Overview of 3D Printing and Clinical Applications of 3D Printing
By: İsa Aksu
Tags: 3d Printer, 3D Printing, 3d Modeling, 3d Design, 3d

Overview of 3D Printing and Clinical Applications of 3D Printing

What is 3D Printing?

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects from a digital file.

The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive process, an object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the object is created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the eventual object. (1)

3D Printing Technologies

3D printing is sometimes referred to as Additive Manufacturing (AM). In 3D printing, one creates a design of an object using software, and the 3D printer creates the object by adding layer upon layer of material until the shape of the object is formed. The object can be made using a number of printing materials, including plastics, powders, filaments and paper.

There are a number of 3D printing technologies, and this article provides an overview of those technologies.

Fused deposition modeling (FDM)

With this technology, objects can be built with production-grade thermoplastic. Objects are built by heating a thermoplastic filament to its melting point and extruding the thermoplastic layer by layer. Special techniques can be used to create complex structures. For example, the printer can extrude a second material that will serve as support material for the object being formed during the printing process. This support material can later be removed or dissolved.

What is good about this technology is that all parts printed with FDM can go in high-performance and engineering-grade thermoplastic, which is very beneficial for mechanical engineers and manufacturers. FDM is the only 3D printing technology that builds parts with production-grade thermoplastics, so things printed are of excellent mechanical, thermal and chemical qualities.

3D printing machines that use FDM Technology build objects layer by layer from the very bottom up by heating and extruding thermoplastic filament.

Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithography makes use of a liquid plastic as the source material and this liquid plastic is transformed into a 3D object layer by layer. Liquid resin is placed in a vat that has a transparent bottom. A UV (UltraViolet) laser traces a pattern on the liquid resin from the bottom of the vat to cure and solidify a layer of the resin.The solidified structure is progressively dragged up by a lifting platform while the laser forms a different pattern for each layer to create the desired shape of the 3D object.

Stereolithography is widely used in prototyping as it doesn’t require too much time to produce an object and cost is relatively cheap compared to other means of prototyping. Although this 3d printing method is rarely used for printing of the final product.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

SLS has some similarities with Stereolithography. However, SLS makes use of powdered material that is placed in a vat. For each layer, a layer of powdered material is placed on top of the previous layer using a roller and then the powdered material is laser sintered according to a certain pattern for building up the object to be created. Interestingly, the portion of the powdered material that is not sintered can be used to provide the support structure and this material can be removed after the object is formed for re-use.(2)

SLS is more spread among manufacturers rather than 3D amateurs at home as this technology requires the use of high-powered lasers, which makes the printer to be very expensive. Though there are several start-ups that work on development of low-cost SLS printing machines.

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

This is a rapid prototyping system. In this process, layers of material coated with adhesive are fused together with heat and pressure and then cut into shape using a laser cutter or knife .More specifically, a foil coated with adhesive is overlaid on the previous layer and a heated roller heats the adhesive for adhesion between the two layers. Layers can be made of paper, plastic or metal laminates. The process can include post-processing steps that include machining and drilling. This is a fast and inexpensive method of 3D printing. With the use of an adhesion process, no chemical process is necessary and relatively large parts can be made.

Electronic Beam Melting (EBM)

This technology is also much like SLM. However, it makes use of an electron beam instead of a high-powered laser1. The electron beam fully melts a metal powder to form the desired object. The process is slower and more expensive than for SLM with a greater limitation on the available materials.

Digital Light Processing (DLP)

3D printing DLP technology is very similar to Stereolithography but differs in that it uses a different light source and makes use of a liquid crystal display panel1. This technology makes use of more conventional light sources and the light is controlled using micro mirrors to control the light incident on the surface of the object being printed. The liquid crystal display panel works as a photomask. This mechanism allows for a large amount of light to be projected onto the surface to be cured, thereby allowing the resin to harden quickly.

Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

The SLM process is very similar to the SLS process. However, unlike the SLS process where the powdered material is sintered the SLM process involves fully melting the powdered material.(3)

History of the 3D Printing

The technology for printing physical 3d objects from digital data was first developed by Charless Hull in 1984.

He named the technique as stereo lithography and obtained a patent for the technique in 1986.

By the end of the 1989s , other similar technologies such as Fused Deposition Modeling and Selective Laser Sintering were introduced.

