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300
long debated whether traditional egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were, on a deeper level, unified. reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism, which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one, and the tendency of egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities. another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature, where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities. in the early 20th century, for instance, e. a. wallis budge believed that egyptian commoners were polytheistic, but knowledge of
35
[ "the", "true", "mono", "##the", "##istic", "nature", "of", "the", "religion", "was", "reserved", "for", "the", "elite", ",", "who", "wrote", "the", "wisdom", "literature", ".", "his", "contemporary", "james", "henry", "breast", "##ed", "thought", "egyptian", "religion", "was", "instead", "pan", "##the", "##istic", ",", "with", "the", "power", "of", "the", "sun", "god", "present", "in", "all", "other", "gods", ",", "while", "hermann", "junk", "##er", "argued", "that", "egyptian", "civilization", "had", "been", "originally", "mono", "##the", "##istic", "and", "became", "poly", "##the", "##istic", "in", "the", "course", "of", "its", "history", ".", "in", "1971", ",", "erik", "horn", "##ung", "published", "a", "study", "re", "##bu", "##tting", "these", "views", ".", "he", "points", "out", "that", "in", "any", "given", "period", "many", "deities", ",", "even", "minor", "ones", ",", "were", "described", "as", "superior", "to", "all", "others", ".", "he", "also", "argues", "that", "the", "unspecified", "\"", "god", "\"", "in", "the", "wisdom", "texts", "is", "a" ]
301
the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite, who wrote the wisdom literature. his contemporary james henry breasted thought egyptian religion was instead pantheistic, with the power of the sun god present in all other gods, while hermann junker argued that egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history. in 1971, erik hornung published a study rebutting these views. he points out that in any given period many deities, even minor ones, were described as superior to all others. he also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a
34
[ "generic", "term", "for", "whichever", "deity", "the", "reader", "chooses", "to", "rev", "##ere", ".", "although", "the", "combinations", ",", "manifestation", "##s", ",", "and", "icon", "##og", "##raph", "##ies", "of", "each", "god", "were", "constantly", "shifting", ",", "they", "were", "always", "restricted", "to", "a", "finite", "number", "of", "forms", ",", "never", "becoming", "fully", "interchange", "##able", "in", "a", "mono", "##the", "##istic", "or", "pan", "##the", "##istic", "way", ".", "hen", "##oth", "##eis", "##m", ",", "horn", "##ung", "says", ",", "describes", "egyptian", "religion", "better", "than", "other", "labels", ".", "an", "egyptian", "could", "worship", "any", "deity", "at", "a", "particular", "time", "and", "credit", "it", "with", "supreme", "power", "in", "that", "moment", ",", "without", "denying", "the", "other", "gods", "or", "merging", "them", "all", "with", "the", "god", "that", "he", "or", "she", "focused", "on", ".", "horn", "##ung", "concludes", "that", "the", "gods", "were", "fully", "unified", "only", "in", "myth", ",", "at" ]
302
generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to revere. although the combinations, manifestations, and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting, they were always restricted to a finite number of forms, never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way. henotheism, hornung says, describes egyptian religion better than other labels. an egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment, without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on. hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth, at
35
[ "the", "time", "before", "creation", ",", "after", "which", "the", "multitude", "of", "gods", "emerged", "from", "a", "uniform", "none", "##xi", "##sten", "##ce", ".", "horn", "##ung", "'", "s", "arguments", "have", "greatly", "influenced", "other", "scholars", "of", "egyptian", "religion", ",", "but", "some", "still", "believe", "that", "at", "times", "the", "gods", "were", "more", "unified", "than", "he", "allows", ".", "jan", "ass", "##mann", "maintains", "that", "the", "notion", "of", "a", "single", "deity", "developed", "slowly", "through", "the", "new", "kingdom", ",", "beginning", "with", "a", "focus", "on", "am", "##un", "@", "-", "@", "ra", "as", "the", "all", "@", "-", "@", "important", "sun", "god", ".", "in", "his", "view", ",", "ate", "##nism", "was", "an", "extreme", "out", "##growth", "of", "this", "trend", ".", "it", "e", "##qua", "##ted", "the", "single", "deity", "with", "the", "sun", "and", "dismissed", "all", "other", "gods", ".", "then", ",", "in", "the", "backlash", "against", "ate", "##nism" ]
303
the time before creation, after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence. hornung's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of egyptian religion, but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows. jan assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the new kingdom, beginning with a focus on amun @ - @ ra as the all @ - @ important sun god. in his view, atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend. it equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods. then, in the backlash against atenism
35
[ ",", "priest", "##ly", "theologians", "described", "the", "universal", "god", "in", "a", "different", "way", ",", "one", "that", "coe", "##xi", "##sted", "with", "traditional", "poly", "##the", "##ism", ".", "the", "one", "god", "was", "believed", "to", "trans", "##cend", "the", "world", "and", "all", "the", "other", "deities", ",", "while", "at", "the", "same", "time", ",", "the", "multiple", "gods", "were", "aspects", "of", "the", "one", ".", "according", "to", "ass", "##mann", ",", "this", "one", "god", "was", "especially", "e", "##qua", "##ted", "with", "am", "##un", ",", "the", "dominant", "god", "in", "the", "late", "new", "kingdom", ",", "whereas", "for", "the", "rest", "of", "egyptian", "history", "the", "universal", "deity", "could", "be", "identified", "with", "many", "other", "gods", ".", "james", "p", ".", "allen", "says", "that", "coe", "##xi", "##sti", "##ng", "notions", "of", "one", "god", "and", "many", "gods", "would", "fit", "well", "with", "the", "\"", "multi", "##plicity", "of", "approaches", "\"", "in" ]
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, priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way, one that coexisted with traditional polytheism. the one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities, while at the same time, the multiple gods were aspects of the one. according to assmann, this one god was especially equated with amun, the dominant god in the late new kingdom, whereas for the rest of egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods. james p. allen says that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in
34
[ "egyptian", "thought", ",", "as", "well", "as", "with", "the", "hen", "##oth", "##eis", "##tic", "practice", "of", "ordinary", "worship", "##pers", ".", "he", "says", "that", "the", "egyptians", "may", "have", "recognized", "the", "unity", "of", "the", "divine", "by", "\"", "identifying", "their", "uniform", "notion", "of", "'", "god", "'", "with", "a", "particular", "god", ",", "depending", "on", "the", "particular", "situation", ".", "\"", "=", "=", "descriptions", "and", "depictions", "=", "=", "egyptian", "writings", "describe", "the", "gods", "'", "bodies", "in", "detail", ".", "they", "are", "made", "of", "precious", "materials", ";", "their", "flesh", "is", "gold", ",", "their", "bones", "are", "silver", ",", "and", "their", "hair", "is", "lap", "##is", "la", "##zu", "##li", ".", "they", "give", "off", "a", "scent", "that", "the", "egyptians", "likened", "to", "the", "incense", "used", "in", "rituals", ".", "some", "texts", "give", "precise", "descriptions", "of", "particular", "deities", ",", "including", "their", "height", "and", "eye", "color" ]
305
egyptian thought, as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers. he says that the egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of'god'with a particular god, depending on the particular situation. " = = descriptions and depictions = = egyptian writings describe the gods'bodies in detail. they are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold, their bones are silver, and their hair is lapis lazuli. they give off a scent that the egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals. some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities, including their height and eye color
35
[ ".", "yet", "these", "characteristics", "are", "not", "fixed", ";", "in", "myths", ",", "gods", "change", "their", "appearances", "to", "suit", "their", "own", "purposes", ".", "egyptian", "texts", "often", "refer", "to", "deities", "'", "true", ",", "underlying", "forms", "as", "\"", "mysterious", "\"", ".", "the", "egyptians", "'", "visual", "representations", "of", "their", "gods", "are", "therefore", "not", "literal", ".", "they", "symbol", "##ize", "specific", "aspects", "of", "each", "deity", "'", "s", "character", ",", "functioning", "much", "like", "the", "id", "##eo", "##gram", "##s", "in", "hi", "##ero", "##gly", "##phic", "writing", ".", "for", "this", "reason", ",", "the", "fun", "##era", "##ry", "god", "an", "##ub", "##is", "is", "commonly", "shown", "in", "egyptian", "art", "as", "a", "dog", "or", "jack", "##al", ",", "a", "creature", "whose", "sc", "##ave", "##nging", "habits", "threaten", "the", "preservation", "of", "buried", "mum", "##mies", ",", "in", "an", "effort", "to", "counter", "this", "threat", "and", "employ", "it", "for" ]
306
. yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths, gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes. egyptian texts often refer to deities'true, underlying forms as " mysterious ". the egyptians'visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal. they symbolize specific aspects of each deity's character, functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing. for this reason, the funerary god anubis is commonly shown in egyptian art as a dog or jackal, a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies, in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for
35
[ "protection", ".", "his", "black", "coloring", "all", "##udes", "to", "the", "color", "of", "mum", "##mi", "##fied", "flesh", "and", "to", "the", "fertile", "black", "soil", "that", "egyptians", "saw", "as", "a", "symbol", "of", "resurrection", ".", "most", "gods", "were", "depicted", "in", "several", "ways", ".", "hat", "##hor", "could", "be", "a", "cow", ",", "cobra", ",", "lion", "##ess", ",", "or", "a", "woman", "with", "bo", "##vine", "horns", "or", "ears", ".", "by", "depicting", "a", "given", "god", "in", "different", "ways", ",", "the", "egyptians", "expressed", "different", "aspects", "of", "its", "essential", "nature", ".", "the", "gods", "are", "depicted", "in", "a", "finite", "number", "of", "these", "symbolic", "forms", ",", "so", "that", "deities", "can", "often", "be", "distinguished", "from", "one", "another", "by", "their", "icon", "##og", "##raph", "##ies", ".", "these", "forms", "include", "men", "and", "women", "(", "ant", "##hr", "##op", "##omo", "##rp", "##hism", ")", ",", "animals", "(", "zoom", "##or" ]
307
protection. his black coloring alludes to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil that egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection. most gods were depicted in several ways. hathor could be a cow, cobra, lioness, or a woman with bovine horns or ears. by depicting a given god in different ways, the egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature. the gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms, so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies. these forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ), animals ( zoomor
770
[ "##phi", "##sm", ")", ",", "and", ",", "more", "rarely", ",", "ina", "##ni", "##mate", "objects", ".", "combinations", "of", "forms", ",", "such", "as", "gods", "with", "human", "bodies", "and", "animal", "heads", ",", "are", "common", ".", "new", "forms", "and", "increasingly", "complex", "combinations", "arose", "in", "the", "course", "of", "history", ".", "some", "gods", "can", "only", "be", "distinguished", "from", "others", "if", "they", "are", "labeled", "in", "writing", ",", "as", "with", "isis", "and", "hat", "##hor", ".", "because", "of", "the", "close", "connection", "between", "these", "goddess", "##es", ",", "they", "could", "both", "wear", "the", "cow", "@", "-", "@", "horn", "head", "##dre", "##ss", "that", "was", "originally", "hat", "##hor", "'", "s", "alone", ".", "certain", "features", "of", "divine", "images", "are", "more", "useful", "than", "others", "in", "determining", "a", "god", "'", "s", "identity", ".", "the", "head", "of", "a", "given", "divine", "image", "is", "particularly", "significant", ".", "in" ]
308
##phism ), and, more rarely, inanimate objects. combinations of forms, such as gods with human bodies and animal heads, are common. new forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history. some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing, as with isis and hathor. because of the close connection between these goddesses, they could both wear the cow @ - @ horn headdress that was originally hathor's alone. certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god's identity. the head of a given divine image is particularly significant. in
789
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309
a hybrid image, the head represents the original form of the being depicted, so that, as the egyptologist henry fischer put it, " a lion @ - @ headed goddess is a lion @ - @ goddess in human form, while a royal sphinx, conversely, is a man who has assumed the form of a lion. " divine headdresses, which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods'heads, are another important indicator. in contrast, the objects held in gods'hands tend to be generic. male deities hold was staffs, goddesses hold stalks of
350
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310
papyrus, and both sexes carry ankh signs, representing the egyptian word for " life ", to symbolize their life @ - @ giving power. the forms in which the gods are shown, although diverse, are limited in many ways. many creatures that are widespread in egypt were never used in divine iconography, whereas a few, such as falcons, cobras, and cattle, can each represent many deities. animals that were absent from egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images. for instance, the horse, which was only introduced in the second intermediate period ( c. 1650 – 1550 bc ), never
770
[ "represented", "a", "god", ".", "similarly", ",", "the", "clothes", "worn", "by", "ant", "##hr", "##op", "##omorphic", "deities", "in", "all", "periods", "changed", "little", "from", "the", "styles", "used", "in", "the", "old", "kingdom", ":", "a", "ki", "##lt", ",", "false", "beard", ",", "and", "often", "a", "shirt", "for", "male", "gods", "and", "a", "long", ",", "tight", "@", "-", "@", "fitting", "dress", "for", "goddess", "##es", ".", "the", "basic", "ant", "##hr", "##op", "##omorphic", "form", "varies", ".", "child", "gods", "are", "depicted", "nude", ",", "as", "are", "some", "adult", "gods", "when", "their", "pro", "##cre", "##ative", "powers", "are", "emphasized", ".", "certain", "male", "deities", "are", "given", "heavy", "bell", "##ies", "and", "breasts", ",", "sign", "##ifying", "either", "and", "##ro", "##gy", "##ny", "or", "prosperity", "and", "abundance", ".", "whereas", "most", "male", "gods", "have", "red", "skin", "and", "most", "goddess", "##es", "are", "yellow", "—", "the", "same", "colors", "used", "to" ]
311
represented a god. similarly, the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the old kingdom : a kilt, false beard, and often a shirt for male gods and a long, tight @ - @ fitting dress for goddesses. the basic anthropomorphic form varies. child gods are depicted nude, as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized. certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts, signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance. whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to
787
[ "depict", "egyptian", "men", "and", "women", "—", "some", "are", "given", "unusual", ",", "symbolic", "skin", "colors", ".", "thus", "the", "blue", "skin", "and", "pau", "##nch", "##y", "figure", "of", "the", "god", "ha", "##pi", "all", "##udes", "to", "the", "nile", "flood", "he", "represents", "and", "the", "no", "##uri", "##shing", "fertility", "it", "brought", ".", "a", "few", "deities", ",", "such", "as", "os", "##iri", "##s", ",", "pt", "##ah", ",", "and", "min", ",", "have", "a", "\"", "mum", "##mi", "##form", "\"", "appearance", ",", "with", "their", "limbs", "tightly", "swat", "##hed", "in", "cloth", ".", "although", "these", "gods", "resemble", "mum", "##mies", ",", "the", "earliest", "examples", "pre", "##date", "the", "cloth", "@", "-", "@", "wrapped", "style", "of", "mum", "##mi", "##fication", ",", "and", "this", "form", "may", "instead", "ha", "##rk", "back", "to", "the", "earliest", ",", "limb", "##less", "depictions", "of", "deities", ".", "=", "=", "interactions", "with", "humans", "=" ]
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depict egyptian men and women — some are given unusual, symbolic skin colors. thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god hapi alludes to the nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought. a few deities, such as osiris, ptah, and min, have a " mummiform " appearance, with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth. although these gods resemble mummies, the earliest examples predate the cloth @ - @ wrapped style of mummification, and this form may instead hark back to the earliest, limbless depictions of deities. = = interactions with humans =
786
[ "=", "=", "=", "=", "relationship", "with", "the", "pharaoh", "=", "=", "=", "in", "official", "writings", ",", "pharaoh", "##s", "are", "said", "to", "be", "divine", ",", "and", "they", "are", "constantly", "depicted", "in", "the", "company", "of", "the", "deities", "of", "the", "pantheon", ".", "each", "pharaoh", "and", "his", "predecessors", "were", "considered", "the", "successors", "of", "the", "gods", "who", "had", "ruled", "egypt", "in", "myth", "##ic", "pre", "##his", "##tory", ".", "living", "kings", "were", "e", "##qua", "##ted", "with", "ho", "##rus", "and", "called", "the", "\"", "son", "\"", "of", "many", "deities", ",", "particularly", "os", "##iri", "##s", "and", "ra", ";", "deceased", "kings", "were", "e", "##qua", "##ted", "with", "these", "elder", "gods", ".", "pharaoh", "##s", "had", "their", "own", "mort", "##uary", "temples", "where", "rituals", "were", "performed", "for", "them", "during", "their", "lives", "and", "after", "their", "deaths", ".", "but", "few", "pharaoh", "##s", "were", "worshipped", "as", "gods" ]
313
= = = = relationship with the pharaoh = = = in official writings, pharaohs are said to be divine, and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon. each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled egypt in mythic prehistory. living kings were equated with horus and called the " son " of many deities, particularly osiris and ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods. pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths. but few pharaohs were worshipped as gods
10
[ "long", "after", "their", "lifetime", "##s", ",", "and", "non", "@", "-", "@", "official", "texts", "portray", "kings", "in", "a", "human", "light", ".", "for", "these", "reasons", ",", "scholars", "disagree", "about", "how", "genuinely", "most", "egyptians", "believed", "the", "king", "to", "be", "a", "god", ".", "he", "may", "only", "have", "been", "considered", "divine", "when", "he", "was", "performing", "ceremonies", ".", "however", "much", "it", "was", "believed", ",", "the", "king", "'", "s", "divine", "status", "was", "the", "rational", "##e", "for", "his", "role", "as", "egypt", "'", "s", "representative", "to", "the", "gods", ",", "as", "he", "formed", "a", "link", "between", "the", "divine", "and", "human", "realms", ".", "the", "egyptians", "believed", "the", "gods", "needed", "temples", "to", "dwell", "in", ",", "as", "well", "as", "the", "periodic", "performance", "of", "rituals", "and", "presentation", "of", "offerings", "to", "no", "##uri", "##sh", "them", ".", "these", "things", "were", "provided", "by", "the", "cult" ]
314
