The Mars Conundrum
By: Eg Stassinopoulos
Tags: Radiation, Mars, Space Exploration, Space Travel, Planets

Introduction

During the last two decades, a plethora of publications has dealt with the concept of sending people to Mars. Many studies have been conducted, and tests and experiments have been performed, to gain desperately needed information to support and make such a mission possible. In this essay, we review, analyze, and describe the difficulties, hazards, and problems associated with this kind of endeavor, particularly considering the popularized notion that humanity should become a multi-planet species, initiate colonization of other celestial bodies, and eventually terraform their new habitats.

A New Planetary Home?

Opinions and suggestions have been repeatedly expressed, promoting the colonization of other planets in this and other solar systems (Stephen Hawking) [1], and encouraging Homo Sapiens to become a multi-planet species (Hawking, Musk) over the next millennium, later revised to a ‘century’. The goal would be to save the human race from possible extinction from a cataclysmic event on Earth.

Stephen Hawking gave a speech at the Oxford University in England on November 18, 2016, in which he stated : “….By that time we should have spread out into space and to other stars1, so a disaster on Earth would not mean the end of the human race.

[1]Footnote : It is surprising that as prominent a scientist as Stephen Hawking would advise Earthlings to move “…. to other solar systems ….” and “….. to other stars ….”, since, as an astrophysicist, he knows that such a move is forever beyond human reach.

In a letter to the ‘Washington Post’, on June 16, 2016, Dex Torrike-Barton, Senior Director of Communications for Space-X, declared that “…. At the same time, we should not slow down our effort to reach Mars. Humanity’s long term progress depends on becoming a multi-planet species”

According to Micky Woolf in San Francisco, CA, September 20, 2016, Elon Musk stated that “…. There are only two fundamental paths for humanity : 1. We stay on Earth forever and then there will be an inevitable extinction event, and 2. The alternative is to become a space-faring civilization and a multi-planet species.

The Health Problems

Considering an eventual journey to Mars, a major concern is the health of the biological organisms being involved, whether the voyage is for a temporary scientific research expedition or to settle on the planet. Before reviewing the possibilities of becoming a multi-planet species by colonizing or terraforming another heavenly body, it is necessary to address the important and critical problem of human health during space travel.

The humans would suffer, unavoidably, from several types of health problems [2]. These would be caused by zero-gravity during the long duration space journey, and by Mars’ low-gravity (1/3rd of Earth’s), in addition to severe consequences from radiation exposure to cosmic rays and solar flare protons. This radiation exposure would not only be during the trip but also on the surface of Mars, as the planet is not protected by a magnetospheric or atmospheric shield. The effects include:

Vision impairment

Bone loss

Mass-losing muscle atrophy

Shrinking spines

Cardiovascular alterations

Immunological function impairment

Dental susceptibility to cavities

Mental health challenges

Digestive and pulmonary system impairment

Space fungus

Red blood cells reduction (space anemia)

Additional concerns on Mars, besides cosmic ray and solar proton radiation, include:

Ultraviolet radiation

X-ray and gamma-ray inundation from cosmological events

The toxic Martian soil (Perchlorate)

Intense, long-lasting toxic global dust storms.

The effects of the absence of a strong global magnetic field

The subfreezing average -60 C temperature

The un-breathable atmosphere (96 % CO2)

Low atmospheric pressure (0.006 % of Earth’s)

[2] Footnote:

(a) “Russian cosmonaut Mikhail Kornienko and NASA astronaut Scott Kelly, on landing in Kazakhstan, could barely breathe: after a year of weightlessness, their lungs and chests were weak and once they landed, they could barely walk. The ground crew carried them from the capsule, for fear they might stumble and break a bone.”[1].. These serious effects were suffered despite the ISS having been supplied with exercising equipment designed for use in a zero gravity environment for two-and-a-half hours a day. The corresponding health status of crews to Mars, after a long 6–8 month journey, would be much worse.

(b) “In an experiment that charted the changes in the quadrupeds of rats flown in space, more than a third (1/3) of the total muscle bulk was lost within 9 days” [2].

