishes and rights cannot be disregarded, thus preventing a \"tyranny of the majority\" and vice versa protect the wishes and rights of the majority from abuse by a legislature or an executive that holds a contrary viewpoint especially when there are frequent, scheduled elections. On the other hand, supporters of parliamentary systems contend that the strength and independence of the judiciary is the more decisive factor when it comes to protection of minority rights.\n", "British-Irish philosopher and MP Edmund Burke stated that an official should be elected based on \"his unbiased opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience\", and therefore should reflect on the arguments for and against certain policies before taking positions and then act out on what an official would believe is best in the long run for one's constituents and country as a whole even if it means short-term backlash. Thus defenders of presidential systems hold that sometimes what is wisest may not always be the most popular decision and vice versa.\n", "Section::::Differences from a parliamentary system.\n", "A number of key theoretical differences exist between a presidential and a parliamentary system:\n", "BULLET::::- In a presidential system, the central principle is that the legislative and executive branches of government are separate. This leads to the separate election of president, who is elected to office for a fixed term, and only removable for gross misdemeanor by impeachment and dismissal. By contrast, in parliamentarianism, the executive branch is led by a council of ministers, headed by a Prime Minister, who are directly accountable to the legislature and often have their background in the legislature (regardless of whether it is called a \"parliament\", an \"assembly\", a \"diet\", or a \"chamber\").\n", "BULLET::::- As with the president's set term of office, the legislature also exists for a set term of office and cannot be dissolved ahead of schedule. By contrast, in parliamentary systems, the prime minister needs to survive a vote of confidence otherwise a new election must be called. The legislature can typically be dissolved at any stage during its life by the head of state, usually on the advice of either Prime Minister alone, by the Prime Minister and cabinet, or by the cabinet.\n", "BULLET::::- In a presidential system, the president usually has special privileges in the enactment of legislation, namely the possession of a power of veto over legislation of bills, in some cases subject to the power of the legislature by weighted majority to override the veto. The legislature and the president are thus expected to serve as checks and balances on each other's powers.\n", "BULLET::::- Presidential system presidents may also be given a great deal of constitutional authority in the exercise of the office of Commander in Chief, a constitutional title given to most presidents. In addition, the presidential power to receive ambassadors as head of state is usually interpreted as giving the president broad powers to conduct foreign policy. Though semi-presidential systems may reduce a president's power over day-to-day government affairs, semi-presidential systems commonly give the president power over foreign policy.\n", "Presidential systems also have fewer ideological parties than parliamentary systems. Sometimes in the United States, the policies preferred by the two parties have been very similar (but \"see also\" polarization). In the 1950s, during the leadership of Lyndon B. Johnson, the Senate Democrats included the right-most members of the chamber—Harry Byrd and Strom Thurmond, and the left-most members—Paul Douglas and Herbert Lehman. This pattern does not prevail in Latin American presidential democracies.\n", "Section::::Differences from a parliamentary system.:Overlapping elements.\n", "In practice, elements of both systems overlap. Though a president in a presidential system does not have to choose a government under the legislature, the legislature may have the right to scrutinize his or her appointments to high governmental office, with the right, on some occasions, to block an appointment. In the United States, many appointments must be confirmed by the Senate, although once confirmed an appointee can only be removed against the president's will through impeachment. By contrast, though answerable \"to\" parliament, a parliamentary system's cabinet may be able to make use of the parliamentary 'whip' (an obligation on party members in parliament to vote with their party) to control and dominate parliament, reducing parliament's ability to control the government.\n", "Section::::Republics with a presidential system of government.\n", "\"Italics\" indicate states with limited recognition.\n", "Section::::Republics with a presidential system of government.:Presidential systems with a prime minister.