The Universe Two Hidden Particles- The Strings and the Singularities
By: Mahmoud Nafousi
Tags: Physics, Theory Of Everything, String Theory, Theoretical Physics, Quantum Physics

In this article we present the nature of the characteristics of the proposed two fundamental hidden particles (FPs) responsible for composing the entire universe. They are the spring-like strings and the point-like singularities.

1) The spring-like strings: intrinsic characteristics

String Theory is a theoretical framework that suggests the possible composition of subatomic particles from strings, which are energetic pieces of threads-like objects. In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. The strings are one-dimensional objects. On scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string.

According to our postulations

The universe is composed of singularities and strings. Below we list the key characteristics of the spring-like strings.

1- Intrinsic velocity and momentum

The strings are one-dimensional “spring-like” particles. The are in continuous forward momentum at the constant speed of light, c. This characteristic is behind the universal constant speed of light. Since the strings are in continuous motion, then they only exist in the form of momentum, mc, where m is the mass of a packet of strings.

The strings have wavy characteristics

- The strings undergo harmonic oscillations as they interact with the singularities. The level of their oscillations is determined by the density of the singularities composing the medium they pass through. For this reason the constant speed of light measurement can only be achieved in absolute vacuum, where the singularities/strings ratio is fixed at its minimum ratio. Any increase in this ratio, as in the case of dense gravitational fields or dense mediums, the photons’ velocity slows down below the constant speed of light.

- The strings cannot be created or destroyed, hence the conservation of energy, momentum and the information they represent.

2- Intrinsic left-handed and right-handed helicities

Strings’ helicities represent the spin of the strings along their axis. The strings come in two types, with either left-handed or right-handed helicity. Each type of strings’ helicity represents the reported half spin associated with fermion particles. For example left-handed strings in orbital momentum compose the waveforms of electrons’ quantum fields.

- All bosons are composed of coupled strings of both helicities moving in linear momentum. They exhibit integer spin, i.e. spin-1, spin-2, etc. The coupled strings’ helicities represent electromagnetic radiation angular momentum.

- The spacetime particles (assumed in this work to be the Higgs Bosons) exhibit zero spin as their orbiting strings are composed of an equal number of uncoupled strings of both helicities, hence they cancel out.

- Strings’ helicities are conserved. As part of the universe’s global symmetry, it is proposed that there are equal numbers of strings of both helicities at the atoms, molecules and bosons levels; and also at the entire universe level.

- The strings’ helicities cannot be made to spin faster or slower and their spins directions cannot be changed. This explains why electrons’ intrinsic spin doesn’t change, yet it has up and down spin orientations determined by the different singularities triangular trajectories, which form their nuclei.

3- Intrinsic coupling and decoupling characteristics

The spring-like strings with their different helicities get coupled (intertwine) as they interact with each other.

- When some of the strings with opposite helicities that compose the waveforms of differently charged fermion particles interact, they get coupled. The coupling force is the source of the current unsolved problem in physics known as the coupling constant or gauge coupling parameter, which is a number that determines the strength of the force exerted in an interaction.

- The strings’ decoupling takes place when coupled strings, which compose the gauge bosons like the gluons, are pulled apart by their relevant super partnering singularities as they interact at micro distances.

- The strings coupling and decoupling play an important role in many aspects of quantum mechanics. They lie behind the strong force and the other four forces of nature.

4- Linear or orbital momenta

The strings assume either forward linear momentum as they get coupled and emitted as electromagnetic radiation (EMR) or as gauge bosons. A standard packet of coupled strings represents a Planck constant, which is the quantum of electromagnetic radiation.

- Uncoupled strings assume orbital momentum as they interact with the singularities, which compose the spacetime and fermion particles’ nuclei. As uncoupled strings, mc, assume orbital momentum. They turn into energy, mc², by the partnering interacting singularities . The strings’ orbital momentum explains the mass-energy equivalency, hence the law E =mc². More on that when we discuss the centripetal force law generated by the singularities, F =mc²/r, where r is radius of the orbiting strings.

- The strings’ momenta and their acceleration by the singularities represent the different forms of energy found in the universe. The strings transfer their momenta between different particles and energy systems as they get emitted and absorbed.

- The strings create the three spatial dimensional and the fourth time-generating dimension as they interact with and orbit the singularities at the constant speed of light forming the quantum time machines.

5- Source of binary codes

The two types of strings’ helicities are behind the binary values associated with all types of EMR. For this reason photons are the carriers of digital information such as TV and radio waves. Each string represents a “bit from it”, a term coined by Wheeler. Hence we are proposing the mass-energy-information equivalency.