long after their lifetimes, and non @ - @ official texts portray kings in a human light. for these reasons, scholars disagree about how genuinely most egyptians believed the king to be a god. he may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies. however much it was believed, the king's divine status was the rationale for his role as egypt's representative to the gods, as he formed a link between the divine and human realms. the egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in, as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them. these things were provided by the cult
35
[ "##s", "that", "the", "king", "oversaw", ",", "with", "their", "priests", "and", "laborers", ".", "yet", ",", "according", "to", "royal", "ideology", ",", "temple", "@", "-", "@", "building", "was", "exclusively", "the", "pharaoh", "'", "s", "work", ",", "as", "were", "the", "rituals", "that", "priests", "usually", "performed", "in", "his", "ste", "##ad", ".", "these", "acts", "were", "a", "part", "of", "the", "king", "'", "s", "fundamental", "role", ":", "maintaining", "ma", "##at", ".", "the", "king", "and", "the", "nation", "he", "represented", "provided", "the", "gods", "with", "ma", "##at", "so", "they", "could", "continue", "to", "perform", "their", "functions", ",", "which", "maintained", "ma", "##at", "in", "the", "cosmos", "so", "humans", "could", "continue", "to", "live", ".", "=", "=", "=", "presence", "in", "the", "human", "world", "=", "=", "=", "although", "the", "egyptians", "believed", "their", "gods", "to", "be", "present", "in", "the", "world", "around", "them", ",", "contact", "between", "the", "human" ]
315
##s that the king oversaw, with their priests and laborers. yet, according to royal ideology, temple @ - @ building was exclusively the pharaoh's work, as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead. these acts were a part of the king's fundamental role : maintaining maat. the king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions, which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live. = = = presence in the human world = = = although the egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them, contact between the human
40
[ "and", "divine", "realms", "was", "mostly", "limited", "to", "specific", "circumstances", ".", "in", "literature", ",", "gods", "may", "appear", "to", "humans", "in", "a", "physical", "form", ",", "but", "in", "real", "life", "the", "egyptians", "were", "limited", "to", "more", "indirect", "means", "of", "communication", ".", "the", "ba", "of", "a", "god", "was", "said", "to", "periodically", "leave", "the", "divine", "realm", "to", "dwell", "in", "the", "images", "of", "that", "god", ".", "by", "inhabit", "##ing", "these", "images", ",", "the", "gods", "left", "their", "concealed", "state", "and", "took", "on", "a", "physical", "form", ".", "to", "the", "egyptians", ",", "a", "place", "or", "object", "that", "was", "ds", "##r", "—", "\"", "sacred", "\"", "—", "was", "isolated", "and", "ritual", "##ly", "pure", ",", "and", "thus", "fit", "for", "a", "god", "to", "inhabit", ".", "temple", "statues", "and", "reliefs", ",", "as", "well", "as", "particular", "sacred", "animals", ",", "like", "the", "api", "##s" ]
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and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances. in literature, gods may appear to humans in a physical form, but in real life the egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication. the ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god. by inhabiting these images, the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form. to the egyptians, a place or object that was dsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure, and thus fit for a god to inhabit. temple statues and reliefs, as well as particular sacred animals, like the apis
34
[ "bull", ",", "served", "as", "divine", "inter", "##media", "##ries", "in", "this", "way", ".", "dreams", "and", "trance", "##s", "provided", "a", "very", "different", "venue", "for", "interaction", ".", "in", "these", "states", ",", "it", "was", "believed", ",", "people", "could", "come", "close", "to", "the", "gods", "and", "sometimes", "receive", "messages", "from", "them", ".", "finally", ",", "according", "to", "egyptian", "afterlife", "beliefs", ",", "human", "souls", "pass", "into", "the", "divine", "realm", "after", "death", ".", "the", "egyptians", "therefore", "believed", "that", "in", "death", "they", "would", "exist", "on", "the", "same", "level", "as", "the", "gods", "and", "fully", "understand", "their", "mysterious", "nature", ".", "temples", ",", "where", "the", "state", "rituals", "were", "carried", "out", ",", "were", "filled", "with", "images", "of", "the", "gods", ".", "the", "most", "important", "temple", "image", "was", "the", "cult", "statue", "in", "the", "inner", "sanctuary", ".", "these", "statues", "were", "usually", "less", "than", "life", "@" ]
317
bull, served as divine intermediaries in this way. dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction. in these states, it was believed, people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them. finally, according to egyptian afterlife beliefs, human souls pass into the divine realm after death. the egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature. temples, where the state rituals were carried out, were filled with images of the gods. the most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary. these statues were usually less than life @
40
[ "-", "@", "size", ",", "and", "made", "of", "the", "same", "precious", "materials", "that", "were", "said", "to", "form", "the", "gods", "'", "bodies", ".", "many", "temples", "had", "several", "san", "##ct", "##uaries", ",", "each", "with", "a", "cult", "statue", "representing", "one", "of", "the", "gods", "in", "a", "group", "such", "as", "a", "family", "triad", ".", "the", "city", "'", "s", "primary", "god", "was", "envisioned", "as", "its", "lord", ",", "employing", "many", "of", "the", "residents", "as", "servants", "in", "the", "divine", "household", "that", "the", "temple", "represented", ".", "the", "gods", "residing", "in", "the", "temples", "of", "egypt", "collectively", "represented", "the", "entire", "pantheon", ".", "but", "many", "deities", "—", "including", "some", "important", "gods", "as", "well", "as", "those", "that", "were", "minor", "or", "hostile", "—", "were", "never", "given", "temples", "of", "their", "own", ",", "although", "some", "were", "represented", "in", "the", "temples", "of", "other", "gods", ".", "to" ]
318
- @ size, and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods'bodies. many temples had several sanctuaries, each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad. the city's primary god was envisioned as its lord, employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented. the gods residing in the temples of egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon. but many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own, although some were represented in the temples of other gods. to
40
[ "ins", "##ulate", "the", "sacred", "power", "in", "the", "sanctuary", "from", "the", "imp", "##urities", "of", "the", "outside", "world", ",", "the", "egyptians", "enclosed", "temple", "san", "##ct", "##uaries", "and", "greatly", "restricted", "access", "to", "them", ".", "people", "other", "than", "kings", "and", "high", "priests", "were", "thus", "denied", "contact", "with", "cult", "statues", ".", "the", "only", "exception", "was", "during", "festival", "procession", "##s", ",", "when", "the", "statue", "was", "carried", "out", "of", "the", "temple", "but", "still", "enclosed", "in", "a", "portable", "shrine", ".", "people", "did", "have", "less", "direct", "means", "of", "interaction", ".", "the", "more", "public", "parts", "of", "temples", "often", "incorporated", "small", "places", "for", "prayer", ",", "from", "doorway", "##s", "to", "free", "##standing", "chapels", "near", "the", "back", "of", "the", "temple", "building", ".", "communities", "also", "built", "and", "managed", "small", "chapels", "for", "their", "own", "use", ",", "and", "some", "families", "had", "shrines", "inside", "their" ]
319
insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world, the egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them. people other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues. the only exception was during festival processions, when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine. people did have less direct means of interaction. the more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer, from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building. communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use, and some families had shrines inside their
40
[ "homes", ".", "despite", "the", "gulf", "that", "separated", "humanity", "from", "the", "divine", ",", "the", "egyptians", "were", "surrounded", "by", "opportunities", "to", "approach", "their", "gods", ".", "=", "=", "=", "intervention", "in", "human", "lives", "=", "=", "=", "egyptian", "gods", "were", "involved", "in", "human", "lives", "as", "well", "as", "in", "the", "over", "##ar", "##ching", "order", "of", "nature", ".", "this", "divine", "influence", "applied", "mainly", "to", "egypt", ",", "as", "foreign", "peoples", "were", "traditionally", "believed", "to", "be", "outside", "the", "divine", "order", ".", "but", "in", "the", "new", "kingdom", ",", "when", "other", "nations", "were", "under", "egyptian", "control", ",", "foreigners", "were", "said", "to", "be", "under", "the", "sun", "god", "'", "s", "benign", "rule", "in", "the", "same", "way", "that", "egyptians", "were", ".", "tho", "##th", ",", "as", "the", "oversee", "##r", "of", "time", ",", "was", "said", "to", "all", "##ot", "fixed", "lifespan", "##s", "to", "both" ]
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homes. despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine, the egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods. = = = intervention in human lives = = = egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature. this divine influence applied mainly to egypt, as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order. but in the new kingdom, when other nations were under egyptian control, foreigners were said to be under the sun god's benign rule in the same way that egyptians were. thoth, as the overseer of time, was said to allot fixed lifespans to both
35
[ "humans", "and", "gods", ".", "other", "gods", "were", "also", "said", "to", "govern", "the", "length", "of", "human", "lives", ",", "including", "me", "##sk", "##hen", "##et", ",", "who", "presided", "over", "birth", ",", "and", "sha", "##i", ",", "the", "person", "##ification", "of", "fate", ".", "thus", "the", "time", "and", "manner", "of", "death", "was", "the", "main", "meaning", "of", "the", "egyptian", "concept", "of", "fate", ",", "although", "to", "some", "extent", "these", "deities", "governed", "other", "events", "in", "life", "as", "well", ".", "several", "texts", "refer", "to", "gods", "influencing", "or", "inspiring", "human", "decisions", ",", "working", "through", "a", "person", "'", "s", "\"", "heart", "\"", "—", "the", "seat", "of", "emotion", "and", "intellect", "in", "egyptian", "belief", ".", "deities", "were", "also", "believed", "to", "give", "commands", ",", "ins", "##tructing", "the", "king", "in", "the", "governance", "of", "his", "realm", "and", "regulating", "the", "management", "of", "their", "temples", ".", "egyptian" ]
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humans and gods. other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives, including meskhenet, who presided over birth, and shai, the personification of fate. thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the egyptian concept of fate, although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well. several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions, working through a person's " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in egyptian belief. deities were also believed to give commands, instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples. egyptian
16
[ "texts", "rarely", "mention", "direct", "commands", "given", "to", "private", "persons", ",", "and", "these", "commands", "never", "evolved", "into", "a", "set", "of", "divine", "##ly", "enforced", "moral", "codes", ".", "morality", "in", "ancient", "egypt", "was", "based", "on", "the", "concept", "of", "ma", "##at", ",", "which", ",", "when", "applied", "to", "human", "society", ",", "meant", "that", "everyone", "should", "live", "in", "an", "orderly", "way", "that", "did", "not", "interfere", "with", "the", "well", "@", "-", "@", "being", "of", "other", "people", ".", "because", "deities", "were", "the", "uphold", "##ers", "of", "ma", "##at", ",", "morality", "was", "connected", "with", "them", ".", "for", "example", ",", "the", "gods", "judged", "humans", "'", "moral", "righteous", "##ness", "after", "death", ",", "and", "by", "the", "new", "kingdom", ",", "a", "verdict", "of", "innocence", "in", "this", "judgment", "was", "believed", "to", "be", "necessary", "for", "admit", "##tance", "into", "the", "afterlife", ".", "but", "in", "general" ]
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texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons, and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes. morality in ancient egypt was based on the concept of maat, which, when applied to human society, meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @ - @ being of other people. because deities were the upholders of maat, morality was connected with them. for example, the gods judged humans'moral righteousness after death, and by the new kingdom, a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife. but in general
352
[ ",", "morality", "was", "based", "on", "practical", "ways", "to", "uphold", "ma", "##at", "in", "daily", "life", ",", "rather", "than", "on", "strict", "rules", "that", "the", "gods", "laid", "out", ".", "humans", "had", "free", "will", "to", "ignore", "divine", "guidance", "and", "the", "behavior", "required", "by", "ma", "##at", ",", "but", "by", "doing", "so", "they", "could", "bring", "divine", "punishment", "upon", "themselves", ".", "a", "deity", "carried", "out", "this", "punishment", "using", "its", "ba", ",", "the", "force", "that", "manifested", "the", "god", "'", "s", "power", "in", "the", "human", "world", ".", "natural", "disasters", "and", "human", "ai", "##lm", "##ents", "were", "seen", "as", "the", "work", "of", "angry", "divine", "bas", ".", "conversely", ",", "the", "gods", "could", "cure", "righteous", "people", "of", "illness", "or", "even", "extend", "their", "lifespan", "##s", ".", "both", "these", "types", "of", "intervention", "were", "eventually", "represented", "by", "deities", ":", "shed", ",", "who", "emerged", "in" ]
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, morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life, rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out. humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat, but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves. a deity carried out this punishment using its ba, the force that manifested the god's power in the human world. natural disasters and human ailments were seen as the work of angry divine bas. conversely, the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans. both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : shed, who emerged in
350
[ "the", "new", "kingdom", "to", "represent", "divine", "rescue", "from", "harm", ",", "and", "pet", "##be", ",", "an", "ap", "##ot", "##rop", "##ai", "##c", "god", "from", "the", "late", "eras", "of", "egyptian", "history", "who", "was", "believed", "to", "avenge", "wrong", "##do", "##ing", ".", "egyptian", "texts", "take", "different", "views", "on", "whether", "the", "gods", "are", "responsible", "when", "humans", "suffer", "un", "##just", "##ly", ".", "mis", "##fort", "##une", "was", "often", "seen", "as", "a", "product", "of", "is", "##fe", "##t", ",", "the", "cosmic", "disorder", "that", "was", "the", "opposite", "of", "ma", "##at", ",", "and", "therefore", "the", "gods", "were", "not", "guilty", "of", "causing", "evil", "events", ".", "some", "deities", "who", "were", "closely", "connected", "with", "is", "##fe", "##t", ",", "such", "as", "set", ",", "could", "be", "blamed", "for", "disorder", "within", "the", "world", "without", "placing", "guilt", "on", "the", "other", "gods", ".", "but", "some", "writings", "do", "accuse" ]
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the new kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm, and petbe, an apotropaic god from the late eras of egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing. egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly. misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet, the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat, and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events. some deities who were closely connected with isfet, such as set, could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods. but some writings do accuse
35
[ "the", "deities", "of", "causing", "human", "misery", ",", "while", "others", "give", "theo", "##dic", "##ies", "in", "the", "gods", "'", "defense", ".", "beginning", "in", "the", "middle", "kingdom", ",", "several", "texts", "connected", "the", "issue", "of", "evil", "in", "the", "world", "with", "a", "myth", "in", "which", "the", "creator", "god", "fights", "a", "human", "rebellion", "against", "his", "rule", "and", "then", "withdraw", "##s", "from", "the", "earth", ".", "because", "of", "this", "human", "mis", "##be", "##ha", "##vio", "##r", ",", "the", "creator", "is", "distant", "from", "his", "creation", ",", "allowing", "suffering", "to", "exist", ".", "new", "kingdom", "writings", "do", "not", "question", "the", "just", "nature", "of", "the", "gods", "as", "strongly", "as", "those", "of", "the", "middle", "kingdom", ".", "they", "emphasize", "humans", "'", "direct", ",", "personal", "relationships", "with", "deities", "and", "the", "gods", "'", "power", "to", "intervene", "in", "human", "events", ".", "people", "in", "this", "era", "put" ]
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the deities of causing human misery, while others give theodicies in the gods'defense. beginning in the middle kingdom, several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth. because of this human misbehavior, the creator is distant from his creation, allowing suffering to exist. new kingdom writings don't question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the middle kingdom. they emphasize humans'direct, personal relationships with deities and the gods'power to intervene in human events. people in this era put
35
[ "faith", "in", "specific", "gods", "who", "they", "hoped", "would", "help", "and", "protect", "them", "through", "their", "lives", ".", "as", "a", "result", ",", "uphold", "##ing", "the", "ideals", "of", "ma", "##at", "grew", "less", "important", "than", "gaining", "the", "gods", "'", "favor", "as", "a", "way", "to", "guarantee", "a", "good", "life", ".", "even", "the", "pharaoh", "##s", "were", "regarded", "as", "dependent", "on", "divine", "aid", ",", "and", "after", "the", "new", "kingdom", "came", "to", "an", "end", ",", "government", "was", "increasingly", "influenced", "by", "oracle", "##s", "communicating", "the", "gods", "'", "will", ".", "official", "religious", "practices", ",", "which", "maintained", "ma", "##at", "for", "the", "benefit", "of", "all", "egypt", ",", "were", "related", "to", ",", "but", "distinct", "from", ",", "the", "religious", "practices", "of", "ordinary", "people", ",", "who", "sought", "the", "gods", "'", "help", "for", "their", "personal", "problems", ".", "official", "religion", "involved", "a", "variety", "of", "rituals" ]
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faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives. as a result, upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods'favor as a way to guarantee a good life. even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid, and after the new kingdom came to an end, government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods'will. official religious practices, which maintained maat for the benefit of all egypt, were related to, but distinct from, the religious practices of ordinary people, who sought the gods'help for their personal problems. official religion involved a variety of rituals
19