\n", "The following countries have presidential systems where a post of prime minister (official title may vary) exists alongside with that of president. Differently from other systems, however, the president is still both the head state and government and the prime minister's roles are mostly to assist the president. Belarus and Kazakhstan, where the prime minister is effectively the head of government and the president the head of state, are exceptions.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of countries by system of government\n", "BULLET::::- Parliamentary system & Westminster system\n", "BULLET::::- Semi-presidential system\n", "BULLET::::- Coalition government\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Great Debate: Parliament versus Congress\n", "BULLET::::- Castagnola, Andrea/Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal: Presidential Control of High Courts in Latin America: A Long-term View (1904-2006), in: Journal of Politics in Latin America, Hamburg 2009.\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 206578, "parentid": 908690278, "revid": 908695957, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-31T11:10:36Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidential%20system&oldid=908695957" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Fra Mauro formation\n", "The Fra Mauro formation (or Fra Mauro Highlands) is a selenological formation on the near side of Earth's Moon that served as the landing site for the American Apollo 14 mission in 1971. It is named after the 80-kilometer-diameter crater Fra Mauro, located within it. The formation, as well as Fra Mauro crater, take their names from a 15th-century Italian monk and mapmaker of the same name. Apollo 13 was originally scheduled to land in the Fra Mauro highlands, but was unable due to an in-flight technical failure.\n", "Fra Mauro is thought to have been formed from ejecta, or debris, from the impact which formed Mare Imbrium. During Apollo 14, the crew members sampled ejecta from Cone crater, a feature close in proximity to the immediate landing site of the mission, which provided insight into the composition of material deep inside the formation. Data from the mission has helped to determine the approximate age of Mare Imbrium, suggesting that it is no more than about 4.25 billion years old.\n", "Section::::Formation and geography.\n", "Fra Mauro is a widespread hilly geological area covering large portions of the lunar surface around Mare Imbrium, and is thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact which formed Imbrium. The area is primarily composed of relatively low ridges and hills, between which exist undulating valleys. Much of the ejecta blanket from the Imbrium impact is covered with debris from younger impacts and material churned up by possible moonquakes. Debris found in the formation may have originated from deep beneath the original crust, and samples collected there could give insight into the geologic history of the Moon. The petrology of the formation, based on data obtained on Apollo 14, indicates a history of impact and ejection possibly spanning over approximately 500 million years.\n", "A relatively recent impact created Cone crater, 1,000 feet across and 250 feet deep, near the landing site of Apollo 14. One of the main objectives of that mission was to sample the original Imbrium material located on its rim.\n", "Samples obtained of the Fra Mauro formation during Apollo 14 suggest that the impact that formed the Imbrium basin is no older than 4.25 billion years.\n", "Section::::Geology.\n", "Analysis of Apollo 14 samples suggests that there are five major geologic constituents present in the immediate landing area: regolith breccias, fragmental breccias, igneous lithologies, granulitic lithologies, and impact-melt lithologies. Samples of each of these compositions were recovered in one or both of two major surface units of the Apollo 14 landing site within Fra Mauro: the immediate impact blanket of Cone crater, about 25 million years old, and surrounding older terrain.\n", "During Apollo 14, astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell recovered ejecta material from the Cone crater impact, which is believed to have excavated Imbrium impact material from a possible depth of about . Most of the samples returned from the Moon from Fra Mauro are classified as breccias from the vicinity of Cone crater.