Renewable Heating for New York: Why Building Electrification Matters
By: Wali Ullah
Tags: Public Policy, Climate Change, Renewable Energy, New York, Heating

Renewable Heating for New York: Why Building Electrification Matters

As climate change continues to harm the environment and the Earth’s atmosphere, there is an increased need to phase out fossil fuel infrastructure from buildings. As gas use nationwide continues to remain stagnant, gas prices continue to fluctuate, and methane leaks continue to account for a great share of building greenhouse gas emissions, it becomes increasingly evident that gas will not remain an economically or environmentally sustainable source of energy. Carbon emissions from residential and commercial buildings account for one-tenth of all greenhouse gas emissions in the United States annually.

In the absence of comprehensive federal action to decarbonize buildings, several states and cities across the country have already begun engaging in policy initiatives to reduce building carbon emissions through local building code amendments, executive orders, and statewide emission-reduction targets and mandates. Much of building decarbonization policy takes the form of building electrification, which refers to the phasing out or prohibition of fossil fuel infrastructure from new or existing buildings.

The goal of building electrification policy is to provide green energy alternatives to energy use that requires heat, such as space heating, water heating, and cooking. Sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel-powered heating equipment may include heat pumps, electric cooktops and ranges, and PV-powered water boilers.

As the price of electricity per KWh has remained relatively stable for more than 50 years, and the price of installation for electric heating equipment continues to become more affordable and incentivized, it is in the best interest for consumers and property owners to convert to electric heating and cooking, as well as for states to provide a comprehensive, guiding policy framework the further pave the way for building electrification.

Building gas consumption contributes significantly to climate change

Gas is responsible for the majority of direct building CO2 emissions nationwide. Though gas use in buildings has been steady over the past 15 years, buildings are the second largest consumer of gas and add 460–600 million metric tons of CO2 to the Earth’s atmosphere every year.[1] Accounting for low-to-high-methane scenarios, somewhere between 600–925 million metric tons of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are emitted by buildings from gas alone, making up 81–87% of all building-related fuel combustion emissions.[2]

With more than 70 million homes and businesses across the country relying on fossil fuels — such as gas, oil, and propane — for heating and cooking, this amounts to 28% of all energy consumption and 10% of all U.S. carbon emissions.[3] A deeper look into buildings fuel consumption shows that 68% of building fuel emissions come from space heating, with water heating and cooking making up 19% and 13%, respectively.[4] Another notable trend is that the residential buildings consume more fuel for heating, outpacing heating fuel use by commercial buildings, while commercial buildings consume fuel more for cooking than residential buildings.[5]

Many of these trends in gas consumption are even more prevalent in New York, which outpaces all other states in building-related CO2 emissions and gas consumption. New York generates most of its power from natural gas and uses 743 billion ft3 of gas every year, making up more than half of the state’s combustion-related GHG emissions.[6] In addition, New York produces 53.4 million metric tons of CO2 from building fuel consumption, making it by far the largest producer of building CO2 emissions compared to all other 49 states.[7]

Renewable heating is cost-effective for consumers and environment-friendly

By sector, the largest consumers of gas are power generation (10.6 trillion cubic feet), buildings (8.5 trillion cubic feet), and industry (8.37 trillion cubic feet).[8] Despite industry arguments that gas is more affordable for consumers and efficient in energy and heat delivery, compared to the likes to coal and nuclear power, there are clear environmental harms and health hazards presented by gas consumption in buildings.

Methane leakage is an important factor in assessing carbon emissions from fuel combustion, and its contribution to nationwide GHG emissions can range anywhere between 133–465 million metric tons.[9] In a high-methane scenario, this would put carbon emissions from methane leakage and gas consumption within the same ballpark. In 2018 alone, methane leakage during gas delivery to buildings amounted to an estimated 223 billion cubic feet.[10]

At the same time, gas use in buildings has been virtually stagnant since 2005, standing at around 8 trillion cubic feet between 2005–2017.[11] Gas sales to residential & commercial customers has also been flat, as gas customers become more energy efficient — annual gas consumption per residential customer having decreased by roughly 10,000 cubic feet per customer over the past two decades — and a growing share of buildings phase in all-electric heating infrastructure.[12]