Multi-planet Species



It is important to realistically explore the question of whether Earthlings can ever become a multi-planet species. Regarding this issue, Stephen Hawking’s Oxford University comments were surprising : “….Because of the adoption of artificial intelligence, the ravages of climate change, and the threat of nuclear terrorism….”, he forecast initially the end of humanity within the next 1000 years, unless humans were able to successfully find and colonize another planet. Otherwise, remaining on Earth any longer would put humanity at great risk of encountering another mass extinction. Hawking believes that the Earth’s cataclysmic end might be hastened by mankind, which will continue to devour the planet’s resources at unusual rates. For a disaster on Earth not to mean the end of the human race, Hawking has recently advanced his extinction prediction from an initial 1000 to a new shorter 100 years. But the question remains : what would prevent a similar human destruction and extinction at another location?

Hawking did not explicitly mention Mars as this ‘other planet’ that humans should colonize, but it is the only planet in our solar system possibly suitable for potential colonization. The study and exploration of Mars has already begun via orbiting satellites and rovers on the surface. There are plans afoot for future missions with astronauts, although the challenges of long-distance human travel without gravity, and with radiation exposure, remain obstacles. And Mars, even if theoretically successfully colonized, would not be immune to the disasters that threaten Earth, e. g. asteroid impact, nuclear war, etc.

But human travel beyond Mars is impossible with current technology. The next closest planet, Jupiter, is about 8 times the distance from Earth to Mars. At the speed of 15,278 km/hr, that ‘raced’ the CURIOSITY ROVER [3] to Mars, the trip took 8 months (240 days). To continue that journey to Jupiter would require additionally 64 more months of travel. Even assuming a future significant increase in speed by a factor of 4, which is not likely, it would still require a 16-month journey. Humans would be seriously impaired and might not survive that trip in zero gravity and cosmic ray exposure. Besides, what would be the purpose of such a journey since humans cannot land (set foot) on that giant gaseous planet. The attached Table lists the distances to the other outer big planets, their temperatures, and the current approximate travel times.

Hawking should be aware that human travel to other ‘solar systems’ would require more than evolving technology, and needs a change in physical laws and our relationship to them. The nearest star in our galaxy, Alpha Centauri, is just over 4 light years away. That is, 4 years away at the speed of light: at 300,000 km/second. At the speed of CURIOSITY’s journey, the trip to Alpha Centauri would take 282,752 years. Technology limited to the scope of science fiction, such as ion drives and matter-antimatter propulsion, that could increase the speed a hundred times to 1,527,800 km/hr, would still require colonists to brave 2,827 years traveling in space. Captain Kirk and Commander Spock guiding us through wormholes with warp drive acceleration, is an appealing fantasy, but we will never live long enough and prosper enough to make that fiction a reality.

Furthermore, by adapting to the special evolutionary pressures, the Martian ‘humans’ may be different in size, physically weaker and more vulnerable in terms of health, and possibly even cognitively impaired, on account of their lifelong exposure to the low gravity and cosmic radiation. They will have irreversibly adapted to the physical conditions of the colony planet, initiating the evolutionary beginning of a new human species. The descendants of the settlers would not ever be able to return to Earth, or be able to colonize any other planet in our solar system, which is the end of Earthly humans dream of becoming a ‘multi-planet species’.

It took life billions of years to evolve on Earth, as a unique phenomenon, as far as we know. If in the billions of galaxies, with the trillions of stars and planets, and with head-starts on Earth of over ten billion light years, intelligent biological systems have not become multi-planet species before us, (there exists no scientific evidence that this has happened, not even in our own small Milky Way galaxy), then it is not likely that humans will successfully become multi-planet or ever visit any planet outside of our solar system

Colonization

This has been consistently promulgated as the possible salvation of mankind from extinction. But the only planet that can be potentially colonized in our solar system in the foreseeable future is Mars. However, colonization of the Red Planet to save the human race from extinction is questionable, and at worst futile, because a similar or identical cataclysmic event, such as asteroid impact or inundation from cosmological radiation, could also happen on Mars. And within our solar system, it is beyond our capacity to reach planets further away, even with a substantially increased vehicle propagation speed. Anyway, such an effort would be a fool’s errand, since humans could not alight on those gas giants.

In other words, colonization will be a one-way street, unlikely to salvage the human species in its current form, because even if successfully colonized, Mars may be more vulnerable to catastrophic events than Earth, and, if Earth serves as an example, may quickly be overpopulated, depleted of its limited natural resources, or destroyed by nuclear terrorism.