In 1993, Massachusetts Institute of Technology patented another technology, named “3 dimensional printing techniques” which is similar to the inkjet technology used in 2d printers.

In 1996, three major products, “Genisys” from Stratasys, “Actua 2100” from 3D Systems and “Z402” from Z corporation were introduced.

In 2005, Z corp, launched a breakthrough product, named Spectrum Z510, which was the first high definition color 3D Printer in the market.

The idea for 3D systems first began in the 1960s (Jakab, 2014), where experiments were carried out on additive procedures for manufacturing purposes. However, the breakthrough was only made in 1984 where Charles W. Hull, invented the first 3D printer. He later went on to found 3D systems, which is one of the leading companies in additive manufacturing procedures (Tony, 2011). Unlike traditional manufacturing methods like machining, 3D printing is an ‘additive’ procedure. Instead of removing materials from a block of material to get the final product, materials are only added when needed to form the final product.

Currently, 3D printing represents almost 28% of the manufacturing sector (Munoz, Kim & Armstrong, 2013). According to a market survey by Lux Research, a global consulting firm, the market value of 3D printing in 2012 stands at roughly $777 million. Moreover, based on their in depth research, they estimated that 3D printing pie could grow exponentially to $8.4 billion in 2025 (Vesanto, 2013). This is just a conservative estimate of the potential of 3D printing. The newest estimate by Strategic Analytics states that 3D printing could be worth as much as $70 billion in 2030. They projected that by then, nearly half of all American households will owe a household 3D printer (PRNewsWire, 2014). It is evident that analysts are picking up the piqued market interest in 3D printing and this certainly means that 3D printing will become a key part of the household in the future.

3D printers are now able to produce any parts, tools and even whole appliances with the click of the button, provided that there is a valid 3D computer-aided design (CAD) file. This CAD file contains the dimensions and designs of the intended product. Basically it tells the printer what the final product is supposed to look like (Price, 2011). Such ease of printing greatly lowers the technical barrier towards 3D printing and allows many amateur hobbyists to fully utilise the potential of 3D printing. This certainly paves the way for 3D printing to become a part of the household since 3D printing is no longer limited to engineers and manufacturers.

Major companies have also caught onto the many benefits of 3D printing processes with many already incorporating 3D printing manufacturing methods to their production chain. Boeing used 3D printers to manufacture parts for its new Boeing 787 Dreamliner (Popular Science, 2013). Mattel uses 30 3D printers to produce parts for almost all of its toys in their line up (Boulton, 2013).(4)

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Market Landscape of 3D Printing

The global 3D printing market size is estimated to be USD 9.9 billion in 2018 and is expected to reach USD 34.8 billion by 2024. Factors such as ease in development of customized products, reduction in manufacturing cost and process downtime, government investments in 3D printing projects, and development of new industrial-grade 3D printing materials are driving the growth of the 3D printing industry. Currently, the trend in the 3D printing applications is shifting from prototyping to functional part manufacturing in various verticals, such as automotive, medical, aerospace, and consumer goods.

The 3D printers available in the market are based on different technologies such as stereolithography (SLA), fused deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), polyjet/multijet printing (MJP), inkjet printing, electron beam melting (EBM), laser metal deposition (LMD), laminated object manufacturing (LOM), and digital light processing (DLP). DMLS, SLS, and FDM are the most widely used 3D printing technologies.

The 3D printing market based on region has been segmented into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific (APAC), and Rest of the World (RoW). North America is expected to hold the largest share of the 3D printing industry, while the market in APAC is expected to grow at the highest CAGR during the forecast period.

The expiry of 3D printing technology patents of Stratasys (US) and 3D Systems (US) for their fused deposition modelling (FDM) and stereolithography (SLA) technologies, respectively, has opened several opportunities for emerging companies, as new entrants can easily get access to AM technology and make modifications based on their unique requirements.

The 3D printing market is mainly driven by the extensive research and development activities directed toward the introduction of new and improved technologies as well as fresh print materials.(5)

Market Segments of 3D Printing

The Market segments of the 3D Printing occur by Applications,Components, Technology, End-user and Region. This segmentation is used for the understanding of the markets and purpose of the using these devices.

