Predation

context: In an ecosystem, predation is a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked). Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation often results in the death of the prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption. Thus predation is often, though not always, carnivory. Other categories of consumption are herbivory (eating parts of plants), fungivory (eating parts of fungi), and detritivory (the consumption of dead organic material (detritus)). All these consumption categories fall under the rubric of consumer-resource systems. It can often be difficult to separate various types of feeding behaviors. For example, some parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on it while it continues to live in or on its decaying corpse after it has died. The key characteristic of predation however is the predator's direct impact on the prey population. On the other hand, detritivores simply eat dead organic material arising from the decay of dead individuals and have no direct impact on the "donor" organism(s).
qas: answers: direct impact on the prey population
question: What must a species do in order to be classified as a predator?

answers: herbivory
question: How would you describe a predator that primarily eats plants?

answers: absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption
question: A predator must do what to the prey after it is killed? 

answers: parasitic species
question: A species that uses a host body to survive and reproduce is classified as a what?

answers: detritivory
question: How would you describe a diet of a species that eats primarily dead organic material? 

answers: plants
question: What does an herbivore eat?

answers: no
question: Do detritivores have a direct impact on "donor" organisms?

answers: prey
question: What term is given to an organism that is being hunted?

answers: predation
question: What term is given to the biological interaction where a predator feeds upon prey?

answers: the predator's direct impact on the prey population
question: What is the key characteristic of predation?

answers: dead organic material
question: What do detritivores eat?

answers: predator's direct impact on the prey population
question: What is the key characteristic of predation?

context: Classification of predators by the extent to which they feed on and interact with their prey is one way ecologists may wish to categorize the different types of predation. Instead of focusing on what they eat, this system classifies predators by the way in which they eat, and the general nature of the interaction between predator and prey species. Two factors are considered here: How close the predator and prey are (in the latter two cases the term prey may be replaced with host) and whether or not the prey are directly murdered by the predator is considered, with true predation and parasitoidism involving certain death.
qas: answers: Two factors
question: How many synergetic qualities are there in the predator-prey mechanism? 

answers: true predation
question: Proximity and the ending of life is called? 

answers: parasitoidism
question: If the prey is not killed the predator-prey interaction is called? 

answers: the way in which they eat
question: Instead of what predators eat, how else can they be classified?

answers: parasitoidism
question: Certain death is involved with true predation and what other classification?

answers: predation
question: The study in which ecologists examine the way predators interact with their prey is called what?

context: A true predator can commonly be known as one that kills and eats another living thing. Whereas other types of predator all harm their prey in some way, this form kills them. Predators may hunt actively for prey in pursuit predation, or sit and wait for prey to approach within striking distance, as in ambush predators. Some predators kill large prey and dismember or chew it prior to eating it, such as a jaguar or a human; others may eat their (usually much smaller) prey whole, as does a bottlenose dolphin swallowing a fish, or a snake, duck or stork swallowing a frog. Some animals that kill both large and small prey for their size (domestic cats and dogs are prime examples) may do either depending upon the circumstances; either would devour a large insect whole but dismember a rabbit. Some predation entails venom that subdues a prey creature before the predator ingests the prey by killing, which the box jellyfish does, or disabling it, found in the behavior of the cone shell. In some cases, the venom, as in rattlesnakes and some spiders, contributes to the digestion of the prey item even before the predator begins eating. In other cases, the prey organism may die in the mouth or digestive system of the predator. Baleen whales, for example, eat millions of microscopic plankton at once, the prey being broken down well after entering the whale. Seed predation and egg predation are other forms of true predation, as seeds and eggs represent potential organisms. Predators of this classification need not eat prey entirely. For example, some predators cannot digest bones, while others can. Some may eat only part of an organism, as in grazing (see below), but still consistently cause its direct death.
qas: answers: large and small prey
question: What do household animals prey upon? 

answers: Baleen whales
question: Name an exemplar of an predator that uses digestion to kill and gain nutrients from it's prey.

answers: harm their prey in some way
question: To be classified as a predator, what action must be performed?

answers: kills and eats another living thing
question: What requirement must a true predator fulfill?

answers: Whereas other types of predator all harm their prey in some way, this form kills them
question: What is different about a true predator?

answers: harm their prey in some way
question: All types of predators do what?