More than 30% of all gas distribution mains in New York were installed before 1970.[13] As gas infrastructure continues to age and new developments and innovations in green energy infrastructure become cheaper, it becomes obvious that continuing to rely on gas will become increasing cost-and-energy-inefficient in the near future. Electricity retail prices have historically been much more stable and affordable than gas prices, with electricity prices amounting to roughly 12.5 cents per kWh and gas prices having nearly doubled over the past 50 years (adjusting for inflation).[14]

More than one-quarter of all US homes and businesses are already all-electric, and the number continues to grow in all Census regions, even though the Northeast has the smallest share of all-electric homes and commercial buildings by Census region.[15] Within the last decade, the share of homes that use electric heating grew by more than 14% and an increasing share of apartment & commercial buildings rely on electricity for heating.[16] Despite this, barely one-tenth of New York homes use electric heating, compared to 90% of homes in Florida, 45% of homes in Maryland, and roughly 30% of homes in California.[17]

A building electrification agenda for New York

Nearly half of all states have already set targets to reduce, if not eliminate, statewide greenhouse gas emission.[18] Northeastern states that have enacted similar renewable energy standards include Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, and New York.

Though New York has committed to a carbon-neutral economy by 2050, more needs to be done in the present to ensure the state meets its emission reduction goals. The New York Public Service Commission already requires utilities to achieve 30% energy efficiency through the retrofitting and construction of heat pumps in residential buildings by 2025. More recent initiatives show that we may as well be on our way there. In January 2020, Governor Andrew Cuomo announced $2 billion in additional funding for energy efficiency and building electrification initiatives, fast-tracking New York to meet its 30% energy efficiency target by 2025.[19] In 2019, the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) published and made resources available for its NYStretch Energy Code-2020 Toolkit, through which NYSERDA provides consumers, counties and municipalities with public information pertaining to the costs and benefits of building electrification, such as residential & commercial cost-benefit analysis reports and model code legislation for counties & municipalities seeking to implement new building electrification policies.[20]

With overwhelming public support for renewable energy, as well as having already set targets for energy efficiency & GHG emission reduction, it’s only a matter of time that New York expands its all-electric residential and commercial building stock provides more incentives for consumers and property owners to phase in all-electric heating.[21]

Comparative Overview of Renewable Heating & Building Electrification Policies & Codes

Berkeley, California

Berkeley, located in Alameda County, In 2019, the Berkeley City Council passed two local ordinances: The Natural Gas Prohibition Ordinance (Ordinance №7672-NS) and the Electrification Reach Code (Ordinance №7678-NS).

The Natural Gas Prohibition Ordinance, passed in July 16, 2019 and in effect as of January 1, 2020, banned the installation of natural as infrastructure for newly constructed building, with exceptions for: 1) circumstances that are not considered “physically feasible”, 2) building systems, appliances or devices that have no available all-electric alternatives, and 3) building projects deemed to be in the public interest. In addition, this ordinance requires newly constructed buildings to integrate sufficient electrifying equipment — such as electric vehicle charging and storage equipment and electric receptacles for heating and kitchen appliances — to facilitate full electrification of newly constructed buildings in the future.

The Electrification Reach Code, passed on November 12, 2019 and adopted on December 3, 2019, repealed and reenacted provisions of the following Chapters of the Berkeley Municipal Code: 1) Building Code, 2) Residential Code, 3) Electrical Code, 4) Mechanical Code, 5) Plumbing Code, 6) Energy Code, and 7) Green Code. Though there are several prescriptive compliance requirements, the reach code mostly stipulates prescriptive compliance requirements for new and existing residential and commercial buildings alike, requiring the installation and retrofitting of a variety of electric-ready equipment and appliances.

