Zenobia — Empress of the Desert. The empress who defied the Roman Empire
By: Danny Kane
Tags: Middle East, Society, History, Culture, Rome

Zenobia — Empress of the Desert

The empress who defied the Roman Empire

‘Queen Zenobia Addressing Her Soldier’ (Giovanni Battista Tiepolo / Public domain)

The Roman Empire was undoubtedly one of the greatest empires in history, dominating territory from Syria to Portugal, and from the Rhine river to the edges of the Sahara Desert. However, by the third century, the Roman Empire was increasingly on the brink of collapse. The borders had become so large as to be almost unmanageable and rebel generals plagued the empire, each proclaiming themselves emperor.

Seeing the weakness of the ageing empire, Zenobia, the queen who became an empress, defied the stereotypes of the time and challenged Roman authority, leading to one of the most epic clashes of the era and setting the tone for further east and west divisions to come.

The third-century crisis

The third-century crisis is one of the most complex periods in Roman history, but in essence, it can be characterised by a huge economic crisis due to the rampant debasement of the currency, near-constant civil wars between rival claimants to the imperial throne, a succession crisis, and even the fracturing of the empire.

Increasingly, the centre of Roman life was shifting away from the eternal city and moving toward the east. Rome was no longer the centre of the empire, nor was it the richest province or even the safest thanks to continued invasions into Italy by Germanic tribes, some of which even reached the city itself.

Palmyra

Odaenathus (by Carole Raddato/public domain)

One of the new centres of this empire in chaos was Palmyra, an important city on the Silk Road. It was ruled over by a Romanised Arab and king named Odaenathus, along with his queen, Zenobia. He also occupied the position of governor of Syria and would be instrumental in driving back the invasions of the Sassanid Persians, who routinely probed into Roman territory and disrupted trade.

Odaenathus would prove his worth after the defeat of Emperor Valerian in 260AD, driving the Persians back across the Euphrates river. While many suspect that the Sassanid Persians refusing a trade deal with him was the true reason for his intervention, Odaenathus kept up the illusion of loyalty to Rome and was rewarded with the governorship of the entire eastern province of the empire, which was rapidly becoming distinct from the Roman heartlands in Italy. He would put down a rebellion against Gallienus, Valerian’s son and co-emperor, further cementing his favour with Rome, while effectively governing a separate state.

While Odaenathus and Zenobia had a son, Vaballathus, he was not Odaenathus’ heir, which has led many to believe that when Odaenathus and his son and heir from his first marriage were assassinated while hunting in 266AD, Zenobia was behind it. There’s little proof either way, but given her later actions, it makes sense that she could have been responsible.

Zenobia

Harriet Hosmer’s bust of Zenobia (1857) (By Mountshang/Public Domain)

Little is known about Zenobia’s early years. She was likely born in 240AD, and claimed descent from Queen Dido of Carthage, Cleopatra, and the Severin Dynasty in Rome, making her related to multiple previous emperors. While certainly possible, the truth remains unknown thanks in large part to significant bias present in the Roman sources of the period.

Many sources, for example, seek to make her seem more masculine. She was supposedly a skilled horse rider, able to drink any man under the table, and had a deep voice. She was also supposed to have despised sex, allowing her husband into her bed only to procreate. These descriptions, from a Roman perspective, allowed Zenobia to transcend her sex, making her a worthy opponent of Rome. As a deeply misogynistic society, there was no honour for a Roman soldier, let alone an emperor, in fighting a woman, and so Zenobia needed to be rendered as something other.

Whether or not we accept these descriptions, what is known is that she was fiercely intelligent, speaking Greek, Egyptian, Aramaic, and some Latin. She was also, like Cleopatra before her, highly astute and cunning.

Following Odaenathus’ death, she reigned as regent for her son and she continued to take advantage of Rome’s weakness and the chaos caused by its ever-changing emperors. At first, she built on her husband’s practices, but eventually, she far surpassed him. She arranged a trade deal with the Sassanid Persians but was careful to continue to pay lip service to Rome and the emperor who’d emerged at the top of the power struggle — Aurelian.

The Palmyrene empire at its apex (By Sémhurderivative/CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 269AD, however, she made a dangerous gamble. Using a small rebellion as a pretence, she invaded and occupied Egypt. After a small amount of back and forth fighting, she managed to take control of the entire empire’s grain supply, all under the pretence of loyalty to Rome. Some even suggest she sponsored this rebellion herself, allowing her to invade without arousing the suspicion of Rome. After this, many saw the rising power of Palmyra, and she was able to bring the Levant and much of Asia Minor under her control through negotiation, not violence, and by 271AD, she ruled over a vast eastern empire.

