The Liverpool Standard and General Commercial Advertiser.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1838-10-19 00:00:00

for water.
I shall now pass to the examination of some of the varieties
of sugar, grid defer some of my observations on cane sugar,
as they will affect all sugars equally. The sugar of beet
root, the manufacture of which is so extensive in France and
Germany, is perfectly similar, when perfectly pure, to the
sugar of the cane, but it is not so readily obtained, owing to
the great quantity of mucilage which beet met contains. The
development of sugar is owing to the saccharine fermentation.
The substance which in the hands of -nature appears alone
capable of generating sugar is ordinary starch. Ordinary
starch appears in all vegetables—in fact, in the fruit of all
vegetables. It exists in various roots, but it is principally
from the seed of the grasses, and the root of the potato, man-
go, and the palm, that the starch of commerce is derived.
In commerce we have the wheat starch: we have the starch
derived from the bulb of the potato—we have the starch which
is derived from the rout of mango, which constitutes the ar-
rowroot, and which is rarely met with in a genuine state of
commerce; and we have the root of the palm, which coes
siitutes sago. Starch is a substance concerning the nature
of which there are a number of opinions, but they all agree
that starch is not a chemical substance: but, that it is an or-
gan supplying the same place in the vegetable kingdom as
blood in that or the animal. It is contained in a.bag, anti
will not dissolve whilst this bag remains unbroken. The
starch is prepared by separating it from the substances with
which it is associated in the vegetables which contain it. In
wheat the starch is associated with gluten, and in the potato
with the vegetable albumen. Now starch is insoluble in cold
water, other vegetable substances are soluble in it, and the
albumen and gluteu form a coherent mass like dough. If we
take a 'quantity of wheaten flour or potato meal, and put it
into a c.oth, and stir it about in a certain quantity of water,
the gluten and` albumen will form a coherent mass in the
cloth; while the tine gelatinouS particles of starch will pass
through, and mingle with the water. It is on this principle
that starch, as well on the large as the small scale, is pre-
pared. On a large scale, the manufacture is carried on in
a very ingenious manner. There is a large bag of linen,
and there is a screw of the ordinary archirnedean character
into which the flour or potato meal is introduced. Into this
flows a stream of water. The screw is made to turn coni-
cally round, and the starch falls through the linen as the
flour parts to the bottom. Starch is characterized by pro-
perties of such an interesting nature that it is perhaps the
most easily recognised organic substance substance which
exists. It is easily recognised by its solubility in boiled wa-
ter, and its insolubility in cold water, in which it forms a
glutinous white substance. If we add a little of a solution of
starch to water, and drop into the mixture a little of the
solution of iodine, we shall observe the formation of a beau-
tiful blue colour. This effect is produced when exceedingly
small quantities of starch and iodine are employed, so that
starch and iodine are mutually the best tests of each others
presence. The colour thus given is not a permanent one, for
we may expel it by a variety of means: for example—if we
take a little of the solution of potash, the colour disappears;
but on the addition of nitric acid so as to saturate the potash,
it will reappear, and these effects may be produced for any
number of times. Starch exists in the grain of wheat, it
exists in abundance in potatoes, and, in fact, its all vegetable
seeds. It is the food which is stored up by nature for the
wants of the young plant ; and we find that as starch
would nut be a very digestible material, nature has recourse
to a very beautiful contrivance for rendering it so. We find
that what actually takes place in nature is this ;—as the
young plant begins to be ready to eat, the starch is converted
into sugar rapidly. The germination of plants is accom-
panied by a complete transmutation of the starch into sugar.
In the arts this process is imitated by artificial means, as in
the manufactureof malt. The corn is stored in warehouses
from which the light of day is excluded, and kept moistened,
until the young plant begins to make its appearance, and the
starch of the grain is turned into sugar. The malster then
kiln-dries it and kills the young planibefore it has lived long
enough to eat the sugar. This is the theory of Malting,
which, under different circumstances, gives us the successive
races of vegetable beings with which the world is familiar.