3D Printing Application Areas

Automotive

The automotive industry has also enjoyed the benefits of 3D printing. It has truly helped with better customisation for a number of parts, jigs and fixtures required by customers. Volkswagen is a prime example of this — ever since they stopped using their traditional CNC machine to create jigs, business has been booming. Besides the long hours of production, the CNC machine wasn’t very cost effective to the company, but this all changed when they finally got on board with 3D printing. Similarly, aerospace engineers turned to 3D printing for the production of high-performance parts.

Aerospace

On top of that, 2018 marked an important year for the aviation industry. Thanks to 3D printing, GE Aviation successfully printed 30,000 Cobalt-chrome fuel nozzles for their LEAP aircraft engines. 20 parts were welded together in one and in the end, the entire part weighed 25% less and was five times stronger than before. This benefited the company greatly, considering the fact that LEAP are some of the best selling engines in the industry. It also helps them to save a staggering $3 million dollars.

Art & Design

Additive manufacturing technologies give you the power to break the limits of imagination, with proof being in the incorporation of it within the works of artists and designers around the world. Thanks to its ability to break barriers, bringing forth personalized and creative works, it is slowly becoming the go to technology for modern day artists.

Thanks to additive manufacturing, we have seen a rapid increase of projects that push the limits of an artist’s creative capabilities.

Transport

Additive manufacturing could be well on its way to transforming the way we move, as it has quickly begun to revolutionize the different sectors surrounding transport. From aeronautics and aerospace to automotive and maritime; these sectors are looking to spend less time and money and have found a friend in this technology.

It is for precisely this reason that additive manufacturing has become the go to technology for transport industries across the world who are looking to create lighter, stronger and more resistant equipment that can match the needs of the companies. The democratization of additive manufacturing of different parts is also bringing enormous technological and pragmatic advances in the automotive and transport sectors. (6)

Education

High schools, colleges and universities are quickly adopting 3D printing technology to allow their students to be at the forefront of this technological advance. With applications so far-reaching, it is becoming more and more important that students are not only exposed to 3D printing, but also to have experience in it to benefit their future careers. Research is relying more heavily on 3D printing than ever before, from prototyping to bioprinting. At a younger level, elementary and middle school students can also benefit from the ability to see their ideas come to life in a tangible form. Teachers can print models of anything they might want to demonstrate to their classes as needed.

Entertainment Industry

The requirement of the film and animation industries is for highly detailed models with good surface finish so that models can be used for visual mockups, photo/film shoots and master patterns for molding. 3D printers are ideal for this industry as the surface finish of models straight from the machine means little or no hand finishing of the parts are required, which is essential on free form textured models.(7)

Jewelry

One unexpected application of 3D printing is in the fashion industry. 3D printed jewelry has become a popular niche for those searching for a unique look.

With the introduction of 3D printers, jewelry-makers can experiment with designs not possible using traditional jewelry-making methods. In addition, 3D printers make it cheaper to produce individual, unique pieces of jewelry or customize pieces for customers.(8)

Benefits of 3D printing

Mass customization. 3DP addresses emerging consumer trends of personalization, connectedness and convenience by letting users ideate, design and manufacture individualized products. Products designed for their own ergonomic needs can enhance utility and maximize return on each design for companies.

Time-to-market. Rapid prototyping makes R&D cycles shorter while providing the flexibility of creating and testing multiple design iterations. From a retail perspective, 3DP can be used to modify, rather than create, existing products. This can incentivize store visits to personalize the fit of the item via point-of-sale production and could have transformational impact on manufacturer-retailer relationships.

Manufacturing and supply chain efficiency. 3DP enables on-site production, thereby helping companies reimagine their manufacturing and supply networks. It can slash development time, eliminate tooling costs, limit inventory/storage spaces, reduce logistics/transportation costs and help contain labor requirements.

Waste reduction and lower taxes. 3DP can improve the productivity of materials by eliminating waste. Nike indicates that reducing waste through 3DP alone could produce US$1 billion in cost savings. The electronic transmission of design plans for local production can potentially eliminate custom duties.

Consumer engagement. CPR companies leverage 3DP to garner valuable consumer insights and develop innovative marketing campaigns. Co-designing/co creating with consumers and crowdsourcing via open platforms provides these companies a unique opportunity to connect with consumers and drive brand loyalty(9)

What is bioprinting?

