How Space-Time Geography Creates
By: Nathaniel Jones, Bas, Pbc-Ued
Tags: Regional Planning, Transportation, Digital Divide, Accessibility

Opportunity in Transportation Equity and Accessibility, A New Perspective on the Digital Divide

Jones, Nathaniel Creative Commons License 2020

April 2020

Introduction

As times change and civilizations evolve, there is a pressing matter that appears to be emerging to the forefront of the transportation geography sector. In the past, maps have been drawn in two dimension and three dimensions, however, with the emergence of technology there is developing discourse around the concept of the fourth dimension. There are many questions that researchers have hoping to fully grasp and understand this seemingly intangible concept. Questions such as: How do we define this fourth dimension? How does it impact what we know about transportation? How does these implications factor into challenges of equity, accessibility, and other nuances that currently exist within transportation? And many others. This paper is aimed at defining the fourth dimension, seeking to understand how the space-time geographical model intersects with issues of accessibility and equity in transportation.

This virtual space, the fourth dimension, is one that is becoming ever embedded with all sectors of life and a proponent that must be identified and isolated. Typically, when we are dealing with transportation and improving equity and accessibility, we often think of automating and electrifying cars, railways, subway systems, rideshare structures, and leveraging bicycles, walking, and other sustainable transportation modes that may exist. When we examine the ideations of accessibility, we often analyze the number of transportation nodes are in a specific geographical location. We subsequently investigate what modes of public transit are available and assess the presence of accessibility, quality, affordability, and sustainability of the services. We also seek to understand what populations are utilizing the services.

Literature Review

While the concept of space-time is gaining newfound appreciation in the transportation geography discipline, among the various other geography content areas, and literature is developing, there is still a handful of credible research from several areas of study which provide diverse yet valid research with pertinent data points to support suggested hypotheses. Literature spanning articles that investigate concepts of transportation, accessibility, the digital divide, the responsibility of local governance, and insight from other disciplines which speak to the transdisciplinary nature of space-time, as well as the intersectionality of the underlying premises in respect to geography. Through a review of this relevant literature, we can better orient ourselves to see the interwoven themes that speak to the discussion at hand. By understanding these various proponents of prior research, we see the ideology of space-time geography actualized, providing a substantial base for direction and discussion. Each of these articles provide scope and appropriate lens through which to view this topic.

The first article investigated is Space‐Time, ‘Science’ and the Relationship between Physical Geography and Human Geography, written by Doreen Massey and published in 2004 with the Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. Although outside of the desired

5-year range of relevant publications, this article sets the tone of discussion through exploring the commonalities intersectionality of both physical and human geography. The author proposes that we begin to understand the relationships between the various sciences and geographies to shift the current, accepted “model of science”. The author challenges conventional thought asserting that these propagated models are inadequate with consideration to properly developing theories of time and space.

Following this same thread, Time Geography and Space–Time Prism, written by Harvey Miller in 2017 expands this theoretical approach expressing that time-geography alone offers understanding by introducing spatial considerations of human activity, as well as models of human behavior. The author highlights concepts of the space-time path and prism, to central themes of time geography for understanding mobility, a key component of transportation geography. As this composition provides further insight into social science considerations, we begin to see concepts of accessibility indicators, factors that are accentuated in the Journal of Transport Geography’s article Measuring temporal variation of location-based accessibility using space-time utility perspective authored by Yafei Wang et al., published in 2018.

In their article, authors Wang, et al. discussed accessibility through the lens that weighed the individual choice of end-users, as well as location. Through a case study in China, the authors hypothesized that location-based accessibility metrics are ineffective due to their static, fixed, nature, generating an inability to appreciate fluctuations of accessibility through consideration of choice and behavior, both integral to the concepts of space-time geography. Through their research the authors suggest developing metrics that capture the space-time aspect of accessibility to strengthen understanding of current measures. This case study provides validation of the realization that the sociological approach is a necessary component in these discussions of transportation as argued by Karen Lucas et al. in the article Is transport poverty socially or environmentally driven? Comparing the travel behaviours of two low-income populations living in central and peripheral locations in the same city, published just a couple of months prior in 2018.