answers: sit and wait for prey to approach within striking distance
question: How do ambush predators hunt?

answers: venom
question: What do box jellyfish use to hunt their pray?

context: Grazing organisms may also kill their prey species, but this is seldom the case. While some herbivores like zooplankton live on unicellular phytoplankton and therefore, by the individualized nature of the organism, kill their prey, many only eat a small part of the plant. Grazing livestock may pull some grass out at the roots, but most is simply grazed upon, allowing the plant to regrow once again. Kelp is frequently grazed in subtidal kelp forests, but regrows at the base of the blade continuously to cope with browsing pressure. Animals may also be 'grazed' upon; female mosquitos land on hosts briefly to gain sufficient proteins for the development of their offspring. Starfish may be grazed on, being capable of regenerating lost arms.
qas: answers: Grazing organisms
question: Animals that consume parts of their prey are considered to be

answers: browsing pressure
question: Prey that can regrow leaves or arms have learned to deal with what?

answers: zooplankton
question: Give an example of a predator that specializes in eating autotrophic species

answers: mosquitos
question: Give an example of an animal that feeds off of other animals for reproduction? 

answers: female mosquitos
question: What is an organism that grazes upon other animals?

answers: Starfish
question: What is an organism that can regrow lost arms?

answers: seldom
question: Do grazing organisms often kill their prey?

answers: regrows at the base
question: How do grass and kelp deal with being grazed upon?

context: Parasites can at times be difficult to distinguish from grazers. Their feeding behavior is similar in many ways, however they are noted for their close association with their host species. While a grazing species such as an elephant may travel many kilometers in a single day, grazing on many plants in the process, parasites form very close associations with their hosts, usually having only one or at most a few in their lifetime. This close living arrangement may be described by the term symbiosis, "living together", but unlike mutualism the association significantly reduces the fitness of the host. Parasitic organisms range from the macroscopic mistletoe, a parasitic plant, to microscopic internal parasites such as cholera. Some species however have more loose associations with their hosts. Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) larvae may feed parasitically on only a single plant, or they may graze on several nearby plants. It is therefore wise to treat this classification system as a continuum rather than four isolated forms.
qas: answers: Parasites
question: Species that rely on few or a single prey are called?

answers: mutualism
question: Predator and prey relationships that improve fitness for both species are classified as this type of relationship.

answers: elephant
question: Give an example of an animal that will travel several miles in a single day.

answers: mistletoe
question: What plant associated with kissing during the holidays is also parasitic? 

answers: close association with their host species
question: How are parasites distiguished from grazers?

answers: one or at most a few in their lifetime
question: How many hosts do parasites typically have?

answers: a continuum
question: How should parasite classification be viewed instead of as four isolated forms?

answers: living together
question: What does the term symbiosis mean?

context: Parasitoids are organisms living in or on their host and feeding directly upon it, eventually leading to its death. They are much like parasites in their close symbiotic relationship with their host or hosts. Like the previous two classifications parasitoid predators do not kill their hosts instantly. However, unlike parasites, they are very similar to true predators in that the fate of their prey is quite inevitably death. A well-known example of a parasitoids are the ichneumon wasps, solitary insects living a free life as an adult, then laying eggs on or in another species such as a caterpillar. Its larva(e) feed on the growing host causing it little harm at first, but soon devouring the internal organs until finally destroying the nervous system resulting in prey death. By this stage the young wasp(s) are developed sufficiently to move to the next stage in their life cycle. Though limited mainly to the insect order Hymenoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera parasitoids make up as much as 10% of all insect species.
qas: answers: ichneumon wasps
question: This species relies on other species to provide a reproductive host for their offspring.

answers: 10%
question: It is believed that parasitoids account for what percentage of the total insect population? 

answers: death
question: During a parasitoid-host interaction what will happen to the host?

answers: Parasitoids
question: What is the term given to organisms living and feeding on their host?

answers: 10%
question: How many organisms in the insect species are Diptera or Cleoptera parasitoids?

answers: ichneumon
question: Which type of wasp is a well-known example of a parasitoid?

answers: devouring the internal organs until finally destroying the nervous system
question: How do the larvae of the parasitoid wasps kill their prey?