For example each planck constant represents a standard packet of coupled strings. Each photon’s energy is equal to a Planck constant, h, time its frequency, f. For this reason each photon with a specific frequency carries specific digital information.

New Research which Supports that photons are composed of coupled strings

- A new research published in 2016 in the journal, Science Advances, could be seen to support our postulation that electromagnetic radiation (including lights) are formed from coupled strings. The finding, as per quote below, has shown that a completely new form of light can be formed from only one type of string, where its spin angular momentum is just half of that associated with a Planck constant.

“The TCD press release explains how angular momentum operates in relation to light: “A beam of light is characterised by its colour or wavelength and a less familiar quantity known as angular momentum. Angular momentum measures how much something is rotating. For a beam of light, although travelling in a straight line, it can also be rotating around its own axis (spin).

Until today, it was presumed that light, regardless of form, would have a whole number for angular momentum (a constant quantity that measures how much light is spinning). It was thought that the value would always be a multiple of Planck’s constant (the physical constant that sets the scale of quantum effects).

However, researchers from Trinity College Dublin are claiming to have demonstrated that a new form of light exists — one where the angular momentum is just half of this constant value.”

- This means according to our postulations that they have managed to form photons of light from one type of strings’ helicity, hence the reported half spin. However we predict that such light particles would not be stable as would amount to a breach of the required universe global symmetry. Passing neutrinos would absorb the uncoupled strings as part of the universe build-in mechanism of removing this type of asymmetry.

2) The point-like singularities: intrinsic characteristics

Singularities. usually refer to points of infinity, and thus a not-well-defined points. In other words, singularities lead us to a new theory of physics. The singularities act as the universe guiding particles, which govern the strings’ orbital momentum and their harmonic oscillations. They determine the fermion particles’ quantum fields’ geometry and turn them into quantum constructors and computational systems. Below are the key characteristics of the singularities.

1- Singularities are point-like particles with CW or CCW spin directions

The singularities are point-like, massless and unobservable particles. They can only be recognized from the fundamental roles they play in the working of the universe. The singularities are continuously spinning at a constant speed either clockwise (CW) recognized as positive electric charge, or counter-clockwise (CCW) recognized as negative electric charge. The direction of their spins are conserved. There is an equal number of singularities with each spin’s direction in all atoms, neutrons and in the entire universe. For this reason they all exhibit zero net charge.

- Their continuous spins conserve their independence from joining each other. As the radius of the singularities is almost zero, then their spin is almost infinite.

- The singularities are capable of instantaneous communication with other singularities within a system boundary. A system boundary could represent an elementary fermion particle or it could represent composite particles as in the case of fermion particles forming an atom. Entangled particles also share the same boundary condition although separated by great distances. This instantaneous communication characteristic of the singularities is key to explaining the violation of the “locality principle” associated with entanglement. This is not someting we are familiar with in the real world, hence the difficulty to visualize.

2- Singularities are the source of electric charges

Electric charges are quantized due the roles of the singularities responsible for generating them. The electric charge generated by each singularity is equal to + ⅙e where “-e” represents the charge of an electron with a neucleus composed of six CCW spinning singularities. A positron’s charge is equal to +e. The use of the dimensionless vacuum fine structure constant, 1/137.036, is mainly to adjust for this wrong assumption made by physicists. More on that later in chapter 21.

- Singularities with the same spin direction repulse each other, while those with opposite spins’ directions attract each other. This is key to the continuous interactions between the singularities within the nuclei of the space and fermion particles. For this reason quantum mechanics of a fermion particle is continuously affected by adjacent fermion particles. The attractions and repulsion forces associated with the singularities are behind the formation of the triangular trajectories of the singularities within the nuclei of the fermion particles. Every three singularities form one of four possible triangular trajectories.

- The net charge of a system of composite elementary particles is the sum of the net spin directions of all the fermion particles’ singularities in that system.

- Atoms and neutrons have zero net charges as they have equal numbers of each type singularities’ spin. Removing an electron from an atom will give it a positive charge (i.e. it becomes ionized).

3- Singularities change their spins’ orientations in line with the gyroscopic effect

The gyroscopic effect is defined as the ability of a rotating body to maintain a steady direction of its axis of rotation and to change only its spin’s orientation if a force is exercised on it.

- The singularities’ spin orientations change in line with their interactions with other singularities.