In Is transport poverty socially or environmentally driven? Comparing the travel behaviours of two low-income populations living in central and peripheral locations in the same city, the authors study the intersections of poverty and social status. Their intent was to uncover which travel behaviors, if any, are influenced by personal limitations such as social and environmental conditions, specific to their local geographic location. In consideration to accessibility, the authors discovered that the physical location “. . . of where people live within the city is more influential on their trip-making patterns than social determinants such as household income, age, gender, and/or employment status” (2018). The study reveals that the spatial distribution of time and geography was directly influenced by both amount and location of modes, regarding perceptions of safety, among other factors. As the authors concluded, they highlight the need for these considerations to be a part of the discussion when proposing introducing new transportation models into areas of low-socioeconomic residences.

Considering this, Measuring the impacts of new public transit services on space-time accessibility: An analysis of transit system redesign and new bus rapid transit in Columbus, Ohio, USA further supports these findings investigating accessibility barriers to opportunities and how it impacts social and health outcomes. A study conducted in Ohio revealed that “The absence of effective access to opportunities and services is a key contributor to poor socio-economic and health outcomes in underserved neighborhoods in many cities”, (2018). The authors conducted a case study that analyzed space-time metrics to uncover underlying implications of transportation accessibility on the quality of life. Their hope is to leverage the data for use in future urban and city planning.

The following article Time geography of daily activities: A closer look into telecommute impacts analyzed the impacts of daily activity in relation to space-time distribution. The authors leveraged time-space prisms to determine if the ability to telecommute impacted the behavior of travelers, and how. Telecommuting is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as “the practice of working from home, making use of the Internet, email, and the telephone” (2019). With this, it was determined that the ability to leverage technology lead to “larger time-space prisms” regardless of the distance of an activity from the residence. Considering this, the paper aimed to understand how the presence of technology, i.e. telecommuting, impacts on time-space limitations that are otherwise present in the absence of said capabilities. One key finding being that telecommuters experienced enhanced accessibility, being able to capitalize on more opportunities than their non-telecommuting counterparts.

This brings us to the premise that technological accessibility is a component that must be analyzed within space-time geography with respect to transportation accessibility discussions. To expand these considerations, we see the articles Assessing equity in transport accessibility to work and study: The Bogotá region and Spatial disparities of Uber accessibility: An exploratory analysis in Atlanta, USA. Each article investigated equity and accessibility of transportation and how this directly interacted with social determinants of users. Within the first article mentioned, it was identified that transportation mode and income levels are embedded in the social and spatial inequalities. They found “. . .strong distributional effects of the socio-spatial and economic structure of the city-region, its transport infrastructure and services, and the effect of current transport and land-use policies for citizens of different income groups” (2017).

Interestingly enough, the Uber article discovered that “accessibility is measured as the expectation and variability of Uber wait times” and “wealth and race do not have significant associations with Uber accessibility” (2018). This article does highlight the reality of “Inequality of accessibility in transportation systems [being] a constant concern . . . intensified by the transportation economization process and the digital divide” (2018). This is a key finding as it displays how leveraging technology can increase accessibility in transportation, tapping into the concepts of space-time considerations of the 4th dimensional factors. With transportation discussions also centered on automation and electrification, it is highly important to understand the weigh the digital divide has and how this can either increase accessibility, or further hinder it, leading us into our next article, Impact of the digital divide on e-government: Expanding from channel choice to channel usage.