Existing single-family dwellings and multi-family residential building units are required to have kitchen ventilation unless local mechanical exhaust systems are already installed. New mixed-fuel nonresidential, high-rise residential, and hotel/motel buildings are required to: i) install solar PV systems on their respective “Solar Zones”, ii) facilitate electric-readiness by retrofitting circuitry and service capacity that allow future electrification of domestic hot water, space heating, clothes dryers, cooking equipment for residential spaces, and pools/spas, and iii) install energy-saving furnishings and appliances (e.g. low solar heat gain fenestration, economizers and staged fan control, drain water heat recovery devices, etc.). New mixed-fuel low-rise and single-family residential buildings are required to install and retrofit similar appliances — with exception to PV systems for low-rise buildings and energy storage systems for single-family buildings. In addition, all new residential and commercial buildings are required to install electric vehicle charging equipment, or equipment that allows for the future retrofitting of electric vehicle charging system equipment.

San Jose, California

San Jose, the 3rd largest city in California, passed its electrification ordinance in October 2019. The ordinance also requires greenhouse gas emissions from newly constructed buildings to cut by 90%. Prior to the passage of the ordinance, there were specific financial and political dynamics that helped formulate further efforts to pass renewable energy legislation in San Jose, namely: 1) pressure from activists and advocacy groups such as Sierra Club, Menlo Spark, Mothers Out Front, 350 Silicon Valley, and the Building Decarbonization Coalition, 2) the city already having Climate Smart Plan, which aligns San Jose with the greenhouse gas emission reduction and energy efficiency goals of the Paris Agreement, 3) being a city recipient of the Bloomberg Philanthropies American Cities Climate Challenge environmental grant, and 4) having the largest electric vehicle market share in the country.

Prior to the passage of the ordinance, two cost-effectiveness studies relating to the feasibility of reach code implementation were submitted to California Energy Commission, namely the Low-Rise Residential Reach Code Cost Effectiveness Study and the Non-Residential Reach Code Cost Effectiveness Study.

Under the ordinance, electric vehicle supply equipment is required to built into the parking spaces of all new residential (one-and-two-family houses and townhouses, multifamily dwellings, and hotels and motels) and nonresidential construction. All new nonresidential and residential buildings are also required to install PV systems. Existing mixed fuel buildings and low-rise buildings are required to electrify existing heating equipment (e.g. gas/propane space heating systems, water heating systems, cooktops/ranges) for future use. This would be done through the installation of electric receptacles, battery energy storage systems, PV systems (with exception for single-family buildings), and designated raceways and reserved capacity to power electrical equipment that can provide equivalent heating and cooking function as gas equipment.

San Mateo County, California

Approved by the County Board of Supervisors, San Mateo County adopted its reach code on September 3, 2019, which was then amended and adopted again on February 25, 2020.[22] In addition, the County also commissioned and published a report summarizing the cost of all-electric construction and electric vehicle charging infrastructure, as well summaries of community engagement and outreach efforts and frequently asked questions regarding the electrification initiative.

Under the reach code, all new multifamily buildings and nonresidential buildings are required to install PV systems (minimum 3KW for nonresidential buildings less than 10,000 square feet and minimum 5 KW for nonresidential 10,000 ft2 or more). All newly constructed buildings, per mandatory energy efficiency requirements, must install energy efficiency certified space-conditioning equipment, service water-heating equipment and systems, pool and spa systems, and cooking equipment. New single family/duplex buildings and office buildings, running on mixed fuel, are required be more energy efficient — 15% and 10% more than set in state standards for single family/duplex buildings and office buildings, respectively. Also, for-profit restaurants and employee kitchens in nonresidential/commercial buildings are required to apply to the Building Official to install gas-fueled cooking appliances, while natural gas appliance locations appliances must be also pre-wired for future electric appliance installation.

Brookline, Massachusetts

On November 19, 2019, the Brookline Town Meeting approved Article 21 of its Town Meeting Agenda, which would “prohibit installation of fossil fuel pipig in new buildings and major renovations of existing buildings. The bylaw, meant to keep Brookline at pace with the Brookline Climate Action Plan to reduce carbon emissions to zero by 2020, bans fossil fuel-powered boilers, furnaces, and cooktops from all new buildings and major renovations of existing buildings, exceptions are made for where electrification isn’t considered “cost effective” or appliances such as fuel piping for backup generators, propane for outdoor cooking, and commercial cooking.