- The singularities within a given quantum boundary system are in continuous interactions with each other. The singularities also interact with those in adjacent boundary systems within a given degree of freedom. Due to this characteristic, singularities with different spins’ directions within the nuclei of spacetime particles get polarized in the presence of charged particles. This characteristic is behind the creation of the electric fields.

- The singularities synchronize their spins’ orientations as they interact with moving charged particles. This is key to the formation of magnetic fields.

4- Singularities are found in groups of six

It seems that the number six has a specific significance in the creation of quantum triangular trajectories’ symmetry. It is the only number where the addition and multiplication of three consecutive numbers are equal to the same number (1+2+3 =1*2*3 =6).

- The singularities are usually found in groups of six or multiple thereof to interact in pairs of triangular. trajectories within their specific boundaries. The singularities form the various fermion particles’ nuclei, which are orbited by strings of partnering helicity. This postulation removes the difficulty of explaining how elementary particles like quarks have fractions of a charge.

- Six singularities of different spins directions compose the nuclei of generation one fermion particles. The nuclei of a spacetime particle (and the second and third generation fermion particles) are composed of multiple of six singularities. The number “Six” is the unit of measurement when it comes to the grouping of the singularities to form the three dimensional space. For a nucleus to form a stable three dimensional waveform (as they drive the strings in orbital momentum) there must be a minimum of two interacting angular trajectory systems.

- The net spin direction of the singularities is the source of the fermion particles electric charges. So the electron’s charge of -1e means it has 6 CCW spinning singularities. They form a pair of T4 trajectories, which account for the electrons’ stability.

The up quarks +2⁄3e charge means that it has 5 CW and 1 CCW spinning singularities, (+5–1)/6=2/3. Its six singularities form T1 and T2 types trajectories.

The down quark has 2 CW and 4 CCW singularities giving it -1⁄3e charge. Its six singularities form type T3,T3 trajectories or T2, T4. This has special significance in ensuring a full cycle of flavor changes within hadrons’ confinements.

The above proposed formulation of the quarks trajectories explains their irregular (boomerang) orbital momentum which ensure the formation of the confinements six micro dimensions as postulated by string theory. The quark confinements represent the boundary conditions of their interacting singularities.

- The above postulation offers a possible answer to what is known as the flavor problem: “Why are there so many flavors within quarks’ confinements? Why do we have six types of quarks and six types of leptons, and why do they have the different masses that they do? We don’t have a clue.”

- It is the presence of the spinning singularities at the 3 quarks’ nuclei that accounts for the protons spin crisis. See quote below.

“The proton spin crisis is a theoretical crisis precipitated by an experiment in 1987, which tried to determine the spin configuration of a proton. The experiment was carried out by the European Muon Collaboration (EMC). Physicists expected that the quarks carry all the proton spin. However, not only was the total proton spin carried by quarks far smaller than 100%, these results were consistent with only 4% to 24% of the proton spin being carried by quarks. This surprising and puzzling result was termed the “proton spin crisis”. This problem is considered one of the important unsolved problems in physics”.

5- Singularities form triangular trajectories systems

Every three singularities interact at micro distances to produce four different triangular trajectory systems. Their trajectories’ geometries are determined by their electrostatic attraction and repulsion forces and by the adjacent boundary conditions. In case of generation one fermion particles, their nuclei are composed of a pair of interacting triangular trajectory systems, which determine their different geometries (waveforms). Each singularity represents a node in the triangular interactions. As the three singularities interact they change the lengths of the imaginary triangle sides and its angles. The neutrinos, with their 3CW and 3CCW singularities, their trajectories are in collapsed structure allowing them to move at the near speed of light within the spacetime matrix.

- A triangular trajectory system is composed of singularities with different spins’ configurations. The length of each side is determined by the type of interactions between the triangle singularities and the speed of their interactions with those of other fermion particles. Within a quark confinement the quarks are interacting at very high speed keeping their trajectories near collapsed positions. This accounts for the small volume of the proton relative to an electron.

- At the neutrino’s level, the trajectories are in near collapsed format, which make them energetic and ready to constitute different trajectories depending on the type of interactions with other fermion particles. This was discussed in some details in chapter 12.

- The three singularities start their rhythmic dynamical trajectories from zero initial collapsed triangular position (observed as a collapse of a fermion particle’s wavefunction). This is an important process associated with the singularities resetting their rhythmic interactions to create new symmetry with other particles’ trajectory systems as they interact with each other. The resetting start point is located at the center of their triangular interactions, which in accordance with the law of conservation of momentum, remains in place. It can be regarded as similar to. a 3-body problem taking initial positions and velocities (or momenta).