\n", "Studies conducted upon samples from Apollo 14 have shown that the samples do not support the possibility that the landing site is floored by volcanic rocks, or basalts. Basalts are sparse in samples of Cone crater ejecta, but somewhat abundant in samples recovered farther west, on the opposite side of the immediate landing site. Two explanations have been presented for this: (1) the majority of basalt in the landing site lies below the depth of excavation of Cone crater or (2) the presence of a basalt flow beneath the landing area excavated by a nearby crater with a diameter of . It is believed that the former seems more likely, as the basalts are similar to the basalts recovered at Cone crater. It is inconclusive whether or not the recovered basalts have a direct affiliation with the landing site, as it is located in a valley between ridges, and there exists the possibility that the basalts were merely deposited there as a result of other impact events.\n", "The Apollo 14 crew members sampled boulders in the ejecta of Cone crater. These boulders appeared to be layered and fractured breccias, contrasting from the appearance of the surrounding area because of their older age. As these boulders increase in size and number closer to Cone crater, it is believed that they originate from the greatest depth of excavation of Cone crater. These boulders show what is believed to be general characteristics of the Fra Mauro formation: clastic texture, stratification, and jointing or fracturing.\n", "Section::::Landing site selection.\n", "As Apollo 14 was an early Apollo mission, landing sites were restricted to equatorial regions for technical reasons. After Apollo 12 demonstrated the ability to land at a pre-specified landing zone, mission planners considered landings in rough, but geologically interesting areas of the Moon.\n", "The aborted Apollo 13 mission was originally scheduled to land at Fra Mauro, with Apollo 14 scheduled to land in the Littrow region of Mare Serenitatis. After Apollo 13 failed to land, it was decided to re-target Apollo 14 to Fra Mauro, as it was regarded as more interesting scientifically than the Littrow site. There, Apollo 14 had the objective of sampling ejecta from the Imbrium impact to gain insight into the Moon's geologic history. A landing site near the freshly formed Cone crater was chosen, as this crater served as a 'natural drill hole' to allow the astronauts to obtain Imbrium ejecta, the primary objective of the mission.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Area map\n", "BULLET::::- Geological Survey Professional Paper 880 - Apollo 14 Professional Paper\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "USS Wyoming (BB-32)\n", "USS \"Wyoming\" (BB-32) was the lead ship of her class of dreadnought battleships and was the third ship of the United States Navy named Wyoming, although she was only the second named in honor of the 44th state. \"Wyoming\" was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia in February 1910, was launched in May 1911, and was completed in September 1912. She was armed with a main battery of twelve guns and capable of a top speed of .\n", "During the First World War, she was part of the Battleship Division Nine, which was attached to the British Grand Fleet as the 6th Battle Squadron. During the war, she was primarily tasked with patrolling in the North Sea and escorting convoys to Norway. She served in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets throughout the 1920s, and in 1931–1932, she was converted into a training ship according to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930.\n", "\"Wyoming\" served as a training ship throughout the 1930s, and in November 1941, she became a gunnery ship. She operated primarily in the Chesapeake Bay area, which earned her the nickname \"Chesapeake Raider\". In this capacity, she trained some 35,000 gunners for the hugely expanded US Navy during World War II. She continued in this duty until 1947, when she was decommissioned on 1 August and subsequently sold for scrap; she was broken up in New York starting in December 1947.\n", "Section::::Design.\n", "\"Wyoming\" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at , generating a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of .\n", "The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 12-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns in six Mark 9 twin gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one /51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. The main armored belt was thick, while the gun turrets had thick faces. The conning tower had thick sides.\n", "Section::::Design.:Modifications.\n", "In 1925, \"Wyoming\" was modernized in the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Her displacement increased significantly, to standard and full load. Her beam was widened to , primarily from the installation of anti-torpedo bulges, and draft increased to . Her twelve coal-fired boilers were replaced with four White-Forster oil-fired boilers that had been intended for the ships cancelled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty; performance remained the same as the older boilers. The ship's deck armor was strengthened by the addition of of armor to the second deck between the end barbettes, plus of armor on the third deck on the bow and stern. The deck armor over the engines and boilers was increased by and , respectively. Five of the 5-inch guns were removed and eight /50 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. The mainmast was removed to provide space for an aircraft catapult mounted on the Number 3 turret amidships.