The Liverpool Standard and General Commercial Advertiser.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1838-03-20 00:00:00

EXTRAORDINARY DEFALCATION.

At the close of last week it became generally known, that
there was, as is called in sporting language, a screw loose in. tl.e
establishment of Messrs. J. H. Stanway and Brother, pcbl.7.
accountants, Manchester, and who have not only transacted
most extensive business, but who have also enjoved the pubic:.
confidence to an unlimited extent. The imtneiliate cause .of
bringing to light the delinquencies, as it at present appears,. of
Mr. Samuel Stanway only, was a meeting of commissioners of
bankrupts on Saturday last, in order to declare a dividend Oil
an estate to which Messrs Stanway were accountants—of cfiursc
whose presence could not be dispensed with. Mr. J. H. Stan-
way, however, only was in attendance, although Mr. Sari-or
Stanway had had the entire management of the estate; and, c
being asked the amount of assets in band, informed the comm::„ •
sioners that he had neither any funds nor documents belonfg;;..,
to ate estate. This declaration, as may be supposed, utte:.-i
confounded the commissioners, they having reason to know itv:
something like £4OPO had collie into the accountants' hands.
This disclosure ,:as quickly heralded through town, and, ri
before noticed, the.. business of this office being well known
have been extensive, caused many parties interested to set about
ascertaining how their individual interests were likely to be
affected, who upon this discovered that Mr. Samuel Stanway-
(on whom had for some time devolved the principal manage-
' ment of the concern) had become non est inrentus, and it itr•at
this moment unascertained the extent or number of dccumetite
and amount of money he took with him. Officers, however, are
in hot pursuit ; but with what success time only can show.
There are several estates, ,and public bodies, and committecri,
who, it is understood, will be considerable sufferers, among
whom we have heard—
'rho Conservative Committee for the late South
Lancashire Election, report says ...£3000
The Committee of the Operative Conservatives.. 300
Botanical Gardens.. 4OO
The estate of C. Evans, Banker,
of Philip Gans
of Taylor, Herdle, and Co., the amount
stated in all is said to be £ll,OOO to, 14,000
The former sum appears to he most correct.
It is reported that the trustee to an estate under inspection,
had deposited cheques signed but not filled up, to enable Messrs.
truet
any S t an
greatway —e
extent,
s e
may fi
Stanway to meet any sudden demand; and, that these checle,,,
o
uteir)vteo beensuit himself. made use
'this, if
of Samuel
volve innocent parties to a large amount.

EXTRAORDINARY PLATES OV GLASS.—There are now de
posited at the warehouse of the 'Thames Plate Glass CCU,-
puny, Savoy-street, Strand, two of the- largest plates of tll •R
ever made in this country. Their dimensions are 12i
71 feet, beiniz within a few inches as high, anti much wider
the mirrors of the ball-room at Windsor Castle, each of wt•iL:b.,
however, is formed of two plates.
THE BALLOT.—The ballot would necessarily destroy
abuse the character of the voter, and make a hypocrite of hi,t.7
throughout his whole existence. It would make his life oils
continued lie. If he secured secrecy at al!, it would Make him
who had voted contrary to his promise true in hypocrisy.
,He
who could conceal the side on . whicli he voted—he wbo.coula
keep the secret from his friend, from his wife, could never bt,
true in any relation of life, nor would any one believe him to•btl
so. Lord Brougham, in 1830..

•
THE MAGNETIC POLE.—ln the year 1819, Sir Edwd. Parry,
in his voyage to discover the north-west passage round Ainericl,
sailed near the magnetic pole ; and in 18`24, Captain Lyon; on
an expedition for the same purpose, found that the magnetit:
pole was then situated in 63 deg. 26 min.sl sec. north latitude,
and in 80 deg. 51 min. 25 sec. west longitude. It appears. from.
latter researches, that the law of terrestrial magnetism is of con. -
siderable complexity, and the existence of more than one mag-
. netic pole in either hemisphere has been rendered highly pro..
pable; that there is one
M.
Siberia seems to be decided by this
recent observations of M. Hansteen, —it. is in longitude 102 deg.
east of Greenwich, and a little to the north of the 60th deg. of
of latitude ; so that, by these data, the two magnetic poles in
the northern hemisphere are about ISO deg. distant from each
other ; but Captain Russ, who is just returned from a voyage
in the Polar seas, has ascertained that the American magnetic
pole is in 70 deg. 14 min. north latitude, and 96 deg. 40 min.
west longitude. The magnetic equator does not exactly coin-
cide with the terrestrial equator; it appears to be an irregular
curve, inclined to the earth's equator to an angle of about 12
deg. and crossing it in at least three points, in longitude 113 deg.
1-1 west, and 66 deg. 46 min. east of the meridian of Greenwich,
and again somewhere between 156 deg. 30 min. of west longi-
tude, and 116 min east.—Mrs. Somerville's Connection of the
Scienres.

