Karl_Popper

context: Popper is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method, in favour of empirical falsification: A theory in the empirical sciences can never be proven, but it can be falsified, meaning that it can and should be scrutinized by decisive experiments. He used the black swan fallacy to discuss falsification. If the outcome of an experiment contradicts the theory, one should refrain from ad hoc manoeuvres that evade the contradiction merely by making it less falsifiable. Popper is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge, which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non-justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy."
qas: answers: inductivist
question: Which classical views about the method of science did Popper reject?

answers: Popper
question: Who proposed empirical falsification as the central principle of the scientific method?

answers: decisive experiments
question: What is necessary for a scientific theory to be falsified?

answers: classical justificationist
question: Which account of knowledge did Popper contest?

answers: critical rationalism
question: What is the term for Popper's non-justificational theory of criticism?

context: Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born, and so he received Lutheran baptism. They understood this as part of their cultural assimilation, not as an expression of devout belief. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia and a doctor of law at the Vienna University, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a partner in the law firm of Vienna's liberal Burgomaster Herr Grübl and, after Grübl's death in 1898, Simon took over the business. (Malachi Hacohen records that Herr Grübl's first name was Raimund, after which Karl received his middle name. Popper himself, in his autobiography, erroneously recalls that Herr Grübl's first name was Carl.) His father was a bibliophile who had 12,000–14,000 volumes in his personal library. Popper inherited both the library and the disposition from him.
qas: answers: Vienna
question: In which city was Karl Popper born?

answers: Lutheranism
question: What religion did Popper's family observe during his youth?

answers: Burgomaster Herr Grübl
question: Whose law firm did Popper's father join in Vienna?

answers: 12,000–14,000
question: What numerical range of volumes did Popper's father keep in his library?

answers: bibliophile
question: What disposition regarding books did Popper inherit from his father?

context: Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology and the history of music as a guest student at the University of Vienna. In 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students. He also became a member of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, which was at that time a party that fully adopted the Marxist ideology. After the street battle in the Hörlgasse on 15 June 1919, when police shot eight of his unarmed party comrades, he became disillusioned by what he saw to be the "pseudo-scientific" historical materialism of Marx, abandoned the ideology, and remained a supporter of social liberalism throughout his life.
qas: answers: 16
question: At which age did Popper first attend university?

answers: Marxism
question: What political doctrine interested Popper in 1919?

answers: Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria
question: Which Austrian political party did Popper join as a youth?

answers: street battle in the Hörlgasse
question: What incident killed several of Poppers Marxist political comrades?

answers: social liberalism
question: To which political philosophy did Popper continue to adhere after moving away from Marxism?

context: He worked in street construction for a short amount of time, but was unable to cope with the heavy labour. Continuing to attend university as a guest student, he started an apprenticeship as cabinetmaker, which he completed as a journeyman. He was dreaming at that time of starting a daycare facility for children, for which he assumed the ability to make furniture might be useful. After that he did voluntary service in one of psychoanalyst Alfred Adler's clinics for children. In 1922, he did his matura by way of a second chance education and finally joined the University as an ordinary student. He completed his examination as an elementary teacher in 1924 and started working at an after-school care club for socially endangered children. In 1925, he went to the newly founded Pädagogisches Institut and continued studying philosophy and psychology. Around that time he started courting Josefine Anna Henninger, who later became his wife.
qas: answers: cabinetmaker
question: What trade did Popper enter as an apprentice?

answers: daycare
question: What type of facility did Popper plan to open that would benefit from his furniture-making skills?

answers: Alfred Adler
question: In which psychoanalysts clinics did Popper volunteer?

answers: 1922
question: When did Popper become an ordinary student rather than a guest at university?

answers: elementary teacher
question: For which vocation did Popper complete his university examinations?

context: In 1928, he earned a doctorate in psychology, under the supervision of Karl Bühler. His dissertation was entitled "Die Methodenfrage der Denkpsychologie" (The question of method in cognitive psychology). In 1929, he obtained the authorisation to teach mathematics and physics in secondary school, which he started doing. He married his colleague Josefine Anna Henninger (1906–1985) in 1930. Fearing the rise of Nazism and the threat of the Anschluss, he started to use the evenings and the nights to write his first book Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie (The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge). He needed to publish one to get some academic position in a country that was safe for people of Jewish descent. However, he ended up not publishing the two-volume work, but a condensed version of it with some new material, Logik der Forschung (The Logic of Scientific Discovery), in 1934. Here, he criticised psychologism, naturalism, inductionism, and logical positivism, and put forth his theory of potential falsifiability as the criterion demarcating science from non-science. In 1935 and 1936, he took unpaid leave to go to the United Kingdom for a study visit.
qas: answers: Karl Bühler
question: Who supervised Popper's doctorate?

answers: The question of method in cognitive psychology
question: What is an English translation of the title of Popper's doctoral thesis?

answers: mathematics and physics
question: What subjects was Popper authorized to teach in secondary school in 1929?