Terraforming

It is most unlikely that the descendants of colonists from Earth would be able to successfully and sustainably terraform any new planetary home. And in the particular case of Mars, there are many unsurmountable problems. For example, (a) a strong global artificial magnetic field will have to be generated to provide an adequate magnetospheric shield, analogous to Earth’s, for primary protection against cosmic radiation, plus whatever impact a strong magnetic field may have on humans; (b) a breathable, oxygen based atmosphere will need to be created (current composition : 96% CO2,, 0.1% O); © the atmospheric density would have to be sufficiently increased to serve as a secondary shield for protection against cosmic radiation, similar to Earth’s; (d) the average subfreezing temperature of minus -60 degrees C will have to be raised to Earth-like levels; (e) free flowing surface water would need to be found or produced, and prevented from freezing; (f) the toxic soil of the planet would have to be de-contaminated to allow farming; (g) the enormous months long toxic global dust storms, blocking 99% of the sun-light, would have to be controlled; and (h) the exceptionally harmful effects of low gravity on biological systems would have to be addressed.

A terraforming effort of this magnitude would probably require centuries to be accomplished, if at all — at a literally astronomical cost. Would Mars colonists be able to handle such challenges, or even to survive long enough to accomplish successful terraforming? Such an effort on the scale necessary would be very unlikely, if not impossible.

The Planet Mars



It is important to underscore that a “blue-sky” goal of saving the human species via Mars colonization does not undermine the scientific value in a reasonable, well-planned, and carefully executed manned explorative mission to Mars.

There is no question that Mars is an unhealthy and inhospitable place. “It is a dead, cold, barren rock which harbors: (a) no breathable atmosphere3, (b) no liquid water, © no resources of food, (d) toxic soil, not suitable for farming, (e) freezing temperatures” [4]. It has an average surface temperature of -60 degrees C, but the environment can reach temperatures as low as -120 degrees C for extended periods of time.

3Footnote: Mars’ tenuous, unbreathable atmosphere is mostly composed of carbon dioxide (96 %), with a density of only 6 g/cm2. Earth’s atmospheric density is 1033 g/cm2, which is equivalent to 3.83 meters of regolith (12.56 ft), and constitutes the second most effective shield against solar and galactic cosmic ray radiation



As Mars does not provide significant magnetospheric or atmospheric protection against cosmic radiation, any habitat on the planet, above ground or below the surface, has to provide adequate shielding in the equivalent of at least 12 ft of regolith. Ideally, a permanent habitat should be at 25 ft underground or deeper. If such a shielded habitat is not available for temporary visitors or permanent settlers, the unfortunate humans will have accumulated a surface radiation dose of approximate 1 Sievert in about 4.3 years, during the maximum phase of the solar cycle and in about 1.6 years during the solar minimum phase. This exposure is in addition to the significant radiation dose they will have received on the journey to Mars, depending on the actual length of the trip and the phase of the solar cycle. These estimates are based on the measurements of the RAD instrument on the CURIOSITY rover, during its journey to Mars (1.84 mSievert/day) and on the surface of the planet (0.64 mSievert/day), at solar maximum [3].

For permanent settlers, the problems are even more serious, because they would be exposed over a lifetime to these conditions. Colonists would have to limit their presence on the unshielded surface to only a few hours per day.

The Journey



The tedious business of getting to Mars involves many discomforts, annoyances, difficulties, and even dangers, such as::” (a) a grueling, extended nightmare for the crew, living for months in a small, closed, packed spacecraft the size of an SUV, (b) tears, sweat, urine, and perhaps even solid waste, will need to be collected and recycled, © crew members would be floating around sideways, upside down, and at other nauseating angles” [4]. Simple functions would become complex, such as: (d) male crew members shaving, (f) female crew members taking care of monthly menstruation cycles, (e) both genders brushing their teeth, (f) bathing, washing, cleaning themselves, and (g) laundering their clothes, etc., but particularly (h) how would human waste (urine and solid) be collected in zero gravity, several times daily for many months, from male and female astronauts, in the limited space of their capsule, and without privacy ???



In addition to the health and hygiene concerns, there will be psychological problems: “(a) persistent mechanical noises and vibrations, (b) sleep disturbances in the confined common space, © unbearable tedium, (d) trance states, (e) depression, (f) monotonous repetition of meals, clothing, routines, conversations, (g) emotional and psychological stress, exponentially magnified by being restricted to a tiny, hermetically sealed pressure cooker capsule hurtling through space [4] with no escape possible, in addition to (h) significant boredom, (i) personality conflicts, and (j) anxiety.



