Identity_(social_science)

context: A psychological identity relates to self-image (one's mental model of oneself), self-esteem, and individuality. Consequently, Weinreich gives the definition "A person's identity is defined as the totality of one's self-construal, in which how one construes oneself in the present expresses the continuity between how one construes oneself as one was in the past and how one construes oneself as one aspires to be in the future"; this allows for definitions of aspects of identity, such as: "One's ethnic identity is defined as that part of the totality of one's self-construal made up of those dimensions that express the continuity between one's construal of past ancestry and one's future aspirations in relation to ethnicity" (Weinreich, 1986a).
qas: answers: A psychological identity
question: Self-image, self-esteem, and individuality relate to what?

answers: ethnic identity
question: What aspect or type of identity does Weinreich single out?

answers: identity
question: What psychological concept does Weinreich state as between the past and future?

answers: one's self-construal
question: A person's identity is defined as the totality of what?

context: The description or representation of individual and group identity is a central task for psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists and those of other disciplines where "identity" needs to be mapped and defined. How should one describe the identity of another, in ways which encompass both their idiosyncratic qualities and their group memberships or identifications, both of which can shift according to circumstance? Following on from the work of Kelly, Erikson, Tajfel and others Weinreich's Identity Structure Analysis (ISA), is "a structural representation of the individual's existential experience, in which the relationships between self and other agents are organised in relatively stable structures over time … with the emphasis on the socio-cultural milieu in which self relates to other agents and institutions" (Weinreich and Saunderson, (eds) 2003, p1). Using constructs drawn from the salient discourses of the individual, the group and cultural norms, the practical operationalisation of ISA provides a methodology that maps how these are used by the individual, applied across time and milieus by the "situated self" to appraise self and other agents and institutions (for example, resulting in the individual's evaluation of self and significant others and institutions).[citation needed]
qas: answers: individual and group identity
question: The central task for psychologists, sociologists, and anthropologists is to describe what topics?

answers: Weinreich
question: Who developed the ISA?

answers: Identity Structure Analysis
question: ISA stands for what?

context: Weinreich's identity variant similarly includes the categories of identity diffusion, foreclosure and crisis, but with a somewhat different emphasis. Here, with respect to identity diffusion for example, an optimal level is interpreted as the norm, as it is unrealistic to expect an individual to resolve all their conflicted identifications with others; therefore we should be alert to individuals with levels which are much higher or lower than the norm – highly diffused individuals are classified as diffused, and those with low levels as foreclosed or defensive. (Weinreich & Saunderson, 2003, pp 65–67; 105-106). Weinreich applies the identity variant in a framework which also allows for the transition from one to another by way of biographical experiences and resolution of conflicted identifications situated in various contexts – for example, an adolescent going through family break-up may be in one state, whereas later in a stable marriage with a secure professional role may be in another. Hence, though there is continuity, there is also development and change. (Weinreich & Saunderson, 2003, pp 22–23).
qas: answers: Weinreich's identity variant
question: Identity diffusion, foreclosure, and crisis are categories of what?

answers: diffused
question: Those with high levels of identity diffusion are classified as what?

answers: foreclosed or defensive
question: Those with low levels of identity diffusion are classified as what?

answers: the identity variant
question: An adolescent going through a family break up turning into an adult in a stable marriage is given as an example of change in what?

answers: an optimal level
question: What level of identity diffusion is interpreted as the norm?

context: Anthropologists have contributed to the debate by shifting the focus of research: One of the first challenges for the researcher wishing to carry out empirical research in this area is to identify an appropriate analytical tool. The concept of boundaries is useful here for demonstrating how identity works. In the same way as Barth, in his approach to ethnicity, advocated the critical focus for investigation as being "the ethnic boundary that defines the group rather than the cultural stuff that it encloses" (1969:15), social anthropologists such as Cohen and Bray have shifted the focus of analytical study from identity to the boundaries that are used for purposes of identification. If identity is a kind of virtual site in which the dynamic processes and markers used for identification are made apparent, boundaries provide the framework on which this virtual site is built. They concentrated on how the idea of community belonging is differently constructed by individual members and how individuals within the group conceive ethnic boundaries.
qas: answers: Anthropologists
question: What group has shifted the focus of research in identity?

answers: an appropriate analytical tool
question: What does a researcher have to identify to carry out empirical research?

answers: Barth
question: What researcher advocated for focus on the boundaries of ethnic groups rather than the cultural aspects of ethnic groups?