This article further expands discussion on the aforementioned digital divide through examining how this concept impacts government, more specifically, eGovernment. The investigation shows how this divide transcends the prior foundations of socioeconomic status as the sole representation, rather introducing the fact that technological illiteracy is a prime influencer in the digital divide as well. The article cites that, “. . .surprisingly, digital skills do neither predict nor relate to choosing the online channel. However, they do predict the degree of satisfaction; the more digitally skilled citizens are, the more satisfied they are with online services” (2016). Although the article is specifically speaking to eGovernment, the underlying findings are transferable to transportation and indicate that accessibility may be closer than we think, as long as the proper education of these services are present, particularly when advances are made that are technological in nature such as automation and electrification, or even ridesharing services such as Uber and Lyft.

Lastly, these final articles reveal that policy makers must act to preserve and afford these liberties to end-users as access to multiple nodes and modes of transportation has been revealed to create a greater sense of self-reported well-being and quality of life. These foundations help us understand underlying factors that exist in the 4th dimension which influence key factors of improved accessibility. As the literature begins to reveal that educating residents and users of public transit regarding its digitization, i.e. through electrification and automation of services, is a greater indicator of accessibility and satisfaction, we must ensure the presence of network neutrality, the idea that customers must not be treated partially based on protected classes. Accessibility can be protected and increased if the residents are given access to the technology and educated on how to use it.

Rationale:

Understanding space-time geography is going to be, if not already, an essential area of competence required for the future of urban planning and transportation industries. This concept of existing in multiple spaces at one time will generate a paradigm shift regarding how we apply theories of accessibility in the urban, city, and transportation planning sectors. It is important to define these concepts proactively so they are adequately researched and investigated in hopes to produce solid foundations that can be built upon with future research. I am hoping to create this working definition that serves as proprietary groundwork for others to expand upon.

Defining the Fourth Dimension

Merriam-Webster defines the fourth dimension as a “dimension in addition to the length, breadth, and depth, or specifically a coordinate in addition, to three rectangular coordinates; especially when interpreted as a time coordinate in a space time continuum” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). It also defines the fourth dimension as “something outside the range of ordinary experience” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). So, noting this, we can begin to understand that physical geography encompasses the three dimensions that we see every day, i.e. the ability to touch and physically manipulate our environment and surroundings, otherwise known as tangible. When we begin to discuss the fourth dimension, we realize that we are transitioning into the conceptualization of what is beyond that which we see physically. Instead, it is the existence seemingly intangible.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines geography as, “a science that deals with the description, distribution, and interaction of the first physical, biological, and cultural features of the Earth’s surface” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Merriam-Webster speaks regarding the fourth dimension as, “something outside the range of ordinary experience” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). These definitions provide insight as to how we can view space-time when combined with geography to provide a tentative definition of space-time geography. It can be concluded that space-time geography is best described as “an intangible dimension, in addition to the three dimension components of length, breadth, and depth, that is outside the range of ordinary experience yet exists within how we describe, distribute, and interact with the geographic distribution of humans and the diverse physical, biological, and cultural features of the Earth’s surface.

This fourth-dimension deals with the reality of the virtual planes, otherwise known as wireless networks, that surround us all. It also deals with the unseen space of thought, the brain waves of emotion, all the underlying neurological processes being consistently emitted, interacting with the physical world surrounding it. It is that space that is studied by the social sciences (Massey, 2004). With this, it is important to understand and identify this concept as geographers to ensure it is included in discussions of urban design and planning, transportation and accessibility, equity, as well as justice and affordability. By defining the fourth dimension in the context of geography and its derivative disciplines, we can begin to bridge the gap between physical geography and social geography. Space-time geography can deal with and process relationships between the physical space and time around us as the concept is something that is quantifiable yet not readily engageable in the physical dimension (Massey, 2004). Time exists beyond the physical dimension and this is what creates the concept of the 4th Dimension.