Brookline also has a default green electricity program for consumers, essentially meaning that all Brookline residents receive electricity that is 30% more environmentally sustainable than required by state law. Established in mid-2017, the Brookline Green Electricity program provides cheap green electricity to all residents who use or purchase green electricity plans, ranging from 11.6 cents/kWh for the default Brookline Green program to 13.7 cents/kWh for the Brookline All Green plan, which is 100% environmentally sustainable. Brookline Green Electricity is supplied by Direct Energy Services from a nonprofit third party called Green Energy Consumers Alliance, which allows Brookline residents to receive itemized tax-deductions for renewable energy as the Consumers Alliance takes a portion of what consumers pay per kilowatt hour.

New York City, New York

In April 2019, the New York City Council voted to approve Local Law 97, which establishes an Office of Building Energy and Emissions Performance under the auspices of the New York City Department of Buildings and sets annual building emissions limits (measured by tCO2e per square foot) for two compliance periods: 2024–29 and 2030–34. Local Law 97 also requires all buildings to submit annual carbon emission intensity reports stamped by registered design professionals or pay substantial fines of $268 per metric ton of CO2, starting from 2024. Civil penalties are also established for building owners whose buildings exceed their respective building emission limits.

The Office of Building Energy and Emissions Performance is charged with overseeing the implementation of building energy and emissions performance laws and policies for new and existing buildings, as well as major renovations. The Office would also receive, validate, and audit building emission assessments and establish and administer protocols for assessing and monitoring annual energy use, building energy and emissions and building emissions limits. The Office would also create an online protocol for property owners to submit their annual building emission assessments and administer a program to building owners without adequate financial resources or technical expertise in complying with new building performance standards.

Local Law 97 sets annual building emission limits for separate building types, which are: 1) ambulatory health, 2) mercantile/retail, 3) assembly, 4) hotel, 5) business, 6) educational, 7) residential, 8) factory, and 9) storage. The following buildings are exempted: 1) industrial facilities that generate electric power or steam, 2) real properties three stories or less, 3) city-owned buildings, 4) New York City Housing Authority developments, 5) rent-regulated accommodations, 6) religious establishments, and 7) real property owned by housing development fund companies.

Seattle, Washington

On January 8, 2020, the Mayor of Seattle signed Executive Order 2020–01, which directs a number of city agencies to undertake a comprehensive electrification strategy for the city.[23] The Executive Order directs all City departments to together, as well as with the existing Green New Deal Oversight Board and Mayor’s Youth Climate Council, to advance all actions that: 1) reduce pollution to a point necessary to limit average global temperature increase to 15 degrees Celsius, 2) promote economic opportunity and inclusive access to stable and well-paying jobs, and 3) ensure the benefits and investments in green energy transition go back to the communities most affected by the fossil fuel economy and industry.

The Executive Order also establishes a Green New Deal City Team, under the auspices of the Office of Sustainability & Environment — with members from relevant City agencies — with the following notable responsibilities:

Establish a subcommittee with members of the Office of Sustainability and Environment, Department of Transportation, Seattle City Light, Seattle Public Utilities, Office of Economic Development, Department of Finance & Admin. Services, and Department of Neighborhoods. Expedite high-impact climate policies, including developing building performance standards for decarbonization of new and existing buildings, expanding access to green space, establishing fossil-free zones, and developing affordable, high-occupancy, all-electric city transportation fleets. Commission a report identifying the top 10 actions Seattle could take to achieve significant reductions in GHG emissions — including specific actions and their impacts and/or costs — by June 1, 2020. Work with the City Budget Office to commission an annual Green New Deal budget memo for the City budget process by June 1, 2020, which would continue to be commissioned every following year. Commission a study analyzing feasibility of purchasing renewable natural gas for building and transportation fleet use during the transition to all-electric energy use, as well as an analysis of immediate greenhouse gas emission reduction benefits and financial costs and benefits of renewable natural gas, by September 30, 2020.