answers: Nazism
question: Whose rise to power motivated Popper to publish his work in hopes of obtaining an academic position abroad?

answers: The Logic of Scientific Discovery
question: In which work published in 1934 did Popper introduce his theories centered around falsifiability?

context: In 1937, Popper finally managed to get a position that allowed him to emigrate to New Zealand, where he became lecturer in philosophy at Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand in Christchurch. It was here that he wrote his influential work The Open Society and its Enemies. In Dunedin he met the Professor of Physiology John Carew Eccles and formed a lifelong friendship with him. In 1946, after the Second World War, he moved to the United Kingdom to become reader in logic and scientific method at the London School of Economics. Three years later, in 1949, he was appointed professor of logic and scientific method at the University of London. Popper was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1958 to 1959. He retired from academic life in 1969, though he remained intellectually active for the rest of his life. In 1985, he returned to Austria so that his wife could have her relatives around her during the last months of her life; she died in November that year. After the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft failed to establish him as the director of a newly founded branch researching the philosophy of science, he went back again to the United Kingdom in 1986, settling in Kenley, Surrey.
qas: answers: New Zealand
question: Where did Popper move in 1937?

answers: Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand
question: Where was Popper's academic appointment in New Zealand?

answers: John Carew Eccles
question: Which lifelong friend did Popper make in Dunedin?

answers: logic and scientific method
question: What philosophical fields did Popper teach at the London School of Economics?

answers: Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft
question: Which Austrian school's failure to give Popper a directorship prompted him to return to the United Kingdom at the end of his life?

context: Popper died of "complications of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure" in Kenley at the age of 92 on 17 September 1994. He had been working continuously on his philosophy until two weeks before, when he suddenly fell terminally ill. After cremation, his ashes were taken to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Popper (called ‘Hennie’) had already been buried. Popper's estate is managed by his secretary and personal assistant Melitta Mew and her husband Raymond. Popper's manuscripts went to the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, partly during his lifetime and partly as supplementary material after his death. Klagenfurt University possesses Popper's library, including his precious bibliophilia, as well as hard copies of the original Hoover material and microfilms of the supplementary material. The remaining parts of the estate were mostly transferred to The Karl Popper Charitable Trust. In October 2008 Klagenfurt University acquired the copyrights from the estate.
qas: answers: 92
question: How old was Popper when he died?

answers: Lainzer
question: Which cemetery in Vienna received Popper's ashes?

answers: Hoover Institution at Stanford University
question: Where are Popper's manuscripts kept now?

answers: Klagenfurt University
question: Which university has the contents of Popper's library?

answers: Josefine Anna Popper
question: What was Popper's wife's name?

context: Popper won many awards and honours in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, the Otto Hahn Peace Medal of the United Nations Association of Germany in Berlin and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, King's College London, Darwin College, Cambridge, and Charles University, Prague. Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1986, and the Federal Republic of Germany its Grand Cross with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit, and the peace class of the Order Pour le Mérite. He received the Humanist Laureate Award from the International Academy of Humanism. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1965, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976. He was invested with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.
qas: answers: Lippincott Award
question: Which award did Popper receive from the American Political Science Association?

answers: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria
question: What recognition did Austria bestow on Popper in 1986?

answers: International Academy of Humanism
question: Who gave Popper its Humanist Laureate Award?

answers: Queen Elizabeth II
question: Which English monarch knighted Popper?

answers: Charles University, Prague
question: Which central European university made Popper a fellow?

context: Other awards and recognition for Popper included the City of Vienna Prize for the Humanities (1965), Karl Renner Prize (1978), Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1980), Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize (1981), Ring of Honour of the City of Vienna (1983) and the Premio Internazionale of the Italian Federico Nietzsche Society (1988). In 1992, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy for "symbolising the open spirit of the 20th century" and for his "enormous influence on the formation of the modern intellectual climate".
qas: answers: 1978
question: In which year did Popper win the Karl Renner Prize?

answers: Vienna
question: Which city made Popper part of its Ring of Honour in 1983?

answers: Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy
question: What award given by a Japanese foundation did Popper win in 1992?

answers: 1981
question: Popper won the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize in which year?

context: Karl Popper's rejection of Marxism during his teenage years left a profound mark on his thought. He had at one point joined a socialist association, and for a few months in 1919 considered himself a communist. During this time he became familiar with the Marxist view of economics, class-war, and history. Although he quickly became disillusioned with the views expounded by Marxism, his flirtation with the ideology led him to distance himself from those who believed that spilling blood for the sake of a revolution was necessary. He came to realise that when it came to sacrificing human lives, one was to think and act with extreme prudence.
qas: answers: Marxism
question: What political philosophy that attracted Popper as a teenager had a profound influence on his thinking going forward?

answers: 1919
question: For a time during which year did Popper consider himself a communist?

answers: teenage years
question: At which stage of life was Popper most strongly influenced by Marxist thinking?

answers: disillusioned
question: How did Popper feel about Marxism after only a short time associating with other Marxists?