Space, time, and geography

Realizing this we must recognize that discussing space-time geography and how it connects to the 4th Dimension is priority. Dictionary.com defines space-time as a “four-dimensional continuum having three special coordinates and once and for all coordinate and which are physical quantities may be located” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Encyclopedia Britannica says that “space-time in physical science is a single concept that recognizes the union of space and time” which was first proposed by the mathematician heroin Mieczkowski in 1908 as a way to reformulate Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity coin in 1905 (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020). Albert Einstein developed different theories of special relativity and general relativity discussing fundamental concepts of space, time, matter, energy, and gravity, along with quantum mechanics, all of which regard the base elements of physics, the foundation of physical studies. The Encyclopedia Britannica further states that, “according to Einstein relativity provides the basics of understanding cosmic processes and the geometry of the universe itself” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).

As we take this all into perspective and apply these fundamentals to space and time within the realm of geography, we can see how the series and ideologies begin to overlap and intersect for a transdisciplinary discussion. Space-time geography encompasses physics, environmental sciences, and the social sciences such as human geography, all of which are directly interconnected to transportation in discussions around accessibility, sustainability, equity, and affordability (Pyrialakou et al., 2016). Space-time is something that has little been discussed in various arenas, however it is very relevant and a topic that needs more research done. In fact, it is my supposition that more research has been conducted in this area than realized, it just has not been fully actualized and brought to the forefront of discussion. Space-time geography is present in every element that we discuss. Especially the social sciences, however it is often overlooked as the thought is something which is not easily fathomable by the human mind.

The human brain thinks and exists in this physically unseen dimension and only expresses those thoughts through interacting with the tangible world around it (Miller, 2017). It is for this reason I suppose these concepts of social theory and principles rooted in sociology, as well as the many other social sciences, are often distinguished as disconnected from urban planning and development and the other tangible characteristics of policy and practice within key disciplines. However, there is a shift that is emerging as studies reveal the inherent interconnectivity of the two as discussed by Connolly et al. inThe Digital Divide and Other Economic Considerations for Network Neutrality.

Space-time is a direct intersection that helps to uncover the reality of inequity disparity and Justice and accessibility in multiple walks of life. Space time is key in many disciplines as it reveals the true nature of what is going on behind what we see in the physical. It is deeply rooted in the psychosocial processes of the human mind which is all becoming more physically tangible through expression of virtually physical devices. Devices such as social media, smartphone data, and other information that actualizes the internal mental processes of human thought in society, tracking movement patterns of individuals throughout the workday. Internal, private information that was previously unknown is now being made readily available giving deeper insight into the end-users’ pattern of thinking (Asgari et al., 2019).

Transportation

Considering the information covered thus far, let us expand the elements of transportation. Research shows that having sufficient access to multiple modes of transportation improves quality of life, wellbeing, and allows individuals from all walks of life to be more included in the city functions of the area they reside in (Makarewicz, 2018). Additionally, we see how the presence of affordable and accessible transportation also impacts the patterns of thought and behavior, which exist in the 4th Dimension, of residents (Dimitriya, 2016). Furthermore, it is suggested that access to transportation options such as telecommuting provide accessibility, inclusion, and also allow users to leverage more time toward other key activities whether essential for quality of life and general well-being, or leisurely in nature (Dimitriya, 2016 & Guzman et al., 2017). Noting these truths, we can see the power in expanding the scope of our considerations for generating inclusive and accessible transportation networks.

Lee and Miller, 2018, expand this train of thought in Measuring the impacts of new public transit services on space-time accessibility: An analysis of transit system redesign and new bus rapid transit in Columbus, Ohio, USA. The principles highlighted in the article express the key elements that apply with the technical and space-time analysis of transit systems as well, if applied through that lens. Not only does this discussion encompass the concept of the psychosocial, but it also hints at the ability of existing in multiple spaces simultaneously, an indirect element of what has been discussed regarding accessibility. Notwithstanding, the core focus of this discussion is to weave together these discussions into a single premise that can be further acted upon. Recognizing these interesting factors, it is ideal that the psychosocial considerations of the 4th Dimension be established as a necessary component, establishing this concept of space-time geography as a need and key indicator in transportation discussions.