The starch is not, in point of fact, at once converted into
sugar, lint passes through the state of dextrine, from this into
a state of guns, and from this into the state of sugar. This
development. of dextrine and gum may likewise be produced
by the action of sulphuric acid independent of germination.
The gum procured in this milliner has in fact, to a great ex-
tent, superseded gum arable in the manufactures. Guns
and dextrine are distinguished from starch by being soluble
in water without forming a jelly in it. If rye add a little
iodine to dextrine a beautiful wine grape colour is produced,
whereas the union of iodine and starch produces a blue co-
lour. If we take, the gum which is called British gum to
distinguish it from gum arable, and add to it a solution of
iodine, we shall have no colour prodUced, as iodine does not
act upon gum at all. If we take sugar iodine does not pro-
duce any effect upon it. We have thus four substances pro-
duced—starch, dextrine, gum, and sugar.
If we take starch or sugar, and examine the composition,
we shall find that essentially there is no difference between
them. The same analysis leads to the same results. so that
we have four bodies of different qualities, and chemical char
racier, which have the same chemical constitution. We
must look' upon these bodies as differing from each other only
in the arranseements of their particles. This view is sup-
ported, and, indeed, waived, by the remarkable fact; that in
the conversion of starch into sugar, the quantity of sugar is
equal to the weight of the starch. " This fact was discovered
by a Russian chemist, in a very remarkable manner. Ile
discovered, that when potatoe starch is taken and treated with
sulphuric acid, the whole of the starch is converted into sugar,
and that allowing; for the addition of its water of 'crystallizes
tion, au equal weight was obtained. Worel, like starch. can
be looked upon as carbon and water. Sulphuric acid will eon-,
vent, not only starch, but wood into sugar. If we take a
quantity of linen, or cotton, and pour upon them some sul-
phrie acid, we shall find, after a few hours, that a large quan-
tity ofsugar has been formed, and there is thus pointed out to
us in chemical science a source of sugar, should the present by
any means fail us. All of the substances made use of in- the
making of bread are of two kinds, the one derived from
those which contain gluten, and the other from those which
do not Contain gluten. The glisten binds the whole mass
together, and nives that spongy character by which-the wheat
and rye bread are distinguished. But oat bread contains nu
gluten, and consequently, has no spongy tendency. In the
making of bread, there is another remarkable fact. In it we
have a combination of two, and sometimes three fermenta-
tbms. We have a small quantity of alcohol generated, as
well as of vinegar. In the manufacture of bread we have
the combination of a certain quantity of gum; gluten, sugar,
and dextrine.
Sugar is the sole substance capable of undergoing the al-
coholic fermentation, therefore the bodies which are capable
of producing alcohol are only enabled to do so on account of
sugar being produced at one stage or the other - of their fer-
mentation. The production of alcohol remains involved in
a great degree of obscurity. The grape sugar gives U 9 the
key to the alcoholic fermentation still more evidently than the
cane suear. In fact, the grape sugar contains more water of
crystallization than the crystallized sugar The grape sugar
consists of 12 carbon, 12 hydrogen,-and 19. of oxygen. It
still follows the law of containing the oxygen and hydrogen
in the proportions requisite to- farm water,
but it Contains
inure of those substances. Hire take a saint ion of cane sugar
two
substances,quantity o f
consists
andfii
s c
tt.
t to
b•
we may keep it to eternity and it will not ferment; if it be
kept from the atmospheric air, but if we add to it under proper
circumstances,
ai
n.cteind s a
acid gas
g6hc'yvodilmrrlthhgiineteiin7gt)d andttio form
produced.
In
ofoxygen;afarbeotnc acid
i alcohol.
2 carbon,ofgas __Aalii
c do
hs,l is
l, of
oxygen,
a substance of great importance in the arts and in commerce:
It was long known that when a spirituous. solution was ex-
posed to the air that it was gradually converted into vinegsr.