context: Among predators there is a large degree of specialization. Many predators specialize in hunting only one species of prey. Others are more opportunistic and will kill and eat almost anything (examples: humans, leopards, dogs and alligators). The specialists are usually particularly well suited to capturing their preferred prey. The prey in turn, are often equally suited to escape that predator. This is called an evolutionary arms race and tends to keep the populations of both species in equilibrium. Some predators specialize in certain classes of prey, not just single species. Some will switch to other prey (with varying degrees of success) when the preferred target is extremely scarce, and they may also resort to scavenging or a herbivorous diet if possible.[citation needed]
qas: answers: opportunistic
question: Species that aren't considered specialized are called what? 

answers: equilibrium
question: Predator and prey interactions that involve specialization result in a balance called?

answers: scarce
question: When a specialized species resorts to foraging and eating other diets, it's like because it's primary food source is?

answers: evolution
question: What do specialized predators and prey rely on to get the upper hand? 

answers: humans, leopards, dogs and alligators
question: What are some predators that will kill and eat nearly anything?

answers: evolutionary arms race
question: What term is used for predators and prey being well suited to hunt and evade each other?

answers: keep the populations of both species in equilibrium
question: What is the purpose of an evolutionary arms race?

answers: herbivorous
question: If scavengers' food becomes scarce, they may turn to what type of diet?

context: Predators are often another organism's prey, and likewise prey are often predators. Though blue jays prey on insects, they may in turn be prey for cats and snakes, and snakes may be the prey of hawks. One way of classifying predators is by trophic level. Organisms that feed on autotrophs, the producers of the trophic pyramid, are known as herbivores or primary consumers; those that feed on heterotrophs such as animals are known as secondary consumers. Secondary consumers are a type of carnivore, but there are also tertiary consumers eating these carnivores, quartary consumers eating them, and so forth. Because only a fraction of energy is passed on to the next level, this hierarchy of predation must end somewhere, and very seldom goes higher than five or six levels, and may go only as high as three trophic levels (for example, a lion that preys upon large herbivores such as wildebeest, which in turn eat grasses). A predator at the top of any food chain (that is, one that is preyed upon by no organism) is called an apex predator; examples include the orca, sperm whale, anaconda, Komodo dragon, tiger, lion, tiger shark, Nile crocodile, and most eagles and owls—and even omnivorous humans and grizzly bears. An apex predator in one environment may not retain this position as a top predator if introduced to another habitat, such as a dog among alligators, a skunk in the presence of the great horned owl immune to skunk spray, or a snapping turtle among jaguars; a predatory species introduced into an area where it faces no predators, such as a domestic cat or a dog in some insular environments, can become an apex predator by default.
qas: answers: trophic level
question: What is the the strata of predator prey interaction called?

answers: apex predator
question: What is the top predator in an environment called? 

answers: trophic pyramid
question: When a new apex predator moves into an area this changes. 

answers: energy
question: What limits the size of a trophic pyramid? 

answers: Organisms that feed on autotrophs
question: Which organisms are known as primary consumers?

answers: feed on heterotrophs
question: What makes an organism a secondary consumer?

answers: apex predator
question: What is an organism at the top of the food chain called?

answers: five or six levels
question: How many levels does a predatory pyramid or heirarchy typically climb?

answers: the top
question: In what pyramid position is an organism not preyed upon by any other predators?

context: Many organisms (of which humans are prime examples) eat from multiple levels of the food chain and, thus, make this classification problematic. A carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers, and its prey may itself be difficult to classify for similar reasons. Organisms showing both carnivory and herbivory are known as omnivores. Even herbivores such as the giant panda may supplement their diet with meat. Scavenging of carrion provides a significant part of the diet of some of the most fearsome predators. Carnivorous plants would be very difficult to fit into this classification, producing their own food but also digesting anything that they may trap. Organisms that eat detritivores or parasites would also be difficult to classify by such a scheme.
qas: answers: carrion
question: Dead animals that died as a result of natural causes or non-fatal injuries are called?

answers: eat from multiple levels of the food chain
question: Why are species can be difficult to classify because they?

answers: Carnivorous plants
question: What are plants that eat both living species and consume sunlight for energy called? 

answers: omnivores
question: What are organisms called that show carnivory and herbivory?