Aurelian

A fractured Roman Empire in 271AD when Aurelian came to power (historicair/CC BY-SA 3.0)

Emperor Aurelian was not the same as those who had come before him, however, and was not content to let this rising power in the east go unchecked. Unlike Zenobia, Aurelian claimed no great lineage, he had been born a commoner in either Serbia or the Balkans, and had risen from common infantryman to general, and then emperor through his skill in battle and political ruthlessness.

While some sources claim he offered Zenobia terms and she arrogantly rebuffed him, these are likely false, and little more than an effort by later historians to paint Aurelian as merciful and just. In reality, he simply amassed a huge army and marched into Palmyrene territory without warning. Abandoning all pretence of loyalty, Zenobia proclaimed herself Augusta and her son, Vaballathus, Augustus. These imperial titles marked them as emperor and empress respectively and elevated the Palmyrene territories to a fully-fledged splinter empire at war with Rome.

The Palmyrene Empire

Zenobia’s general Zabdas had been a capable leader in Egypt, but against the military might of the Roman army led by Aurelian, he proved less effective. Aurelian laid waste to city after city, until he came to Tyana. He chose to spare the city because it was the home of one of his favourite philosophers — Apollonius. Soon few cities resisted him, surrendering before he even arrived at their gates, knowing what fate awaited them otherwise.

In 272AD, Zabdas was defeated by Aurelian at the Battle of Immae outside the city of Antioch. Aurelian commanded his cavalry to feign a retreat, and once the heavier Palmyrene cavalry was tired, overstretched and away from their lines, the Romans wheeled back around, destroying the cavalry, before crashing into the infantry and effectively routing the entire Palmyrene army.

A similar fate would befall the Palmyrenes at the Battle of Emesa, where the cavalry was lured away, and the infantry ranks were annihilated by the Romans.

Aurelian’s route across the Palmyrene Empire (by Demis project/Public Domain)

Zenobia and Zabdas fled to Palmyra, rallying more troops and preparing for a siege. They likely hoped to wait out the Romans and a request for aid and reinforcements had been sent to the Sassanid Persians. Several times the Romans tried to breach the walls, but each time they were rebuffed. As the days dragged on, however, it became clear that the Sassanids weren’t coming and the situation was rapidly deteriorating.

What happens next depends largely on the source you consult. Zenobia is thought to have fled the city with her son on a camel, seeking to cross the Euphrates and petition the Sassanids for help in destroying the Romans in person. She would not be successful, however, and was caught by the Romans crossing the river. Weary of the siege, Palmyra would sue for peace and soon after capitulated. Aurelian left them in peace, but the same may not have been true of Zenobia.

The mystery of Zenobia

‘Zenobia’s Last Look upon Palmyra’ by Herbert Gustave Schmalz (1888)/Public Domain

The fate of Vaballathus is largely unknown beyond this point, but many conflicting reports tell of what happened to Zenobia. Many say she died, either from poison or from starving herself on the way to Rome. Others claim she was executed. Popular depictions say she was paraded through the streets during Aurelian’s triumph in golden chains, along with another imperial rebel Tetricus II of the recently defeated Gallic Empire in the west.

This is very unlikely, however. Rome, as a society, saw little honour in defeating a woman in battle. In fact, it often reflected badly on the man who’d defeated them. They were not seen as worthy challengers and people would often question whether or not such men even deserved recognition for defeating them.

This accounts for the later descriptions of Zenobia that depict her with more masculine qualities like being a skilled horse rider, a disdain for sex (women were the only submissive partner in sex for the Romans) and a low, commanding voice. It was to make Aurelian’s defeat of her appear more glorious.

In all likelihood, Zenobia was not included in the triumphant procession, nor was she killed. Ironically, she probably lived a lot longer than Aurelian, who would be assassinated by his captains just three years later in 275AD. She most likely married a wealthy Roman and lived out her days in a Roman villa not far from the eternal city.

Palmyra would rise in rebellion again in 273AD and this time Aurelian was not so merciful, looting and pillaging the city before razing it to the ground. Zenobia, however, played no part in this.

How we view her fate depends largely on perspective. She certainly escaped the worst of Rome’s wrath, but this empress of the desert had been reduced to little more than an average Roman and she no doubt chaffed under Roman expectations of womanhood.

While we may never know the truth of exactly what happened to her, her story has become an inspiration for many in the Arab world. She appears on the Syrian £500 banknote and has inspired countless paintings and works of literature. With her ferocious spirit of independence and her courage to challenge a seemingly endless empire, it’s easy to see why she became an icon of the Middle East, and later the world.