Discussion

This concept of space-time geography being discussed is solely to help us begin to formulate an understanding as geographers of the impact and very real prevalence of the 4th Dimension our lives today. As we continue to just to embark on a path of discourse surrounding space-time geography undoubtedly, we can begin to see the connection of the fourth dimension. As mentioned, prior, the 4th Dimension exists beyond what we recognize as tangible and is more so transcending and translucent and nature (Miller, 2017). Yes, it is a complicated aspect for individuals to process with their mental faculties, however, is an asset to examine it through the lens of transportation accessibility indices as well (Guzman et al., 2018).

Regarding transportation it is important to note that there is a widespread push for the automation electrification of public transit systems in order to improve accessibility, sustainability, and overall functionality (Lucas et al., 2018). The challenges we have not yet begun to address is the technological component that associates concepts of automation and electrification of public transportation systems (Guzman et al., 2018). With these updates, how do we account for the digital divide, i.e. the lack of access to technological advancements in low socioeconomic and disparate communities (Conolly et al., 2018)? As public transportation systems are automated and electrified how do we truly measure and accurately address accessibility? If Automation and electrification typically parallels the installation and integration of technology which requires riders and other end-users to be somewhat connected to a level of technological proficiency, how do we ensure we account for these potentially limiting accessibility factors?

As an example, we can investigate the ride-sharing services such as Uber and Lyft. Uber and Lyft, some argue, both improve transportation accessibility by expanding a form of public transit within cities and states that either have congested public transportation networks, or do not have complex transportation infrastructures at all, when compared with major municipal areas like New York, Los Angeles, or other major metropolitan cities. However, for some users who do not have smartphone capabilities, a bank account with digital currency to connect with and pay for services, or other barriers exist, such as lack of proper government issued identification or insufficient technological literacy, we must ensure these innovative technologies are in fact increasing accessibility as Wang and Lu, 2018, determined that accessibility is shifting from a silo foundation of race and income, and also now includes the understanding of the technological aspects.

While it may seem obvious, many resources seem oblivious to the educational curve that is present as many public transit systems are transitioning to automation and electrified services. These same services are also consistently transitioning to technology that allows riders to track buses to identify the appropriate times to be at bus stops, while also being allowed the opportunity to otherwise engage in the use of the public transit system, whatever that may be. However, it still does not appear that many studies account for the amount of individuals who are still not as technologically savvy, or at least have not bridged the gap between data sets within the technology sector and the transportation sectors of research. The data does exist, it just is not readily identified and must be interwoven with these discussions to holistically improve accessibility. This truth is highlighted with the Ebbers et al. article form 2016 Impact of the digital divide on e-government: Expanding from channel choice to channel usage in which it was discovered that users’ ability to understand and navigate the technology components influenced their satisfaction with and use of various modes of access. Although the study analyzed eGovernment platforms, it reveals the fourth-dimension component that users’ satisfaction and choice of use is subjective to literacy of the platforms. This is an important indicator that should be considered with any technological adaptation in any industry.

Moving forward, it is proactive to be aware and understand that any innovations and changes towards automation and electrification of public transit systems to cultivate accessibility must undoubtedly carry a component that allows those who are not connected to the digital network to leverage access to these systems. This is where governing authorities and all involved with the planning of transportation systems must take heed of the available research and embed it into any adaptations and discussions around improving the functionality and accessibility of transit systems (Lucas et al., 2108). Again, as mentioned prior, amid any transportation discussion, these psychosocial elements must be realized and maintained for adequate consideration of the indirect, and often unintended, consequences as public transit must be accessible due to the construction of many cities not being conducive to accessibility with current system and geographical constraints. As we continue in this discussion, we must begin to investigate how space-time geography is either enhanced or diminished with respect to accessibility issues of public transportation.