answers: the framework
question: If identity is a virtual site, what do boundaries supply to the virtual site?

answers: identity
question: Boundaries are frequently used by researchers to help define what?

context: The inclusiveness of Weinreich's definition (above) directs attention to the totality of one's identity at a given phase in time, and assists in elucidating component aspects of one's total identity, such as one's gender identity, ethnic identity, occupational identity and so on. The definition readily applies to the young child, to the adolescent, to the young adult, and to the older adult in various phases of the life cycle. Depending on whether one is a young child or an adult at the height of one's powers, how one construes oneself as one was in the past will refer to very different salient experiential markers. Likewise, how one construes oneself as one aspires to be in the future will differ considerably according to one's age and accumulated experiences. (Weinreich & Saunderson, (eds) 2003, pp 26–34).
qas: answers: one's total identity
question: What are gender identity, ethnic identity, and occupational identity aspects of?

answers: age and accumulated experiences
question: How one construes oneself now and in the future differs considerably because of what 2 things?

answers: the life cycle
question: The young child, the adolescent, the young adult and the older adult are phases of what?

answers: the height of one's powers
question: The salient experiential markers one uses to define one's past self differ based on the age that one was at what?

context: Although the self is distinct from identity, the literature of self-psychology can offer some insight into how identity is maintained (Cote & Levin 2002, p. 24). From the vantage point of self-psychology, there are two areas of interest: the processes by which a self is formed (the "I"), and the actual content of the schemata which compose the self-concept (the "Me"). In the latter field, theorists have shown interest in relating the self-concept to self-esteem, the differences between complex and simple ways of organizing self-knowledge, and the links between those organizing principles and the processing of information (Cote & Levin 2002).
qas: answers: identity
question: What is distinct from the self?

answers: how identity is maintained
question: What can the literature of self-psychology offer insight into?

answers: self-esteem
question: What have theorists shown interest in relating to the self-concept?

answers: self-psychology
question: The I and the Me are two areas of interest in what?

context: At a general level, self-psychology is compelled to investigate the question of how the personal self relates to the social environment. To the extent that these theories place themselves in the tradition of "psychological" social psychology, they focus on explaining an individual's actions within a group in terms of mental events and states. However, some "sociological" social psychology theories go further by attempting to deal with the issue of identity at both the levels of individual cognition and of collective behavior.
qas: answers: the social environment
question: Self-psychology is compelled to investigate how personal self relates to what?

answers: mental events and states
question: What two factors are focused on when explaining an individual's actions within a group?

answers: identity
question: What are individual cognition and collective behavior are levels of?

context: Anthropologists have most frequently employed the term 'identity' to refer to this idea of selfhood in a loosely Eriksonian way (Erikson 1972) properties based on the uniqueness and individuality which makes a person distinct from others. Identity became of more interest to anthropologists with the emergence of modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970s. This was reinforced by an appreciation, following the trend in sociological thought, of the manner in which the individual is affected by and contributes to the overall social context. At the same time, the Eriksonian approach to identity remained in force, with the result that identity has continued until recently to be used in a largely socio-historical way to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others and to a particular group of people.
qas: answers: identity
question: What term have Anthropologists employed to refer to the Eriksonian idea of selfhood?

answers: anthropologists
question: Modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970's led what group to be more interested in identity?

answers: the Eriksonian approach
question: Until recently, what approach was used to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others?

context: Boundaries can be inclusive or exclusive depending on how they are perceived by other people. An exclusive boundary arises, for example, when a person adopts a marker that imposes restrictions on the behaviour of others. An inclusive boundary is created, by contrast, by the use of a marker with which other people are ready and able to associate. At the same time, however, an inclusive boundary will also impose restrictions on the people it has included by limiting their inclusion within other boundaries. An example of this is the use of a particular language by a newcomer in a room full of people speaking various languages. Some people may understand the language used by this person while others may not. Those who do not understand it might take the newcomer's use of this particular language merely as a neutral sign of identity. But they might also perceive it as imposing an exclusive boundary that is meant to mark them off from her. On the other hand, those who do understand the newcomer's language could take it as an inclusive boundary, through which the newcomer associates herself with them to the exclusion of the other people present. Equally, however, it is possible that people who do understand the newcomer but who also speak another language may not want to speak the newcomer's language and so see her marker as an imposition and a negative boundary. It is possible that the newcomer is either aware or unaware of this, depending on whether she herself knows other languages or is conscious of the plurilingual quality of the people there and is respectful of it or not.
qas: answers: inclusive or exclusive
question: What are the two types of group boundaries?