The Executive Order also directs the Mayor’s Capital Subcabinet, Office of Sustainability and Environment, Seattle City Light, and the City Budget Office to develop a Municipal Building Electrification Strategy to fully electrify all new or majorly renovated municipal buildings by outlining the actions and investments necessary to undertake electrification. This would coincide with existing plans for major building alterations and ongoing life-cycle fossil fuel system replacement efforts. The strategy would also identify estimates of reductions in climate pollution needed, as well as consider challenges and extenuating circumstances to ensuring continuity of service, future electric vehicle charging needs, and other related building improvements necessary. to improve cost-effectiveness of municipal building electrification. The strategy must be completed by June 1, 2020, implemented into the 2021 or 2022 city budgets, and strategy implementation and authorization of building project permits must be completed by January 1, 2021.

Analyzing Recent Statewide Energy Efficiency Standards and Electrification Initiatives

In 2015, the Governor authorized the implementation of the New York Energy Plan, which established new energy sustainability and incentive programs — under the auspices of NYSERDA — such as Renewable Heat NY, New York Green Bank, and the Reforming the Energy Vision (REV). Most notably however, the Energy Plan directed the New York Public Service Commission to codify requirements to generate 50% of the state’s electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030.

Analysis of Climate Leadership & Community Protection Act by the New York Public Interest Research Group

In 2019, the Governor and New York State Legislature passed landmark legislation that would take this goal even further by passing and enacting the Climate Leadership & Community Protection Act (CLCPA). The CLCPA sets targets for electricity generation from specific renewable energy sources and setting a statewide target to generate net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2045 — using 1990 levels of statewide greenhouse gas emissions as a comparative net indicator.[24]

In addition, the CLCLPA established a Climate Action Council, which convened for the first time on March 2, 2020. The Climate Action Council is responsible for approving and adopting a scoping plan to identify and make recommendations on regulatory measures, as well as other relevant state actions, to ensure the achievement of statewide greenhouse gas emission reduction targets.

During the same year, NYSERDA published and made its NYStretch Energy Code-2020 Toolkit available for public, municipal and county use. As a policy toolkit, NYStretch publishes information, reports, and model legislation to encourage cities and counties to enact local “stretch codes” for building electrification that exceed state-set standards — much similar to California’s CalGreen Standard.

Lastly, in February 2020, Governor Cuomo announced a 30-day amendment to the New York State Executive Budget, known as the Accelerated Renewable Energy Growth & Community Benefit Act.[25] The Executive Budget proposal streamlines the siting process for renewable energy facilities, provides incentives to cities and counties that host renewable energy facilities within their vicinity, and requires the Department of Public Service to commission a comprehensive study of the state power grid to identify CLCPA-critical renewable energy infrastructural needs (e.g. distribution upgrades, local transmission upgrades, and bulk transmission investments). The proposal would also expedite the application procession of all major utility transmission facilities.

Also contained in the proposal were two major programs — the Major Renewable Energy Development Program and the Clean Energy Resources Development and Incentives Program. The Major Renewable Energy Development Program would establish an Office of Renewable Energy Siting — under the auspices of the Empire State Development Corporation — which would be charged with establishing and promoting uniform standards and conditions for the siting, design, construction, and operation of renewable energy facilities, in consultation with various state agencies and departments such as NYSERDA and the Public Service Commission. The Office of Renewable Energy Siting would also oversee an application and public hearing process for the proposal and siting of renewable energy facilities, as well as charge facility developers a fee for any negative local environmental impacts of facility construction (this fee would be deposited into a dedicated Endangered and Threatened Species Mitigation Fund).

The Clean Energy Resources Development and Incentives Program would disburse discounts, utility bill credits, or compensatory/environmental benefits to utility customer — as determined by a proceeding commenced by the Public Service Commission within 60 days of the legislation’s enactment — funded by energy facility owners through the siting application fee. The amount of such a discount, credit, or benefit would determined in the proceeding, while accounting for factors such as: i) expected average electric output of facility, ii) average number of customers in host community, iii) expected total annual electric consumption in community, iv) potential impact on disadvantaged communities, and v) role of utilities in program implementation.

