For many smallholder farmers in Tanzania, money and technology are not the only barriers to climate change adaptation
By: Andreea Nowak
Tags: Barriers To Innovation, Climate Action, Climate Adaptation, Smallholderfarmers, Technology Adoption

Women and youth come together to discuss inclusive agriculture, as part of CIFOR’s work on corporate commitments to sustainability and the incorporation of outgrowers. N. Mtimgwa (CIFOR)

Unequivocal evidence of climate change has called for shifts in mindsets and behaviors all round the world, and agriculture is no exception. Climate adaptation measures are needed in nearly every hub of the food value chain: input providers, farmers, processors, transporters, retailers, and end consumers. Adaptation measures are many and various. For farmers, adapting to a changing climate may mean completely abandoning familiar yet unsustainable practices such as monocultures; adopting new measures, like using drought-tolerant crop seeds; or simply doing more (and doing better) of what they have been doing for decades, such as diversifying crops.

The consequences of climate inaction will become devastating for nature, economies, and societies within the next ten years. By 2030, our current global trajectory will have pushed an additional 100 million people below the poverty line; significantly reduced the food security and livelihoods of some 500 million smallholder farmers; and left more than US$ 7 trillion in net adaptation benefits unrealized. The consequences will be far-reaching; for example, by 2030, climate inaction will be costing Tanzania up to 2% of its national GDP every year.

But there is much more than meets the eye.

Climate adaptation measures offer real benefits, yet adoption of these remains limited.

Tanzania´s population has increased more than fivefold in the last five decades (1965–2015) even as crop yields have remained virtually unchanged or diminished as a result of soil degradation, droughts, and suboptimal farming methods, among other issues. The consequence of this has been widespread food deficits and insecurity.

Climate change in Tanzania is expected to further reduce the yields of major crops by 2050. Smallholder farmers, who currently produce 75% of the country’s agriculture products, will suffer an outsized proportion of this impact. Measures that enable farmers to adapt to the new climate realities — such as drought-tolerant crop varieties, soil and water conservation techniques, and integration of trees on farms (also known as agroforestry) — are therefore fundamental for maintaining and improving livelihoods, socioeconomic outcomes, and natural resources.

Despite the agriculture sector’s imminent need for adaptation, the use of climate measures in Tanzania remains among the lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Highest adoption rates throughout the country are about 46% — a mere half of the 90% adoption rates observed across the rest of eastern Africa for the same measures. Within the country, adoption rates vary widely across measures, crops and livestock systems, and geography, in some cases sitting below 5%. Understanding what enables and hinders adoption can help elucidate what mechanisms have been stifling climate action and what leverage points exist for catalyzing change in the sector.

Adoption remains sluggish for many reasons.

Farmers are faced with complex choices and risks daily. They must juggle many different, sometimes conflicting objectives, including increase productivity and income, conserving natural resources, and ensuring household food security. Their climate adaptation choices have similar complexities and trade-offs. Some options are costly to adopt or maintain; others are extremely unfamiliar to the farmer and therefore risky in terms of both function and benefit. The increasing uncertainty around climate, as well as distortionary policy and social systems, may further frustrate efforts.

A recent study by World Agroforestry (ICRAF) in Tanzania, published in Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, considered factors that may speak to the minimal adaptation progress to date. The study was conducted across Iringa, Zanzibar, Dodoma, and Tabora regions to account for the diverse farming systems prevalent in the country. Scientists observed trends in the adoption of five climate adaptation measures that have proven effective in sustaining and increasing productivity and resiliency to climate shocks: crop diversity (cultivating more than one crop type in rotations or intercrops); livestock diversity (keeping more than on type of livestock on the farm); agroforestry (inclusion of trees in agricultural fields); irrigation (of any type, including drip irrigation and traditional systems); and fertilizer application (of any type). Factors influencing adoption were classified as either household characteristics (e.g., size, age of household head, extent of women’s control over farm resource) or household assets (e.g., ownership of land, livestock, cultivated area, off-farm income).

No one factor universally and significantly affects adoption of climate adaptation measures, the study shows.

For instance, farmers owning some land are more likely to diversify crops and integrate trees on farms than those who don’t own land at all, but they do not necessarily keep more types of livestock. Rather, livestock diversity is linked to larger land areas, which enable farmers to produce a wider range of livestock feed crops. Indeed, evidence shows that every hectare of land used increases livestock diversity by 5%.

Agroforestry in Lushoto, Tanzania. Woman farmer preparing tree seedlings for transplanting. P.Kimeli (CCAFS)

Women farmers are crucial to climate adaptation efforts because they play a prominent role in household food security and nutrition, are generally more vulnerable to climate change than men, and yet have fewer opportunities to adapt. The Tanzania study shows that women’s agency over what to produce and how is directly related to on-farm agricultural diversity. Agricultural diversity, in turn, can positively influence food security, incomes, and overall social empowerment.

Farmers’ ages also appear to be relevant, particularly for labor-intensive measures such as manual irrigation, wherein the water source may be at a distance from the household. Risk aversion and short-term investment planning are more prevalent among older farmers, suggesting that strategies to incentivize youth in agriculture are critical in driving transformation and increasing sectoral resilience.

The findings of the research also underscore the importance of social and political leverage points for climate action. For example, reflecting contextual realities in land tenure policies and minority inclusiveness helps pave the way toward effective climate adaptation strategies by farmers. These are far from purely economic or technical mechanisms, but rather an interdisciplinary package of interventions that consider climate action as part and parcel of the broader socioecological system.

Beyond the farm and into the future

Farms operate in a highly dynamic context; the environment is changing constantly. Current climate change adaptation measures may not be as effective in twenty years’ time, implying that climate measures should not be regarded as a one-time event, but rather as a continuous process of innovation and optimization. Therefore, understanding how adoption barriers and enablers shift over time will be crucial for optimizing interventions in terms of sustainability across time. Panel studies can provide valuable insights into farmers´ choices in the face of changes and shocks, as well as how they react to repeatedly poor results.

Moreover, climate adaptation measures extend far beyond the farm. Robust research for development, extension, and input markets are necessary for developing and disseminating improved seed varieties. Resilient transport and post-harvest infrastructure are crucial for moving products reliably in any weather. Credit, insurance, and business services support innovation and risk-taking. As such, engaging a range of stakeholders in the design of effective adaptation measures is critical to ensure that enabling environments are established and maintained. The role of consumer demand in accelerating and sustaining adaptation measures will become increasingly important in the coming years as consumers gain interest in sourcing environmentally and socially responsible products.

Local market in Tanzania. M. Konningstein (CIAT)

This blog is part of work funded by the United Stated Department of Agriculture Foreign Agriculture Service, implemented through the Partnership for Scaling Climate-Smart Agriculture Project of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS). CCAFS is carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. USAID funds came from USAID to ICRAF/IPs via USDA.