answers: exclusive
question: A marker that imposes restriction on the behavior of others is what kind of boundary?

answers: inclusive
question: A marker that people are ready and willing to associate with is what kind of boundary?

answers: language
question: What boundary is given as an example that can be inclusive or exclusive?

context: The "Neo-Eriksonian" identity status paradigm emerged in later years[when?], driven largely by the work of James Marcia. This paradigm focuses upon the twin concepts of exploration and commitment. The central idea is that any individual's sense of identity is determined in large part by the explorations and commitments that he or she makes regarding certain personal and social traits. It follows that the core of the research in this paradigm investigates the degrees to which a person has made certain explorations, and the degree to which he or she displays a commitment to those explorations.
qas: answers: Neo-Eriksonian
question: What identity status paradigm emerged due to the work of James Marcia?

answers: exploration and commitment
question: The Neo-Eriksonian identity status paradigm focuses on what twin concepts?

answers: any individual's sense of identity
question: In the Neo-Eriksonian identity status paradigm, exploration and commitments determine what in large part?

context: Many people gain a sense of positive self-esteem from their identity groups, which furthers a sense of community and belonging. Another issue that researchers have attempted to address is the question of why people engage in discrimination, i.e., why they tend to favor those they consider a part of their "in-group" over those considered to be outsiders. Both questions have been given extensive attention by researchers working in the social identity tradition. For example, in work relating to social identity theory it has been shown that merely crafting cognitive distinction between in- and out-groups can lead to subtle effects on people's evaluations of others (Cote & Levine 2002).
qas: answers: a sense of positive self-esteem
question: What do many people gain from their identity groups?

answers: discrimination
question: People favoring those in their group over outsiders, is an example of what?

answers: the social identity tradition
question: Belonging and discrimination are both important to researchers working in what tradition?

answers: social identity theory
question: Distinction between in and out groups has been shown to affect people's evaluations of others in work related to what?

context: The first favours a primordialist approach which takes the sense of self and belonging to a collective group as a fixed thing, defined by objective criteria such as common ancestry and common biological characteristics. The second, rooted in social constructionist theory, takes the view that identity is formed by a predominantly political choice of certain characteristics. In so doing, it questions the idea that identity is a natural given, characterised by fixed, supposedly objective criteria. Both approaches need to be understood in their respective political and historical contexts, characterised by debate on issues of class, race and ethnicity. While they have been criticized, they continue to exert an influence on approaches to the conceptualisation of identity today.
qas: answers: a primordialist approach
question: What approach takes the sense of self and belonging as a fixed thing?

answers: social constructionist theory
question: The view that identity is based on a political choice of characteristics is rooted in what theory?

answers: political and historical contexts
question: Primordialist and social constructionist views need to be understood in what contexts?

context: The implications are multiple as various research traditions are now[when?] heavily utilizing the lens of identity to examine phenomena.[citation needed] One implication of identity and of identity construction can be seen in occupational settings. This becomes increasing challenging in stigmatized jobs or "dirty work" (Hughes, 1951). Tracy and Trethewey (2005) state that "individuals gravitate toward and turn away from particular jobs depending in part, on the extent to which they validate a "preferred organizational self" (Tracy & Tretheway 2005, p. 169). Some jobs carry different stigmas or acclaims. In her analysis Tracy uses the example of correctional officers trying to shake the stigma of "glorified maids" (Tracy & Tretheway 2005). "The process by which people arrive at justifications of and values for various occupational choices." Among these are workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 33). People in these types of jobs are forced to find ways in order to create an identity they can live with. "Crafting a positive sense of self at work is more challenging when one's work is considered "dirty" by societal standards" (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 7). "In other words, doing taint management is not just about allowing the employee to feel good in that job. "If employees must navigate discourses that question the viability of their work, and/ or experience obstacles in managing taint through transforming dirty work into a badge of honor, it is likely they will find blaming the client to be an efficacious route in affirming their identity" (Tracy & Scott 2006, p. 33).
qas: answers: the lens of identity
question: Various research traditions are using what lens to examine phenomena?

answers: glorified maids
question: What stigma do correctional officers have to deal with?

answers: occupational settings
question: The implications of identity and identity construction are discussed in what settings?

answers: an identity they can live with
question: What are people in stigmatized jobs forced to create?