\n", "Section::::Service history.\n", "\"Wyoming\" was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 9 February 1910, and was launched on 25 May 1911. She was completed a year and four months later, on 25 September 1912. After her commissioning, the final fitting-out work was completed at the New York Navy Yard over the next three months. She then proceeded to join the rest of the fleet at Hampton Roads on 30 December, where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Charles J. Badger, the commander of the Atlantic Fleet. \"Wyoming\" left Hampton Roads on 6 January 1913, bound for the Caribbean. She visited the Panama Canal, which was nearing completion, and then participated in fleet exercises off Cuba. The ship was back in port in Chesapeake Bay on 4 March.\n", "\"Wyoming\" then took part in gunnery drills off the Virginia Capes, and on 18 April, entered drydock at the New York Navy Yard for some repairs, which lasted until 7 May. She joined the rest of the fleet for maneuvers off Block Island that lasted from 7–24 May. During the maneuvers, the ship's machinery proved troublesome, which necessitated repairs at Newport from 9–19 May. At the end of the month, she was in New York harbor, to participate in the ceremonies for the dedication of the monument to the armored cruiser , which had been destroyed in Havana harbor on 15 February 1898. On 4 June, \"Wyoming\" steamed to Annapolis, where she took on a crew of naval cadets from the Naval Academy for a summer midshipman cruise.\n", "After returning the cadets to Annapolis on 24–25 August, \"Wyoming\" took part in gunnery and torpedo training over the next few weeks. On 16 September, she returned to New York for repairs, which lasted until 2 October. She then ran full–power sea trials before proceeding to the Virginia Capes, where she participated in another round of fleet maneuvers. Next, she departed for a European goodwill cruise on 26 October. She toured the Mediterranean Sea, stopping in Valletta, Malta, Naples, Italy, and Villefranche, France. She departed France on 30 November, and arrived in New York on 15 December. There, she went into dock at the New York Navy Yard for periodic repairs, which lasted until January 1914. On the 6th, \"Wyoming\" left for Hampton Roads, where she took on coal in preparation for the annual fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean.\n", "The exercises lasted from 26 January to 15 March, and the fleet was based in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba. \"Wyoming\" and the rest of the fleet then proceeded to Tangier Sound for additional training, including gunnery drills. On 3 April, \"Wyoming\" left the fleet for an overhaul in New York, which lasted until 9 May. She then returned to Hampton Roads, where she took on a contingent of troops and ferried them to Veracruz, arriving on 18 May. The US had intervened in the Mexican Revolution and occupied Veracruz to safeguard American citizens there. \"Wyoming\" cruised off Veracruz into the Autumn of 1914, at which point she returned to the Virginia Capes for exercises. On 6 October, she entered New York for repairs; this work lasted until 17 January 1915.\n", "\"Wyoming\" then proceeded to Hampton Roads, and then to Cuba, where she joined the fleet for the annual maneuvers off Cuba. These lasted until April, when she returned to the US. She participated in more exercises off Block Island over the next several months, and on 20 December, she returned to New York for another overhaul. On 6 January 1916, she emerged from dry dock, and then proceeded to the Caribbean. On 16 January, she reached Culebra, Puerto Rico, then visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti on 27 January. She entered port at Guantanamo the next day, and took part in fleet maneuvers until 10 April, after which she returned to New York. Another round of dockyard work took place from 16 April to 26 June. After returning to service, \"Wyoming\" took part in more maneuvers off the Virginia Capes for the remainder of the year. She left New York on 9 January 1917, bound for Cuban waters for exercises that lasted through mid-March. She left Cuba on 27 March, and was cruising off Yorktown, Virginia when the US declared war on Germany on 6 April, formally entering World War I.\n", "Section::::Service history.:World War I.