context: The failure of democratic parties to prevent fascism from taking over Austrian politics in the 1920s and 1930s traumatised Popper. He suffered from the direct consequences of this failure, since events after the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria by the German Reich in 1938, forced him into permanent exile. His most important works in the field of social science—The Poverty of Historicism (1944) and The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)—were inspired by his reflection on the events of his time and represented, in a sense, a reaction to the prevalent totalitarian ideologies that then dominated Central European politics. His books defended democratic liberalism as a social and political philosophy. They also represented extensive critiques of the philosophical presuppositions underpinning all forms of totalitarianism.
qas: answers: fascism
question: What political ideology dominated Austrian politics in the decades before the second world war?

answers: the Anschluss
question: What key event in 1938 pushed Popper into exile from Austria?

answers: democratic liberalism
question: What political ideology do Popper's major works defend?

answers: totalitarianism
question: What form of political organization do Popper's works mainly critique?

answers: the annexation of Austria by the German Reich
question: What was the Anschluss?

context: Popper puzzled over the stark contrast between the non-scientific character of Freud and Adler's theories in the field of psychology and the revolution set off by Einstein's theory of relativity in physics in the early 20th century. Popper thought that Einstein's theory, as a theory properly grounded in scientific thought and method, was highly "risky", in the sense that it was possible to deduce consequences from it which were, in the light of the then-dominant Newtonian physics, highly improbable (e.g., that light is deflected towards solid bodies—confirmed by Eddington's experiments in 1919), and which would, if they turned out to be false, falsify the whole theory. In contrast, nothing could, even in principle, falsify psychoanalytic theories. He thus came to the conclusion that psychoanalytic theories had more in common with primitive myths than with genuine science.
qas: answers: Freud and Adler
question: Which two important psychologists did Popper view as advancing non-scientific theories?

answers: Einstein
question: Whose recent breakthrough in physics did Popper view as paradigmatic science?

answers: risky
question: What quality of the theory of relativity did Popper believe made it proper science?

answers: primitive myths
question: What did Popper think psychoanalytic theory shared more feature with than real science ?

answers: falsify
question: What could you not do to psychoanalytic theory that Popper believed crucial in genuine science?

context: This led Popper to conclude that what were regarded[by whom?] as the remarkable strengths of psychoanalytical theories were actually their weaknesses. Psychoanalytical theories were crafted in a way that made them able to refute any criticism and to give an explanation for every possible form of human behaviour. The nature of such theories made it impossible for any criticism or experiment - even in principle - to show them to be false. This realisation had an important consequence when Popper later tackled the problem of demarcation in the philosophy of science, as it led him to posit that the strength of a scientific theory lies in its both being susceptible to falsification, and not actually being falsified by criticism made of it. He considered that if a theory cannot, in principle, be falsified by criticism, it is not a scientific theory.
qas: answers: falsification
question: According to Popper, a theory is scientific only is it is susceptible to what?

answers: criticism or experiment
question: What key components of science are ineffective when brought to bear on non-scientific theories?

answers: weaknesses
question: How did Popper characterize the wide applicability and immunity to criticism of psychoanalytic theory?

context: Popper coined the term "critical rationalism" to describe his philosophy. Concerning the method of science, the term indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and the classical observationalist-inductivist account of science that had grown out of it. Popper argued strongly against the latter, holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly, by reference to their implications. He also held that scientific theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the creative imagination to solve problems that have arisen in specific historico-cultural settings.
qas: answers: critical rationalism
question: What term did Popper use for his philosophy?

answers: the classical observationalist-inductivist account
question: Which account of scientific method did Popper's repudiate?

answers: rejection
question: What was Popper's position on classical empiricism?

answers: indirectly
question: According to Popper, what is the only way one can test scientific theories because they are necessarily abstract?

context: Logically, no number of positive outcomes at the level of experimental testing can confirm a scientific theory, but a single counterexample is logically decisive: it shows the theory, from which the implication is derived, to be false. To say that a given statement (e.g., the statement of a law of some scientific theory) -- [call it "T"] -- is "falsifiable" does not mean that "T" is false. Rather, it means that, if "T" is false, then (in principle), "T" could be shown to be false, by observation or by experiment. Popper's account of the logical asymmetry between verification and falsifiability lies at the heart of his philosophy of science. It also inspired him to take falsifiability as his criterion of demarcation between what is, and is not, genuinely scientific: a theory should be considered scientific if, and only if, it is falsifiable. This led him to attack the claims of both psychoanalysis and contemporary Marxism to scientific status, on the basis that their theories are not falsifiable.
qas: answers: verification and falsifiability
question: Popper pointed out an important logical asymmetry between what two concepts?

answers: falsifiability
question: What does Popper say demarcates scientific theory from non-science?

answers: Marxism
question: What political theory did Popper say did not meet his falsifiability criterion?

answers: psychoanalysis
question: What branch of psychology was Popper critical of for not producing falsifiable theory?