answers: workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life
question: What are the two examples give for justifications and values for occupational choices?

context: However, the formation of one's identity occurs through one's identifications with significant others (primarily with parents and other individuals during one's biographical experiences, and also with "groups" as they are perceived). These others may be benign - such that one aspires to their characteristics, values and beliefs (a process of idealistic-identification), or malign - when one wishes to dissociate from their characteristics (a process of defensive contra-identification) (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003, Chapter 1, pp 54–61).
qas: answers: benign
question: What is it called when someone aspires to the characteristics of significant others?

answers: malign
question: What is it called when someone wants to dissociate from the characteristics of significant others?

answers: defensive contra-identification
question: Dissociating from the characteristics of significant others is a process of what?

answers: significant others
question: The formation of identity occurs through identifications with whom?

context: A person may display either relative weakness or relative strength in terms of both exploration and commitments. When assigned categories, four possible permutations result: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. Diffusion is when a person lacks both exploration in life and interest in committing even to those unchosen roles that he or she occupies. Foreclosure is when a person has not chosen extensively in the past, but seems willing to commit to some relevant values, goals, or roles in the future. Moratorium is when a person displays a kind of flightiness, ready to make choices but unable to commit to them. Finally, achievement is when a person makes identity choices and commits to them.
qas: answers: relative weakness or relative strength
question: What may a person display in terms of both exploration and commitments?

answers: identity diffusion
question: What is the permutation when a person lacks exploration and commitment?

answers: identity foreclosure
question: What is the permutation when a person has not chosen goals in the past but is willing to in the future?

answers: identity moratorium
question: What is the permutation when a person is ready to make commitments but unable to commit?

answers: identity achievement
question: What is the permutation when a person commits to identity choices?

context: These different explorations of 'identity' demonstrate how difficult a concept it is to pin down. Since identity is a virtual thing, it is impossible to define it empirically. Discussions of identity use the term with different meanings, from fundamental and abiding sameness, to fluidity, contingency, negotiated and so on. Brubaker and Cooper note a tendency in many scholars to confuse identity as a category of practice and as a category of analysis (Brubaker & Cooper 2000, p. 5). Indeed, many scholars demonstrate a tendency to follow their own preconceptions of identity, following more or less the frameworks listed above, rather than taking into account the mechanisms by which the concept is crystallised as reality. In this environment, some analysts, such as Brubaker and Cooper, have suggested doing away with the concept completely (Brubaker & Cooper 2000, p. 1). Others, by contrast, have sought to introduce alternative concepts in an attempt to capture the dynamic and fluid qualities of human social self-expression. Hall (1992, 1996), for example, suggests treating identity as a process, to take into account the reality of diverse and ever-changing social experience. Some scholars have introduced the idea of identification, whereby identity is perceived as made up of different components that are 'identified' and interpreted by individuals. The construction of an individual sense of self is achieved by personal choices regarding who and what to associate with. Such approaches are liberating in their recognition of the role of the individual in social interaction and the construction of identity.
qas: answers: category of analysis
question: Many scholars confuse identity as a category of practice and what other category?

answers: their own preconceptions of identity
question: What do many scholars demonstrate a tendency towards?

answers: the idea of identification
question: The idea that identity is made of components that are identified by individuals is what idea? 

answers: human social self-expression
question: Some scholars try to introduce new concepts to capture the fluid qualities of what?

answers: define it empirically
question: What is it impossible to do with identity?

context: Gender identity forms an important part of identity in psychology, as it dictates to a significant degree how one views oneself both as a person and in relation to other people, ideas and nature. Other aspects of identity, such as racial, religious, ethnic, occupational… etc. may also be more or less significant – or significant in some situations but not in others (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003 pp26–34). In cognitive psychology, the term "identity" refers to the capacity for self-reflection and the awareness of self.(Leary & Tangney 2003, p. 3)
qas: answers: Gender identity
question: What is identified as determining how a person views him or herself to a significant degree?

answers: identity
question: What are racial, religious, ethnic, and occupational aspects aspects of?

answers: cognitive psychology
question: Identity refers to the capacity for self-reflection and awareness in what scientific study?