Bioprinting is an additive manufacturing process where biomaterials such as cells and growth factors are combined to create tissue-like structures that imitate natural tissues.

The technology uses a material known as bioink to create these structures in a layer-by-layer manner. The technique is widely applicable to the fields of medicine and bioengineering. Recently, the technology has even made advancements in the production of cartilage tissue for use in reconstruction and regeneration.

“Bioinks are the “filament” of bioprinters.”

In essence, bioprinting works in a similar way to conventional 3D printing. A digital model becomes a physical 3D object layer-by-layer. In this instance, however, a living cell suspension is utilized instead of a thermoplastic or a resin.

For this reason, in order to optimize cell viability and achieve a printing resolution adequate for a correct cell-matrix structure, it’s necessary to maintain sterile printing conditions. This ensures accuracy in complex tissues, requisite cell-to-cell distances, and correct output.

The process principally involves preparation, printing, maturation, and application. This can be summarized in the three key steps:

Pre-bioprinting involves creating the digital model that the printer will produce. The technologies used are computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

Bioprinting is the actual printing process, where bioink is placed in a printer cartridge and deposition takes place based on the digital model.

Post-bioprinting is the mechanical and chemical stimulation of printed parts so as to create stable structures for the biological material.(10)

Bioprinting Technologies

Bioprinting can be defined as the simultaneous positioning of biomaterials and living cells in a prescribed layer‐by‐layer stacking organization to fabricate engineered tissues and organs. Depending on their governing physical mechanisms and deposition means, bioprinting technologies can be classified into three major modalities: extrusion‐based bioprinting (EBB), droplet‐based bioprinting (DBB), and laser‐ based bioprinting (LBB)

EBB has been used in the bioprinting of living cells since the early 2000s and continues to be utilized by the majority of the bioprinting community due to its simplicity, user friendliness, and the ability to generate scalable and structurally stable constructs in a relatively short time.

DBB, on the other hand, was first demonstrated by Klebe in 1988 with the use of an HP inkjet printer in order to pattern proteins, which subsequently evolved with the seminal cell printing work of Boland in 2003. Later, a number of studies have advanced DBB technology (such as the discovery of other DBB techniques), and the technology is currently preferred for medium/high resolution and high‐throughput applications, such as tissue models for drug screening and disease modelling.

LBB was demonstrated for the first time by Odde and Renn in 1999 for the patterning of cells in primitive shapes, and it evolved further over the last 15 years with the adoption of SLA and LIFT techniques in bioprinting . LBB is mainly used in applications requiring high‐precision patterning of cells, or high‐resolution fabrication of tissue constructs.(11)

Bioprinting Techniques sheet:

Bioprinting is being explored for the purposes of repair, replacement, or regeneration to develop an assortment of tissues including cartilage, bone, skin and periodontal tissues; other vascularized tissues; and cardiovascular tissues. Bioprinted tissues are being investigated as analogues for toxicity testing, disease modelling, and for patient-specific drug screening, with the potential to eliminate testing on animals.

Bioprinting applications noted the following areas of inquiry in descending order of most to least developed and validated:

tissue modelling (drug discovery and development)

toxicology testing (drug screening and cosmetics)

engineered tissues (regenerative medicine, prosthetics, and dental applications)

transplantation (full or partial organs as part of regenerative medicine).(12)

Clinical Application of 3d printing

3-DP health care applications are generally categorized in the literature into the following applications:

anatomical models (e.g., for surgical preparation, planning, or to aid diagnosis)

surgical guides

tools and instruments

implants and therapeutic devices

prosthetics

tissues and organs

dental applications(13)

Surgical learning tools

While much of the focus for 3D printing in the medical industry has been around implants and medical devices used by patients, one of the largest areas of application has concentrated on anatomical replicas. Historically, clinical training, education, and device testing have relied on the use of animal models, human cadavers, and mannequins for hands-on experience in a clinical simulation. These options have several deficiencies including limited supply, expense of handling and storage, the lack of pathology within the models, inconsistencies with human anatomy, and the inability to accurately represent tissue characteristics of living humans.