Despite these constraints, the crew must oversee cutting edge technology which is continuously at risk of breaking-down: “(a) equipment failure, (b) computer malfunction, © power interruptions, (d) software glitche”s [4], and most importantly (e) human error. These events underscore just how much preparation still needs to be done to get humanity to Mars. Beagle-2, STRV-1c/1d, and even the Challenger and Columbia Shuttle disasters, demonstrate how difficult and dangerous space travel can be [5,6].

Toxic soil

The Martian surface is unsuitable for farming because of its toxicity.

“Tests made the unexpected discovery that the Martian soil in the vicinity of the VIKING lander is highly reactive chemically, favoring rapid destruction of organic matter” [7].

The toxicity of the Martian soil is due to its enormously high level of Perchlorate concentration (% of soil weigh : average 0.4 to 0.6 %; occasionally up to 0.1%) that exceeds Earth’s soil rate by several orders of magnitude.

Static Electricity

Another difficult problem that needs to be addressed, whether for temporary visitors or permanent settlers, is ‘Static Electricity :

“On Mars there is no natural grounding mechanism (no surface water). As a result, astronauts may develop huge differences in electrical charges relative to their equipment. This might produce an arc between the astronaut’s space suit and equipment, causing potential damage to sensitive instruments or the space suit [8]”.

Dust Storms:

Challenges also include the unpredictable Martial global toxic dust storms. Their top speed can reach up to 97 km/hour. For the first two months of the MARINER-9 spacecraft’s flight in Mars’ orbit (1971), the Pmost severe Martian dust storm ever recorded, obscured the planet’s surface features [9].

In 2007, two Martian rovers, SPIRIT and OPPORTUNITY, had to be placed in ‘survival mode’ during a global dust storm that lasted for weeks, contaminating everything that was exposed [10].

In 2018, the OPPORTUNITY rover has been silent since a massive dust storm engulfed the Red Planet in June and prevented sunlight from reaching the solar panels of the rover. In October, four months later, the Sun is breaking through the haze and, hopefully, the rover would be able to recharge its batteries [11].

Such long lasting intense storms are blocking 99% of the solar light. The dust would get everywhere : inside the habitat, all over the suits, into machinery, and would inadvertently be inhaled in small amounts by astronauts or settlers. Contamination risk may be unavoidable and require implementation of elaborate prevention measures. It is to be noted, that storms can consume the entire planet, simultaneously altering atmospheric conditions.

Farming



An issue frequently arising in plans and proposals to colonize Mars is the potential of raising food locally, as imagined in the popular science fiction movie ‘The Martian’. In an effort to explore this possibility through trial on Earth, an experiment was initiated by the ‘International Potato Center’ [12], in an attempt to grow a crop of tubers in an environment with supposedly simulated Martian atmospheric conditions. The Center announced that “Preliminary results are positive”. The experiment involved a sealed cube-sat container that was rigged with pumps, water hoses, LED lights, and instruments to emulate Mars-like temperatures, night-and-day cycles, gases, and air pressures.



However, when compared to the actual Mars conditions, there are several major differences in this experiment: (a) the impact of low gravity on the plants (1/3rd of Earth’s), (b) the toxic soil of the planet (Perchlorate), © the total absence of liquid water on the surface, (d) the average -60 degree C freezing temperatures, (e) the continuous, unshielded exposure to cosmic ray radiation, and (f) the total absence of a magnetic field. It is most likely that these conditions would adversely affect the growth, or even the survival of these plants.



A further set of questions regarding this particular experiment need to be answered before final valid conclusions can be reached about its applicability to a Mars expedition. These include (a) how accurately did the gases in the test mimic the composition of the Martian atmosphere (~96% CO2, ~2% Argon, ~1.9% Nitrogen, and ~0.1% Oxygen), (b) how accurate did the air pressure in the container match the Martian environment (about 6% of the Earth’s), © how closely did the LED lights approximated the Martian sun-light; i.e. the wavelength of visible, ultraviolet, infrared lights, and (d) how well did the experiment maintain, within the CubeSat, the sub-freezing average temperature of -60 degrees C.