[ ",", "based", "in", "temples", ".", "some", "rites", "were", "performed", "every", "day", ",", "whereas", "others", "were", "festivals", ",", "taking", "place", "at", "longer", "intervals", "and", "often", "limited", "to", "a", "particular", "temple", "or", "deity", ".", "the", "gods", "received", "their", "offerings", "in", "daily", "ceremonies", ",", "in", "which", "their", "statues", "were", "clothed", ",", "an", "##oint", "##ed", ",", "and", "presented", "with", "food", "as", "hymns", "were", "recited", "in", "their", "honor", ".", "these", "offerings", ",", "in", "addition", "to", "maintaining", "ma", "##at", "for", "the", "gods", ",", "celebrated", "deities", "'", "life", "@", "-", "@", "giving", "generosity", "and", "encouraged", "them", "to", "remain", "benevolent", "rather", "than", "ve", "##nge", "##ful", ".", "festivals", "often", "involved", "a", "ceremonial", "procession", "in", "which", "a", "cult", "image", "was", "carried", "out", "of", "the", "temple", "in", "a", "bar", "##que", "@", "-", "@", "shaped", "shrine", ".", "these", "procession", "##s" ]
327
, based in temples. some rites were performed every day, whereas others were festivals, taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity. the gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies, in which their statues were clothed, anointed, and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor. these offerings, in addition to maintaining maat for the gods, celebrated deities'life @ - @ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful. festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @ - @ shaped shrine. these processions
40
[ "served", "various", "purposes", ".", "in", "roman", "times", ",", "when", "local", "deities", "of", "all", "kinds", "were", "believed", "to", "have", "power", "over", "the", "nile", "in", "##unda", "##tion", ",", "procession", "##s", "in", "many", "communities", "carried", "temple", "images", "to", "the", "river", "##bank", "##s", "so", "the", "gods", "could", "in", "##vo", "##ke", "a", "large", "and", "fruit", "##ful", "flood", ".", "procession", "##s", "also", "traveled", "between", "temples", ",", "as", "when", "the", "image", "of", "hat", "##hor", "from", "den", "##der", "##a", "temple", "visited", "her", "consort", "ho", "##rus", "at", "the", "temple", "of", "ed", "##fu", ".", "rituals", "for", "a", "god", "were", "often", "based", "in", "that", "deity", "'", "s", "mythology", ".", "such", "rituals", "were", "meant", "to", "be", "repetition", "##s", "of", "the", "events", "of", "the", "myth", "##ic", "past", ",", "renew", "##ing", "the", "beneficial", "effects", "of", "the", "original", "events", ".", "in", "the", "k" ]
328
served various purposes. in roman times, when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the nile inundation, processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood. processions also traveled between temples, as when the image of hathor from dendera temple visited her consort horus at the temple of edfu. rituals for a god were often based in that deity's mythology. such rituals were meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past, renewing the beneficial effects of the original events. in the k
40
[ "##ho", "##ia", "##k", "festival", "in", "honor", "of", "os", "##iri", "##s", ",", "his", "death", "and", "resurrection", "were", "ritual", "##ly", "re", "##ena", "##cted", "at", "a", "time", "when", "crops", "were", "beginning", "to", "sp", "##rou", "##t", ".", "the", "returning", "greene", "##ry", "symbol", "##ized", "the", "renewal", "of", "the", "god", "'", "s", "own", "life", ".", "personal", "interaction", "with", "the", "gods", "took", "many", "forms", ".", "people", "who", "wanted", "information", "or", "advice", "consulted", "oracle", "##s", ",", "run", "by", "temples", ",", "that", "were", "supposed", "to", "convey", "gods", "'", "answers", "to", "questions", ".", "amulet", "##s", "and", "other", "images", "of", "protective", "deities", "were", "used", "to", "ward", "off", "the", "demons", "that", "might", "threaten", "human", "well", "@", "-", "@", "being", "or", "to", "imp", "##art", "the", "god", "'", "s", "positive", "characteristics", "to", "the", "wear", "##er", ".", "private", "rituals", "invoked", "the", "gods", "'" ]
329
##hoiak festival in honor of osiris, his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout. the returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god's own life. personal interaction with the gods took many forms. people who wanted information or advice consulted oracles, run by temples, that were supposed to convey gods'answers to questions. amulets and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @ - @ being or to impart the god's positive characteristics to the wearer. private rituals invoked the gods '
35
[ "power", "to", "accomplish", "personal", "goals", ",", "from", "healing", "sickness", "to", "cursing", "enemies", ".", "these", "practices", "used", "he", "##ka", ",", "the", "same", "force", "of", "magic", "that", "the", "gods", "used", ",", "which", "the", "creator", "was", "said", "to", "have", "given", "to", "humans", "so", "they", "could", "fen", "##d", "off", "mis", "##fort", "##une", ".", "the", "performer", "of", "a", "private", "rite", "often", "took", "on", "the", "role", "of", "a", "god", "in", "a", "myth", ",", "or", "even", "threatened", "a", "deity", ",", "to", "involve", "the", "gods", "in", "accomplish", "##ing", "the", "goal", ".", "such", "rituals", "coe", "##xi", "##sted", "with", "private", "offerings", "and", "prayers", ",", "and", "all", "three", "were", "accepted", "means", "of", "obtaining", "divine", "help", ".", "prayer", "and", "private", "offerings", "are", "generally", "called", "\"", "personal", "pie", "##ty", "\"", ":", "acts", "that", "reflect", "a", "close", "relationship", "between", "an", "individual", "and" ]
330
power to accomplish personal goals, from healing sickness to cursing enemies. these practices used heka, the same force of magic that the gods used, which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune. the performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth, or even threatened a deity, to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal. such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers, and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help. prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and
35
[ "a", "god", ".", "evidence", "of", "personal", "pie", "##ty", "is", "scan", "##t", "before", "the", "new", "kingdom", ".", "vo", "##tive", "offerings", "and", "personal", "names", ",", "many", "of", "which", "are", "theo", "##ph", "##oric", ",", "suggest", "that", "common", "##ers", "felt", "some", "connection", "between", "themselves", "and", "their", "gods", ".", "but", "firm", "evidence", "of", "devotion", "to", "deities", "became", "visible", "only", "in", "the", "new", "kingdom", ",", "reaching", "a", "peak", "late", "in", "that", "era", ".", "scholars", "disagree", "about", "the", "meaning", "of", "this", "change", "—", "whether", "direct", "interaction", "with", "the", "gods", "was", "a", "new", "development", "or", "an", "out", "##growth", "of", "older", "traditions", ".", "egyptians", "now", "expressed", "their", "devotion", "through", "a", "new", "variety", "of", "activities", "in", "and", "around", "temples", ".", "they", "recorded", "their", "prayers", "and", "their", "thanks", "for", "divine", "help", "on", "ste", "##la", "##e", ".", "they", "gave", "offerings" ]
331
a god. evidence of personal piety is scant before the new kingdom. votive offerings and personal names, many of which are theophoric, suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods. but firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the new kingdom, reaching a peak late in that era. scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions. egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples. they recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae. they gave offerings
35
[ "of", "fig", "##uri", "##nes", "that", "represented", "the", "gods", "they", "were", "praying", "to", ",", "or", "that", "symbol", "##ized", "the", "result", "they", "desired", ";", "thus", "a", "relief", "image", "of", "hat", "##hor", "and", "a", "statue", "##tte", "of", "a", "woman", "could", "both", "represent", "a", "prayer", "for", "fertility", ".", "occasionally", ",", "a", "person", "took", "a", "particular", "god", "as", "a", "patron", ",", "de", "##dic", "##ating", "his", "or", "her", "property", "or", "labor", "to", "the", "god", "'", "s", "cult", ".", "these", "practices", "continued", "into", "the", "latest", "periods", "of", "egyptian", "history", ".", "these", "later", "eras", "saw", "more", "religious", "innovations", ",", "including", "the", "practice", "of", "giving", "animal", "mum", "##mies", "as", "offerings", "to", "deities", "depicted", "in", "animal", "form", ",", "such", "as", "the", "cat", "mum", "##mies", "given", "to", "the", "fe", "##line", "goddess", "bas", "##tet", ".", "some", "of", "the", "major", "deities" ]
332
of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to, or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility. occasionally, a person took a particular god as a patron, dedicating his or her property or labor to the god's cult. these practices continued into the latest periods of egyptian history. these later eras saw more religious innovations, including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form, such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess bastet. some of the major deities
35
[ "from", "myth", "and", "official", "religion", "were", "rarely", "invoked", "in", "popular", "worship", ",", "but", "many", "of", "the", "great", "state", "gods", "were", "important", "in", "popular", "tradition", ".", "the", "worship", "of", "some", "egyptian", "gods", "spread", "to", "neighboring", "lands", ",", "especially", "to", "can", "##aan", "and", "nu", "##bia", "during", "the", "new", "kingdom", ",", "when", "those", "regions", "were", "under", "ph", "##ara", "##onic", "control", ".", "in", "can", "##aan", ",", "the", "exported", "deities", ",", "including", "hat", "##hor", ",", "am", "##un", ",", "and", "set", ",", "were", "often", "sync", "##ret", "##ized", "with", "native", "gods", ",", "who", "in", "turn", "spread", "to", "egypt", ".", "the", "egyptian", "deities", "may", "not", "have", "had", "permanent", "temples", "in", "can", "##aan", ",", "and", "their", "importance", "there", "wan", "##ed", "after", "egypt", "lost", "control", "of", "the", "region", ".", "in", "contrast", ",", "many", "temples", "to", "the", "major", "egyptian" ]
333
from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship, but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition. the worship of some egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands, especially to canaan and nubia during the new kingdom, when those regions were under pharaonic control. in canaan, the exported deities, including hathor, amun, and set, were often syncretized with native gods, who in turn spread to egypt. the egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in canaan, and their importance there waned after egypt lost control of the region. in contrast, many temples to the major egyptian
19
[ "gods", "and", "dei", "##fied", "pharaoh", "##s", "were", "built", "in", "nu", "##bia", ".", "after", "the", "end", "of", "egyptian", "rule", "there", ",", "the", "imported", "gods", ",", "particularly", "am", "##un", "and", "isis", ",", "were", "sync", "##ret", "##ized", "with", "local", "deities", "and", "remained", "part", "of", "the", "religion", "of", "nu", "##bia", "'", "s", "independent", "kingdom", "of", "ku", "##sh", ".", "these", "gods", "were", "incorporated", "into", "the", "nu", "##bian", "ideology", "of", "kings", "##hip", "much", "as", "they", "were", "in", "egypt", ",", "so", "that", "am", "##un", "was", "considered", "the", "divine", "father", "of", "the", "king", "and", "isis", "and", "other", "goddess", "##es", "were", "linked", "with", "the", "nu", "##bian", "queen", ",", "the", "kan", "##dak", "##e", ".", "some", "deities", "reached", "farther", ".", "ta", "##wer", "##et", "became", "a", "goddess", "in", "min", "##oa", "##n", "crete", ",", "and", "am", "##un", "'", "s", "oracle", "at" ]
334
gods and deified pharaohs were built in nubia. after the end of egyptian rule there, the imported gods, particularly amun and isis, were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of nubia's independent kingdom of kush. these gods were incorporated into the nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in egypt, so that amun was considered the divine father of the king and isis and other goddesses were linked with the nubian queen, the kandake. some deities reached farther. taweret became a goddess in minoan crete, and amun's oracle at
16
[ "si", "##wa", "oasis", "was", "known", "to", "and", "consulted", "by", "people", "across", "the", "mediterranean", "region", ".", "under", "the", "greek", "pt", "##ole", "##ma", "##ic", "dynasty", "and", "then", "roman", "rule", ",", "greeks", "and", "romans", "introduced", "their", "own", "deities", "to", "egypt", ".", "these", "newcomers", "e", "##qua", "##ted", "the", "egyptian", "gods", "with", "their", "own", ",", "as", "part", "of", "the", "greco", "@", "-", "@", "roman", "tradition", "of", "interpret", "##ati", "##o", "gr", "##ae", "##ca", ".", "but", "the", "worship", "of", "the", "native", "gods", "was", "not", "swallowed", "up", "by", "that", "of", "foreign", "ones", ".", "instead", ",", "greek", "and", "roman", "gods", "were", "adopted", "as", "manifestation", "##s", "of", "egyptian", "ones", ".", "egyptian", "cult", "##s", "sometimes", "incorporated", "greek", "language", ",", "philosophy", ",", "icon", "##ography", ",", "and", "even", "temple", "architecture", ".", "meanwhile", ",", "the", "cult", "##s", "of", "several", "egyptian", "deities", "—" ]
335
siwa oasis was known to and consulted by people across the mediterranean region. under the greek ptolemaic dynasty and then roman rule, greeks and romans introduced their own deities to egypt. these newcomers equated the egyptian gods with their own, as part of the greco @ - @ roman tradition of interpretatio graeca. but the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones. instead, greek and roman gods were adopted as manifestations of egyptian ones. egyptian cults sometimes incorporated greek language, philosophy, iconography, and even temple architecture. meanwhile, the cults of several egyptian deities —
2
[ "particularly", "isis", ",", "os", "##iri", "##s", ",", "an", "##ub", "##is", ",", "the", "form", "of", "ho", "##rus", "named", "harp", "##oc", "##rates", ",", "and", "the", "fused", "greco", "@", "-", "@", "egyptian", "god", "sera", "##pis", "—", "were", "adopted", "into", "roman", "religion", "and", "spread", "across", "the", "roman", "empire", ".", "roman", "emperors", ",", "like", "pt", "##ole", "##ma", "##ic", "kings", "before", "them", ",", "invoked", "isis", "and", "sera", "##pis", "to", "end", "##ors", "##e", "their", "authority", ",", "inside", "and", "outside", "egypt", ".", "in", "the", "empire", "'", "s", "complex", "mix", "of", "religious", "traditions", ",", "tho", "##th", "was", "trans", "##mute", "##d", "into", "the", "legendary", "es", "##oteric", "teacher", "hermes", "tri", "##sm", "##eg", "##ist", "##us", ",", "and", "isis", ",", "who", "was", "ve", "##ner", "##ated", "from", "britain", "to", "mesopotamia", ",", "became", "the", "focus", "of", "a", "greek", "@", "-", "@", "style", "mystery" ]
336
particularly isis, osiris, anubis, the form of horus named harpocrates, and the fused greco @ - @ egyptian god serapis — were adopted into roman religion and spread across the roman empire. roman emperors, like ptolemaic kings before them, invoked isis and serapis to endorse their authority, inside and outside egypt. in the empire's complex mix of religious traditions, thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher hermes trismegistus, and isis, who was venerated from britain to mesopotamia, became the focus of a greek @ - @ style mystery
2
[ "cult", ".", "isis", "and", "hermes", "tri", "##sm", "##eg", "##ist", "##us", "were", "both", "prominent", "in", "the", "western", "es", "##oteric", "tradition", "that", "grew", "from", "the", "roman", "religious", "world", ".", "temples", "and", "cult", "##s", "in", "egypt", "itself", "declined", "as", "the", "roman", "economy", "deteriorated", "in", "the", "third", "century", "ad", ",", "and", "beginning", "in", "the", "fourth", "century", ",", "christians", "suppressed", "the", "ve", "##ner", "##ation", "of", "egyptian", "deities", ".", "the", "last", "formal", "cult", "##s", ",", "at", "phil", "##ae", ",", "died", "out", "in", "the", "fifth", "or", "sixth", "century", ".", "most", "beliefs", "surrounding", "the", "gods", "themselves", "disappeared", "within", "a", "few", "hundred", "years", ",", "remaining", "in", "magical", "texts", "into", "the", "seventh", "and", "eighth", "centuries", ".", "but", "many", "of", "the", "practices", "involved", "in", "their", "worship", ",", "such", "as", "procession", "##s", "and", "oracle", "##s", ",", "were", "adapted", "to", "fit" ]
337
cult. isis and hermes trismegistus were both prominent in the western esoteric tradition that grew from the roman religious world. temples and cults in egypt itself declined as the roman economy deteriorated in the third century ad, and beginning in the fourth century, christians suppressed the veneration of egyptian deities. the last formal cults, at philae, died out in the fifth or sixth century. most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years, remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries. but many of the practices involved in their worship, such as processions and oracles, were adapted to fit
1
[ "christian", "ideology", "and", "persisted", "as", "part", "of", "the", "coptic", "church", ".", "given", "the", "great", "changes", "and", "diverse", "influences", "in", "egyptian", "culture", "since", "that", "time", ",", "scholars", "disagree", "about", "whether", "any", "modern", "coptic", "practices", "are", "descended", "from", "those", "of", "ph", "##ara", "##onic", "religion", ".", "but", "many", "festivals", "and", "other", "traditions", "of", "modern", "egyptians", ",", "both", "christian", "and", "muslim", ",", "resemble", "the", "worship", "of", "their", "ancestors", "'", "gods", ".", "=", "south", "of", "heaven", "=", "south", "of", "heaven", "is", "the", "fourth", "studio", "album", "by", "american", "thrash", "metal", "band", "slayer", ".", "released", "on", "july", "5", ",", "1988", ",", "the", "album", "was", "the", "band", "'", "s", "second", "collaboration", "with", "record", "producer", "rick", "rubin", ",", "whose", "production", "skills", "on", "slayer", "'", "s", "previous", "album", "reign", "in", "blood", "had", "helped", "the", "band", "'", "s", "sound" ]
338
christian ideology and persisted as part of the coptic church. given the great changes and diverse influences in egyptian culture since that time, scholars disagree about whether any modern coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion. but many festivals and other traditions of modern egyptians, both christian and muslim, resemble the worship of their ancestors'gods. = south of heaven = south of heaven is the fourth studio album by american thrash metal band slayer. released on july 5, 1988, the album was the band's second collaboration with record producer rick rubin, whose production skills on slayer's previous album reign in blood had helped the band's sound
20
[ "evolve", ".", "south", "of", "heaven", "was", "slayer", "'", "s", "second", "album", "to", "enter", "the", "billboard", "200", ",", "and", "its", "last", "to", "be", "released", "by", "def", "jam", "recordings", ",", "although", "the", "album", "became", "an", "american", "recordings", "album", "after", "rick", "rubin", "ended", "his", "partnership", "with", "russell", "simmons", ".", "it", "was", "one", "of", "only", "two", "def", "jam", "titles", "to", "be", "distributed", "by", "ge", "##ffen", "records", "through", "warner", "bros", ".", "records", "because", "of", "original", "distributor", "columbia", "records", "'", "refusal", "to", "release", "work", "by", "the", "band", ".", "the", "release", "peaked", "at", "number", "57", "and", "in", "1992", "was", "awarded", "a", "gold", "certification", "by", "the", "recording", "industry", "association", "of", "america", ".", "in", "order", "to", "offset", "the", "pace", "of", "the", "group", "'", "s", "previous", "album", ",", "slayer", "deliberately", "slowed", "down", "the", "album", "'", "s", "tempo", "." ]
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evolve. south of heaven was slayer's second album to enter the billboard 200, and its last to be released by def jam recordings, although the album became an american recordings album after rick rubin ended his partnership with russell simmons. it was one of only two def jam titles to be distributed by geffen records through warner bros. records because of original distributor columbia records'refusal to release work by the band. the release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the recording industry association of america. in order to offset the pace of the group's previous album, slayer deliberately slowed down the album's tempo.