context: In All Life is Problem Solving, Popper sought to explain the apparent progress of scientific knowledge – that is, how it is that our understanding of the universe seems to improve over time. This problem arises from his position that the truth content of our theories, even the best of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can only be falsified. Again, in this context the word "falsified" does not refer to something being "fake"; rather, that something can be (i.e., is capable of being) shown to be false by observation or experiment. Some things simply do not lend themselves to being shown to be false, and therefore, are not falsifiable. If so, then how is it that the growth of science appears to result in a growth in knowledge? In Popper's view, the advance of scientific knowledge is an evolutionary process characterised by his formula:
qas: answers: All Life is Problem Solving
question: Which of Popper's works addresses the improvement of scientific understanding of the world over time?

answers: evolutionary
question: Popper described the growth of scientific understanding as what kind of process?

answers: truth content
question: What aspect of a scientific theory can never be fully verified, according to Popper?

context: In response to a given problem situation (), a number of competing conjectures, or tentative theories (), are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts at falsification possible. This process, error elimination (), performs a similar function for science that natural selection performs for biological evolution. Theories that better survive the process of refutation are not more true, but rather, more "fit"—in other words, more applicable to the problem situation at hand (). Consequently, just as a species' biological fitness does not ensure continued survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific theory from refutation in the future. Yet, as it appears that the engine of biological evolution has, over many generations, produced adaptive traits equipped to deal with more and more complex problems of survival, likewise, the evolution of theories through the scientific method may, in Popper's view, reflect a certain type of progress: toward more and more interesting problems (). For Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theories (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay between genetic variation and natural selection.
qas: answers: error elimination
question: What process in science is like the process of natural selection in nature?

answers: more "fit"
question: What is a better description for theories that survive scientific scrutiny than "more true?"

answers: conjectures
question: What is another term for the tentative theories enter the process of error elimination in science? 

answers: more and more interesting problems
question: Toward what does Popper believe scientific understandings progress?

context: Among his contributions to philosophy is his claim to have solved the philosophical problem of induction. He states that while there is no way to prove that the sun will rise, it is possible to formulate the theory that every day the sun will rise; if it does not rise on some particular day, the theory will be falsified and will have to be replaced by a different one. Until that day, there is no need to reject the assumption that the theory is true. Nor is it rational according to Popper to make instead the more complex assumption that the sun will rise until a given day, but will stop doing so the day after, or similar statements with additional conditions.
qas: answers: induction
question: Popper's thoughts on falsification present a solution to the philosophical problem concerning what type of scientific reasoning?

answers: additional conditions
question: What parts of a theory are unnecessary before the simple theory is falsified?

answers: Popper
question: Who presented a solution to the philosophical problem of induction centered around falsifiability?

context: Popper held that rationality is not restricted to the realm of empirical or scientific theories, but that it is merely a special case of the general method of criticism, the method of finding and eliminating contradictions in knowledge without ad-hoc-measures. According to this view, rational discussion about metaphysical ideas, about moral values and even about purposes is possible. Popper's student W.W. Bartley III tried to radicalise this idea and made the controversial claim that not only can criticism go beyond empirical knowledge, but that everything can be rationally criticised.
qas: answers: ad-hoc-measures
question: Popper's rational approach opposes what technique sometimes used to remove contradictions in knowledge?

answers: W.W. Bartley III
question: Which of Popper's students argued that rational criticism should be most widely applied?

answers: empirical
question: What type of knowledge is not the only sphere of rational criticism, according to Popper's student W.W. Bartley III?

context: To Popper, who was an anti-justificationist, traditional philosophy is misled by the false principle of sufficient reason. He thinks that no assumption can ever be or needs ever to be justified, so a lack of justification is not a justification for doubt. Instead, theories should be tested and scrutinised. It is not the goal to bless theories with claims of certainty or justification, but to eliminate errors in them. He writes, "there are no such things as good positive reasons; nor do we need such things [...] But [philosophers] obviously cannot quite bring [themselves] to believe that this is my opinion, let alone that it is right" (The Philosophy of Karl Popper, p. 1043)
qas: answers: lack of justification
question: According to Popper, what is not grounds for doubt?

answers: principle of sufficient reason
question: What principle of traditional philosophy did Popper take an anti-justificationist stance against?

answers: eliminate errors
question: What does Popper believe is essential to do to theories instead of justification?

answers: good positive reasons
question: What don't we need to look for about theories in Popper's view?

context: In The Open Society and Its Enemies and The Poverty of Historicism, Popper developed a critique of historicism and a defence of the "Open Society". Popper considered historicism to be the theory that history develops inexorably and necessarily according to knowable general laws towards a determinate end. He argued that this view is the principal theoretical presupposition underpinning most forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. He argued that historicism is founded upon mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and prediction. Since the growth of human knowledge is a causal factor in the evolution of human history, and since "no society can predict, scientifically, its own future states of knowledge", it follows, he argued, that there can be no predictive science of human history. For Popper, metaphysical and historical indeterminism go hand in hand.
qas: answers: historicism
question: What is the term for the view that there are discoverable general laws constraining history's development?