Regarding space traveler’s food, a study by a team at MIT, which researched food supplies for 4 persons for a Mars-One mission to the planet, found that the most economical way to provide it was to supply it from Earth, rather than growing it locally [12]. Of course, it can be argued that plants have been grown experimentally in space in the past on the ISS. In contrast, however, to the Mars environment, these plants had the advantage of: (a) a ‘normal’ atmosphere, in terms of composition and pressure, (b) a benign, mild, steady temperature, © non-toxic soil, (d) plenty of water, (e) exposure to adequate light, and (f) relative protection from solar and galactic radiation. The plants were only challenged by zero gravity, and a reduced magnetic field value. It would not be surprising to see that, just as humans suffer in zero or low gravity, so would most biological systems that evolved on Earth, including plants. The saturation of the planet’s surface by ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays, in addition to the toxic soil, prevent the unshielded survival of any living organisms.

Plans & Costs



Elon Musk has repeatedly said that “…The human race must learn how to live on planets other than Earth, as an insurance against a planet-wrecking disaster.”. This pretty much repeats the similar warning expressed by Stephen Hawking, discussed above. What is new and surprising is Musk’s statement that “To get there (to Mars) will mean building a spaceship that can keep occupants alive for a journey that will last for months, and a rocket that can sent it on its way. ….”, to which he added : “…. The spaceship would be 495 meters long with room for around 100 persons …”.



A half kilometer long spacecraft with 100 people on board, and loaded with most items needed to keep them alive, safe, and healthy for such a long many-months trip, would need a monster of a rocket, one that is not likely to be available for decades in the future, if ever. Even a partial assembly of such a machine in near-Earth space would be difficult to build — — and enormously expensive.



According to the above mentioned MIT study [13], new technologies will be needed to keep humans alive, and at least 15 Falkon-Heavy rockets would be required to provide initial supplies for just 4 persons, before arrival on Mars, at a cost of 4.5 billion dollars. This hefty price tag would grow with any additional crews or supplies, and may be considered unaffordable.

Wrong Reasons for Settlement

Besides the arguments presented, questioning the proposals for a permanent settlements on Mars, unconvincing suggestions for ‘Reasons to Go’, are frequently promoted, as for example :

“……We also need to go there if we want to create a backup location for humanity, in the event that life on Earth becomes untenable due to things like Climate Change …..”

“….. We could also go there to reach for additional resources like water, precious metals, or additional croplands in case we can no longer feed ourselves….”

In both of these instances, Earth will be paradise compared to the desolate, hopeless, hostile Red Planet. We can modify the Climate Change effects on this fabulous planet of ours, with its limitless available water resources, the protective strong magnetic and atmospheric shields against cosmic radiation, with a gravity healthy for humans, with its breathable atmosphere, and with amazingly easy farming possibilities, all of these missing on Mars Let us terraform our Earth instead and convert all its deserts into tropical forests.

Regarding resources like water or precious metals, these exist only in the imagination of the people not familiar with the Martian reality.

The Bottom Line

“croplands”,

There is nothing in our arsenal of science, biology, technology, or knowledge, that allows or can support this dream of multi-planet species, colonization, and terraforming, beyond the limited, restricted, initial and simultaneously terminal one-way move to the only suitable, nearby planet. It is not very encouraging to think that the future of mankind has to depend on such a questionable, unrealistic adventure. Even if we were to somehow conquer the challenges and make our way into space, we would still be vulnerable from threats to our species. Infections by lethal organisms, susceptibility to natural disasters or predators, cataclysmic asteroids impact, etc., could still be likely at our new habitat. But most importantly, our greatest danger would come from ourselves. The human traits that have led us to the brink of nuclear war, and are contributing to the potential need for finding another planetary home, would accompany us as we travel to another planet. If we cannot address the factors within us that have led us to attack each other and destroy our beautiful planet, we will be fated to repeat our behaviors and create a ‘scorched Mars’ too.

Dreamers need not lose hope, however. Scientific advances and innovations may be able to minimize or mitigate some of the challenges, risks, and dangers that make multi-planet settlements impossible today. With more cost-efficient, safe, and rapid modes of transportation, perhaps waves of colonists from Earth could arrive on Mars repeatedly over future years, to help and guide a native population of a new human species, to build a home and avoid the extinction envisioned by our prophets (Hawking and Musk), and facilitated by some of Earth’s governments and leaders.