answers: Many organisms (of which humans are prime examples) eat from multiple levels of the food chain
question: What can make classification of predators problematic when using a food pyramid?

answers: producing their own food but also digesting anything that they may trap
question: Why would carnivourous plants be difficult to classify into a food pyramid?

answers: difficult
question: Would it be easy or difficult to classify organims that eat parasites in a food pyramid?

context: An alternative view offered by Richard Dawkins is of predation as a form of competition: the genes of both the predator and prey are competing for the body (or 'survival machine') of the prey organism. This is best understood in the context of the gene centered view of evolution. Another manner in which predation and competition are connected is throughout intraguild predation. Intraguild predators are those that kill and eat other predators of different species at the same trophic level, and thus that are potential competitors.
qas: answers: the same trophic level
question: Intraguild species consumer other species within?

answers: Richard Dawkins
question: Who proposes the concept of the "survival machine?"

answers: both the predator and prey
question: The argument of the "survival machines" proposes that what two species are competing for the same genes?

answers: potential competitors
question: Intraguild species may try to consume each other because they are?

answers: Richard Dawkins
question: Who described predation by describing competing genes within the predator?

answers: the body
question: To what part of the prey does Richard Dawkins refer to as the "survival machine"?

answers: those that kill and eat other predators of different species at the same trophic level
question: What are intraguild predators?

answers: gene centered view
question: Which version of evolutionary theory is easiest to use when explaining predation as competition?

answers: Intraguild
question: What term is used to decribe predators that prey on their own competition?

context: Predators may increase the biodiversity of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. Such predators are known as keystone species and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular ecosystem. Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For example, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over.
qas: answers: keystone species
question: What is the title of a predator that maintains balance with an ecosystem?

answers: biodiversity
question: What is the driving force for maintaining an equilibrium within an ecosystem?

answers: dominant
question: When a keystone species is lost another species might become?

answers: biodiversity of communities
question: What is increased by keeping a single species from being dominant in an ecosystem?

answers: keystone species
question: Predators that prevent others from becoming dominant are called what?

answers: Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density
question: What changes to a keystone predator can seriously affect an ecosystem's equilibrium?

context: The elimination of wolves from Yellowstone National Park had profound impacts on the trophic pyramid. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on beaver populations, as their habitat became territory for grazing. Furthermore, predation keeps hydrological features such as creeks and streams in normal working order. Increased browsing on willows and conifers along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because they helped slow the water down and hold the soil in place.
qas: answers: beavers
question: What animal's food sources were greatly affected with the loss of wolves in Yellowstone National Park?

answers: hydrological features
question: Broader ecological impacts can occur when an apex predator is removed, in the case of Yellowstone, this includes alteration to the?

answers: channel incision
question: Loose soil from lack of trees along the river bed resulted in?

answers: wolves
question: The removal of what animal from Yellowstonw National Park affected beaver populations?

answers: habitat became territory for grazing.
question: How did the removal of wolves from Yellowstone affect beaver habitats?

answers: Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species
question: Why were plant populations affected after wolves were eliminated from Yellowstone?

answers: wolves often kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon
question: How did wolves in Yellowstone help beavers eat well?

context: The act of predation can be broken down into a maximum of four stages: Detection of prey, attack, capture and finally consumption. The relationship between predator and prey is one that is typically beneficial to the predator, and detrimental to the prey species. Sometimes, however, predation has indirect benefits to the prey species, though the individuals preyed upon themselves do not benefit. This means that, at each applicable stage, predator and prey species are in an evolutionary arms race to maximize their respective abilities to obtain food or avoid being eaten. This interaction has resulted in a vast array of adaptations in both groups.
qas: answers: maximum of four stages
question: At most there are how many step of predator-prey interaction? 

answers: Detection of prey
question: What is the first step of the predator-prey interaction?

answers: array of adaptations
question: How does the prey improve their evolutionary abilities through predator-prey interaction? 

answers: the individuals preyed upon
question: Who doesn't benefit from the predator-prey interaction? 

answers: maximum of four stages
question: How many stages can predation be divided into?

answers: Detection of prey, attack, capture and finally consumption
question: What are the four stages of predation?

answers: obtain food or avoid being eaten
question: What dilemma has resulted in many predatory adaptations?

answers: final
question: In predation's four stages, in what stage is consumption?