892
[ "in", "contrast", "to", "their", "previous", "albums", ",", "the", "band", "utilized", "und", "##isto", "##rted", "guitars", "and", "toned", "@", "-", "@", "down", "vocals", ".", "while", "some", "critics", "praised", "this", "musical", "change", ",", "others", "—", "more", "accustomed", "to", "the", "style", "of", "earlier", "releases", "—", "were", "disappointed", ".", "the", "songs", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", "and", "the", "title", "track", ",", "however", ",", "have", "become", "permanent", "features", "of", "the", "band", "'", "s", "live", "set", "##list", ".", "=", "=", "background", "=", "=", "south", "of", "heaven", "was", "recorded", "in", "los", "angeles", ",", "california", "with", "reign", "in", "blood", "producer", "rick", "rubin", ".", "pop", "##mat", "##ters", "reviewer", "ad", "##rien", "beg", "##rand", "observed", "that", "rubin", "'", "s", "production", "\"", "shove", "##s", "[", "dave", "]", "lombard", "##o", "'", "s", "drumming", "right", "up", "front", "in", "the", "mix", ".", "\"", "guitarist", "jeff" ]
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in contrast to their previous albums, the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @ - @ down vocals. while some critics praised this musical change, others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed. the songs " mandatory suicide " and the title track, however, have become permanent features of the band's live setlist. = = background = = south of heaven was recorded in los angeles, california with reign in blood producer rick rubin. popmatters reviewer adrien begrand observed that rubin's production " shoves [ dave ] lombardo's drumming right up front in the mix. " guitarist jeff
921
[ "han", "##nem", "##an", "has", "since", "said", "that", "south", "of", "heaven", "was", "the", "only", "album", "the", "band", "members", "discussed", "before", "writing", "the", "music", ".", "aware", "that", "they", "\"", "couldn", "'", "t", "top", "reign", "in", "blood", "\"", ",", "and", "that", "whatever", "they", "recorded", "would", "be", "\"", "compared", "to", "that", "album", "\"", ",", "he", "believed", "they", "\"", "had", "to", "slow", "down", "\"", ",", "something", "slayer", "had", "never", "done", "on", "albums", "before", ",", "or", "since", ".", "guitarist", "kerry", "king", "cited", "the", "need", "to", "\"", "keep", "people", "guessing", "\"", "as", "another", "reason", "for", "the", "musical", "shift", ".", "\"", "in", "order", "to", "contrast", "the", "aggressive", "assault", "put", "forth", "on", "reign", "in", "blood", ",", "slayer", "consciously", "slowed", "down", "the", "tempo", "of", "the", "album", "as", "a", "whole", "\"", ",", "according", "to", "slayer", "'", "s", "official", "biography" ]
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hanneman has since said that south of heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music. aware that they " couldn't top reign in blood ", and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album ", he believed they " had to slow down ", something slayer had never done on albums before, or since. guitarist kerry king cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift. " in order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on reign in blood, slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole ", according to slayer's official biography
921
[ ".", "\"", "they", "also", "added", "elements", "like", "und", "##isto", "##rted", "guitars", "and", "toned", "@", "-", "@", "down", "vocal", "styles", "not", "heard", "on", "previous", "albums", ".", "\"", "king", "has", "since", "been", "critical", "of", "his", "performance", ",", "which", "he", "describes", "as", "his", "\"", "most", "lack", "##lus", "##ter", ".", "\"", "king", "attributes", "this", "to", "the", "fact", "he", "had", "recently", "married", ",", "and", "moved", "to", "phoenix", ",", "arizona", ".", "describing", "himself", "as", "\"", "probably", "the", "odd", "man", "out", "at", "that", "point", "\"", ",", "he", "admitted", "he", "\"", "didn", "’", "t", "participate", "as", "much", "because", "of", "that", ".", "\"", "han", "##nem", "##an", "said", ":", "\"", "we", "go", "through", "dry", "spells", "sometimes", ",", "but", "the", "good", "thing", "about", "having", "two", "guitar", "players", "that", "can", "write", "music", "is", "that", "you", "are", "never", "gonna", "go", "without" ]
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. " they also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @ - @ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums. " king has since been critical of his performance, which he describes as his " most lackluster. " king attributes this to the fact he had recently married, and moved to phoenix, arizona. describing himself as " probably the odd man out at that point ", he admitted he " didn ’ t participate as much because of that. " hanneman said : " we go through dry spells sometimes, but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without
953
[ ".", "i", "guess", "at", "that", "time", ",", "kerry", "was", "hitting", "a", "dry", "spell", ".", "\"", "king", "has", "also", "been", "critical", "of", "the", "album", "in", "general", ",", "describing", "it", "as", "one", "of", "his", "least", "favorite", "slayer", "albums", ".", "he", "feels", "vocalist", "tom", "ara", "##ya", "moved", "too", "far", "away", "from", "his", "regular", "vocal", "style", ",", "and", "\"", "added", "too", "much", "singing", ".", "\"", "drummer", "dave", "lombard", "##o", "has", "since", "observed", ":", "\"", "there", "was", "fire", "on", "all", "the", "records", ",", "but", "it", "started", "dim", "##ming", "when", "south", "of", "heaven", "came", "into", "the", "picture", ".", "and", "that", "'", "s", "me", "personally", ".", "again", ",", "i", "was", "probably", "wanting", "something", "else", ".", "\"", "judas", "priest", "'", "s", "\"", "di", "##ssi", "##dent", "ag", "##gre", "##sso", "##r", "\"", "is", "the", "only", "cover", "version", "to" ]
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. i guess at that time, kerry was hitting a dry spell. " king has also been critical of the album in general, describing it as one of his least favorite slayer albums. he feels vocalist tom araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style, and " added too much singing. " drummer dave lombardo has since observed : " there was fire on all the records, but it started dimming when south of heaven came into the picture. and that's me personally. again, i was probably wanting something else. " judas priest's " dissident aggressor " is the only cover version to
921
[ "appear", "on", "a", "slayer", "studio", "album", ".", "the", "song", "was", "chosen", "due", "to", "its", "war", "@", "-", "@", "themed", "lyrics", ".", "han", "##nem", "##an", "described", "the", "track", "as", "\"", "more", "just", "like", "one", "of", "those", "odd", "songs", "that", "a", "lot", "of", "people", "didn", "'", "t", "know", ",", "but", "it", "was", "a", "favorite", "of", "kerry", "and", "i", ",", "so", "we", "just", "picked", "that", "one", ".", "\"", "meanwhile", ",", "\"", "clean", "##se", "the", "soul", "\"", "has", "been", "heavily", "criticized", "by", "king", "who", "said", "that", "he", "hates", "the", "track", ":", "\"", "that", "'", "s", "one", "of", "the", "black", "marks", "in", "our", "history", ",", "in", "my", "book", ".", "i", "just", "fucking", "think", "it", "'", "s", "horrible", ".", "[", "laughs", "]", "i", "hate", "the", "opening", "riff", ".", "it", "'", "s", "what", "we", "call" ]
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appear on a slayer studio album. the song was chosen due to its war @ - @ themed lyrics. hanneman described the track as " more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn't know, but it was a favorite of kerry and i, so we just picked that one. " meanwhile, " cleanse the soul " has been heavily criticized by king who said that he hates the track : " that's one of the black marks in our history, in my book. i just fucking think it's horrible. [ laughs ] i hate the opening riff. it's what we call
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[ "a", "'", "happy", "riff", ".", "'", "it", "'", "s", "just", "like", "'", "la", "@", "-", "@", "lal", "##a", "@", "-", "@", "la", "@", "-", "@", "la", "@", "-", "@", "la", ".", "'", "i", "can", "'", "t", "see", "myself", "playing", "it", ",", "but", "after", "that", ",", "where", "it", "gets", "heavier", ",", "i", "like", "that", "section", ".", "if", "we", "ever", "did", "a", "medley", ",", "i", "'", "d", "put", "part", "of", "that", "in", "there", ".", "\"", "the", "slayer", "box", "##set", "soundtrack", "to", "the", "apocalypse", "featured", ",", "along", "with", "four", "songs", "of", "the", "album", ",", "an", "early", "version", "of", "the", "title", "track", ",", "recorded", "at", "han", "##nem", "##an", "'", "s", "home", ".", "=", "=", "photography", "and", "illustration", "=", "=", "artist", "larry", "carroll", "and", "illustrator", "howard", "schwartz", "##berg", "designed", "the", "cover", "artwork", "for" ]
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a'happy riff.'it's just like'la @ - @ lala @ - @ la @ - @ la @ - @ la.'i can't see myself playing it, but after that, where it gets heavier, i like that section. if we ever did a medley, i'd put part of that in there. " the slayer boxset soundtrack to the apocalypse featured, along with four songs of the album, an early version of the title track, recorded at hanneman's home. = = photography and illustration = = artist larry carroll and illustrator howard schwartzberg designed the cover artwork for
946
[ "south", "of", "heaven", ",", "having", "designed", "the", "artwork", "for", "slayer", "'", "s", "previous", "album", "reign", "in", "blood", ".", "photographer", "glen", "e", ".", "friedman", "took", "the", "promotional", "shot", "which", "surfaced", "as", "the", "back", "cover", "of", "south", "of", "heaven", "around", "the", "time", "of", "1986", "'", "s", "reign", "in", "blood", ".", "lombard", "##o", "felt", "it", "made", "slayer", "seem", "as", "though", "they", "\"", "had", "mature", "##d", "a", "little", "bit", "\"", ",", "while", "friedman", "himself", "deemed", "it", "\"", "a", "really", "cool", "back", "cover", "\"", "and", "\"", "one", "of", "the", "most", "classic", "shots", "of", "them", "[", "slayer", "]", "ever", ".", "\"", "=", "=", "critical", "reception", "=", "=", "south", "of", "heaven", "was", "released", "on", "july", "5", ",", "1988", ",", "and", "was", "the", "final", "slayer", "album", "distributed", "via", "def", "jam", "records", ".", "when", "label", "co", "@" ]
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south of heaven, having designed the artwork for slayer's previous album reign in blood. photographer glen e. friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of south of heaven around the time of 1986's reign in blood. lombardo felt it made slayer seem as though they " had matured a little bit ", while friedman himself deemed it " a really cool back cover " and " one of the most classic shots of them [ slayer ] ever. " = = critical reception = = south of heaven was released on july 5, 1988, and was the final slayer album distributed via def jam records. when label co @
893
[ "-", "@", "founders", "russell", "simmons", "and", "rubin", "parted", "ways", ",", "slayer", "signed", "to", "rubin", "'", "s", "newly", "founded", "def", "american", "recordings", "label", ".", "the", "album", "peaked", "at", "number", "57", "on", "the", "billboard", "200", "album", "chart", ",", "and", "on", "november", "20", ",", "1992", ",", "became", "slayer", "'", "s", "second", "album", "to", "be", "certified", "gold", "in", "the", "united", "states", ".", "south", "of", "heaven", "was", "awarded", "silver", "certification", "in", "the", "united", "kingdom", "on", "january", "1", ",", "1993", ",", "slayer", "'", "s", "first", "record", "to", "do", "so", "in", "that", "country", ".", "slayer", "'", "s", "official", "biography", "states", "that", "\"", "some", "critics", "praised", "the", "album", "as", "demonstrating", "slayer", "'", "s", "desire", "to", "grow", "musically", "and", "avoid", "repeating", "themselves", ".", "\"", "alex", "henderson", "of", "allmusic", "described", "the", "record", "as", "\"", "disturbing", "and", "powerful", "," ]
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- @ founders russell simmons and rubin parted ways, slayer signed to rubin's newly founded def american recordings label. the album peaked at number 57 on the billboard 200 album chart, and on november 20, 1992, became slayer's second album to be certified gold in the united states. south of heaven was awarded silver certification in the united kingdom on january 1, 1993, slayer's first record to do so in that country. slayer's official biography states that " some critics praised the album as demonstrating slayer's desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves. " alex henderson of allmusic described the record as " disturbing and powerful,
893
[ "\"", "while", "joe", "mater", "##a", "of", "ultimate", "guitar", "deemed", "the", "album", "a", "slight", "departure", ";", "he", "wrote", "that", "while", "the", "pace", "was", "slowed", "down", ",", "it", "\"", "didn", "'", "t", "sacrifice", "any", "of", "the", "he", "##avi", "##ness", "inherent", "in", "slayer", "'", "s", "music", ".", "\"", "reviewing", "the", "2003", "slayer", "box", "set", "soundtrack", "to", "the", "apocalypse", ",", "ad", "##rien", "beg", "##rand", "of", "pop", "##mat", "##ters", "described", "the", "album", "as", "\"", "their", "most", "under", "##rated", ",", "and", "on", "this", "set", ",", "its", "five", "selections", "show", "how", "highly", "the", "band", "thinks", "of", "the", "record", ".", "\"", "kn", "##ac", ".", "com", "'", "s", "peter", "atkinson", "was", "also", "positive", ",", "saying", "the", "album", "has", "a", "\"", "grand", "##ios", "##ity", "and", "imposing", "presence", "\"", "which", "makes", "the", "record", "\"", "so", "magnificent", ".", "\"", "grave" ]
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" while joe matera of ultimate guitar deemed the album a slight departure ; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down, it " didn't sacrifice any of the heaviness inherent in slayer's music. " reviewing the 2003 slayer box set soundtrack to the apocalypse, adrien begrand of popmatters described the album as " their most underrated, and on this set, its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record. " knac. com's peter atkinson was also positive, saying the album has a " grandiosity and imposing presence " which makes the record " so magnificent. " grave
953
[ "'", "s", "ol", "##a", "lin", "##d", "##gren", "and", "bolt", "throw", "##er", "'", "s", "karl", "will", "##ett", "##s", "both", "rate", "south", "of", "heaven", "as", "amongst", "the", "top", "five", "albums", "of", "all", "time", ",", "while", "max", "ko", "##les", "##ne", "of", "brazilian", "death", "metal", "group", "kris", "##iu", "##n", "remembers", "hearing", "the", "song", "\"", "silent", "scream", "\"", "for", "the", "first", "time", ":", "\"", "it", "just", "blew", "me", "away", ".", "it", "was", "like", "fast", "double", "@", "-", "@", "bass", ",", "fast", "kicks", "during", "the", "whole", "song", ".", "that", "was", "very", "inspiring", "for", "me", ".", "\"", "when", "discussing", "slayer", "in", "an", "october", "2007", "interview", ",", "evil", "##e", "frontman", "matt", "drake", "stated", "that", "while", "reign", "in", "blood", "\"", "was", "just", "speed", "\"", ",", "south", "of", "heaven", "proved", "that", "the", "group", "could", "write", "\"", "slow", "material" ]
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' s ola lindgren and bolt thrower's karl willetts both rate south of heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time, while max kolesne of brazilian death metal group krisiun remembers hearing the song " silent scream " for the first time : " it just blew me away. it was like fast double @ - @ bass, fast kicks during the whole song. that was very inspiring for me. " when discussing slayer in an october 2007 interview, evile frontman matt drake stated that while reign in blood " was just speed ", south of heaven proved that the group could write " slow material
936
[ "as", "well", ".", "\"", "metal", "forces", "reviewer", "gives", "\"", "the", "band", "credit", "for", "at", "least", "making", "an", "effort", "to", "try", "something", "new", "and", "not", "being", "afraid", "to", "experiment", "at", "such", "a", "crucial", "stage", "of", "their", "career", "\"", ",", "creating", "\"", "one", "of", "the", "more", "original", "sounding", "thrash", "/", "speed", "metal", "albums", "he", "heard", "in", "a", "long", "while", "\"", ".", "he", "remarks", ",", "however", ",", "that", "\"", "if", "you", "’", "re", "expecting", "to", "hear", "reign", "in", "blood", "part", "two", ",", "you", "’", "ll", "be", "in", "for", "a", "major", "disappointment", "\"", ".", "kim", "nee", "##ly", "of", "rolling", "stone", "dismissed", "the", "album", "as", "\"", "genuinely", "offensive", "satan", "##ic", "drive", "##l", ".", "\"", "slayer", "'", "s", "official", "biography", "states", ":", "\"", "the", "new", "sounds", "disappointed", "some", "of", "the", "band", "'", "s", "fans" ]
350
as well. " metal forces reviewer gives " the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career ", creating " one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while ". he remarks, however, that " if you ’ re expecting to hear reign in blood part two, you ’ ll be in for a major disappointment ". kim neely of rolling stone dismissed the album as " genuinely offensive satanic drivel. " slayer's official biography states : " the new sounds disappointed some of the band's fans
936
[ "who", "were", "more", "accustomed", "to", "the", "style", "of", "earlier", "releases", ".", "\"", "michael", "roberts", "of", "west", "##world", "online", "said", "this", "was", "due", "to", "some", "of", "the", "numbers", "moving", "\"", "at", "the", "sl", "##ud", "##gie", "##r", "speed", "of", "black", "sabbath", ".", "\"", "ara", "##ya", "commented", "that", "the", "\"", "album", "was", "a", "late", "bloom", "##er", "—", "it", "wasn", "'", "t", "really", "received", "well", ",", "but", "it", "kind", "of", "grew", "on", "everybody", "later", ".", "\"", "=", "=", "cover", "versions", "=", "=", "the", "title", "track", "and", "the", "song", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", "have", "received", "various", "cover", "interpretations", ",", "particularly", "on", "slayer", "tribute", "albums", ".", "toni", "ferguson", "recorded", "string", "quartet", "adaptations", "of", "both", "tracks", "on", "the", "album", "the", "string", "quartet", "tribute", "to", "slayer", ":", "the", "evil", "you", "dread", ",", "with", "the", "former", "cover" ]
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who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases. " michael roberts of westworld online said this was due to some of the numbers moving " at the sludgier speed of black sabbath. " araya commented that the " album was a late bloomer — it wasn't really received well, but it kind of grew on everybody later. " = = cover versions = = the title track and the song " mandatory suicide " have received various cover interpretations, particularly on slayer tribute albums. toni ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album the string quartet tribute to slayer : the evil you dread, with the former cover
921