Epilogue

In no way does this essay express or imply any criticism regarding ongoing exploration and future scientific research on Mars. Unquestionably, we should continue to explore our solar system. The primary objective of the author is to enumerate, identify, and describe the enormous difficulties and dangers involved in the process of interplanetary travel and planet colonization, and to advocate for devoted efforts to benefit humanity on our fabulous home planet.

References

1.. Achenbach, J., “Mars: Inside the High-Risk, High-Stakes Race to the Red Planet”, Retrieved from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/11/spacex-elon-musk-exploring-mars planets-space-science/ , April 2017

2. Fong,K., “The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on your Body”, Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ , April 2017

3. Hassler, Donald M., “Mars Surface Radiation Environment Measured with the Mars Science Laboratory’s CURIOSITY Rover”, Science Express, 9 Dcember 2013.

4. Regis, E., “Let’s Not Move to Mars”, Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/21/opinion/lets-noy-move-to-mars.html?_r=0 April 2017

5. Wall, Mike, “UK’s Beagle 2 Mars probe Nearly Aced 2003v Landing, Study Suggests”, Retrieved from http://www.space.com/34685-europe-beagle-2-mars-lander-images.html , April 2017

6. Avery, Keith, “A scientific study of the problems of digital engineering for space flight systems, with a view to their practical solution”, Retrieved from http://klabs.org/mapld04/tutorials/mishaps/strv1c_d.htm, April 2017

7. US Congress and the US Office of Technology Assessment, “Exploring the Moon and Mars — Choices for the Nation”, Chapter 5, Scientific Exploration of Mars”, Retrieved from https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1991/9120/912007.PDF , April 2017

8. Selby Cull, Planetary Sciences, Hampshire College, “Static Electricity, Toxic Dust, and the Red Planet : How NASA is Preparing to Send Humans to Mars”, Journal of Young Investigators, Peer-Reviewed Science-Journal, Feature Article, Issue 5, November 2002

9. Mariner 9, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1971–051A, Retrieved from https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do/id=1971-051A , April 2017

10. Cain, F, “Dust Storm Threatens Martian Rovers”, Retrieved from http://www.universetoday/11416/dust-storm-threatens-the-martian-rovers/, April 2017

11. The Washington Post, October 2, 2018.

12. CIP International Potato Center, Lima, Peru, 18 December 2015, Retrieved from http://cipotato.org/press-room/blog/potatoes-on -mars/ , April 2017

13. Chu, J., “MIT Evaluation of Mars-One Mission”, MIT News Office, 14 October 2014. Retrieved from http://news.mit.edu/2014/technical-feasibility-mars-one-2014 , April 2017

During the last two decades, a plethora of publications has dealt with the concept of sending people to Mars. Many studies have been conducted and tests and experiments have been performed, to gain desperately needed information to support and make such a mission possible. In this essay, we review, analyze, and describe the difficulties, hazards, and problems associated with this kind of endeavor, particularly considering the popularized notion that humanity should become a multi-planet species, initiate colonization of other celestial bodies, and eventually terra-form their new habitats.

Appendix A

Some Interesting Mars Statistics and Trivia

· Very preliminary cost estimates for sending a small crew of humans to Mars and bringing them back, range from 200 to 300 billion dollars, including the necessary associated study, test, and experiment expenses.

· Communications between Earth and Mars take about 40 minutes to travel between the two planets.

· A car driven at a top speed, would take more than 350 years of continuous uninterrupted travel, to reach Mars.

· Time constraints : the actual time available to visitors, to be spent on Mars, in order to return to Earth, would either be 2 to 3 months or 16 to 20 months. There are no other options, since Mars and Earth orbits are only suitably aligned during certain specific times.

· Gravity on Mars is only about 38% that of Earth’s and is seriously unhealthy:

Earth Mars

9.807 m/s2 3.724 m/s2

· Average temperature on the Red Planet is a freezing -600 C, reaching easily -1200 C, sometimes, at some locations.