context: Erik Erikson (1902-1994) became one of the earliest psychologists to take an explicit interest in identity. The Eriksonian framework rests upon a distinction among the psychological sense of continuity, known as the ego identity (sometimes identified simply as "the self"); the personal idiosyncrasies that separate one person from the next, known as the personal identity; and the collection of social roles that a person might play, known as either the social identity or the cultural identity. Erikson's work, in the psychodynamic tradition, aimed to investigate the process of identity formation across a lifespan. Progressive strength in the ego identity, for example, can be charted in terms of a series of stages in which identity is formed in response to increasingly sophisticated challenges. The process of forming a viable sense of identity for the culture is conceptualized as an adolescent task, and those who do not manage a resynthesis of childhood identifications are seen as being in a state of 'identity diffusion' whereas those who retain their initially given identities unquestioned have 'foreclosed' identities (Weinreich & Saunderson 2003 p7-8). On some readings of Erikson, the development of a strong ego identity, along with the proper integration into a stable society and culture, lead to a stronger sense of identity in general. Accordingly, a deficiency in either of these factors may increase the chance of an identity crisis or confusion (Cote & Levine 2002, p. 22).
qas: answers: Erik Erikson
question: Who was one of the earliest psychologists to take an explicit interest in identity?

answers: ego identity
question: What distinction is sometimes referred to as the self?

answers: the personal identity
question: The personal idiosyncrasies that separate individuals are called what?

answers: the social identity or the cultural identity
question: What are the 3 names for the collection of a person's social roles?

answers: the psychodynamic tradition
question: In what tradition is Erikson's work to track identity formation throughout a lifetime?

context: Laing's definition of identity closely follows Erikson's, in emphasising the past, present and future components of the experienced self. He also develops the concept of the "metaperspective of self", i.e. the self's perception of the other's view of self, which has been found to be extremely important in clinical contexts such as anorexia nervosa. (Saunderson and O'Kane, 2005). Harré also conceptualises components of self/identity – the "person" (the unique being I am to myself and others) along with aspects of self (including a totality of attributes including beliefs about one's characteristics including life history), and the personal characteristics displayed to others.
qas: answers: Laing's
question: Whose definition of identity closely follows Erikson's?

answers: metaperspective of self
question: One person's perception of another's perception is an example of what concept?

answers: self/identity
question: The person, aspects of self, and personal characteristics displayed to others are components of what?

context: Kenneth Gergen formulated additional classifications, which include the strategic manipulator, the pastiche personality, and the relational self. The strategic manipulator is a person who begins to regard all senses of identity merely as role-playing exercises, and who gradually becomes alienated from his or her social "self". The pastiche personality abandons all aspirations toward a true or "essential" identity, instead viewing social interactions as opportunities to play out, and hence become, the roles they play. Finally, the relational self is a perspective by which persons abandon all sense of exclusive self, and view all sense of identity in terms of social engagement with others. For Gergen, these strategies follow one another in phases, and they are linked to the increase in popularity of postmodern culture and the rise of telecommunications technology.
qas: answers: Kenneth Gergen
question: Who formulated the classifications of strategic manipulator, pastiche personality and the relational self?

answers: The strategic manipulator
question: In what classification is a person who regards all experiences are role play and becomes alienated from his or her social self?

answers: The pastiche personality
question: In what classification is a person who gives up the chance for a true self and adopts social perceptions of him or herself?

answers: the relational self
question: In what classification is a person who gives up their exclusive sense of self and defines him or herself only in terms of social engagement?

answers: postmodern culture
question: The strategic manipulator, pastiche personality, and relational self are linked to the rise of what culture?

context: As a non-directive and flexible analytical tool, the concept of boundaries helps both to map and to define the changeability and mutability that are characteristic of people's experiences of the self in society. While identity is a volatile, flexible and abstract 'thing', its manifestations and the ways in which it is exercised are often open to view. Identity is made evident through the use of markers such as language, dress, behaviour and choice of space, whose effect depends on their recognition by other social beings. Markers help to create the boundaries that define similarities or differences between the marker wearer and the marker perceivers, their effectiveness depends on a shared understanding of their meaning. In a social context, misunderstandings can arise due to a misinterpretation of the significance of specific markers. Equally, an individual can use markers of identity to exert influence on other people without necessarily fulfilling all the criteria that an external observer might typically associate with such an abstract identity.
qas: answers: the concept of boundaries
question: What concept helps map and define people's experiences of self in society?

answers: identity
question: What is a volatile, flexible, and abstract thing?

answers: other social beings
question: Language, dress, behavior, and choice of space are affected by recognition by what group?

answers: boundaries
question: What do markers help create?

answers: influence
question: Markers can be used to exert what on other people?