\n", "\"Wyoming\" operated out of the Chesapeake Bay area for the next seven months, training engine-room personnel for the expanding American fleet. On 25 November, Battleship Division 9 (BatDiv 9), which at that time comprised \"Wyoming\", , , and , departed the US, bound for Britain. BatDiv 9 was to reinforce the British Grand Fleet at its base in Scapa Flow. The American ships reached Scapa on 7 December, where they became the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet. The American ships drilled with their British counterparts from December 1917 to February 1918.\n", "On 6 February, \"Wyoming\" and the other American battleships undertook their first wartime operation, to escort a convoy to Stavanger, Norway, in company with eight British destroyers. On 7 February, lookouts on several ships, including \"Wyoming\", thought they spotted German U-boats attacking the ships with torpedoes, though these proved to be incorrect reports. The convoy successfully reached Norway two days later; the return trip to Scapa Flow took another two days. \"Wyoming\" patrolled in the North Sea for the next several months, watching for a sortie by the German High Seas Fleet. On 30 June, \"Wyoming\" and the rest of the 6th Battle Squadron covered a minelaying operation in the North Sea; the operation lasted until 2 July. During the operation, jumpy crewmen again incorrect reported U-boat sightings, and \"Wyoming\" opened fire on the supposed targets. On the return voyage, the 6th Battle Squadron joined up with Convoy HZ40, which was returning from Norway.\n", "On 14 October, \"New York\" collided with a U-boat and sank it. The collision nevertheless damaged her screws, which forced Rodman to transfer his flag from \"New York\" to \"Wyoming\" while the former was in dock for repair. On 21 November, after the Armistice with Germany ended the war, \"Wyoming\" and an Allied fleet of some 370 warships met the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea and escorted it into internment in Scapa Flow. On 12 December, \"Wyoming\", now the flagship of Rear Admiral William Sims, the new BatDiv 9 commander, left Britain for France. There, she rendezvoused off Brest, France, with , which was carrying President Woodrow Wilson to the peace negotiations in Paris. \"Wyoming\" then returned to Britain two days later before departing for the US, arriving in New York on 25 December. She remained there through the new year, and on 18 January 1919, she became the flagship of BatDiv 7, flying the flag of Rear Admiral Robert Coontz.\n", "Section::::Service history.:Inter-war period.\n", "On 1 February, \"Wyoming\" steamed out of New York to join the annual fleet maneuvers off Cuba, before returning to New York on 14 April. On 12 May, she left port to help guide a group of Navy Curtiss NC flying boats as they made the first aerial transatlantic crossing. The battleship was back in port by 31 May. She then took on a crew of midshipmen for a training cruise off the Chesapeake Bay and Virginia Capes. After finishing the cruise, \"Wyoming\" entered dry dock at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 1 July for a modernization for service in the Pacific. Her secondary battery was reduced to sixteen 5-inch guns. After emerging from the shipyard, she became the flagship of BatDiv 6 of the newly designated Pacific Fleet. On 19 July, \"Wyoming\" and the rest of the Pacific Fleet departed the east coast, bound for the Pacific. The ships transited the Panama Canal later that month, and reached San Diego, California on 6 August.\n", "On 9 August, \"Wyoming\" moved to San Pedro, where she was based for the next month. She went to the Puget Sound Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted until 19 April 1920. On 4 May, she was back in San Pedro and resumed her normal routine of fleet maneuvers off the California coast. On 30 August, \"Wyoming\" left California for Hawaii, where she participated in more training exercises through September. She then returned to San Diego on 8 October for more maneuvers off the west coast. The ship left San Francisco on 5 January 1921 for a cruise to Central and South American waters; the trip culminated in Valparaíso, Chile, where she was reviewed by the President of Chile Arturo Alessandri Palma on 8 February. \"Wyoming\" then returned north, arriving in Puget Sound for repairs on 18 March.