The 4th Dimension and Digitizing Accessibility

Accessibility with public transportation deals with more than simply the presence of adequate transportation nodes and communities’ ability to leverage other elements of accessibility. It also deals with the underlying inhibitors such as social constructs and pre-set community divisions that must be weighed, aspects of safety, racial tensions, and more. To explain further, transportation geographers, urban planners, city managers, and other individuals involved in designing and implementing systems to improve accessibility ought not assume outcomes solely predicated upon mathematical equations, along with other formulas and matrices used to measure accessibility, as the foundation of these methods which appear to often overlook the social components that rest within this concept of space-time geography. issues such as gang territory and individual affiliation, ethnic divides, and potential political rifts such as police harassment, and other situations that would prevent residents from accessing certain nodes of transportation which are dependent on location (Cruz, 2017).

With these elements present, we can realize the physical geography components of accessibility which are present, i.e. multiple nodes within a certain geographical region that indicate the public transit network in a specific area is more accessible, however the fourth-dimension, when placed in context of the physical geographical component of transit network usage offers more in-depth insight. The fourth-dimension elements would reveal that sheer number of transportation nodes does not always increase accessibility as there are unforeseen geographies that exist in the space-time continuum which are not readily visible to the naked eye, being intangible physically yet local residents and other individuals residing within the community may be aware of (Cruz, 2017). These constraints are sociological impacts that planners and other researchers and investigators either do not acknowledge or do not even understand are present.

Case Study

As a case study, we will explore components of my lived experience interacting with carious communities and transportation modes, as well as personal experience with transportation accessibility issues. Over the years I have leveraged public transit systems throughout many situations, cities, states, and over the span of several years. These include bus systems, taxi systems, Uber and Lyft, subways and other rail links, as well as walking, cycling, motor scooters and passenger vehicles. Each presented their own challenges and opportunities. Each addressed certain needs and offered various restrictions. Additionally, each had a different impact on the carbon economy and degree of affordability. This case study explores these modes of transportation from an internal perspective that grants permissive analysis of the fourth dimension that can lead to further study of the development of indices that do a qualitative analysis said indicators.

Growing up in a low-socio economic community, transportation was limited amongst community members. Most homes had one vehicle, if at all. These vehicles were leveraged by the owners to provide transport to themselves, were shared among members of the household, and even leveraged to meet transportation needs of close acquaintances when able as public transit was not always the most sufficient. This in part is due to the time constraints on some public systems regarding dedicated routes, unexpected delays, weather conditions, ability to pay, and the spatial geographical location of each destination, i.e. the space-time geography limitations. Many of the individuals in our community would use the public transit system, but often found ourselves scraping up enough change for a one-way bus fare, this was when the bus rate was eighty cents. This factors into limiting access since it limits the number of trios an individual can take in a given time span. If you need bus fare to go to work and get home, but also need to traverse to the grocery store, what do you have to in place to meet the need for these multiple trips amid the limits of time and financial resources?

As a potential solution, the bus system offered monthly passes for an affordable rate that allowed users to travel throughout the month without worrying about finding bus fare daily, however this connects with the principles outlined in Ebbers’ article, as well as the Uber studies that highlight the need for literature. For years, public transit was financially inaccessible to me due to my lack of knowledge of the wholesale riders’ passes. Many of those I associated with were unaware of these passes as well. Aside from that, the timing of the routes and locations of the access nodes were concerns at times. When in your neighborhood area, you are familiar with which access points to use for both safety and convenience. When outside the area you are familiar with, there is a challenge of safely navigating stops and orienting your self to where you need to be. This is mitigated if you have a driver that is willing to tell you the best stop for your travels, however this is not always the case.