answers: authoritarianism and totalitarianism
question: What political forms did Popper believe historicism supported?

answers: the growth of human knowledge
question: What unpredictable feature of the world did Popper say refuted historicism?

answers: The Poverty of Historicism
question: Which of Popper's works criticized the idea that history has an inexorable developmental path?

context: As early as 1934, Popper wrote of the search for truth as "one of the strongest motives for scientific discovery." Still, he describes in Objective Knowledge (1972) early concerns about the much-criticised notion of truth as correspondence. Then came the semantic theory of truth formulated by the logician Alfred Tarski and published in 1933. Popper writes of learning in 1935 of the consequences of Tarski's theory, to his intense joy. The theory met critical objections to truth as correspondence and thereby rehabilitated it. The theory also seemed, in Popper's eyes, to support metaphysical realism and the regulative idea of a search for truth.
qas: answers: Alfred Tarski
question: Whose theory of truth did Popper read with intense interest in 1935?

answers: semantic theory of truth
question: What theory of interest to Popper did Alfred Tarski publish in 1933?

answers: truth as correspondence
question: Tarski's theory overcame certain objections to what conception of truth?

answers: metaphysical
question: What kind of realism did Popper believe Tarski's theory supported?

context: According to this theory, the conditions for the truth of a sentence as well as the sentences themselves are part of a metalanguage. So, for example, the sentence "Snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white. Although many philosophers have interpreted, and continue to interpret, Tarski's theory as a deflationary theory, Popper refers to it as a theory in which "is true" is replaced with "corresponds to the facts". He bases this interpretation on the fact that examples such as the one described above refer to two things: assertions and the facts to which they refer. He identifies Tarski's formulation of the truth conditions of sentences as the introduction of a "metalinguistic predicate" and distinguishes the following cases:
qas: answers: deflationary
question: What term do philosophers give to the kind of theory Tarski proposed about truth?

answers: "corresponds to the facts"
question: With what does Popper say Tarski's theory replaces the predicate "is true?"

answers: metalanguage
question: What concept did Tarski introduce to discuss the conditions for the truth of statements?

answers: assertions and the facts to which they refer
question: What two things does Popper argue Tarski's theory involves in an evaluation of truth?

context: Upon this basis, along with that of the logical content of assertions (where logical content is inversely proportional to probability), Popper went on to develop his important notion of verisimilitude or "truthlikeness". The intuitive idea behind verisimilitude is that the assertions or hypotheses of scientific theories can be objectively measured with respect to the amount of truth and falsity that they imply. And, in this way, one theory can be evaluated as more or less true than another on a quantitative basis which, Popper emphasises forcefully, has nothing to do with "subjective probabilities" or other merely "epistemic" considerations.
qas: answers: truthlikeness
question: What term does Popper use that roughly means verisimilitude?

answers: subjective
question: Poppers notion of verisimilitude leaves no place for which kind of probabilities in the evaluation of scientific hypotheses?

answers: epistemic
question: What class of considerations did Popper believe were not important in scientific measurement?

answers: probability
question: What is the logical content of hypotheses inversely proportional to in Popper's reasoning?

context: Knowledge, for Popper, was objective, both in the sense that it is objectively true (or truthlike), and also in the sense that knowledge has an ontological status (i.e., knowledge as object) independent of the knowing subject (Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, 1972). He proposed three worlds: World One, being the physical world, or physical states; World Two, being the world of mind, or mental states, ideas, and perceptions; and World Three, being the body of human knowledge expressed in its manifold forms, or the products of the second world made manifest in the materials of the first world (i.e., books, papers, paintings, symphonies, and all the products of the human mind). World Three, he argued, was the product of individual human beings in exactly the same sense that an animal path is the product of individual animals, and that, as such, has an existence and evolution independent of any individual knowing subjects. The influence of World Three, in his view, on the individual human mind (World Two) is at least as strong as the influence of World One. In other words, the knowledge held by a given individual mind owes at least as much to the total accumulated wealth of human knowledge, made manifest, as to the world of direct experience. As such, the growth of human knowledge could be said to be a function of the independent evolution of World Three. Many contemporary philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, have not embraced Popper's Three World conjecture, due mostly, it seems, to its resemblance to mind-body dualism.
qas: answers: knowledge
question: What did Popper argue was objective and independent of its subject?

answers: three
question: How many different worlds or realities did Popper differentiate in Objective Knowledge?

answers: the physical world
question: What constituted World One in Popper's theory?

answers: individual human beings
question: Who produced the contents of World Three?

answers: World Three
question: Which world's evolution corresponds to the growth of human knowledge?

context: The creation–evolution controversy in the United States raises the issue of whether creationistic ideas may be legitimately called science and whether evolution itself may be legitimately called science. In the debate, both sides and even courts in their decisions have frequently invoked Popper's criterion of falsifiability (see Daubert standard). In this context, passages written by Popper are frequently quoted in which he speaks about such issues himself. For example, he famously stated "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program—a possible framework for testable scientific theories." He continued:
qas: answers: criterion of falsifiability
question: Which of Popper's notions is often invoked in creation-evolution debates?