- Two interacting triangular trajectory systems (in line with their intrinsic attraction and repulsion forces) create 3-D spatial geometry specific to their spin types, spin orientations and their interactions with adjacent particles or those they are entangled with. For example, in case of electrons their pairs of T4 trajectories are responsible for their up and down spins.

- As the orbiting strings follow the singularities’ dynamical trajectories. They are responsible for the formation of the fermion particles quantum fields as excitation in the local fabric of space.

- The pairs of triangular trajectory systems, which form the nuclei of fermion particles, may appear chaotic but in reality they are governed by their intrinsic dynamical electrostatic attraction and repulsion characteristic. The constructed fermion particles’ trajectories determine the characteristics of the composed atoms and molecules. The dynamic trajectories’ interactions convert the atoms and molecules into computational systems.

- In terms of the four types of triangular trajectories, a hydrogen atom is composed from two trajectories of each type, namely. A proton composed of two up quarks (T1T2, T1T2) one down quark composed of (T3T3) orbited by an electron composed of (T4T4).

- In case of the vacuum space particles, the 12 singularities, which compose their nuclei, follow specific symmetrical interactions between their trajectory systems. Once their singularities are disturbed by adjacent loose fermion particles they change their rest state trajectories, which are at their maximum entropy. This leads to changes (stress) in their geometries leading to the creation of force fields and a drop in their entropy, hence the ability to do work.

- While the strings carry information at the constant speed of light, the singularities that share a given boundary condition, communicate with each other instantaneously. Two subatomic particles, which share the same spacetime code would also share the same boundary condition irrespective of the distance between them. This characteristic would explain the violation of the “locality principle”, manifested as the spooky instantaneous communication between pairs of entangled particles

- The dynamic interactions of the singularities within the nuclei of the spacetime and fermion particles represent a key feature behind quantum symmetry and explains why geometry and mathematics are the language of physics. For example an electron’s wave function collapse is due to its pair of trajectories restarting a new set of dynamical trajectories interactions (observed as up and down spin).

- Each configuration of 6 singularities composes a specific fermion particles’ nuclei. The 6 singularities exhibit intrinsic preference to a specific type of triangular trajectories. The orbiting strings driven by the singularities represent the fermion particle wave function. The triangular trajectories are inclined to revert back to their rest state interactions over time. This explains why particles over time return to their maximum entropy in the absence of external force.

6- Second and third generation fermions

The second generation fermion particles’ nuclei are composed of 12 singularities and the third generation fermion particles’ nuclei are composed of 18 singularities. Particles with more singularities would attract greater numbers of orbiting strings, hence their greater masses.

With the increased number of interacting angular. trajectories they become unstable and break up quickly into fermion particles with dual trajectory systems.

- We postulate that generation two fermion particles will have electric charges double that of generation one and generation three would be triple. The value of the vacuum’s fine structure constant would have to be adjusted accordingly to get the correct results in any electromagnetic experiment involving generation two or three fermion particles.

7- Conservation of singularities

Conservation of singularities is proposed in line with the conservation of electric charges and similar to conservation of energy. The number of singularities spinning CW are equal to those spinning CCW in all atoms, neutrons and the entire universe. They are conserved in any closed system. This means that aggregate charge in the universe is zero.

- The conservation of singularities law means that pairs of fermion particles with opposite charges don’t get completely annihilated into pure energy, but they also turn into lighter fermion particles, like the massless neutrinos, which are difficult to detect. This postulation is supported by the reported presence of the relatively large number of neutrinos around nuclear power stations and those emitted by stars in the process of nuclear fusions.

8- Source of binary codes

The spin direction (CW or CCW) of a singularity represents the “bit from it”, as coined by Wheeler. They are responsible for giving fermion particles their unique digital codes. Since generation one fermion particles are composed of different combinations of six singularities, then we have 7 different fermion particles. However, a neutrino with 3 singularities of each spin’s direction oscillates between being a neutrino and antineutrino depending on the helicity of the orbiting strings they attract. For this reason we have a total of 8 fermion particles in line with the standard model.

9- Singularities act as the universe controlling particles

- The singularities’ spinning force, attraction and repulsion forces, formation of triangular trajectories, instantaneous communications as they share the same boundary conditions, control over the strings’ oscillations and orbital momentum plus their other binary characteristics make them the universe controlling particles.

- The above characteristics of the strings and the singularities are behind the creation of the quantum constructors (subatomic particles) which represent quantum information systems. This supports our proposed energy-mass-information equivalency. They are behind the manifestation of the 3 spatial dimensions and the fourth continuously generated present time dimension.