[ "being", "described", "as", "having", "\"", "menacing", "chord", "shifts", "\"", "by", "allmusic", "'", "s", "johnny", "loft", "##us", ".", "1995", "slayer", "tribute", "album", "sl", "##ata", "##nic", "slaughter", "featured", "three", "tracks", "which", "originally", "appeared", "on", "south", "of", "heaven", ",", "with", "the", "title", "track", ",", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", "and", "\"", "spill", "the", "blood", "\"", "interpreted", "by", "ce", "##met", "##ary", ",", "crown", "of", "thorns", "and", "gr", "##ope", "respectively", ".", "its", "1998", "follow", "up", "sl", "##ata", "##nic", "slaughter", ",", "vol", ".", "2", "only", "featured", "two", "tracks", "originally", "from", "the", "album", ";", "namely", "\"", "silent", "scream", "\"", "arranged", "by", "va", "##der", "and", "\"", "read", "between", "the", "lies", "\"", "interpreted", "by", "ana", "##the", "##ma", ".", "1999", "'", "s", "straight", "to", "hell", ":", "a", "tribute", "to", "slayer", "collected", "four", "slayer", "rendition", "##s", "which", "originated", "on", "the" ]
352
being described as having " menacing chord shifts " by allmusic's johnny loftus. 1995 slayer tribute album slatanic slaughter featured three tracks which originally appeared on south of heaven, with the title track, " mandatory suicide " and " spill the blood " interpreted by cemetary, crown of thorns and grope respectively. its 1998 follow up slatanic slaughter, vol. 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album ; namely " silent scream " arranged by vader and " read between the lies " interpreted by anathema. 1999's straight to hell : a tribute to slayer collected four slayer renditions which originated on the
200
[ "album", ",", "with", "versions", "of", "south", "of", "heaven", "performed", "by", "aba", "##dd", "##on", "(", "venom", ")", "and", "electric", "hell", "##fire", "club", ",", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", "cut", "by", "chapter", "7", "and", "\"", "behind", "the", "crooked", "cross", "\"", "adapted", "by", "gig", "##anto", "##r", ".", "2006", "argentine", "tribute", "album", "al", "sur", "del", "ab", "##ism", "##o", "(", "tri", "##bu", "##to", "argent", "##ino", "a", "slayer", ")", "saw", "na", "##fa", "##k", "and", "climatic", "terra", "also", "respectively", "cover", "\"", "south", "of", "heaven", "\"", "and", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", ".", "hate", "##bre", "##ed", "covered", "the", "song", "\"", "ghosts", "of", "war", "\"", "for", "their", "2009", "cover", "album", "for", "the", "lions", ".", "they", "released", "a", "music", "video", "for", "it", "also", ".", "ko", "##rn", "has", "covered", "the", "title", "track", "at", "least", "twice", "live", ",", "once", "with", "kid", "rock" ]
353
album, with versions of south of heaven performed by abaddon ( venom ) and electric hellfire club, " mandatory suicide " cut by chapter 7 and " behind the crooked cross " adapted by gigantor. 2006 argentine tribute album al sur del abismo ( tributo argentino a slayer ) saw nafak and climatic terra also respectively cover " south of heaven " and " mandatory suicide ". hatebreed covered the song " ghosts of war " for their 2009 cover album for the lions. they released a music video for it also. korn has covered the title track at least twice live, once with kid rock
155
[ "on", "vocals", "and", "another", "using", "the", "intro", "to", "follow", "into", "one", "of", "their", "songs", "live", ".", "the", "title", "track", "itself", "has", "also", "been", "covered", "by", "integrity", "2000", ",", "modest", "mouse", "and", "cal", "##if", "##one", ",", "pro", "@", "-", "@", "pain", ",", "and", "universe", "eye", ".", "polish", "death", "metal", "band", "dec", "##ap", "##itated", "covered", "the", "song", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", "on", "their", "first", "full", "@", "-", "@", "length", "album", "winds", "of", "creation", ".", "in", "2003", ",", "\"", "silent", "scream", "\"", "was", "covered", "by", "children", "of", "bodo", "##m", "for", "their", "album", "hate", "crew", "death", "##roll", "in", "his", "uk", "version", ".", "hardcore", "punk", "band", ",", "the", "mongol", "##oids", "opened", "their", "set", "with", "the", "beginning", "of", "\"", "south", "of", "heaven", "\"", "at", "heart", "##fest", "7", "on", "may", "4", ",", "2013", "=", "=" ]
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on vocals and another using the intro to follow into one of their songs live. the title track itself has also been covered by integrity 2000, modest mouse and califone, pro @ - @ pain, and universe eye. polish death metal band decapitated covered the song " mandatory suicide " on their first full @ - @ length album winds of creation. in 2003, " silent scream " was covered by children of bodom for their album hate crew deathroll in his uk version. hardcore punk band, the mongoloids opened their set with the beginning of " south of heaven " at heartfest 7 on may 4, 2013 = =
936
[ "live", "performances", "=", "=", "two", "songs", "taken", "from", "the", "album", "(", "\"", "mandatory", "suicide", "\"", "and", "\"", "south", "of", "heaven", "\"", ")", "have", "become", "near", "constant", "fixtures", "in", "the", "band", "'", "s", "live", "set", "##list", ",", "notch", "##ing", "up", "appearances", "on", "the", "following", ":", "the", "live", "dvds", "live", "intrusion", ",", "war", "at", "the", "war", "##field", ",", "still", "reigning", ",", "soundtrack", "to", "the", "apocalypse", "'", "s", "deluxe", "edition", "'", "s", "bonus", "live", "disc", ",", "and", "the", "live", "double", "album", "decade", "of", "aggression", ".", "lombard", "##o", "guest", "##ed", "with", "finnish", "cell", "##ist", "group", "apocalyptic", "##a", "on", "a", "live", "medley", "of", "the", "two", "tracks", "at", "1998", "'", "s", "head", "##bang", "##er", "'", "s", "heaven", "festival", "in", "the", "netherlands", ".", "ad", "##rien", "beg", "##rand", "of", "pop", "##mat", "##ters", "described", "\"", "south", "of" ]
355
live performances = = two songs taken from the album ( " mandatory suicide " and " south of heaven " ) have become near constant fixtures in the band's live setlist, notching up appearances on the following : the live dvds live intrusion, war at the warfield, still reigning, soundtrack to the apocalypse's deluxe edition's bonus live disc, and the live double album decade of aggression. lombardo guested with finnish cellist group apocalyptica on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998's headbanger's heaven festival in the netherlands. adrien begrand of popmatters described " south of
946
[ "heaven", "\"", "as", "\"", "an", "uno", "##rth", "##od", "##ox", "set", "opener", "in", "theory", "\"", ",", "noting", "\"", "the", "song", "went", "over", "like", "a", "mega", "##ton", "bomb", "det", "##ona", "##ting", "the", "place", ":", "dozens", "of", "inverted", "crosses", "projected", "behind", "the", "high", "drum", "rise", "##r", ",", "the", "sin", "##ew", "##y", "opening", "notes", "kicked", "in", ",", "followed", "by", "an", "overture", "of", "bass", ",", "cy", "##mba", "##l", "crashes", ",", "and", "tom", "fills", ",", "leading", "up", "to", "the", "slowly", "building", "cr", "##es", "##cend", "##o", "\"", "in", "a", "concert", "review", ".", "lombard", "##o", "remembers", "listening", "to", "a", "live", "rendition", "of", "\"", "south", "of", "heaven", "\"", "and", "thinking", "\"", "‘", "man", "!", "there", "'", "s", "just", "so", "much", "groove", "in", "that", "song", ".", "’", "to", "my", "kids", "i", "was", "saying", ",", "‘", "listen", "to", "that" ]
356
heaven " as " an unorthodox set opener in theory ", noting " the song went over like a megaton bomb detonating the place : dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum riser, the sinewy opening notes kicked in, followed by an overture of bass, cymbal crashes, and tom fills, leading up to the slowly building crescendo " in a concert review. lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of " south of heaven " and thinking " ‘ man! there's just so much groove in that song. ’ to my kids i was saying, ‘ listen to that
901
[ "!", "listen", "to", "how", "gr", "##oo", "##vy", "that", "is", "!", "’", "and", "it", "'", "s", "heavy", ".", "\"", "a", "rare", "live", "version", "of", "the", "track", "featured", "on", "the", "ja", "##ger", "##music", "ra", "##rit", "##ies", "2004", "promotional", "cd", ",", "given", "away", "to", "attendees", "at", "the", "spring", "2004", "ja", "##ger", "##meister", "music", "tour", ".", "a", "live", "rendition", "of", "\"", "south", "of", "heaven", "\"", "was", "also", "included", "on", "a", "bonus", "dvd", "which", "came", "with", "the", "group", "'", "s", "2007", "re", "@", "-", "@", "release", "of", "ninth", "studio", "album", "christ", "illusion", ",", "shot", "in", "vancouver", ",", "british", "columbia", "during", "2006", "'", "s", "un", "##hol", "##y", "alliance", "tour", ".", "\"", "behind", "the", "crooked", "cross", "\"", "is", "rarely", "played", "live", "as", "han", "##nem", "##an", "hates", "the", "track", ",", "though", "king", "has", "always", "wanted", "to" ]
357
! listen to how groovy that is! ’ and it's heavy. " a rare live version of the track featured on the jagermusic rarities 2004 promotional cd, given away to attendees at the spring 2004 jagermeister music tour. a live rendition of " south of heaven " was also included on a bonus dvd which came with the group's 2007 re @ - @ release of ninth studio album christ illusion, shot in vancouver, british columbia during 2006's unholy alliance tour. " behind the crooked cross " is rarely played live as hanneman hates the track, though king has always wanted to
949
[ "play", "it", "\"", "because", "it", "'", "s", "got", "a", "cool", "intro", "\"", "despite", "it", "not", "being", "his", "favorite", "song", ".", "king", "said", "\"", "that", "'", "s", "fine", "\"", "when", "speaking", "of", "the", "situation", ",", "noting", "\"", "there", "are", "songs", "that", "he", "wants", "to", "play", "that", "i", "always", "shoot", "down", ".", "\"", "\"", "ghosts", "of", "war", "\"", "isn", "'", "t", "king", "'", "s", "favorite", "song", "either", ",", "which", "he", "at", "##test", "##s", "\"", "everybody", "always", "wants", "to", "hear", "\"", "performed", "live", ".", "he", "confessed", ";", "\"", "i", "like", "the", "ending", ",", "you", "know", ",", "i", "like", "the", "big", "heavy", "part", "and", "i", "always", "say", ",", "‘", "let", "'", "s", "put", "the", "heavy", "ending", "at", "the", "end", "of", "\"", "chemical", "warfare", "\"", "and", "just", "do", "the", "last", "half", ".", "’" ]
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play it " because it's got a cool intro " despite it not being his favorite song. king said " that's fine " when speaking of the situation, noting " there are songs that he wants to play that i always shoot down. " " ghosts of war " isn't king's favorite song either, which he attests " everybody always wants to hear " performed live. he confessed ; " i like the ending, you know, i like the big heavy part and i always say, ‘ let's put the heavy ending at the end of " chemical warfare " and just do the last half. ’
899
[ "but", "i", "could", "never", "make", "that", "fly", ".", "\"", "slayer", "has", "toy", "##ed", "with", "the", "idea", "of", "creating", "a", "live", "set", "mixed", "with", "selections", "from", "the", "album", "and", "1990", "'", "s", "seasons", "in", "the", "abyss", ",", "though", "han", "##nem", "##an", "said", "it", "'", "s", "something", "which", "hasn", "'", "t", "been", "\"", "seriously", "considered", ".", "\"", "metal", "mania", "##cs", "asked", "slayer", "in", "a", "2006", "interview", "whether", "they", "would", "consider", "playing", "south", "of", "heaven", "in", "the", "footsteps", "of", "the", "still", "reigning", "tour", ",", "to", "which", "ara", "##ya", "replied", ",", "\"", "it", "'", "s", "becoming", "a", "trend", "##y", "thing", "now", ".", "i", "don", "'", "t", "know", ".", "we", "have", "some", "really", "cool", "albums", ",", "but", "i", "don", "'", "t", "think", "we", "'", "ll", "ever", "do", "that", "again", ".", "\"", "king", "was" ]
359
but i could never make that fly. " slayer has toyed with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990's seasons in the abyss, though hanneman said it's something which hasn't been " seriously considered. " metal maniacs asked slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing south of heaven in the footsteps of the still reigning tour, to which araya replied, " it's becoming a trendy thing now. i don't know. we have some really cool albums, but i don't think we'll ever do that again. " king was
936
[ "equally", "unsure", ",", "commenting", ",", "\"", "probably", "not", ".", "and", "i", "just", "don", "'", "t", "like", "enough", "songs", "off", "south", "of", "heaven", ".", "\"", "=", "=", "track", "listing", "=", "=", "=", "=", "personnel", "=", "=", "tom", "ara", "##ya", "–", "bass", ",", "lead", "vocals", "jeff", "han", "##nem", "##an", "–", "lead", "and", "rhythm", "guitar", "kerry", "king", "–", "lead", "and", "rhythm", "guitar", ",", "backing", "vocals", "dave", "lombard", "##o", "–", "drums", "=", "=", "charts", "and", "certification", "##s", "=", "=", "=", "general", "aviation", "in", "the", "united", "kingdom", "=", "general", "aviation", "in", "the", "united", "kingdom", "has", "been", "defined", "as", "a", "civil", "aircraft", "operation", "other", "than", "a", "commercial", "air", "transport", "flight", "operating", "to", "a", "schedule", "or", "military", "aviation", ".", "although", "the", "international", "civil", "aviation", "organization", "(", "icao", ")", "exclude", "##s", "any", "form", "of", "re", "##mun" ]
360
equally unsure, commenting, " probably not. and i just don't like enough songs off south of heaven. " = = track listing = = = = personnel = = tom araya – bass, lead vocals jeff hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar kerry king – lead and rhythm guitar, backing vocals dave lombardo – drums = = charts and certifications = = = general aviation in the united kingdom = general aviation in the united kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule or military aviation. although the international civil aviation organization ( icao ) excludes any form of remun
950
[ "##erated", "aviation", "from", "its", "definition", ",", "some", "commercial", "operations", "are", "often", "included", "within", "the", "scope", "of", "general", "aviation", "(", "ga", ")", "in", "the", "uk", ".", "the", "sector", "operates", "business", "jets", ",", "rotor", "##craft", ",", "piston", "and", "jet", "@", "-", "@", "engined", "fixed", "@", "-", "@", "wing", "aircraft", ",", "glider", "##s", "of", "all", "descriptions", ",", "and", "lighter", "than", "air", "craft", ".", "public", "transport", "operations", "include", "business", "(", "or", "corporate", ")", "aviation", "and", "air", "taxi", "services", ",", "and", "account", "for", "nearly", "half", "of", "the", "economic", "contribution", "made", "by", "the", "sector", ".", "other", "commercial", "ga", "activities", "are", "aerial", "work", ",", "such", "as", "surveying", "and", "air", "ambulance", "##s", ",", "and", "flight", "training", ",", "which", "plays", "an", "important", "role", "in", "the", "supply", "of", "pilots", "to", "the", "commercial", "air", "transport", "(", "cat", ")", "industry" ]
361
##erated aviation from its definition, some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation ( ga ) in the uk. the sector operates business jets, rotorcraft, piston and jet @ - @ engined fixed @ - @ wing aircraft, gliders of all descriptions, and lighter than air craft. public transport operations include business ( or corporate ) aviation and air taxi services, and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector. other commercial ga activities are aerial work, such as surveying and air ambulances, and flight training, which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport ( cat ) industry
522
[ ".", "private", "flying", "is", "conducted", "for", "personal", "transport", "and", "recreation", ".", "it", "includes", "a", "strong", "vintage", "aircraft", "movement", ",", "and", "encompasses", "a", "range", "of", "air", "sports", ",", "such", "as", "racing", ",", "aero", "##bat", "##ics", ",", "and", "para", "##chu", "##ting", ",", "at", "which", "british", "teams", "and", "individuals", "have", "succeeded", "in", "international", "competition", ".", "of", "the", "21", "@", ",", "@", "000", "civil", "aircraft", "registered", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "96", "per", "cent", "are", "engaged", "in", "ga", "operations", ",", "and", "annually", "the", "ga", "fleet", "accounts", "for", "between", "1", "@", ".", "@", "25", "and", "1", "@", ".", "@", "35", "million", "hours", "flown", ".", "the", "single", "most", "common", "class", "of", "aircraft", "is", "the", "fixed", "@", "-", "@", "wing", "light", "aircraft", "associated", "with", "traditional", "ga", ",", "but", "the", "main", "area", "of", "growth", "over", "the", "last" ]
362
. private flying is conducted for personal transport and recreation. it includes a strong vintage aircraft movement, and encompasses a range of air sports, such as racing, aerobatics, and parachuting, at which british teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition. of the 21 @, @ 000 civil aircraft registered in the uk, 96 per cent are engaged in ga operations, and annually the ga fleet accounts for between 1 @. @ 25 and 1 @. @ 35 million hours flown. the single most common class of aircraft is the fixed @ - @ wing light aircraft associated with traditional ga, but the main area of growth over the last
260
[ "20", "years", "has", "been", "in", "the", "use", "of", "more", "affordable", "aircraft", ",", "such", "as", "micro", "##lights", ",", "amateur", "built", "aero", "##planes", ",", "and", "smaller", "helicopters", ".", "there", "are", "28", "@", ",", "@", "000", "private", "pilot", "licence", "holders", ",", "and", "10", "@", ",", "@", "000", "certified", "glider", "pilots", ".", "some", "of", "the", "19", "@", ",", "@", "000", "pilots", "who", "hold", "professional", "licence", "##s", "are", "also", "engaged", "in", "ga", "activities", ".", "although", "ga", "operates", "from", "more", "than", "1", "@", ",", "@", "800", "aerodrome", "##s", "and", "landing", "sites", ",", "ranging", "in", "size", "from", "large", "regional", "airports", "to", "farm", "strips", ",", "over", "80", "per", "cent", "of", "ga", "activity", "is", "conducted", "at", "134", "of", "the", "larger", "aerodrome", "##s", ".", "the", "ga", "industry", ",", "which", "is", "around", "7", "per", "cent", "the", "size", "of", "its" ]
363
20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft, such as microlights, amateur built aeroplanes, and smaller helicopters. there are 28 @, @ 000 private pilot licence holders, and 10 @, @ 000 certified glider pilots. some of the 19 @, @ 000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in ga activities. although ga operates from more than 1 @, @ 800 aerodromes and landing sites, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips, over 80 per cent of ga activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes. the ga industry, which is around 7 per cent the size of its
260
[ "cat", "cousin", ",", "employs", "12", "@", ",", "@", "000", "people", ",", "and", "contributes", "£", "1", "@", ".", "@", "4", "billion", "to", "the", "uk", "economy", ".", "ga", "is", "regulated", "by", "the", "civil", "aviation", "authority", "(", "ca", "##a", ")", ",", "although", "regulatory", "powers", "are", "being", "increasingly", "transferred", "to", "the", "european", "aviation", "safety", "agency", "(", "ea", "##sa", ")", ".", "the", "main", "focus", "is", "on", "standards", "of", "air", "##worth", "##iness", "and", "pilot", "licensing", ",", "and", "the", "objective", "is", "to", "promote", "high", "standards", "of", "safety", ".", "at", "the", "lighter", "end", "of", "the", "ga", "spectrum", "some", "regulatory", "authority", "is", "dev", "##olved", "to", "representative", "bodies", ",", "and", "gliding", "is", "in", "transition", "from", "a", "self", "@", "-", "@", "regulatory", "model", "to", "more", "formal", "governance", "by", "ea", "##sa", ".", "airspace", "regulation", "necessary", "to", "protect", "an", "increasing", "number" ]