· Radiation protection from solar and galactic cosmic rays and solar flare protons : Earth Mars

By magnetosphere Yes No

By atmosphere Yes No

· Regolith and surface soil : Earth Mars

Benign Toxic

· Soil toxicity from Perchlorate on Mars, favoring rapid destruction of biological molecules and preventing farming:

Mars : Concentrations in % of soil weight :

Average 0.4 to 0.6 %

Occasionally up to 0.1 %

Earth : several factors of magnitude lower

· Any form of liquid surface water in the form of rivers, lakes, or seas :

Earth Mars

Yes No

· Tenuous atmosphere on Mars about 61 times less dense than on Earth : non-breathable.

· Atmospheres : Earth Mars

Shielding value : 3.704 m Al 0.111 m Al

Density : 1.225 kg/m3 0.020 kg/m3

Pressure : 14.69 psi 0.087 psi

Composition : 78% 7N 1.9% 7N

21% 16O 0.1% 16O

0.93 % 18Ar 2.0% 18Ar

0.038% CO2 96% CO2

Appendix B

Questionable Premises

Torre Straume, Steve Blatting, and Cary Zeitlin, “Radiation Hazards and the Colonization of Mars : Brain, Body, Pregnancy, In-Utero Development, Cardio, Cancer, Degeneration”, Journal of Cosmology, Vol. 12, October-November 2010, 3992–4033.

· Quote : “Since the dawn of human evolution on the African continent, our history on Earth has been of migration and colonization. As people outgrew their place of birth, they set forth to find opportunity in new lands.”

The spread of humanity on Earth, i.e. colonization, occurred under identical benign and stable physical conditions, e.g. gravity, magnetic field, breathable atmosphere, atmospheric density and composition, seasons, liquid water on the surface, global oceans, plants and animals, trees and forests, etc., whereas a colonization of Mars is a completely different ballgame: it is a harmful and unhealthy physical environment , totally alien , hazardous, and deadly.

· Quote : “On a million-year time scale, we have colonized the whole Earth. In the not too distant past it was expected that the family remaining behind may never see their loved ones when they sailed off to America. In less than 100 years, technology has made possible low cost rapid transportation between continents so what used to require months now requires hours, So too will our journey into the cosmos be made increasingly accessible through technological advances.”

Travel time to Mars at current rocket speeds of about 16,000 km/hour, takes almost 6–8 months, one way. As technology advances over the next 100 years, this will probably shorten the trip by some factor, maybe 2 or 3. For example, a Nuclear Thermal Rocket would probably make the trip to Mars in 3–4 months. But still, the months-long journey through interplanetary space in zero gravity is extremely harmful to humans, in addition to the intense exposure to the penetrating cosmic radiation.

· Quote : ‘The first colony is likely to be on Mars because of its proximity to Earth and its climate.”.

Mars was not selected because of its climate, which is unhealthy and harmful, but because it is the only planet in our solar system that can be readily visited by humans, not because of proximity, but on account physical conditions. Venous and Mercury are closer to Earth but much less suitable for human visitation.

· Quote : “The annual dose in interplanetary space, from galactic cosmic radiation (GCR), is about 0.73 Sv during solar maximum and 0.28 Sv during solar minimum. On the surface of Mars, without significant added shielding, the annual dose is reduced to about 0.33 Sv and 0.08 Sv during solar minimum and maximum respectively.”

There are several problems with this statement, as for example : (a) no reference is provided for the source of the dose data, (b) the interplanetary doses are incorrectly labeled in terms of the corresponding solar cycle phase : the larger value is always associated with the solar minimum, and the smaller value always with the solar maximum, and © a comparison of these data with actual measurements made by the RAD instrument on the CURIOSITY rover [1], on its journey to Mars (240 days, 1.84 mSv/day), and on the planet’s surface (300 days, 0.64 mSv/day), during solar maximum, indicates that they are significantly lower than the actual Mars measurements, as shown in the table below.

Solar Max Solar Min Comments

Journey Straube 0.73 Sv 0.28 Sv Phases reversed

0.28 Sv 0.73 Sv Phases corrected

CURIOSITY [1] 0.672 Sv 1.813 Sv

Surface Straube 0.08 Sv 0.33 Sv

CURIOSITY [1] 0.234 Sv 0.631 Sv

These extreme low-dose values quoted by the authors without a reference to their source, may lead to erroneous conclusions with potentially harmful consequences.

[1] Hassler, Donald M., “Mars’ Surface Radiation Environment Measured with the Mars Science Laboratory’s CURIOSITY Rover.” Science Express, 9 December 2013.