Currently, NYSERDA provides incentives for consumers, residents, and commercial or residential property owners to transition to clean heating and energy. Through its Clean Energy Action Plan, NYSERDA provides grant funding to newly constructed multifamily-residential and commercial buildings in gas-constrained areas — up to $600,000 in grant funding to newly constructed commercial buildings, up to $700,000 for low-to-moderate income multifamily buildings, and up to $600,000 to market rate multifamily buildings. This program also offers free clean heating and cooling screenings to large buildings, not to mention enhanced benefits and funding to customers in Southern Westchester County and the town of Lansing, New York.[26]

Through its NY-Sun Program, NYSERDA provides incentives and financing options to New York businesses looking to install solar panel systems. NY-Sun provides small businesses and non-for-profits up to $50,000 in on-bill recovery loans — repayable for up to 10 years — and up to $100,000 participation loans which are financeable.[27] NYSERDA also offers tax credits and real property tax exemptions and abatements to state or New York City businesses that install solar panel systems.

Policy Recommendations for New York

Upon review and analysis of electrification and carbon emission reduction initiatives across a number of cities and states, including New York, it’s important to discuss what a tangible, forward-looking set of electrification policy recommendations for New York would look like.

Working together with NYSERDA, the Department of Environmental Conservation, the Public Service Commission, Empire State Development Corporation, and the Urban Development Corporation, the Climate Action Council must devise a New York Building Electrification Strategy that make clear policy recommendations on regulatory and state measures to require statewide building electrification in consideration of the greenhouse gas emission reduction targets set by the Climate Protection and Community Leadership Act. The Climate Action Council and all relevant agencies must also work with city and county governments in the implementation of building electrification measures and the facilitation of public proceedings to gather community input on local electrification initiatives.

To encourage New York to pave the way forward for rapidly achieving renewable heating and building electrification, the Climate Action Council must devise a comprehensive, state-wide building electrification strategy that does the following:

Considers the carbon emission reduction targets set by the Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Establishes public proceedings to determine the feasibility and public outlook on statewide and local electrification policies and regulations, as well as determine electrification-related benefits (e.g. discounts, tax credits, etc.) for consumers, property owners, and municipalities or counties. Requires counties and municipalities to electrify residential and commercial buildings by dates determined by the Climate Action Council.

Below are specific policies that the Climate Action Council can recommend:

Determining Community Costs and Benefits of Electrification Policies and Regulations:

Direct NYSERDA and the Public Service Commission to jointly commence public proceedings on the benefits and costs of statewide electrification policies and regulations, overseen by a 9-member panel of Board members from NYSERDA and the Public Service Commission as well as members of the Climate Action Council, within 30 days of a date jointly determined by the Climate Action Council, NYSERDA, and Public Service Commission and providing the expiration of such proceedings after 90 days. Direct the Public Service Commission and local city and county governments to commence public proceedings on the benefits and costs of local electrification policies and regulations, overseen by a 4-member panel of Board members from the Public Service Commission as well as members of the Climate Action Council, within 30 days of the introduction of local stretch code legislation and providing the expiration of such proceedings after 60 days. Direct NYSERDA and the Public Service Commission to determine dates for statewide electrification targets, based on community input provided in public proceedings. Direct NYSERDA and the Public Service Commission, in consultation with the New York Conference of Mayors and New York State County Executives Association, to jointly commence proceedings to establish programs to provide discounts, utility bill credit, or compensatory/environmental benefits to utility customers and residential or commercial property owners in cities and counties that have enacted local stretch codes.

Agenda for a Statewide Electrification Mandate:

Require 31 out of 62 New York State counties to enact local stretch codes by a date determined to be feasible by the Climate Action Council, followed by remaining counties by a further date determined by the Climate Action Council. Require the electrification of 50% of all residential and commercial buildings in the state by a date determined to be feasible by the Climate Action Council. Require the electrification of all state-owned buildings by a date determined to be feasible by the Climate Action Council. Require the electrification of all buildings owned by cities with a population of more than 1,000,000 by a date determined to be feasible by the Climate Action Council.

Incentives for Cities and Counties, Consumers, and Property Owners:

Direct NYSERDA to expand its Renewable Heat NY program to provide installation incentives for electric space heating systems, electric water heating systems, and electric cooktops and ranges. Direct NYSERDA and the Empire State Development Corporation to establish incentive programs for cities and counties who enact and administer local electrification stretch codes, as determined in public proceedings set forth by the Public Service Commission. Direct NYSERDA to establish additional tax credit incentive programs for residential and commercial property owners who integrate and/or retrofit renewable heating appliances and electric vehicle charging equipment into new construction and/or existing buildings.