364
cat cousin, employs 12 @, @ 000 people, and contributes £ 1 @. @ 4 billion to the uk economy. ga is regulated by the civil aviation authority ( caa ), although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the european aviation safety agency ( easa ). the main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, and the objective is to promote high standards of safety. at the lighter end of the ga spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies, and gliding is in transition from a self @ - @ regulatory model to more formal governance by easa. airspace regulation necessary to protect an increasing number
478
[ "of", "cat", "operations", "has", "reduced", "the", "area", "in", "which", "ga", "flights", "can", "be", "freely", "conducted", ".", "the", "growth", "in", "cat", "is", "also", "making", "access", "to", "larger", "airports", "more", "difficult", "for", "the", "ga", "sector", ",", "and", "smaller", "aerodrome", "##s", "are", "vulnerable", "to", "closure", "and", "re", "@", "-", "@", "development", "for", "more", "profitable", "uses", ".", "the", "uk", "planning", "system", "has", "no", "re", "##mit", "to", "consider", "the", "national", "significance", "of", "ga", "public", "transport", "operations", ",", "and", "generally", "does", "not", "favour", "the", "development", "of", "smaller", "aerodrome", "##s", "catering", "to", "the", "ga", "market", ".", "the", "planning", "process", "has", "become", "a", "mechanism", "for", "addressing", "local", "aerodrome", "@", "-", "@", "related", "environmental", "issues", "which", ",", "particularly", "regarding", "noise", ",", "are", "the", "main", "subjects", "of", "public", "criticism", "level", "##led", "at", "ga", ".", "=", "=", "definitions", "=" ]
365
of cat operations has reduced the area in which ga flights can be freely conducted. the growth in cat is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the ga sector, and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re @ - @ development for more profitable uses. the uk planning system has no remit to consider the national significance of ga public transport operations, and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the ga market. the planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome @ - @ related environmental issues which, particularly regarding noise, are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at ga. = = definitions =
509
[ "=", "the", "international", "civil", "aviation", "organization", "(", "icao", ")", "defines", "general", "aviation", "(", "ga", ")", "as", "\"", "an", "aircraft", "operation", "other", "than", "a", "commercial", "air", "transport", "operation", "or", "an", "aerial", "work", "operation", ".", "\"", "it", "defines", "commercial", "air", "transport", "(", "cat", ")", "as", "\"", "an", "aircraft", "operation", "involving", "the", "transport", "of", "passengers", ",", "cargo", "or", "mail", "for", "re", "##mun", "##eration", "or", "hire", "\"", ",", "and", "aerial", "work", "as", "\"", "an", "aircraft", "operation", "in", "which", "an", "aircraft", "is", "used", "for", "specialized", "services", "such", "as", "agriculture", ",", "construction", ",", "photography", ",", "surveying", ",", "observation", "and", "patrol", ",", "search", "and", "rescue", ",", "aerial", "advertisement", ",", "etc", ".", "\"", "organisations", "in", "the", "united", "kingdom", "(", "uk", ")", "describe", "ga", "in", "less", "restrictive", "terms", "that", "include", "elements", "of", "commercial", "aviation", ".", "the", "british" ]
366
= the international civil aviation organization ( icao ) defines general aviation ( ga ) as " an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation. " it defines commercial air transport ( cat ) as " an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo or mail for remuneration or hire ", and aerial work as " an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial advertisement, etc. " organisations in the united kingdom ( uk ) describe ga in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation. the british
256
[ "business", "and", "general", "aviation", "association", "interpret", "##s", "it", "to", "be", "\"", "all", "aero", "##plane", "and", "helicopter", "flying", "except", "that", "performed", "by", "the", "major", "airlines", "and", "the", "armed", "services", "\"", ".", "the", "general", "aviation", "awareness", "council", "applies", "the", "description", "\"", "all", "civil", "aviation", "operations", "other", "than", "scheduled", "air", "services", "and", "non", "@", "-", "@", "scheduled", "air", "transport", "operations", "for", "re", "##mun", "##eration", "or", "hire", "\"", ".", "for", "the", "purposes", "of", "a", "strategic", "review", "of", "ga", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "the", "civil", "aviation", "authority", "(", "ca", "##a", ")", "defined", "the", "scope", "of", "ga", "as", "\"", "a", "civil", "aircraft", "operation", "other", "than", "a", "commercial", "air", "transport", "flight", "operating", "to", "a", "schedule", "\"", ",", "and", "considered", "it", "necessary", "to", "depart", "from", "the", "icao", "definition", "and", "include", "aerial", "work", "and", "minor", "cat", "operations" ]
367
business and general aviation association interprets it to be " all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the armed services ". the general aviation awareness council applies the description " all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non @ - @ scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire ". for the purposes of a strategic review of ga in the uk, the civil aviation authority ( caa ) defined the scope of ga as " a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule ", and considered it necessary to depart from the icao definition and include aerial work and minor cat operations
463
[ ".", "the", "first", "aerodrome", "in", "the", "uk", "was", "established", "by", "the", "aero", "club", "at", "mu", "##swell", "manor", "on", "the", "isle", "of", "she", "##ppe", "##y", ",", "and", "in", "may", "1909", "it", "was", "the", "venue", "of", "the", "first", "flight", "conducted", "in", "the", "country", "by", "a", "british", "pilot", ",", "john", "moore", "@", "-", "@", "bra", "##ba", "##zon", ".", "in", "1910", "the", "aero", "club", "was", "granted", "the", "royal", "prefix", ",", "took", "responsibility", "for", "controlling", "all", "private", "flying", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "and", "started", "issuing", "the", "first", "british", "pilot", "licence", "##s", ".", "the", "introduction", "of", "the", "de", "havilland", "dh", ".", "60", "moth", "in", "1925", "revolution", "##ised", "light", "aviation", ",", "and", "the", "royal", "aero", "club", ",", "rec", "##og", "##nis", "##ing", "the", "\"", "vital", "necessity", "of", "promoting", "civil", "flying", "\"", ",", "formed", "the", "light", "aero" ]
368
. the first aerodrome in the uk was established by the aero club at muswell manor on the isle of sheppey, and in may 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a british pilot, john moore @ - @ brabazon. in 1910 the aero club was granted the royal prefix, took responsibility for controlling all private flying in the uk, and started issuing the first british pilot licences. the introduction of the de havilland dh. 60 moth in 1925 revolutionised light aviation, and the royal aero club, recognising the " vital necessity of promoting civil flying ", formed the light aero
260
[ "##plane", "club", "scheme", ".", "between", "1925", "and", "1939", "around", "60", "flying", "clubs", "were", "started", ",", "and", "more", "than", "5", "@", ",", "@", "000", "pilots", "were", "trained", ".", "during", "world", "war", "ii", "civil", "aerodrome", "##s", "were", "taken", "over", "for", "military", "use", ",", "existing", "military", "airfields", "were", "expanded", ",", "and", "new", "ones", "were", "built", ".", "this", "resulted", "in", "a", "significant", "inventory", "of", "facilities", "becoming", "available", "after", "the", "war", ".", "pre", "@", "-", "@", "war", "civil", "aerodrome", "##s", ",", "for", "example", "sy", "##well", ",", "were", "returned", "to", "civilian", "use", ".", "surplus", "military", "airfields", "were", "closed", ",", "and", "in", "some", "cases", ",", "for", "example", "be", "##cc", "##les", ",", "subsequently", "re", "@", "-", "@", "opened", "as", "civil", "aerodrome", "##s", ".", "the", "ministry", "of", "civil", "aviation", "was", "created", "to", "regulate", "all", "civil", "aviation", "in" ]
369
##plane club scheme. between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying clubs were started, and more than 5 @, @ 000 pilots were trained. during world war ii civil aerodromes were taken over for military use, existing military airfields were expanded, and new ones were built. this resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war. pre @ - @ war civil aerodromes, for example sywell, were returned to civilian use. surplus military airfields were closed, and in some cases, for example beccles, subsequently re @ - @ opened as civil aerodromes. the ministry of civil aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation in
256
[ "the", "uk", ",", "and", "this", "task", "remained", "the", "responsibility", "of", "government", "departments", "until", "the", "establishment", "of", "the", "independent", "ca", "##a", "in", "1972", ".", "with", "an", "expanded", "infrastructure", "in", "place", ",", "ga", "became", "established", "after", "the", "war", "when", "manufacturers", "such", "as", "cessna", "and", "piper", "introduced", "light", "aircraft", "designed", "for", "the", "private", "market", ".", "the", "cessna", "172", ",", "developed", "from", "the", "late", "1940s", "cessna", "170", ",", "was", "introduced", "in", "1956", ",", "and", "became", "the", "world", "'", "s", "best", "selling", "single", "@", "-", "@", "engine", "aero", "##plane", ".", "single", "piston", "@", "-", "@", "engine", "aircraft", "are", "still", "the", "most", "common", "class", "of", "aircraft", "in", "the", "uk", "ga", "fleet", ".", "the", "development", "of", "the", "ro", "##gall", "##o", "wing", "in", "the", "1950s", "foster", "##ed", "the", "development", "of", "hang", "@", "-", "@", "gliding", "during" ]
370
the uk, and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent caa in 1972. with an expanded infrastructure in place, ga became established after the war when manufacturers such as cessna and piper introduced light aircraft designed for the private market. the cessna 172, developed from the late 1940s cessna 170, was introduced in 1956, and became the world's best selling single @ - @ engine aeroplane. single piston @ - @ engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the uk ga fleet. the development of the rogallo wing in the 1950s fostered the development of hang @ - @ gliding during
479
[ "the", "1960s", "and", "1970s", ".", "the", "1960s", "also", "saw", "experiments", "with", "motor", "##ised", "hang", "glider", "##s", ",", "but", "it", "was", "not", "until", "the", "1970s", "that", "this", "blend", "of", "technologies", "started", "to", "mature", ",", "resulting", "in", "the", "birth", "of", "the", "micro", "##light", "movement", ".", "another", "milestone", "in", "the", "development", "of", "ga", "was", "the", "1964", "introduction", "of", "the", "lear", "##jet", "23", ".", "although", "it", "was", "not", "the", "first", "business", "jet", ",", "it", "popular", "##ised", "corporate", "aviation", ",", "and", "established", "the", "personal", "jet", "as", "a", "\"", "whole", "new", "class", "of", "aircraft", "\"", ".", "=", "=", "activities", "=", "=", "the", "ga", "sector", "operates", "a", "range", "of", "aircraft", ",", "including", "balloons", "and", "airship", "##s", ",", "glider", "##s", ",", "hang", "glider", "##s", ",", "para", "##gli", "##ders", ",", "micro", "##lights", ",", "g", "##yr", "##oco", "##pt" ]
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the 1960s and 1970s. the 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders, but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature, resulting in the birth of the microlight movement. another milestone in the development of ga was the 1964 introduction of the learjet 23. although it was not the first business jet, it popularised corporate aviation, and established the personal jet as a " whole new class of aircraft ". = = activities = = the ga sector operates a range of aircraft, including balloons and airships, gliders, hang gliders, paragliders, microlights, gyrocopt
256
[ "##ers", ",", "helicopters", ",", "amateur", "built", "and", "mass", "@", "-", "@", "produced", "light", "aircraft", ",", "ex", "@", "-", "@", "military", "aircraft", ",", "and", "business", "jets", ".", "flights", "can", "be", "broadly", "cat", "##ego", "##rise", "##d", "as", "public", "transport", ",", "aerial", "work", ",", "and", "private", "flying", ",", "the", "first", "two", "of", "which", "are", "commercial", "activities", ".", "=", "=", "=", "commercial", "operations", "=", "=", "=", "commercial", "operations", "are", "re", "##mun", "##erated", "activities", "which", "fall", "within", "the", "icao", "definition", "of", "cat", ".", "some", "are", ",", "however", ",", "closely", "aligned", "to", ",", "and", "considered", "part", "of", ",", "the", "ga", "sector", ".", "public", "transport", "operations", "are", "non", "@", "-", "@", "scheduled", ",", "on", "@", "-", "@", "demand", "services", "flying", "between", "points", "specified", "by", "the", "customer", ",", "providing", "a", "more", "flexible", "service", "than", "airline", "travel" ]
372
##ers, helicopters, amateur built and mass @ - @ produced light aircraft, ex @ - @ military aircraft, and business jets. flights can be broadly categorised as public transport, aerial work, and private flying, the first two of which are commercial activities. = = = commercial operations = = = commercial operations are remunerated activities which fall within the icao definition of cat. some are, however, closely aligned to, and considered part of, the ga sector. public transport operations are non @ - @ scheduled, on @ - @ demand services flying between points specified by the customer, providing a more flexible service than airline travel
439
[ ".", "air", "taxi", "operations", "offer", "charter", "services", "for", "third", "parties", ",", "and", "business", "or", "corporate", "aviation", "uses", "company", "@", "-", "@", "owned", "aircraft", "to", "transport", "employees", "and", "clients", ".", "aircraft", "used", "in", "these", "operations", "include", "business", "jets", ",", "helicopters", ",", "and", "twin", "piston", "@", "-", "@", "engine", "aero", "##planes", "carrying", "between", "six", "and", "ten", "people", ".", "an", "example", "of", "this", "type", "of", "operation", "is", "the", "transport", "by", "helicopter", "of", "spectators", "to", "the", "british", "formula", "one", "grand", "prix", "at", "silver", "##stone", ".", "this", "involves", "so", "many", "flights", "that", ",", "according", "to", "cr", "##an", "##field", "aviation", "services", ",", "on", "race", "day", "the", "he", "##lip", "##ort", "is", "temporarily", "the", "world", "'", "s", "busiest", "airport", ".", "aerial", "work", "is", "a", "small", "but", "important", "component", "of", "the", "commercial", "ga", "sector", ",", "characterised", "in" ]
373
. air taxi operations offer charter services for third parties, and business or corporate aviation uses company @ - @ owned aircraft to transport employees and clients. aircraft used in these operations include business jets, helicopters, and twin piston @ - @ engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people. an example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the british formula one grand prix at silverstone. this involves so many flights that, according to cranfield aviation services, on race day the heliport is temporarily the world's busiest airport. aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial ga sector, characterised in
509
[ "its", "simplest", "form", "as", "re", "##mun", "##erated", "non", "@", "-", "@", "transport", "activities", ",", "such", "as", "surveying", ",", "crop", "spraying", ",", "and", "emergency", "services", "work", "(", "air", "ambulance", "and", "police", ")", ".", "flying", "schools", "are", "commercial", "businesses", "engaged", "in", "the", "training", "of", "pilots", ",", "both", "for", "recreational", "purposes", "and", "for", "those", "intending", "to", "fly", "professionally", ".", "they", "make", "widespread", "use", "of", "fixed", "@", "-", "@", "wing", "light", "aircraft", "associated", "with", "traditional", "ga", ",", "not", "only", "for", "flying", "lessons", "but", "also", "as", "club", "aircraft", "rented", "out", "to", "qualified", "pilots", "for", "recreational", "flights", ".", "school", "@", "-", "@", "owned", "aircraft", "account", "for", "a", "significant", "amount", "of", "ga", "activity", ",", "both", "in", "terms", "of", "hours", "flown", "and", "aircraft", "movements", ".", "the", "pilot", "training", "element", "is", "regarded", "by", "the", "ga", "community", "as" ]
374
its simplest form as remunerated non @ - @ transport activities, such as surveying, crop spraying, and emergency services work ( air ambulance and police ). flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots, both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally. they make widespread use of fixed @ - @ wing light aircraft associated with traditional ga, not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights. school @ - @ owned aircraft account for a significant amount of ga activity, both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements. the pilot training element is regarded by the ga community as
256
[ "a", "key", "benefit", "that", "is", "critical", "to", "the", "supply", "of", "pilots", "for", "the", "airline", "industry", ".", "it", "is", "claimed", "by", "the", "general", "aviation", "awareness", "council", "that", "60", "–", "70", "per", "cent", "of", "professional", "pilots", "have", "self", "@", "-", "@", "financed", "their", "flight", "training", "at", "ga", "schools", ",", "and", "one", "uk", "airline", "operator", "has", "stated", "that", "the", "industry", "must", "rely", "on", "70", "–", "80", "per", "cent", "of", "new", "pilots", "coming", "from", "the", "ga", "sector", ".", "the", "ca", "##a", "estimates", "that", "between", "1996", "and", "2006", "the", "number", "of", "new", "professional", "pilots", "following", "the", "un", "##sp", "##ons", "##ored", "training", "route", "rose", "from", "48", "per", "cent", "to", "59", "per", "cent", ".", "the", "counter", "argument", "to", "this", "claim", "is", "that", "pilots", "can", "be", "trained", "outside", "of", "the", "uk", ",", "and", "that", "the", "airline" ]
375
a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry. it is claimed by the general aviation awareness council that 60 – 70 per cent of professional pilots have self @ - @ financed their flight training at ga schools, and one uk airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70 – 80 per cent of new pilots coming from the ga sector. the caa estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the unsponsored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent. the counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the uk, and that the airline
516