context: One adaptation helping both predators and prey avoid detection is camouflage, a form of crypsis where species have an appearance that helps them blend into the background. Camouflage consists of not only color but also shape and pattern. The background upon which the organism is seen can be both its environment (e.g., the praying mantis to the right resembling dead leaves) or other organisms (e.g., zebras' stripes blend in with each other in a herd, making it difficult for lions to focus on a single target). The more convincing camouflage is, the more likely it is that the organism will go unseen.
qas: answers: camouflage
question: Which adaptation helps both predators and prey?

answers: camouflage
question: What term is used for an adaptation that enables species to blend into the background?

answers: shape and pattern
question: Camoflauge consists of what else, in addition to color?

answers: other organisms
question: Ogranisms use camoflauge to blend with their habitat and what else?

context: Mimicry is a related phenomenon where an organism has a similar appearance to another species. One such example is the drone fly, which looks a lot like a bee, yet is completely harmless as it cannot sting at all. Another example of batesian mimicry is the io moth, (Automeris io), which has markings on its wings that resemble an owl's eyes. When an insectivorous predator disturbs the moth, it reveals its hind wings, temporarily startling the predator and giving it time to escape. Predators may also use mimicry to lure their prey, however. Female fireflies of the genus Photuris, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which are then captured and eaten (see aggressive mimicry).
qas: answers: Mimicry
question: What is the phenomenon where an organism looks like another species called?

answers: drone fly
question: Which organism looks like a bee but cannot sting?

answers: Mimicry
question: A moth that has markings resembling an owl's eyes is an example of what phenomenon?

answers: startling the predator and giving it time to escape
question: What is a defensive way that mimicry can be used?

answers: to lure their prey
question: How can predators use mimicry?

context: While successful predation results in a gain of energy, hunting invariably involves energetic costs as well. When hunger is not an issue, in general most predators will not seek to attack prey since the costs outweigh the benefits. For instance, a large predatory fish like a shark that is well fed in an aquarium will typically ignore the smaller fish swimming around it (while the prey fish take advantage of the fact that the apex predator is apparently uninterested). Surplus killing represents a deviation from this type of behaviour. The treatment of consumption in terms of cost-benefit analysis is known as optimal foraging theory, and has been quite successful in the study of animal behavior. In general, costs and benefits are considered in energy gain per unit time, though other factors are also important, such as essential nutrients that have no caloric value but are necessary for survival and health.
qas: answers: gain of energy
question: What makes predation successful?

answers: optimal foraging theory
question: Treating the hunt as a cost-benefit scenario is referred to a what?

answers: energy gain per unit time
question: In optimal foraging theory, how are costs and benefits measured?

context: Social predation offers the possibility of predators to kill creatures larger than those that members of the species could overpower singly. Lions, hyenas, wolves, dholes, African wild dogs, and piranhas can kill large herbivores that single animals of the same species usually don't dispatch. Social predation allows some animals to organize hunts of creatures that would easily escape a single predator; thus chimpanzees can prey upon colobus monkeys, and Harris's hawks can cut off all possible escapes for a doomed rabbit. Extreme specialization of roles is evident in some hunting that requires co-operation between predators of very different species: humans with the aid of falcons or dogs, or fishing with cormorants. Social predation is often very complex behavior, and not all social creatures (for example, domestic cats) perform it. Even without complex intelligence but instinct alone, some ant species can destroy much larger creatures.
qas: answers: Social predation
question: What hunting style allows chimpanzees to prey upon colobus monkeys?

answers: humans with the aid of falcons or dogs, or fishing with cormorants
question: What is an example of co-coperation between predators of different species?

answers: domestic cats)
question: What is a species that does not perform social predation?

answers: Lions, hyenas, wolves, dholes, African wild dogs, and piranhas
question: What are some species that use social predation to prey on animals much larger than themselves?

context: It has been observed that well-fed predator animals in a lax captivity (for instance, pet or farm animals) will usually differentiate between putative prey animals who are familiar co-inhabitants in the same human area from wild ones outside the area. This interaction can range from peaceful coexistence to close companionship; motivation to ignore the predatory instinct may result from mutual advantage or fear of reprisal from human masters who have made clear that harming co-inhabitants will not be tolerated. Pet cats and pet mice, for example, may live together in the same human residence without incident as companions. Pet cats and pet dogs under human mastership often depend on each other for warmth, companionship, and even protection, particularly in rural areas.
qas: answers: mutual advantage or fear of reprisal from human masters
question: Well-fed animals in captivity can become friends with prey animals due to what motivation?