A 3D printed model of a patient’s heart

Physicians are now using models produced by AM from patient scan data to improve the diagnosis of illnesses, elucidate treatment decisions, plan, and, in some cases, even practice selected surgical interventions in advance of the actual treatments. The models help physicians understand patient anatomy that is difficult to visualize, especially when using minimally invasive techniques. Models also assist in accurately sizing medical devices. Physicians can also use the models to explain an upcoming surgery to patients and their families and to communicate the surgical steps to the clinical team.

To help reduce cost some facilities have developed procedures where surgeons practice and plan operations on low cost mannequins that are transplanted with patient-specific AM models. This coupled with the fact that AM technologies are able to produce both hard and soft materials in a single part, allowing the accurate replication of human tissue, calcification, and bone, means that surgeons can now obtain an even better understanding of exactly how a procedure needs to be performed right down to the touch and feel of the different parts of a patient’s anatomy.

Surgical guides and tools

Much like a drill jig is used in manufacturing to ensure a hole is placed in the exact right location, physicians also implement guides and tools to assist in surgery. Historically, surgical guides and tools were generic devices made of titanium or aluminum. By implementing AM, physicians are able to create guides that precisely follow a patient’s unique anatomy, accurately locating drills or other instruments used during surgery. AM guides and tools are used to make the placement of restorative treatments (screws, plates, and implants) more precise, resulting in better postoperative results.

A dental tool guide. Scanning the patients teeth then 3D printing the design allows for the tool to be perfectly located

Orthopedic surgeons and craniofacial (cranium and face) surgeons are one of the most regular users of AM guides and tools. In 2014, 23 custom surgical guides and templates were fabricated to assist partial or total knee replacement surgeries, more than 112 surgical guides were fabricated to assist various craniofacial surgeries and nine different titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V craniofacial implants were surgically implanted into patients in Egypt alone. Surgical guides, derived from patient scans to precisely match their anatomy and made from PC-ISO (a sterilizable FDM plastic), are compatible with human tissue for short-term contact. This allows them to be placed against the patient’s anatomy for a more precise cut or drill hole.

Anatomical models (bone models) and surgical guides are also regularly both produced via AM and used collaboratively to plan and test the best locations for stabilizing screws or plates that conform to the patient’s bone surface before performing surgery.

Implants

AM’s ability to produce fine mesh or lattice structures on the surface of surgical implants can promote better osseointegration and reduce rejection rates. Biocompatible materials such as titanium and cobalt– chrome alloys are available for applications in maxillofacial (jaw and face) surgery and orthopedics. The superior surface geometry produced by AM has been shown to improve implant survival rate by a factor of 2 when compared to traditional products. The porosity of these AM products coupled with the high level of customization and ability to manufacture them from traditional medical materials has resulted in AM implants becoming one of the fastest growing segments of the AM medical industry.

3D printed orthopedic hip replacement sockets have already been surgically implanted into a large number of patients globally.

Prosthetics

In the United States alone, close to 200,000 amputations are performed each year, with prosthetics priced from $5,000-$50,000 replacement or alterations can be time consuming and expensive. Because prosthetics are such personal items, each one has to be custom-made or fit to the needs of the wearer. AM technology is now regularly being used to produce patient specific components of prosthetics that match perfectly with the user’s anatomy. The ability to produce complex geometries from a range of materials has resulted in AM being adapted at the locations where prosthetics are in contact with a patient. AM technology has been used to produce everything from prosthetic leg connections that fit comfortably onto a user through to a complex and highly customised facial prosthetic for a cancer patient.

AM is also being used in the manufacture of low-cost prosthetics. The collaborative nature of the AM industry has meant that a quick internet for 3D printed prosthetics reveals a huge range of peer-reviewed products that can be printed on desktop AM printers at a very low cost. These designs can easily be scaled or altered to perfectly match the size of the user. The e-NABLE Community comprises a group of individuals from all over the world who are using their 3D printers to create free 3D printed hands and arms for those in need of an upper limb assistive device. Concepts like this are now becoming more commonplace as AM continues to move into the mainstream.

Typically, traditional manufacturing techniques and materials are used to produce the structural section of functional prosthetics. AM is often then implemented at the interface section by producing complex contours that fit perfectly to the users’ anatomy improving comfort and fit. AM is also implemented on the external outer surface of prosthetics to produce life-like and organic outer shells that hide the mechanical nature of prosthetics. This also allows the wearer to fully customize their prosthetics to whatever design or style they prefer.