Footnotes

[1] Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2018; Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) Analysis, 2019

[2] RMI Analysis, 2019; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Greenhouse Gas Inventory, 2017

[3] EIA, 2019; EPA Greenhouse Gas Inventory, 2017

[4] EIA Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS), 2015

[5] Refer to previous footnote

[6] EIA, 2017; Office of Governor Andrew M. Cuomo, April 20, 2018,

accessed May 13, 2020, https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-cuomo-announces-new-energy-efficiency-target-cut-greenhousegas-emissions-and-combat

[7] EIA, 2017

[8] EIA, 2018

[9] RMI, 2019

[10] EIA, 2019; Refer to previous footnote; Ramon A. Alvarez, et al. “Assessment of Methane Emissions from U.S. Oil and Gas Supply Chain,” Science, July 13, 2018, accessed May 13, 2020, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6398/186

[11] EIA, 2017

[12] RMI, “The Impact of Fossil Fuels in Buildings: A Fact Base”, December 2019; Energy Information Administration, 2019

[13] PHMSHA 2018

[14] EIA Retail Price History; U.S. Federal Reserve

[15] EIA RECS, 2005, 2009, and 2015; EIA Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS), 1999, 2003, and 2012

[16] Census Bureau, 2017; EIA CBECS, 2012; EIA RECS, 2015

[17] Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2010, 2017

[18] United States Climate Alliance Annual Report 2018; C2es U.S. State Greenhouse Gas Emission Targets

[19] Office of Governor Andrew M. Cuomo, “Governor Cuomo Announces Additional $2 Billion in Utility Energy Efficiency and Building Electrification Initiatives to Combat Climate Change,” January 16, 2020, accessed May 13, 2020 https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-cuomo-announces-additional-2-billion-utility-energy-efficiency-and-building

[20] New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), NYStretch Energy Code-2020, accessed May 14, 2020 https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Programs/Energy-Code-Training/NYStretch-Energy-Code-2020

[21] Pew Research Center, “The Politics of Climate: Public opinion on renewables and other energy sources”, October 4, 2016, accessed https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2016/10/04/public-opinion-on-renewables-and-other-energy-sources/

[22] San Mateo County Board of Supervisors, “Adopt an ordinance amending the Energy and Green Building Codes of the County of San Mateo Municipal Code…”, Accessed May 22, 2020 https://sanmateocounty.legistar.com/LegislationDetail.aspx?ID=4337182&GUID=761FC72B-95F7-41E2-8872-615B6DBEC4E4&Options=ID|Text|&Search=4824

[23] Office of the Mayor of the City of Seattle, “Executive Order 2020–01: Advancing a Green New Deal for Seattle”, January 8, 2020, Accessed May 20, 2020 https://durkan.seattle.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2020/01/Final-Executive-Order-2020-01-Advancing-a-Green-New-Deal-for-Seattle_.pdf

[24] New York Public Interest Research Group, “NYPIRG Analysis of NY Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act,” June 2019, Accessed May 22, 2020, https://www.nypirg.org/pubs/201906/NYPIRG_CLCPA_Analysis.pdf

[25] Office of New York Governor Andrew M. Cuomo, “Governor Cuomo Announces 30-Day Amendment to Accelerate Renewable Energy Projects and Drive Economic Growth as Part of Nation-Leading Climate Agenda”, February 21, 2020, Accessed May 21, 2020 https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-cuomo-announces-30-day-amendment-accelerate-renewable-energy-projects-and-drive

[26] NYSERDA, “Clean Energy Action Plan- Commercial, Industrial, or Multifamily Properties”. Accessed on June 7, 2020 https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Programs/Clean-Energy-Action-Plan/Commercial-Industrial-Multifamily

[27] NYSERDA, “Commercial Solar Incentives and Financing”. Accessed on June 7, 2020, https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Programs/NY-Sun/Solar-for-Your-Business/Financial-Support/Incentives-and-Financing