answers: warmth, companionship, and even protection
question: Why would cats and dogs potentially become companions in captivity?

answers: wild ones outside the area
question: Captive animals can distinguish co-inhabitats from what other group?

context: Predatory animals often use their usual methods of attacking prey to inflict or to threaten grievous injury to their own predators. The electric eel uses the same electric current to kill prey and to defend itself against animals (anacondas, caimans, egrets, jaguars, mountain lions, giant otters, humans, dogs, and cats) that ordinarily prey upon fish similar to an electric eel in size; the electric eel thus remains an apex predator in a predator-rich environment. A predator small enough to be prey for others, the domestic cat uses its formidable teeth and claws as weapons against animals that might confuse a cat with easier prey. Many non-predatory prey animals, such as a zebra, can give a strong kick that can maim or kill, while others charge with tusks or horns.
qas: answers: (anacondas, caimans, egrets, jaguars, mountain lions, giant otters, humans, dogs, and cats
question: What are some predators of the electric eel?

answers: strong kick that can maim or kill
question: What defense does a zebra have against predators?

answers: formidable teeth and claws
question: What defenses does a domestic cat have against predators?

answers: to kill prey
question: The electric eel uses electric shock for defense and what other purpose?

context: Mobbing can be an interspecies activity: it is common for birds to respond to mobbing calls of a different species. Many birds will show up at the sight of mobbing and watch and call, but not participate. It should also be noted that some species can be on both ends of a mobbing attack. Crows are frequently mobbed by smaller songbirds as they prey on eggs and young from these birds' nests, but these same crows will cooperate with smaller birds to drive away hawks or larger mammalian predators. On occasion, birds will mob animals that pose no threat.
qas: answers: species can be on both ends of a mobbing attack
question: Is a species always the antagonist in a mobbing attack, or can it play roles on both sides?

answers: Crows
question: Which bird is an example of being both a predator and defender in mobbing attacks?

answers: On occasion
question: Will birds often mob animals that do not pose a threat?

answers: hawks or larger mammalian predators
question: Crows will cooperate with small birds to drive away what predators?

context: Aposematism, where organisms are brightly colored as a warning to predators, is the antithesis of camouflage. Some organisms pose a threat to their predators—for example they may be poisonous, or able to harm them physically. Aposematic coloring involves bright, easily recognizable and unique colors and patterns. For example, bright coloration in Variable Checkerspot butterflies leads to decreased predation attempts by avian predators. Upon being harmed (e.g., stung) by their prey, the appearance in such an organism will be remembered as something to avoid. While that particular prey organism may be killed, the coloring benefits the prey species as a whole.
qas: answers: Aposematism
question: What scientific term is used to describe  organisms that are brightly colored as a warning to predators?

answers: species as a whole
question: Does aposematism benefit only the organism ddirectly, or the entire population as a whole?

answers: Upon being harmed (e.g., stung) by their prey, the appearance in such an organism will be remembered as something to avoid
question: How does aposematism help a species population?

answers: bright, easily recognizable and unique colors and patterns
question: What visual cues are characteristic of aposematism?

context: It is fairly clear that predators tend to lower the survival and fecundity of their prey, but on a higher level of organization, populations of predator and prey species also interact. It is obvious that predators depend on prey for survival, and this is reflected in predator populations being affected by changes in prey populations. It is not so obvious, however, that predators affect prey populations. Eating a prey organism may simply make room for another if the prey population is approaching its carrying capacity.
qas: answers: prey
question: What do predators depend on for survival?

answers: carrying capacity
question: Prey that is eaten is simply replaced by anohter when the population is close to what?

answers: survival and fecundity
question: Predators lower what aspects of their prey?