\n", "On 2 August, \"Wyoming\" was in Balboa in the Canal Zone, where she picked up Rear Admiral Rodman and a commission traveling from Peru back to New York. She arrived in New York on 19 August and rejoined the Atlantic Fleet. There, she became the flagship of Admiral Hilary P. Jones, the commander of the Atlantic Fleet. \"Wyoming\" spent the next three and a half years on the normal routine of winter fleet exercises off Cuba, followed by summer maneuvers off the east coast of the US. Throughout the period, she served as the flagship of Vice Admirals John McDonald, Newton McCully, and Josiah McKean in the Scouting Fleet. In the summer of 1924, she conducted a midshipman training cruise to Europe, and stopped in Torbay, Great Britain, Rotterdam in the Netherlands, Gibraltar, and the Azores. In January and February 1924, the Navy conducted Fleet Problem II, III, and IV concurrently. During the FP III maneuvers, \"Wyoming\", her sister , and the two s stood in for the new s. During the FP IV portion of the maneuvers, \"Wyoming\" served in the \"Blue\" force, which represented the US Navy. She was attacked by \"Black\" aircraft, but the umpires judged \"Wyoming\"s anti-aircraft fire and the escort fighters provided by to have effectively defended the fleet.\n", "On 14 February 1925, \"Wyoming\" again passed through the Panama Canal to return to the Pacific. There, she joined fleet exercises off California. She then proceeded to Hawaii, where she remained from late April to early June. She visited San Diego on 18–22 June, and then returned to the east coast via the Panama Canal, arriving in New York on 17 July. A cruise to Cuba and Haiti followed, after which \"Wyoming\" returned to the New York Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted from 23 November to 26 January 1926. During this period, then-Commander William F. Halsey, Jr. came aboard as the ship's executive officer; he served on \"Wyoming\" until 4 January 1927.\n", "\"Wyoming\" then returned to the routine of winter maneuvers in the Caribbean and training cruises in the summer. In late August, the ship went to Philadelphia for an extensive modernization. Her old coal-fired boilers were replaced with new oil-fired models and anti-torpedo bulges were added to improve her resistance to underwater damage. The work was completed by 2 November, after which \"Wyoming\" conducted a shakedown cruise to Cuba and the Virgin Islands. She was back in Philadelphia on 7 December, and two days later, she returned to her post as the flagship of the Scouting Fleet, flying the flag of Vice Admiral Ashley Robertson.\n", "\"Wyoming\" spent the next three years in the Scouting Fleet. She conducted training cruises with Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) cadets from various universities, including Yale, Harvard, Georgia Tech, and Northwestern. These cruises went throughout the Atlantic, including to the Gulf of Mexico, to the Azores, and to Nova Scotia. While on one of these cruises in November 1928, \"Wyoming\" picked up eight survivors from the wrecked steamship ; she took them to Norfolk on 16 November. On 19 September 1930, \"Wyoming\" was transferred from the Scouting Force to BatDiv 2, where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Wat T. Cluverius. She served here until 4 November, when she was withdrawn from front-line service and became the flagship of the Training Squadron, flying the flag of Rear Admiral Harley H. Christy. Thereafter, she conducted a training cruise to the Gulf of Mexico.\n", "After returning to Philadelphia on 1 January 1931, \"Wyoming\" was placed on reduced commission. Under the terms of the London Naval Treaty signed the previous year, \"Wyoming\" was to be demilitarized. During the demilitarization process, her anti-torpedo bulges, side armor, and half of her main battery guns were removed. She was back in service by May, and on the 29th, she took on a crew of midshipmen from Annapolis for a training cruise to Europe, which began on 5 June. While en route on 15 June, \"Wyoming\" rescued the disabled submarine and took it under tow to Queenstown, Northern Ireland. While in Europe, she stopped in Copenhagen, Denmark, Greenock, Scotland, Cadiz, Spain, and Gibraltar. The ship was back in Hampton Roads on 13 August; while on the cruise, \"Wyoming\" was reclassified as \"AG-17\", to reflect her new role as a training ship.\n", "\"Wyoming\" spent the next four years conducting training cruises for midshipmen and NROTC cadets to various destinations, including European ports, the Caribbean, and the Gulf of Mexico. On 18 January 1935, she carried the 2nd Battalion, 4th Marine Regiment, from Norfolk to Puerto Rico for amphibious assault exercises. On 5 January 1937, the ship left Norfolk and steamed to the Pacific via the Panama Canal. She took part in more amphibious assault exercises and gunnery drills at San Clemente Island. On 18 February, during the exercises, a 5-inch shrapnel shell exploded as it was being loaded into one of her guns. The blast killed six Marines and wounded another eleven. \"Wyoming\" immediately steamed to San Pedro and transferred the wounded Marines to the hospital ship .