[ "industry", "is", "not", "therefore", "dependent", "on", "a", "healthy", "ga", "sector", "in", "the", "uk", "for", "its", "supply", "of", "pilots", ".", "the", "ca", "##a", "concludes", "that", "a", "severe", "reduction", "in", "ga", "would", "give", "\"", "some", "merit", "to", "the", "argument", "that", "pilot", "recruitment", "would", "be", "threatened", "\"", ",", "but", "that", "the", "data", "on", "flying", "hours", "\"", "does", "not", "support", "such", "a", "gloom", "##y", "outlook", ".", "\"", "of", "course", ",", "reliance", "on", "other", "countries", "for", "pilot", "training", "means", "that", "the", "uk", "fore", "##go", "##es", "the", "economic", "benefit", "of", "the", "training", "activity", ".", "private", "flying", "can", "be", "for", "both", "recreational", "purposes", "and", "personal", "transport", ",", "using", "aircraft", "that", "are", "owned", "individually", ",", "collectively", "as", "part", "of", "a", "syndicate", ",", "or", "rented", "from", "a", "flying", "club", ".", "a", "survey", "of", "pilots", "conducted", "between", "2001" ]
376
industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy ga sector in the uk for its supply of pilots. the caa concludes that a severe reduction in ga would give " some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened ", but that the data on flying hours " does not support such a gloomy outlook. " of course, reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the uk foregoes the economic benefit of the training activity. private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport, using aircraft that are owned individually, collectively as part of a syndicate, or rented from a flying club. a survey of pilots conducted between 2001
522
[ "and", "2002", "indicated", "that", "the", "most", "common", "purposes", "of", "recreational", "flights", "were", "local", "flights", "near", "the", "base", "aerodrome", ",", "visits", "to", "other", "aerodrome", "##s", ",", "and", "day", "trips", "away", ".", "half", "of", "all", "flights", "landed", "at", "the", "same", "aerodrome", "they", "departed", "from", ",", "and", "only", "9", "per", "cent", "involved", "an", "overnight", "stay", "away", "from", "home", ".", "private", "flying", "is", "most", "associated", "with", "the", "traditional", "form", "of", "factory", "@", "-", "@", "produced", "two", "and", "four", "@", "-", "@", "seater", ",", "single", "piston", "@", "-", "@", "engine", "training", "and", "touring", "aircraft", ".", "examples", "of", "these", "are", "the", "cessna", "152", ",", "cessna", "172", ",", "and", "piper", "pa", "##28", "cherokee", ",", "all", "with", "their", "origins", "in", "the", "1950s", ",", "and", "the", "more", "modern", "designs", "of", "ci", "##rr", "##us", ".", "the", "average", "cost" ]
377
and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome, visits to other aerodromes, and day trips away. half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from, and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home. private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @ - @ produced two and four @ - @ seater, single piston @ - @ engine training and touring aircraft. examples of these are the cessna 152, cessna 172, and piper pa28 cherokee, all with their origins in the 1950s, and the more modern designs of cirrus. the average cost
465
[ "per", "hour", "to", "fly", "such", "aircraft", "has", "been", "estimated", "to", "be", "£", "133", ",", "compared", "to", "an", "estimated", "£", "77", "per", "hour", "for", "glider", "##s", ",", "and", "a", "reported", "£", "35", "per", "hour", "for", "micro", "##lights", ".", "recent", "trends", "have", "seen", "an", "increase", "in", "the", "use", "of", "micro", "##lights", ",", "and", "also", "in", "recreational", "helicopter", "flying", "following", "the", "introduction", "of", "smaller", "and", "cheaper", "machines", "such", "as", "the", "robinson", "r", "##22", "and", "r", "##44", ".", "another", "growth", "area", "in", "private", "flying", "in", "recent", "years", "has", "been", "in", "the", "use", "of", "amateur", "built", "aircraft", ",", "such", "as", "the", "van", "'", "s", "aircraft", "rv", "@", "-", "@", "4", "and", "the", "europa", ".", "there", "is", "a", "strong", "vintage", "aircraft", "movement", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "with", "two", "@", "-", "@", "thirds", "of", "the" ]
378
per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £ 133, compared to an estimated £ 77 per hour for gliders, and a reported £ 35 per hour for microlights. recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights, and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the robinson r22 and r44. another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft, such as the van's aircraft rv @ - @ 4 and the europa. there is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the uk, with two @ - @ thirds of the
464
[ "500", "registered", "historic", "aircraft", "active", ".", "these", "cover", "the", "whole", "spectrum", "of", "civil", "and", "military", "aviation", ",", "examples", "being", "the", "de", "havilland", "dragon", "rapid", "##e", "airline", "##r", "of", "the", "1930s", ",", "and", "the", "world", "war", "ii", "(", "wwii", ")", "spitfire", "fighter", ".", "there", "are", "many", "post", "@", "-", "@", "wwii", "aircraft", "which", "could", "also", "be", "considered", "historic", "under", "a", "loose", "##r", "definition", ",", "including", "for", "example", "60", "ex", "@", "-", "@", "military", "jets", "such", "as", "the", "hawker", "hunter", ".", "historic", "aircraft", "are", "regular", "exhibits", "at", "air", "displays", ",", "which", "are", "claimed", "to", "be", "the", "second", "most", "popular", "spectator", "activity", "after", "football", "in", "the", "uk", ".", "competitive", "gliding", "in", "the", "uk", "takes", "place", "between", "may", "and", "september", ".", "regional", "##s", "are", "local", "competitions", ",", "organised", "and", "run", "by", "one" ]
379
500 registered historic aircraft active. these cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation, examples being the de havilland dragon rapide airliner of the 1930s, and the world war ii ( wwii ) spitfire fighter. there are many post @ - @ wwii aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition, including for example 60 ex @ - @ military jets such as the hawker hunter. historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays, which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the uk. competitive gliding in the uk takes place between may and september. regionals are local competitions, organised and run by one
256
[ "of", "the", "bigger", "gliding", "clubs", "in", "the", "region", ",", "and", "represent", "the", "entry", "level", "to", "glider", "racing", ".", "races", "are", "handicapped", "according", "to", "glider", "performance", ",", "and", "normally", "take", "place", "over", "nine", "days", ".", "success", "in", "the", "regional", "##s", "allows", "pilots", "to", "progress", "to", "the", "nationals", ",", "where", "there", "are", "five", "classes", "of", "competition", ".", "these", "are", "based", "on", "glider", "performance", ",", "the", "lowest", "being", "club", "class", ",", "and", "then", "progressing", "through", "standard", "(", "maximum", "15", "metres", "(", "49", "ft", ")", "wingspan", ",", "and", "flaps", "not", "permitted", ")", ",", "15", "metres", "(", "49", "ft", ")", "(", "as", "standard", ",", "but", "flaps", "are", "permitted", ")", ",", "18", "metres", "(", "59", "ft", ")", "(", "maximum", "18", "metres", "(", "59", "ft", ")", "wingspan", ")", ",", "and", "finally", "open", "@", "-", "@" ]
380
of the bigger gliding clubs in the region, and represent the entry level to glider racing. races are handicapped according to glider performance, and normally take place over nine days. success in the regionals allows pilots to progress to the nationals, where there are five classes of competition. these are based on glider performance, the lowest being club class, and then progressing through standard ( maximum 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wingspan, and flaps not permitted ), 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ( as standard, but flaps are permitted ), 18 metres ( 59 ft ) ( maximum 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wingspan ), and finally open @ - @
244
[ "class", "(", "no", "restrictions", ")", ".", "success", "at", "national", "level", "can", "lead", "to", "a", "place", "in", "the", "national", "team", "and", "competition", "at", "international", "level", ".", "in", "2007", "the", "british", "gliding", "team", "was", "ranked", "number", "one", ",", "and", "british", "pilots", "took", "two", "women", "'", "s", "world", "championships", "and", "the", "open", "class", "european", "championship", ".", "handicapped", "air", "racing", "is", "open", "to", "any", "propeller", "@", "-", "@", "driven", "aircraft", "capable", "of", "maintaining", "a", "minimum", "speed", "of", "100", "miles", "(", "160", "km", ")", "per", "hour", "in", "level", "flight", ".", "races", "are", "a", "case", "of", "\"", "fly", "low", ",", "fly", "fast", ",", "turn", "left", "\"", ",", "consisting", "of", "4", "–", "5", "laps", "round", "a", "20", "–", "25", "mile", "(", "32", "–", "40", "km", ")", "circuit", ".", "faster", "aircraft", "are", "handicapped", "by", "starting", "after" ]
381
class ( no restrictions ). success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level. in 2007 the british gliding team was ranked number one, and british pilots took two women's world championships and the open class european championship. handicapped air racing is open to any propeller @ - @ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight. races are a case of " fly low, fly fast, turn left ", consisting of 4 – 5 laps round a 20 – 25 mile ( 32 – 40 km ) circuit. faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after
574
[ "slower", "aircraft", ",", "the", "intention", "being", "that", "the", "race", "concludes", "with", "all", "aircraft", "diving", "for", "the", "finish", "line", "together", ".", "there", "are", "up", "to", "16", "races", "per", "year", ",", "conducted", "at", "airfields", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "france", "and", "the", "channel", "islands", ",", "for", "prizes", "that", "include", "the", "schneider", "trophy", "and", "king", "'", "s", "cup", ",", "and", "the", "season", "cu", "##lm", "##inates", "with", "the", "british", "air", "racing", "and", "european", "air", "racing", "championships", ".", "aero", "##bat", "##ic", "competitions", "take", "place", "for", "both", "powered", "aircraft", "and", "glider", "##s", ",", "with", "up", "to", "30", "events", "each", "year", "in", "the", "uk", "and", "ireland", ".", "starting", "at", "the", "begin", "##ner", "level", ",", "pilots", "can", "move", "up", "to", "standard", "(", "powered", "aircraft", ")", "or", "sports", "(", "glider", ")", "levels", ",", "and", "then", "on", "to", "intermediate" ]
382
slower aircraft, the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together. there are up to 16 races per year, conducted at airfields in the uk, france and the channel islands, for prizes that include the schneider trophy and king's cup, and the season culminates with the british air racing and european air racing championships. aerobatic competitions take place for both powered aircraft and gliders, with up to 30 events each year in the uk and ireland. starting at the beginner level, pilots can move up to standard ( powered aircraft ) or sports ( glider ) levels, and then on to intermediate
574
[ ",", "advanced", ",", "and", "finally", "unlimited", "classes", ".", "each", "step", "up", "requires", "a", "wider", "repertoire", "of", "aero", "##bat", "##ic", "figures", "and", "progressively", "more", "performance", "from", "the", "aircraft", ".", "national", "championships", "are", "awarded", "annually", "at", "standard", "/", "sports", ",", "intermediate", ",", "advanced", "(", "powered", "aircraft", "only", ")", ",", "and", "unlimited", "levels", ",", "and", "pilots", "who", "have", "reached", "advanced", "and", "unlimited", "levels", "are", "eligible", "for", "selection", "to", "represent", "the", "uk", "in", "international", "competition", ".", "parachute", "competitions", "are", "held", "at", "club", ",", "regional", ",", "national", "and", "international", "levels", ",", "and", "include", "the", "disciplines", "of", "accuracy", "landings", ",", "free", "##fall", "gymnastics", ",", "formation", "sky", "##di", "##ving", ",", "canopy", "formation", ",", "freestyle", "and", "free", "##fly", "##ing", ",", "and", "sky", "##sur", "##fin", "##g", ".", "british", "teams", "consistently", "win", "medals", "in", "canopy", "formation", "world", "championships" ]
383
, advanced, and finally unlimited classes. each step up requires a wider repertoire of aerobatic figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft. national championships are awarded annually at standard / sports, intermediate, advanced ( powered aircraft only ), and unlimited levels, and pilots who have reached advanced and unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the uk in international competition. parachute competitions are held at club, regional, national and international levels, and include the disciplines of accuracy landings, freefall gymnastics, formation skydiving, canopy formation, freestyle and freeflying, and skysurfing. british teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships
596
[ ",", "and", "a", "british", "team", "took", "the", "2006", "world", "championship", "in", "women", "'", "s", "4", "@", "-", "@", "way", "formation", "sky", "##di", "##ving", ".", "=", "=", "aerodrome", "##s", "=", "=", "aerodrome", "is", "a", "collective", "term", "for", "any", "location", "from", "which", "flying", "operations", "take", "place", ",", "although", "more", "specific", "terminology", "can", "be", "used", "to", "character", "##ise", "its", "purpose", ".", "the", "ca", "##a", "strategic", "review", "of", "ga", "applies", "the", "term", "airport", "to", "locations", "which", "predominantly", "support", "large", "scale", "commercial", "operations", ",", "and", "airfield", "to", "locations", "which", "predominantly", "support", "ga", "operations", ".", "the", "general", "aviation", "small", "aerodrome", "research", "study", "(", "gas", "##ar", ")", "anal", "##yse", "##d", "68", "##7", "aerodrome", "##s", "in", "england", "which", "come", "under", "the", "scope", "of", "ga", ",", "classify", "##ing", "37", "##4", "into", "six", "types", ".", "these", "range", "in" ]
384
, and a british team took the 2006 world championship in women's 4 @ - @ way formation skydiving. = = aerodromes = = aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place, although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose. the caa strategic review of ga applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations, and airfield to locations which predominantly support ga operations. the general aviation small aerodrome research study ( gasar ) analysed 687 aerodromes in england which come under the scope of ga, classifying 374 into six types. these range in
256
[ "size", "from", "regional", "airports", "to", "the", "smallest", "farm", "strip", ",", "although", "84", "per", "cent", "of", "ga", "flights", "operate", "from", "134", "of", "the", "larger", "aerodrome", "##s", "in", "the", "first", "four", "categories", ".", "=", "=", "=", "gas", "##ar", "aerodrome", "classification", "=", "=", "=", "the", "factors", "used", "in", "determining", "how", "an", "individual", "aerodrome", "is", "cat", "##ego", "##rise", "##d", "by", "the", "gas", "##ar", "study", "are", "based", "broadly", "on", "size", "and", "facilities", ".", "the", "six", "types", "of", "aerodrome", "are", "described", ",", "in", "size", "order", ",", "as", ":", "regional", "airports", "(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "east", "midlands", ")", ";", "major", "ga", "airports", "(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "oxford", ")", ";", "developed", "ga", "airfields", "(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "andrews", "##field", ")", ";", "basic", "ga", "airfields", "(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "ru", "##ff", "##orth", ")" ]
385
size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip, although 84 per cent of ga flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories. = = = gasar aerodrome classification = = = the factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the gasar study are based broadly on size and facilities. the six types of aerodrome are described, in size order, as : regional airports ( e. g. east midlands ) ; major ga airports ( e. g. oxford ) ; developed ga airfields ( e. g. andrewsfield ) ; basic ga airfields ( e. g. rufforth )
244
[ ";", "developed", "airs", "##trip", "##s", "(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "til", "##stock", ")", ";", "and", "basic", "airs", "##trip", "##s", "(", "e", ".", "g", ".", "chi", "##lb", "##olt", "##on", "in", "hampshire", ")", ".", "the", "actual", "criteria", "used", "to", "cat", "##ego", "##rise", "aerodrome", "##s", "were", "complex", ",", "using", "28", "different", "parameters", ",", "backed", "up", "with", "a", "peer", "review", "by", "experienced", "ga", "pilots", ".", "airports", "generally", "have", "long", ",", "fully", "lit", ",", "hard", "@", "-", "@", "surfaced", "runways", ",", "full", "air", "traffic", "control", ",", "and", "navigation", "and", "landing", "aids", ".", "they", "are", "usually", "located", "on", "urban", "fringe", "##s", ",", "support", "commercial", "and", "business", "operations", ",", "and", "often", "exclude", "certain", "types", "of", "light", "aircraft", ".", "at", "the", "more", "rural", "##ly", "located", "airfields", ",", "the", "lighter", "end", "of", "aviation", ",", "such", "as", "micro" ]
386
; developed airstrips ( e. g. tilstock ) ; and basic airstrips ( e. g. chilbolton in hampshire ). the actual criteria used to categorise aerodromes were complex, using 28 different parameters, backed up with a peer review by experienced ga pilots. airports generally have long, fully lit, hard @ - @ surfaced runways, full air traffic control, and navigation and landing aids. they are usually located on urban fringes, support commercial and business operations, and often exclude certain types of light aircraft. at the more rurally located airfields, the lighter end of aviation, such as micro
256
[ "##light", "and", "gliding", "activities", ",", "becomes", "increasingly", "prevalent", ",", "and", "there", "are", "few", "or", "no", "commercial", "operations", "other", "than", "flying", "schools", ".", "at", "this", "level", "runways", "are", "generally", "shorter", ",", "and", "grass", "surfaces", "are", "increasingly", "common", ".", "navigation", "aids", "are", "increasingly", "scarce", ",", "being", "more", "basic", "where", "they", "are", "available", ",", "and", "informal", "ground", "to", "air", "radio", "communication", "replaces", "air", "traffic", "control", ".", "the", "smallest", "airfields", "are", "too", "small", "to", "feature", "on", "general", "purpose", "ordnance", "survey", "(", "os", ")", "maps", ",", "and", "lack", "basic", "facilities", "such", "as", "fuel", "and", "maintenance", ".", "the", "majority", "of", "airs", "##trip", "##s", "are", "basically", "single", "short", "grass", "runways", "with", "no", "supporting", "facilities", ",", "although", "the", "presence", "of", "a", "hangar", "is", "not", "uncommon", "at", "the", "larger", "examples", ".", "they", "do", "not", "feature", "on", "os" ]
387
##light and gliding activities, becomes increasingly prevalent, and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools. at this level runways are generally shorter, and grass surfaces are increasingly common. navigation aids are increasingly scarce, being more basic where they are available, and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control. the smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose ordnance survey ( os ) maps, and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance. the majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities, although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples. they don't feature on os
485