A highly detailed custom facial prosthetic made with AM

Hearing aids

Much to many people’s surprise hearing aids are one of the greatest success stories to come from the continued development of AM. Over 10,000,000 people are now wearing 3D printed hearing aids with 97% of all hearing aids globally now being created using AM. Not only has AM technology significantly reduced the cost of custom hearing aids when compared to traditional manufacturing but the ability to produce the complex and organic surfaces required for a hearing aid has reduced returns because of bad fit from 40% to 10%.(14)

Patient specific hearing aids printed via the SLA process

Neurosurgery

In neurosurgery, advances in imaging have been beneficial to patient care by allowing clinicians to observe small and intricate structures inside the nervous system. 3-DP offers the potential of improved visualization of the relationship between complex structures when planning a procedure. Because the spine has complex anatomy and is surrounded by delicate structures, 3-DP models and devices that help surgeons plan and accurately execute procedures could also help improve patient outcomes. It has been reported that, as case complexity increased, so did the benefits of using 3-DP such as reduced operative time and perioperative blood loss. 3-DP surgical guides were reported to help mitigate the risks of procedures.

The use of 3-DP in neurosurgery includes the development of patient-specific anatomical models, the design of devices to assess and treat neurosurgical conditions, and biological tissue-engineered implants. In addition, subspecialty 3-D printing applications in neurosurgery are listed in Table.(15)

Turkey 3D Printing Markets

3D Printing sectors are being improved every day. The biggest companies’ devices are used in Turkey. Desktop or Industrial Printers applications areas are given the report at “application areas 3d printers”. But who or which companies use these devices? We can see from the image.We will learn details about 3D Printer and Printing sectors to Entrepreneurs. (16)

Interview

3D Printing Company — BTECH — Kuntay Aktaş

23 Eylül Çarşamba Günü 12:45–13:45 saatleri arasında ODTÜ Teknokent Silikon blokta BTECH CEO’su Kuntay Aktaş ile gerçekleştirdiğimiz görüşmenin notlarını bu çalışmamda paylaşıyorum.(Röportaj dili Türkçedir)

-Btech

Btech Innovation güçlü mühendislik altyapısı ile Savunma, Havacılık, Medikal, Dental ve Otomotiv gibi sanayilerde katma değerli işleri, yüksek nitelikle yapmayı ilke edinmiş bir teknoloji firmasıdır. Avrupa ve Amerika’daki birçok merkezde eğitim alan mühendislik ekibi, “Katmanlı İmalat” alanındaki tecrübe ve bilgi birikimiyle, Tasarım (Design for AM), Topology Optimizasyonu, 3 Boyutlu Baskı Hizmeti ve Tarama gibi mühendislik hizmetlerini dünya standartlarında sunmaktadır.

-Kuntay Aktaş

Kuntay Aktaş, Makina Mühendisliği’nden mezun olduktan sonra Medikal, Havacılık ve Savunma Sanayi alanında birçok projede yer aldı. Btech Innovation’ın kurucu ortağı, Yönetim Kurulu Başkanı ve CEO’sudur.

-Btech Çalışma Alanları

-Btech Medikal Alanda Yaptığı Çalışmalar

Conclusion

3D Printing as you can see the graph, day by day being more important in production. Articles numbers have increased since 2013 and it must continue. Technologies are changing and human life and sectors are being made easy with these devices.

Clinic application of 3D printing, seems that the medicine and clinical application have changed with Additive Manufacturing technologies.For example, before the aesthetic surgery you can see what it will look like. Implants and 3D organs will be placed in our life.

At least,3D printing is the next big thing to create an impact on the healthcare industry. Additive deposition of spatially controlled cell structures leading to replaceable organs and body parts will be the next major contribution that 3D Printing is anticipated to bring about.

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Example of FDM: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=53&v=WHO6G67GJbM&feature=emb_logo

Example of SLA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yYGycgnYlBM&feature=emb_logo

Example of SLS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wD9-QEo-qDk&feature=emb_logo

Example of SLA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mwVgNqVnrew&feature=emb_logo

https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2020/07/24/what-can-3d-printing-be-used-for-here-are-10-amazing-examples/#2f908924d696