It was found that this did not require the contact of any sub-
stance, but that when the atmospheric air was excluded, the
conversion was checked. If we consider tine composition of
alcohol and vinegar we shall discover a very remarkable re-
lation. Heal vinegar or acetic acid is composed of 4 carbon,'
4 hydrogen, and 4of oxygen. Now you will'at once observe
that the acetic acid contains less hydrogen and more oxygen
than alcohol. When alcohol is exposed to the action of the
air it gradually absorbs oxygen, there is water formed, and
ultimately the liquor becomes acid and vinegar is tire result.
There is an intermediate substance called aldehyde,' formed;
of great interest in science, but of none in a practical
point of view. The most important improvement in the mu—
nufacture of vinegar has been derived from the circumstance:
of vinegar being formed by the absorption of oxygen. In
order to facilitate this absorption, they make use on the
continent of a Very remarkable plan. There is taken a
hogshead which is placed upon a support. The hogshead, at
its lowest part, is perforated with a number of holes. At its
side, about one quarter of the height of the hogshead, are cut
a number of oval apertures, and then the whole interior of
the hogshead is filled up with shavings, somewhat loosely
packed, so as to present a great surface. At the top of the
hogshead is a tray of well-tinned iron, with two systems of
tubes passing through, the one opening upwards and the
other downwards. A set is placed over the apertures, fur-
nished with astop cock. The bad wine or the malt liquer is
then allowed to trickle through the lower system of tubes of
the tray upon the shavings, and moisten them, by which
means the alcohol' is brought into contact with the oxygen of
the air. This produces heat, and a current of air passes in
through the oval apertures at the sides of the hogshead, and
after ramifying through the shavings, passes out through the
upper system of apertures in the tray, by which a constant
succession of oxygen is carried around the shavings. There
is thus a slow combustion effected, and the result is, that the
alcohol runs out through the apertnre at the bottom of the
hogshead. a bad vinegar, at the first time. It is then run
through the hogshead a second time, and thus the process
which took up the period of severneweeke, and sometimes
three months, is now so much facilitated, that the first-rate
vinegar can be made in the period of twenty-four hours.
Thus we find another instance added to the remarkable
number which I have brought before you, of extraordinary
improvements in theoretical science. being applied in the
manufactures and the arts.
To-morrow evening Dr. Kane will terminate his course,
on which occasion he will explain and illustrate the mode
by which manufacturers of silk and cotton goods apply and
fasten their colours. This will be at once the most interest-
ing and instructive lecture of the course, particularly to the
female portion ofthe community, and we trust that there
will be a good attendance.

Mr. M`Queen, in his valuable Abstract of the General
Statistics of the British Empire, estimates the property in land
and farming. stock in the United Kingdom at .{.::2,971,756,670,
yielding an annual return of L 474,029,688. The property in
manufactures is rated by the same exact and acute writer at
£2OI,CYJO,OOO, yielding an annual return of L 262,085,199.
Thus, while landed property gives little more than three per
cent., manufacturisig property yields more than the prodigious
increase of 120 per cent.
A Montgoltier er fire balloon, of extraordinary dimensions,
so as to ascend with several aeronauts, is now being manufac-
tured nuder the immediate superintendence of Mr. H. Green
(a brother of the celebrated aeronaut), and will shortly ascend,
A mac'hine on this principle i.vas some time since destroyed
by the populace at the Surrey ?Zoological Gardens, in con-
sequence of their being disappointed in its ascent.

About ten days since the Earl of Cassilis, one of the officers
of the Rifle Corps, stationed in the Toner, lost a valuable
ring from his 'finger, which was afterwards found by a private
in the regiment, who immediately restored it to his Lordship,
and was presented with five shillings, the Earl at the'same
time directing the finder to call for a similar sum every morn-
ing until he ordered him to discontinue his visits. The rifle-
man has been Very regular in his attendance,-and the Earl
has been as regular in his payments.—John