\n", "On 3 March, \"Wyoming\" left Los Angeles, bound for the Atlantic. She reached Norfolk on 23 March, where she served as the temporary flagship for Rear Admiral Wilson Brown, the commander of the Training Squadron, from 15 April to 3 June. On 4 June, she left port to conduct a goodwill cruise to Kiel, Germany, arriving on 21 June. There, she visited \"Admiral Graf Spee\". She left Germany on 29 June, stopping in Torbay, Britain, and Funchal, Madeira, and arrived in Norfolk on 3 August. \"Wyoming\" resumed her training ship duties for Naval and Merchant Marine Reserve units. She returned to Norfolk Navy Yard for an overhaul that lasted from 16 October to 14 January 1938.\n", "\"Wyoming\" performed her typical routine of training cruises in the Atlantic through 1941. The cruises included another European trip in 1938; she took the midshipmen to Le Havre, France, Copenhagen, and Portsmouth. After the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939, \"Wyoming\" was assigned to a naval reserve force in the Atlantic, alongside the battleships \"New York\", \"Arkansas\", and and the aircraft carrier . \"Wyoming\" became the flagship of Rear Admiral Randall Jacobs, the commander of the Training, Patrol Force on 2 January 1941. In November, \"Wyoming\" became a gunnery training ship. Her first cruise in this new role began on 25 November; she was cruising off Platt's Bank when she received word of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December.\n", "Section::::Service history.:World War II.\n", "Following the United States' entrance into World War II, \"Wyoming\" performed her normal duties as a gunnery training ship with the Operational Training Command, United States Atlantic Fleet starting in February 1942. She operated primarily in the Chesapeake Bay area, and frequent sightings of the ship steaming around the bay earned her the nickname \"Chesapeake Raider\". \"Wyoming\" was very busy, training thousands of anti-aircraft gunners on weapons ranging from light .50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns to medium-caliber 5-inch guns for the rapidly expanding American fleet. Early in the war, the Navy briefly considered converting \"Wyoming\" back to her battleship configuration, but decided against the plan.\n", "These duties continued throughout the rest of the war. \"Wyoming\" was modernized at Norfolk Navy Yard from 12 January to 3 April 1944; the reconstruction removed the last of her three 12-inch gun turrets, and replaced them with four twin and two single enclosed mounts for 5-inch/38 caliber guns. New fire control radars were also installed; these modifications allowed \"Wyoming\" to train anti-aircraft gunners with the most modern equipment they would use while in combat with the fleet. She was back in service in the Chesapeake Bay by 10 April. Over the course of the war, \"Wyoming\" trained an estimated 35,000 gunners on seven different types of guns: 5-inch, 3-inch, 1.1-inch, 40-millimeter, 20-millimeter, .50 caliber, and .30 caliber (7.62 mm) weapons. Due to her extensive use as a gunnery training ship, she claimed the distinction of firing more ammunition than any other ship in the fleet during the war.\n", "\"Wyoming\" finished her gunnery training duties in the Chesapeake area on 30 June 1945, when she left Norfolk for the New York Navy Yard, for further modifications. Work was completed by 13 July, after which she left for Casco Bay. There, she joined Composite Task Force 69 (CTF 69), under command of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee. \"Wyoming\" was tasked with developing tactics to more effectively engage the Japanese kamikaze suicide aircraft. The gunners conducted experimental gunnery drills with towed sleeves, drone aircraft, and radio-controlled targets. On 31 August, CTF 69 was renamed Operational Development Force, United States Fleet.\n", "\"Wyoming\" continued in this unit through the end of the war, and began to be used to test new fire control equipment. In the summer of 1946, then-Ensign Jimmy Carter, the future President of the United States, came aboard as part of the final crew of the old battleship. On 11 July 1947, \"Wyoming\" put into Norfolk and was decommissioned there on 1 August. Her crew was transferred to the ex-battleship , which was also serving in the gunnery training unit. \"Wyoming\" was stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry on 16 September, and she was sold for scrapping on 30 October. She arrived on 5 December in New York, where she was dismantled by Lipsett, Incorporated.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- NavSource Naval History, USS Wyoming (BB-32)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "dreadnought battleship", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q3276562", "wikidata_label": "USS Wyoming", "wikipedia_title": "USS Wyoming (BB-32)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "BB-32" ] } }

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