answers: metaphysical
question: What kind of research program did Popper call Darwinism?

answers: possible framework
question: What phrase did Popper use to describe Darwinism's relation to proper falsifiable theories?

answers: creation–evolution
question: Popper's philosophy is often applied in what political debate concerning biological science?

context: Popper had his own sophisticated views on evolution that go much beyond what the frequently-quoted passages say. In effect, Popper agreed with some of the points of both creationists and naturalists, but also disagreed with both views on crucial aspects. Popper understood the universe as a creative entity that invents new things, including life, but without the necessity of something like a god, especially not one who is pulling strings from behind the curtain. He said that evolution must, as the creationists say, work in a goal-directed way but disagreed with their view that it must necessarily be the hand of god that imposes these goals onto the stage of life.
qas: answers: goal-directed
question: Along with some creationists, Popper believed that evolution must have what quality to its progress?

answers: god
question: Popper disagreed with creationists that whose hand must be directing evolution?

answers: creative
question: What kind of an entity did Popper believe the universe to be?

context: Instead, he formulated the spearhead model of evolution, a version of genetic pluralism. According to this model, living organisms themselves have goals, and act according to these goals, each guided by a central control. In its most sophisticated form, this is the brain of humans, but controls also exist in much less sophisticated ways for species of lower complexity, such as the amoeba. This control organ plays a special role in evolution—it is the "spearhead of evolution". The goals bring the purpose into the world. Mutations in the genes that determine the structure of the control may then cause drastic changes in behaviour, preferences and goals, without having an impact on the organism's phenotype. Popper postulates that such purely behavioural changes are less likely to be lethal for the organism compared to drastic changes of the phenotype.
qas: answers: spearhead
question: What is the name of Popper's model of evolution?

answers: genetic pluralism
question: Popper's model of evolution is part of what family of models?

answers: goals
question: What directs the actions of organisms in Popper's biological model?

answers: Mutations
question: Organisms' goals shift along with which notable genetic process?

context: Popper contrasts his views with the notion of the "hopeful monster" that has large phenotype mutations and calls it the "hopeful behavioural monster". After behaviour has changed radically, small but quick changes of the phenotype follow to make the organism fitter to its changed goals. This way it looks as if the phenotype were changing guided by some invisible hand, while it is merely natural selection working in combination with the new behaviour. For example, according to this hypothesis, the eating habits of the giraffe must have changed before its elongated neck evolved. Popper contrasted this view as "evolution from within" or "active Darwinism" (the organism actively trying to discover new ways of life and being on a quest for conquering new ecological niches), with the naturalistic "evolution from without" (which has the picture of a hostile environment only trying to kill the mostly passive organism, or perhaps segregate some of its groups).
qas: answers: hopeful monster
question: Which view of evolution emphasizing large changes in organisms' phenotypes does Popper oppose to his own?

answers: behaviour
question: Which aspect of organisms changes most radically in the process of evolution Popper envisions?

answers: hopeful behavioural monster
question: How does Popper describe the "monsters" that evolve in his view of evolutionary processes?

answers: active
question: What kind of Darwinism does Popper subscribe to in contrast to the naturalistic kind?

context: About the creation-evolution controversy, Popper wrote that he considered it "a somewhat sensational clash between a brilliant scientific hypothesis concerning the history of the various species of animals and plants on earth, and an older metaphysical theory which, incidentally, happened to be part of an established religious belief" with a footnote to the effect that "[he] agree[s] with Professor C.E. Raven when, in his Science, Religion, and the Future, 1943, he calls this conflict "a storm in a Victorian tea-cup"; though the force of this remark is perhaps a little impaired by the attention he pays to the vapours still emerging from the cup—to the Great Systems of Evolutionist Philosophy, produced by Bergson, Whitehead, Smuts, and others."
qas: answers: C.E. Raven
question: Which professor cited by Popper described the creation-evolution debate as "a storm in a Victorian tea-cup?"

answers: creation-evolution
question: What controversy involving science did Popper believe was sensationalized because of its connection with religion?

answers: 1943
question: In which year did C.E. Raven publish the remarks on creation-evolution quoted by Popper?

answers: metaphysical
question: What term does Popper use when describing creationism as a type of theory?

context: In an interview that Popper gave in 1969 with the condition that it shall be kept secret until after his death, he summarised his position on God as follows: "I don't know whether God exists or not. ... Some forms of atheism are arrogant and ignorant and should be rejected, but agnosticism—to admit that we don't know and to search—is all right. ... When I look at what I call the gift of life, I feel a gratitude which is in tune with some religious ideas of God. However, the moment I even speak of it, I am embarrassed that I may do something wrong to God in talking about God." He objected to organised religion, saying "it tends to use the name of God in vain", noting the danger of fanaticism because of religious conflicts: "The whole thing goes back to myths which, though they may have a kernel of truth, are untrue. Why then should the Jewish myth be true and the Indian and Egyptian myths not be true?" In a letter unrelated to the interview, he stressed his tolerant attitude: "Although I am not for religion, I do think that we should show respect for anybody who believes honestly."
qas: answers: 1969
question: In which year did Popper give a secret interview concerning his views about God?