[ "maps", ",", "and", "are", "owned", "by", "private", "clubs", "or", ",", "more", "commonly", ",", "individuals", ".", "=", "=", "=", "aerodrome", "licensing", "=", "=", "=", "most", "aerodrome", "##s", "used", "for", "public", "transport", "operations", "are", "required", "to", "be", "licensed", "by", "the", "ca", "##a", ".", "to", "be", "granted", "a", "licence", "an", "aerodrome", "operator", "must", "satisfy", "the", "ca", "##a", "that", ":", "the", "physical", "conditions", "at", "the", "aerodrome", ",", "and", "its", "en", "##vir", "##ons", ",", "are", "acceptable", ";", "the", "scale", "of", "equipment", ",", "and", "facilities", "provided", ",", "are", "adequate", "for", "the", "flying", "activities", "which", "are", "expected", "to", "take", "place", ";", "an", "effective", "safety", "management", "system", "is", "in", "place", ";", "and", "that", "staff", "are", "competent", "and", ",", "where", "necessary", ",", "suit", "##ably", "qualified", ".", "aerodrome", "##s", "classified", "as", "developed", "ga", "airfields", "or", "larger", "by", "the" ]
388
maps, and are owned by private clubs or, more commonly, individuals. = = = aerodrome licensing = = = most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the caa. to be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the caa that : the physical conditions at the aerodrome, and its environs, are acceptable ; the scale of equipment, and facilities provided, are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place ; an effective safety management system is in place ; and that staff are competent and, where necessary, suitably qualified. aerodromes classified as developed ga airfields or larger by the
509
[ "gas", "##ar", "study", "are", ",", "with", "few", "exceptions", ",", "licensed", ".", "only", "two", "basic", "ga", "airfields", ",", "silver", "##stone", "and", "du", "##x", "##ford", ",", "are", "licensed", ",", "and", "all", "airs", "##trip", "##s", "are", "un", "##lice", "##nsed", ".", "the", "light", "aviation", "airports", "study", "group", ",", "a", "joint", "ca", "##a", "@", "-", "@", "industry", "initiative", ",", "was", "established", "in", "2005", "to", "review", "the", "regulation", "of", "light", "aviation", "aerodrome", "##s", ".", "a", "particular", "focus", "of", "this", "group", "was", "a", "review", "of", "the", "restrictions", "placed", "on", "un", "##lice", "##nsed", "aerodrome", "##s", ".", "the", "group", "concluded", "that", "the", "requirement", "for", "public", "transport", "operations", "to", "be", "conducted", "only", "from", "licensed", "aerodrome", "##s", "should", "be", "further", "reviewed", "in", "the", "context", "of", "corresponding", "international", "and", "european", "requirements", ".", "it", "also", "recommended", "that", "restrictions", "on", "flight", "training" ]
389
gasar study are, with few exceptions, licensed. only two basic ga airfields, silverstone and duxford, are licensed, and all airstrips are unlicensed. the light aviation airports study group, a joint caa @ - @ industry initiative, was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes. a particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes. the group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and european requirements. it also recommended that restrictions on flight training
260
[ "at", "un", "##lice", "##nsed", "aerodrome", "##s", "should", "be", "lifted", ",", "and", "this", "was", "permitted", "from", "april", "2010", "=", "=", "scale", "of", "the", "sector", "=", "=", "there", "are", "an", "estimated", "27", "@", ",", "@", "000", "civil", "aircraft", "registered", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "96", "per", "cent", "of", "which", "are", "engaged", "in", "ga", "activities", ".", "in", "2005", "the", "ga", "fleet", "comprised", "9", "@", ",", "@", "000", "fixed", "@", "-", "@", "wing", "aircraft", ",", "4", "@", ",", "@", "100", "micro", "##lights", ",", "1", "@", ",", "@", "300", "helicopters", ",", "1", "@", ",", "@", "800", "airship", "##s", "/", "balloons", ",", "2", "@", ",", "@", "500", "glider", "##s", "and", "some", "7", "@", ",", "@", "000", "hang", "glider", "##s", ".", "estimates", "put", "the", "number", "of", "foreign", "@", "-", "@", "registered", "ga", "aircraft", "based", "in", "the" ]
390
at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted, and this was permitted from april 2010 = = scale of the sector = = there are an estimated 27 @, @ 000 civil aircraft registered in the uk, 96 per cent of which are engaged in ga activities. in 2005 the ga fleet comprised 9 @, @ 000 fixed @ - @ wing aircraft, 4 @, @ 100 microlights, 1 @, @ 300 helicopters, 1 @, @ 800 airships / balloons, 2 @, @ 500 gliders and some 7 @, @ 000 hang gliders. estimates put the number of foreign @ - @ registered ga aircraft based in the
256
[ "uk", "at", "900", ".", "the", "number", "of", "pilots", "licensed", "by", "the", "ca", "##a", "to", "fly", "powered", "aircraft", "in", "2005", "was", "47", "@", ",", "@", "000", ",", "of", "whom", "28", "@", ",", "@", "000", "held", "a", "private", "pilot", "licence", ".", "the", "remainder", "held", "professional", "pilot", "licence", "##s", ",", "either", "a", "commercial", "pilot", "licence", "or", "an", "airline", "transport", "pilot", "licence", ",", "although", "not", "all", "of", "these", "would", "be", "engaged", "in", "ga", "activities", ".", "in", "addition", ",", "there", "are", "10", "@", ",", "@", "000", "active", "glider", "pilots", ",", "and", "estimates", "put", "the", "membership", "of", "aviation", "@", "-", "@", "related", "sport", "and", "recreational", "associations", "at", "36", "@", ",", "@", "000", ".", "the", "number", "of", "aerodrome", "##s", "that", "support", "ga", "in", "the", "uk", "is", "difficult", "to", "establish", "with", "certainty", ".", "poole", "##ys", "2008" ]
391
uk at 900. the number of pilots licensed by the caa to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @, @ 000, of whom 28 @, @ 000 held a private pilot licence. the remainder held professional pilot licences, either a commercial pilot licence or an airline transport pilot licence, although not all of these would be engaged in ga activities. in addition, there are 10 @, @ 000 active glider pilots, and estimates put the membership of aviation @ - @ related sport and recreational associations at 36 @, @ 000. the number of aerodromes that support ga in the uk is difficult to establish with certainty. pooleys 2008
256
[ "united", "kingdom", "flight", "guide", "lists", "355", ",", "and", "the", "air", "##pl", "##an", "flight", "equipment", "uk", "v", "##fr", "flight", "guide", "2008", "lists", "nearly", "500", ".", "lock", "##year", "##s", "farm", "'", "strips", "'", "and", "private", "airfields", "flight", "guide", "lists", "more", "than", "300", "landing", "sites", ".", "the", "gas", "##ar", "study", "estimates", "1", "@", ",", "@", "100", "formal", "flying", "sites", "in", "england", "alone", ",", "a", "figure", "which", "includes", "400", "sites", "known", "to", "planning", "authorities", "but", "not", "included", "in", "flight", "guides", ".", "it", "estimates", "another", "75", "##9", "informal", "sites", "known", "only", "to", "land", "owners", ",", "customs", ",", "and", "members", "of", "the", "enthusiast", "group", "air", "@", "-", "@", "britain", ".", "the", "sector", "was", "estimated", "to", "employ", "nearly", "12", "@", ",", "@", "000", "people", "and", "directly", "contribute", "£", "1", "@", ".", "@", "4", "billion", "to" ]
392
united kingdom flight guide lists 355, and the airplan flight equipment uk vfr flight guide 2008 lists nearly 500. lockyears farm'strips'and private airfields flight guide lists more than 300 landing sites. the gasar study estimates 1 @, @ 100 formal flying sites in england alone, a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides. it estimates another 759 informal sites known only to land owners, customs, and members of the enthusiast group air @ - @ britain. the sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @, @ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @. @ 4 billion to
462
[ "the", "uk", "economy", "in", "2005", ",", "making", "it", "roughly", "seven", "per", "cent", "of", "the", "size", "of", "the", "cat", "industry", ".", "nearly", "half", "of", "the", "economic", "contribution", "was", "generated", "by", "business", "aviation", ".", "most", "sectors", "of", "ga", "for", "which", "data", "are", "available", "have", "experienced", "growth", "in", "aircraft", "numbers", "and", "hours", "flown", "over", "the", "last", "two", "decades", ".", "the", "lighter", "end", "of", "the", "ga", "spectrum", ":", "micro", "##lights", ",", "amateur", "built", ",", "and", "airship", "##s", "and", "balloons", ",", "have", "in", "particular", "shown", "strong", "growth", ",", "although", "the", "last", "of", "these", "activities", "was", "severely", "curt", "##ailed", "during", "the", "foot", "@", "-", "@", "and", "@", "-", "@", "mouth", "outbreak", "in", "2001", ",", "when", "access", "to", "farmland", "was", "denied", ".", "after", "strong", "growth", "in", "the", "late", "1980s", ",", "traditional", "flying", "has", "shown", "a" ]
393
the uk economy in 2005, making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the cat industry. nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation. most sectors of ga for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades. the lighter end of the ga spectrum : microlights, amateur built, and airships and balloons, have in particular shown strong growth, although the last of these activities was severely curtailed during the foot @ - @ and @ - @ mouth outbreak in 2001, when access to farmland was denied. after strong growth in the late 1980s, traditional flying has shown a
519
[ "slight", "decline", "recently", ",", "reflecting", "a", "move", "amongst", "recreational", "flyers", "towards", "micro", "##light", "aircraft", ",", "and", "increased", "numbers", "of", "foreign", "@", "-", "@", "registered", "aircraft", ".", "recreational", "helicopter", "usage", "has", "grown", "primarily", "due", "to", "the", "introduction", "of", "smaller", "and", "cheaper", "aircraft", ".", "glider", "activity", "has", "remained", "relatively", "static", ",", "although", "there", "has", "been", "a", "gradual", "increase", "in", "the", "number", "of", "self", "@", "-", "@", "launching", "motor", "glider", "##s", ".", "business", "aviation", "has", "shown", "strong", "growth", ",", "although", "the", "numbers", "of", "aircraft", "on", "the", "uk", "register", "have", "declined", ".", "this", "reflects", "a", "shift", "away", "from", "turbo", "##pro", "##p", "aircraft", "towards", "foreign", "@", "-", "@", "registered", "business", "jets", "based", "in", "the", "uk", ",", "which", "are", "estimated", "to", "be", "growing", "in", "numbers", ".", "however", ",", "twin", "piston", "@", "-", "@", "engined" ]
394
slight decline recently, reflecting a move amongst recreational flyers towards microlight aircraft, and increased numbers of foreign @ - @ registered aircraft. recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft. glider activity has remained relatively static, although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self @ - @ launching motor gliders. business aviation has shown strong growth, although the numbers of aircraft on the uk register have declined. this reflects a shift away from turboprop aircraft towards foreign @ - @ registered business jets based in the uk, which are estimated to be growing in numbers. however, twin piston @ - @ engined
776
[ "aircraft", "numbers", "have", "declined", "significantly", ",", "reflecting", "pressures", "on", "the", "light", "air", "@", "-", "@", "taxi", "segment", "from", "increasingly", "flexible", "and", "cheaper", "scheduled", "services", ",", "and", "a", "more", "sophisticated", "corporate", "charter", "business", ".", "the", "amount", "of", "flight", "training", "conducted", "by", "uk", "schools", "has", "declined", ",", "largely", "at", "the", "hands", "of", "competition", "from", "foreign", "schools", ",", "which", "benefit", "from", "lower", "costs", "and", "better", "weather", ".", "since", "1990", "the", "total", "number", "of", "hours", "flown", "annually", "by", "the", "ga", "sector", "has", "remained", "in", "the", "range", "1", "@", ".", "@", "25", "–", "1", "@", ".", "@", "35", "million", ",", "the", "dominant", "sector", "being", "traditional", "ga", "flying", ",", "which", "accounts", "for", "0", "@", ".", "@", "6", "million", "per", "year", ".", "an", "overall", "increase", "in", "aircraft", "numbers", "combined", "with", "ni", "##l", "growth", "in", "hours" ]
395
aircraft numbers have declined significantly, reflecting pressures on the light air @ - @ taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services, and a more sophisticated corporate charter business. the amount of flight training conducted by uk schools has declined, largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools, which benefit from lower costs and better weather. since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the ga sector has remained in the range 1 @. @ 25 – 1 @. @ 35 million, the dominant sector being traditional ga flying, which accounts for 0 @. @ 6 million per year. an overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours
484
[ "flown", "has", "brought", "the", "annual", "average", "ut", "##ilis", "##ation", "per", "aircraft", "down", "from", "157", "hours", "in", "1984", "to", "103", "hours", "in", "2002", ".", "the", "decline", "in", "asset", "ut", "##ilis", "##ation", "has", "led", "to", "speculation", "that", "the", "economic", "health", "of", "the", "ga", "industry", "is", "weakening", ",", "though", "the", "lack", "of", "data", "on", "profit", "##ability", "makes", "this", "difficult", "to", "confirm", ".", "=", "=", "regulation", "=", "=", "the", "objective", "of", "regulation", "is", "to", "\"", "promote", "high", "standards", "of", "safety", "in", "all", "aspects", "of", "aviation", "\"", ",", "and", "this", "is", "the", "main", "area", "of", "interaction", "between", "the", "ca", "##a", "and", "the", "ga", "sector", ".", "efforts", "focus", "on", "ass", "##uring", "appropriate", "standards", "of", "air", "##worth", "##iness", ",", "pilot", "qualification", ",", "the", "rules", "for", "the", "movement", "of", "aircraft", ",", "and", "equipment", "to", "be", "carried" ]
396
flown has brought the annual average utilisation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002. the decline in asset utilisation has led to speculation that the economic health of the ga industry is weakening, though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm. = = regulation = = the objective of regulation is to " promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation ", and this is the main area of interaction between the caa and the ga sector. efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness, pilot qualification, the rules for the movement of aircraft, and equipment to be carried
522
[ ".", "the", "ca", "##a", "was", "established", "as", "the", "primary", "regulatory", "body", "for", "all", "aviation", "in", "the", "uk", "in", "1972", ".", "in", "1991", "it", "started", "working", "within", "the", "joint", "aviation", "authorities", "(", "ja", "##a", ")", "framework", "to", "implement", "agreed", "common", "standards", ",", "known", "as", "the", "joint", "aviation", "requirements", "(", "jar", ")", ",", "throughout", "the", "european", "union", "(", "eu", ")", ".", "in", "2003", "this", "was", "taken", "a", "step", "further", "when", "the", "european", "aviation", "safety", "agency", "(", "ea", "##sa", ")", "was", "established", "as", "the", "central", "eu", "regulator", ",", "taking", "over", "responsibility", "for", "leg", "##is", "##lating", "air", "##worth", "##iness", "and", "environmental", "regulation", "from", "the", "national", "authorities", ".", "the", "ca", "##a", "acts", "as", "an", "agency", "of", "ea", "##sa", "on", "these", "issues", ",", "retaining", "its", "original", "regulatory", "powers", "in", "areas", "not", "yet", "transferred", "to" ]
397
. the caa was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the uk in 1972. in 1991 it started working within the joint aviation authorities ( jaa ) framework to implement agreed common standards, known as the joint aviation requirements ( jar ), throughout the european union ( eu ). in 2003 this was taken a step further when the european aviation safety agency ( easa ) was established as the central eu regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities. the caa acts as an agency of easa on these issues, retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to
478
[ "ea", "##sa", ".", "proposed", "developments", "seek", "to", "establish", "ea", "##sa", "as", "the", "single", "authority", "throughout", "the", "eu", ",", "taking", "over", "from", "individual", "member", "states", "the", "power", "to", "regulate", "all", "aviation", "other", "than", "that", "specifically", "excluded", "from", "the", "scope", "of", "ea", "##sa", ".", "=", "=", "=", "dev", "##olved", "and", "self", "@", "-", "@", "regulation", "=", "=", "=", "within", "this", "framework", "certain", "sectors", "of", "ga", "are", "governed", "on", "a", "dev", "##olved", "basis", ".", "in", "all", "cases", "the", "ca", "##a", "/", "ea", "##sa", "retains", "responsibility", "for", "safety", "regulation", ",", "but", "representative", "bodies", ",", "particularly", "of", "sectors", "that", "are", "not", "included", "in", "the", "scope", "of", "ea", "##sa", ",", "are", "granted", "greater", "oversight", "of", "their", "activities", ".", "the", "majority", "of", "micro", "##light", "aircraft", "are", "regulated", "by", "the", "british", "micro", "##light", "aircraft", "association", "(" ]
398
easa. proposed developments seek to establish easa as the single authority throughout the eu, taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of easa. = = = devolved and self @ - @ regulation = = = within this framework certain sectors of ga are governed on a devolved basis. in all cases the caa / easa retains responsibility for safety regulation, but representative bodies, particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of easa, are granted greater oversight of their activities. the majority of microlight aircraft are regulated by the british microlight aircraft association (
478
[ "b", "##ma", "##a", ")", ",", "although", "a", "significant", "number", "are", "regulated", "by", "the", "light", "aircraft", "association", "(", "la", "##a", ")", ",", "formerly", "known", "as", "the", "popular", "flying", "association", ".", "the", "la", "##a", "is", "the", "primary", "regulator", "for", "amateur", "built", "aircraft", ",", "as", "well", "as", "vintage", "and", "classic", "aircraft", ".", "para", "##chu", "##ting", "is", "governed", "by", "the", "british", "parachute", "association", ",", "although", "the", "aircraft", "used", "in", "this", "activity", "are", "generally", "ca", "##a", "@", "-", "@", "regulated", ".", "balloon", "and", "airship", "flying", "is", "overseen", "by", "the", "british", "balloon", "and", "airship", "club", ".", "the", "uk", "@", "-", "@", "specific", "national", "private", "pilot", "licence", "(", "np", "##pl", ")", "is", "administered", "by", "the", "national", "pilots", "licensing", "group", "ltd", ".", ",", "supported", "by", "the", "la", "##a", ",", "the", "aircraft", "owners", "and", "pilots", "association", "uk" ]
399
bmaa ), although a significant number are regulated by the light aircraft association ( laa ), formerly known as the popular flying association. the laa is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft, as well as vintage and classic aircraft. parachuting is governed by the british parachute association, although the aircraft used in this activity are generally caa @ - @ regulated. balloon and airship flying is overseen by the british balloon and airship club. the uk @ - @ specific national private pilot licence ( nppl ) is administered by the national pilots licensing group ltd., supported by the laa, the aircraft owners and pilots association uk
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