Another point worth noting is the limitation of access experienced by living in an area where the proximity of the bus node was off the dedicated route by a nearly 30-minute walk. This led to two trips daily. One to get in town, and the other at the end of the day to get home. The strain created here was a lack of flexibility and a compulsion to remain out of the comfort of home the entire day because of the limitations in access and the lack of space-time consideration present with the development of the route. This happened on two separate occasions during my stint with the bus route as a college undergraduate student. In one instance, there were bus routes on parallel sides of my residence, yet each was a thirty to forty-minute walk. In the mornings, I would wake up around five am and walk to catch the early bus in time to make it to classes. From school, I would catch the bus to work, which was on the same road as the node I used to travel to school. The challenge here was that after work, I still had a lengthy walk home. Usually I was not off work until 12 am or 1 am, meaning I did not arrive home until between 1:40 am and 2 am; enough time to shower and rest briefly before having to do it again the next day. This was the cycle for an entire semester before moving. Again, the space-time limitations resulting from a potential from lack of insight by the route planners.

One help that could have been beneficial was owning a bike, however bikes must be purchased from a store. This comes with needing the time to travel to the store, finances to purchase the bike, and bike lock, as well as knowledge on how to attach the bike to the bike rack. These are seemingly small tasks and simple to do, yet the elements that are operating within the fourth dimension speak to unconsidered elements that do not allow these ‘small tasks’ to be this simple. In a positive light, we see solutions emerged such as Lime Bike and other personal transit systems, yet again we cross into aforementioned limitations of accessibility predicated on having a smart phone with mobile application ability that is connected to a payment method; not to mention funds in the account to pay the fare to use these services which charge either by distance or time. Great solutions for those who can afford it.

Eventually, these challenges led me to use resources from financial aid to purchase a motorized pedestrian vehicle, otherwise known as a moped. At the time it was worth the investment, highly efficient, affordable, and increased the scope of my space-time geography as hours previously spent walking to and from bus nodes, traveling to central bus depots, and transferring routes all became simplified. What would typically have only been enough for a two way bus fare now provided a full tank of gas that could last for multiple days and allowed freedom of travel, allowing more accessibility and inclusion of the city in which I dwelt. In addition to this, as a student, the city unfolded the Higher Education Area Transit (HEAT) program which was a bus transit system that allowed students to travel the city bus lines with their student identification cards as the fee for this service was factored into their tuition. Similar to Lime Bike, this was a great element, however the scope in who this opportunity was extended to was limited, however similar programs are in place for certain demographics of the local population.

As time progressed, I eventually obtained a vehicle and my use of public transit declined. AT times I still leverage this as my vehicles have been out of order at times, the challenge experienced now is similar to times past, where I live currently is a sixty-minute walk from the nearest bus access node. Again, which cripples the flexibility of personal space-time availability. A strong advantage that has increased accessibility with these limitations in all sectors was the technological advancements that create the ability to telecommute. The telecommuting power rests in the ability to leverage time that would be spent commuting physically by converting it into streamlined virtual commute outside of the third dimension, leveraging the fourth dimension’s virtual capabilities. A specific example of this has been experimented with a current internship program I operate. It is virtual in nature yet has components of in person meetings. The in person meetings, while valuable, cost more time, left a larger carbon foot print, and impacted personal finances through parking expenses, fuel, and wear and tear on the vehicle used, all of which were eliminated when meetings were telecommuted. Interesting elements to weigh with consideration to how this can be structured into discussions of space-time geography and transportation accessibility.

Conclusion

With these truths, we can begin to understand how accessibility is deeper than typically physical networks as often acknowledged and assumed by many researchers and transportation planners. While it is true that there must be enough nodes and geographic locations to increase accessibility in the third-dimension, the fourth-dimension exposes that the third-dimension is not the only measure of accessibility (Lucas et al., 2018 & Dimitriya et al., 2017). This is where the concept of space-time geography begins to emerge as an asset of accessibility (Dimitriya et al., 2017). Space-time geography allows us to begin to engage in the discussion of accessibility on a new plane as we understand new factors that impact transit systems and display how telecommuting can serve as an accessibility enhancer for many individuals that have limited access and mobility (Guzman, 2017 & Asgari et al., 2019 & Guzman 2017). There is an opportunity to expand our awareness of holistic accessibility and develop innovative solutions that increase accessibility, quality of life, well-being, reduce emissions, and consider the components of the fourth dimension.