answers: agnosticism
question: Which term for his religious outlook did Popper prefer?

answers: myths
question: What did Popper believe were at the heart of religious disagreements, and should not be the cause of as much conflict as they are?

answers: tolerant
question: Although he opposed organized religion, what attitude did Popper think should be taken toward it:

context: Popper played a vital role in establishing the philosophy of science as a vigorous, autonomous discipline within philosophy, through his own prolific and influential works, and also through his influence on his own contemporaries and students. Popper founded in 1946 the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics and there lectured and influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two of the foremost philosophers of science in the next generation of philosophy of science. (Lakatos significantly modified Popper's position,:1 and Feyerabend repudiated it entirely, but the work of both is deeply influenced by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that Popper set.)
qas: answers: philosophy of science
question: What branch of philosophy did Popper advance the most?

answers: Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method
question: Which department did Popper found at the London School of Economics?

answers: Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend
question: Which two major philosophers of science learned a great deal from Popper at the London School Economics?

answers: repudiated it entirely
question: What did Paul Feyerabend ultimate do to Popper's philosophy of science?

answers: London School of Economics
question: Where did Popper establish a university department for the philosophy of science in 1946?

context: While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Popper had a long-standing and close friendship with economist Friedrich Hayek, who was also brought to the London School of Economics from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in the other's work, citing each other often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said, "...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology."
qas: answers: Friedrich Hayek
question: Which other Austrian scholar and friend of Popper also worked near him at the London School of Economics?

answers: Economics
question: What was Hayek's academic field?

answers: 1944
question: In which year did Popper write Hayek a letter expressing his intellectual debt to him?

answers: Alfred Tarski
question: Who did Popper say was the only thinker who might have had a greater influence on him than Hayek?

answers: Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics
question: Which of Hayek's publications was dedicated to Popper?

context: He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist.[citation needed] Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own.
qas: answers: logical positivism
question: What other contemporaneous school of thought is often confused with Popper's own contributions?

answers: any particular scientist
question: Popper has stressed that his description of scientific methodology should not be mistaken to apply to whom?

answers: system or community
question: At what level does Popper indicate his view of scientific methodology applies?

answers: slow but steady
question: What kind of progress does science make given the methodology Popper describes?

context: The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory "There are seven planets in the solar system" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of The Logic of Scientific Discovery. For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton's laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific "the solar system has seven planets".[dubious – discuss]
qas: answers: Quine-Duhem
question: What thesis says a scientific hypothesis is not testable in isolation from its system of theories?

answers: The Logic of Scientific Discovery
question: Which of Popper's works responds to critiques of naive falsificationism?

answers: Neptune
question: The planet Uranus' apparent failure to follow Newton's laws led to the discovery of which planet?

answers: more generally applicable
question: According to Popper, the scientific selection process favors which type of theory?

context: Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his Logic of Discovery a fact later stressed by Kuhn, "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about "normal science". (But Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism.) Also, in his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them."
qas: answers: Logic of Discovery
question: Popper believed he had already discussed similar ideas to Kuhn's about scientific communities in what work?

answers: relativism
question: What aspect of Kuhn's thinking did Popper criticize?

answers: the critical discussion of myths
question: What did Popper say must be the beginning phase of science?

answers: a critical attitude
question: According to Popper, what second layer does scientific inquiry have that pre-scientific inquiry does not?

context: Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence. However, this is a misunderstanding of what Popper's philosophy of science sets out to do. Rather than offering a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science, Popper makes it clear in The Logic of Scientific Discovery that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts between hypotheses and observations can only be a matter of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual case.
qas: answers: statistical
question: What kind of criteria frequently used in science complicates the definitiveness of some hypotheses' falsification?

answers: flaws in the evidence
question: What other flaws complicate the problem of identifying faulty scientific hypotheses?

answers: the collective judgment of scientists
question: According to Popper, what resolves conflicting hypotheses and observations in the long run?

context: In a book called Science Versus Crime, Houck writes that Popper's falsificationism can be questioned logically: it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like "for every metal, there is a temperature at which it will melt." The hypothesis cannot be falsified by any possible observation, for there will always be a higher temperature than tested at which the metal may in fact melt, yet it seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis. These examples were pointed out by Carl Gustav Hempel. Hempel came to acknowledge that Logical Positivism's verificationism was untenable, but argued that falsificationism was equally untenable on logical grounds alone. The simplest response to this is that, because Popper describes how theories attain, maintain and lose scientific status, individual consequences of currently accepted scientific theories are scientific in the sense of being part of tentative scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel's examples fall under this category. For instance, atomic theory implies that all metals melt at some temperature.
qas: answers: Science Versus Crime
question: Which book by Houck points out logical flaws in Popper's falsificationism?