context: A lone naked human is at a physical disadvantage to other comparable apex predators in areas such as speed, bone density, weight, and physical strength. Humans also lack innate weaponry such as claws. Without crafted weapons, society, or cleverness, a lone human can easily be defeated by fit predatory animals, such as wild dogs, big cats and bears (see Man-eater). However, humans are not solitary creatures; they are social animals with highly developed social behaviors. Early humans, such as Homo erectus, have been using stone tools and weapons for well over a million years. Anatomically modern humans have been apex predators since they first evolved, and many species of carnivorous megafauna actively avoid interacting with humans; the primary environmental competitor for a human is other humans. The one subspecies of carnivorous megafauna that does interact frequently with humans in predatory roles is the domestic dog, but usually as a partner in predation especially if they hunt together. Cannibalism has occurred in various places, among various cultures, and for various reasons. At least a few people, such as the Donner party, are said to have resorted to it in desperation.
qas: answers: speed, bone density, weight, and physical strength
question: What physical disadvantages do humans have against other apex predators?

answers: well over a million years
question: For how long have humans been using stone tools and weapons?

answers: other humans
question: What are humans' primary competitors?

answers: the Donner party
question: What is one known istance of cannibalism?

answers: domestic dog
question: With what species do humans hunt in partnership?

context: Having small population size is a characteristic almost universally inherent to apex predators, humans and dogs by far the most blatant exceptions. Low numbers wouldn't be a problem for apex predators if there was an abundance of prey and no competition or niche overlap, a scenario that is rarely, if ever, encountered in the wild. The competitive exclusion principle states that if two species' ecological niches overlap, there is a very high likelihood of competition as both species are in direct competition for the same resources. This factor alone could lead to the extirpation of one or both species, but is compounded by the added factor of prey abundance.
qas: answers: humans and dogs
question: What two apex predators do not have a small population size?

answers: small
question: Do apex predators generally have a large or small population?

answers: competitive exclusion principle
question: Which principle states that if two species ecologicl niches/ overlap, both species are likely to be in competition with one another?

answers: prey abundance
question: What other factor is relevant to the competitive exclusion principle?

context: A predator's effect on its prey species is hard to see in the short-term. However, if observed over a longer period of time, it is seen that the population of a predator will correlationally rise and fall with the population of its prey in a cycle similar to the boom and bust cycle of economics. If a predator overhunts its prey, the prey population will lower to numbers that are too scarce for the predators to find. This will cause the predator population to dip, decreasing the predation pressure on the prey population. The decrease in predators will allow the small number of prey left to slowly increase their population to somewhere around their previous abundance, which will allow the predator population to increase in response to the greater availability of resources. If a predator hunts its prey species to numbers too low to sustain the population in the short term, they can cause not only the extinction or extirpation of the prey but also the extinction of their own species, a phenomenon known as coextinction. This is a risk that wildlife conservationists encounter when introducing predators to prey that have not coevolved with the same or similar predators. This possibility depends largely on how well and how fast the prey species is able to adapt to the introduced predator. One way that this risk can be avoided is if the predator finds an alternative prey species or if an alternative prey species is introduced (something that ecologists and environmentalists try to avoid whenever possible). An alternative prey species would help to lift some of the predation pressure from the initial prey species, giving the population a chance to recover, however it does not guarantee that the initial prey species will be able to recover as the initial prey population may have been hunted to below sustainable numbers or to complete extinction.
qas: answers: coextinction
question: When a predator hunts too much of its prey, causing both populations to dissappear, the phenomenon is called what?

answers: longer period of time
question: Are predator's effects on prey easiest to see in the short-term or long-term?

answers: boom and bust cycle of economics
question: The rise and fall of predator and prey populations are similar to what, in the US economy?

context: Predators may be put to use in conservation efforts to control introduced species. Although the aim in this situation is to remove the introduced species entirely, keeping its abundance down is often the only possibility. Predators from its natural range may be introduced to control populations, though in some cases this has little effect, and may even cause unforeseen problems. Besides their use in conservation biology, predators are also important for controlling pests in agriculture. Natural predators are an environmentally friendly and sustainable way of reducing damage to crops, and are one alternative to the use of chemical agents such as pesticides.
qas: answers: reducing damage to crops, and are one alternative to the use of chemical agents such as pesticides
question: How can natural predators benefit crops?

answers: controlling pests
question: How are predators beneficial to agriculture?

answers: keeping its abundance down
question: If removing an introduced species entirely isn't a posibility, what is the next best outcome?

answers: introduced species
question: Predators are used in conservation to reduce what type of species from the environment?