answers: Carl Gustav Hempel
question: Who argued that Popper's falsificationism was just as logically untenable as Logical Positivism's verificationism?

answers: Houck
question: Who wrote the book Science Versus Crime which challenged the logic of falsificationism?

context: In 2004, philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark (Groningen, The Netherlands) published a book, called Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology, in which he claimed that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German psychologist Otto Selz. Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism, which forced him to quit his work in 1933, and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Popper, the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in some academic quarters for his rejection of Plato, Hegel and Marx.
qas: answers: Otto Selz
question: Which German psychologist and tutor of Popper may have originated some of Popper's ideas?

answers: Michel ter Hark
question: Who claimed Otto Selz deserved credit for ideas published by Popper?

answers: the rise of Nazism
question: What contributed to Otto Selz's cessation of work in 1933?

answers: Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology
question: What is the name of the 2004 paper that links Popper's work to that of his tutor Otto Selz?

answers: Plato, Hegel and Marx
question: Popper is criticized for dismissing which major philosophers in his work?

context: According to John N. Gray, Popper held that "a theory is scientific only in so far as it is falsifiable, and should be given up as soon as it is falsified." By applying Popper's account of scientific method, Gray's Straw Dogs states that this would have "killed the theories of Darwin and Einstein at birth." When they were first advanced, Gray claims, each of them was "at odds with some available evidence; only later did evidence become available that gave them crucial support." Against this, Gray seeks to establish the irrationalist thesis that "the progress of science comes from acting against reason."
qas: answers: Darwin and Einstein
question: Which two prominent scientists advanced theories that John N. Gray claims would never have survived the scientific method Popper describes?

answers: Straw Dogs
question: Which work by John Gray challenges Popper's falsificationism?

answers: available evidence
question: According to Gray, what should have falsified Einstein and Darwin's theories when first proposed?

answers: irrationalist
question: What kind of thesis does Gray advance about scientific progress?

context: Gray does not, however, give any indication of what available evidence these theories were at odds with, and his appeal to "crucial support" illustrates the very inductivist approach to science that Popper sought to show was logically illegitimate. For, according to Popper, Einstein's theory was at least equally as well corroborated as Newton's upon its initial conception; they both equally well accounted for all the hitherto available evidence. Moreover, since Einstein also explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory, general relativity was immediately deemed suitable for tentative acceptance on the Popperian account. Indeed, Popper wrote, several decades before Gray's criticism, in reply to a critical essay by Imre Lakatos:
qas: answers: inductivist
question: Gray's approach aligns with which approach that Popper himself considered untenable?

answers: Imre Lakatos
question: A possible rebuttal to Gray's argument appears in Popper's reply to which philosopher?

answers: explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory
question: What did general relativity do that made it tentatively acceptable when it was proposed?

answers: Einstein's theory
question: In contrast to Gray, which theory did Popper argue was at least equally consistent with Newton's on the available evidence?

context: Such a theory would be true with higher probability, because it cannot be attacked so easily: to falsify the first one, it is sufficient to find that the sun has stopped rising; to falsify the second one, one additionally needs the assumption that the given day has not yet been reached. Popper held that it is the least likely, or most easily falsifiable, or simplest theory (attributes which he identified as all the same thing) that explains known facts that one should rationally prefer. His opposition to positivism, which held that it is the theory most likely to be true that one should prefer, here becomes very apparent. It is impossible, Popper argues, to ensure a theory to be true; it is more important that its falsity can be detected as easily as possible.
qas: answers: simplest
question: Which type of theory is most falsifiable?

answers: positivism
question: What school of philosophy does Popper's thinking on induction oppose?

answers: impossible
question: For Popper, knowing that a theory is true is what?

answers: its falsity
question: What quality of a useful theory must be easily detectable?

context: In his early years Popper was impressed by Marxism, whether of Communists or socialists. An event that happened in 1919 had a profound effect on him: During a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot several unarmed people, including some of Popper's friends, when they tried to free party comrades from prison. The riot had, in fact, been part of a plan by which leaders of the Communist party with connections to Béla Kun tried to take power by a coup; Popper did not know about this at that time. However, he knew that the riot instigators were swayed by the Marxist doctrine that class struggle would produce vastly more dead men than the inevitable revolution brought about as quickly as possible, and so had no scruples to put the life of the rioters at risk to achieve their selfish goal of becoming the future leaders of the working class. This was the start of his later criticism of historicism. Popper began to reject Marxist historicism, which he associated with questionable means, and later socialism, which he associated with placing equality before freedom (to the possible disadvantage of equality).
qas: answers: Communists
question: Who instigated the 1919 riot that reshaped Popper's political views?

answers: a coup
question: The 1919 riot involving Popper's comrades was part of what larger political move?

answers: historicism
question: Popper's critique of which doctrine has its origins in first-hand observation of communist agitation?

answers: Béla Kun
question: Which historically significant communist activist was associated with the 1919 riots in which some of Popper's friends were killed?

answers: class struggle
question: What did the Marxist rioters believe would cause more death and suffering than their own agitation?