DISCoVERT OV ANCIENT SCLAVONIAN MANUSCRIPTS.—
Accounts from Servia announce, that a monk of the order of
St Basil has just discovered a collection of historical mann-
setipts in the monastery of Monte-Negro. Being ordeleci to
inspect the vaults which extend in difTereut directions under the
church of the convent, he found that the numerous coffins depo-
sited there, were all decayed or broken to pieces, except one,
which remained entire. When this report was received by-the
superior, he consulted with his brethren, and it was resolved to
open the coffin. This was done with due solemnity, and their
astonishment may be imagined, when it was found that this,
coffin, which was of lead, was filled with bundles of papers, in
a very good state of preservation, each wrapped up in oiled cloth.
On a general examination, they were discovered to be chronicles,
written in different Sclavonian languages, and to extend front
the first invasion by the Sclavonians, of the countries watered
by the Danube, to the year 1721. These chronicles contain
the history of Wallachia, Moldavia, Servia, and Bulgatia. and.
numerous details relative to the crusades, the empire of the
East, the wars of POW and Hungary against the Ottomans
the whole written and composed by eye-witnesse,
Miloseh has purchased this precious erdlection of ti.antisOripta
for 5,000 ducats, and has commissioned his private secrettil;
Mr. -Wouk Woukanowitch, and twenty-four learned Servittir.
r immediately to ex.ataine, and to class them according to thus
dates; and these obersoments will be forthwith rtihlistied, tlt:ta
I expe Ilba of the prince.--Atiatreasitia.

I,..)ottrp.

BECAUSE!

" Why ?—Becauce-----;_'—LINDLEY MURRAY.

Sweet Nea firyour lovely sake.
I weave those raniiilin,a numbers,
Because I've ►ain au lbour awake,
And can•'t compose my slumbers;
Because your beauty's gentle light
Is round mv pillow beaming,
And flings, I 'know not why, to-nitcht,
Some witchery o'er my dreaming!

•
Bacausd we've passed some joyous days,
.And danced soine merry dances;
Because von:love old Beaumont's plays,
'And old Froissares romances! .
Because, whene'er I hear your words,
Some pleasant feeling lingers;
Because I think your heart has chords
'That vibrate to my fingers !
Because you've got those long, soft curls
I've vow!d should deek my goddess;
Because you're not, like other girls,
All bustle, blush., and boddice !
Because your eyes are deep and blue,
Your. Iliwers long and rosy;
Because a little child, and you
Would make one's home so cozy!

Because your little tiny nose
'Turns up so pert aqd funny;
Because I know you choose,your beaux
More for their m►rth than money
Because I think you'd rather twirl
•A waltz, with me to guide you,
Than talk some nonsense with au Earl,
And a Coronet beside you!
•
Because you don't object to walk,
.Aucl are nut given to fainting;
Because you. have not learned to talk
()Movers and Pnonah-painting ;
Because, I think, you'd scarce refuse
To sew one on a button;
Because L know you'd soinetinxes choose
To dine on simple mutton !

Because, I think, I'm just so weak
As some of these role morrows,
To ask you, if you'll let me speak,
My story and my sorrows ;
Because the rest's a simple thing,
A matter quickly over,
A Church—a Priest—a sigh—a ring—
And a chaise and four to Dover

CON7'EJIPORAR Y PRESS.

THE BRITISH LEGION AND ITS GENERAL.
(From. the Manehexter Courier.)
In the House of Commons, on Tuesday evening, Sir
O.,De Lacy. Evans brought on one of those melancholy
exhibitions of himself, which, if induced by any one
else, would be considered an act of loathsome malice,
and hatred, proceeding -front a depraved and vicious
heart. In mercy
.to himself, he ought to have waited
until some opponent had brought the matter before the
house. It is perfectly true. that he has brought upon
hirnself a greater weight of .public censure than most
men could hear, and it is quite reasonable that he should
feet. some anxiety to get rid of at least a portion of it ;
but if the climate of Spain has not dried up the energies
of his mind, and closed it against conviction, he must
liave seen that the course which he adopted on Tuesday
night was not one either to improve his reputation, or
to lessen the blame which a discriminating people have
cast upon him. The only apology which he can advance
for the length and, folly of his speech, is that it. concerned
-himself. It was the effort of a conscience sitting in
judgment on itself, and as such, it could only inflict pain.
on, and excite pity towards its owner. When a man
claims for himself great skill and judgment, a suspicion
mast necessarily arise that he is perfOrming an.office
which has never occurred to his friends as being neces-
sary, or, on the other hand, one from which they have
instinctively shrunk. In just. such kposition stood Sir
G. Evans when he introduced the, subject of his Spanish
campaign" on Tuesday. It is true, some friends followed
him, but their approbation is merely the echo of such
vain- glorious expressions as the following :—" As to the
attacks upon himself, on the ground of want of skill or
defects of judgment, he felt that every 'rpan occupying a
ptiblic station must abide by the general opinion, and
take his chance of what might be the decision upon his
merits. /n some cases a small measure of justice might
be dealt:out,
,while.in others a greater share of approba-
tion might be awarded than was justly due." It would
he most spiteful to demand from Sir George the meaning
of the last sentence, for the explanation would directl;
involve personal application, and, then, if his querist
happened to be a man whose.love of truth was superior
to his.spirit of civility and conciliation, he might stop
the personal application of the sentence midway, by in
quiring how it fell out that 250 officers left his leaion in
disgust ;—how it happened that his sick soldiers were
allow,ed to tie through filth and famine ;—and lastly he
might: nquire how it happened that he- permitted his of-
ficers- suntmarily to condemn his men to severe, and in
many eases undeserved floggings. If Sir George Evans
had,been a man of any note,: his speeches might -have
been the subject of criticism of this complexion. If his
achievements-on the hustings of Westminster had been
rendered: 'insignificant by the lustre of his exploits in
Spain, his friends might have granted him the 'favour of
remaining silent on Tuesday night; but unfortunately,
nature played the niggard towards-him at his-birth, and
the only course now left open-to him is
,to cheat better
men of their laurelS, and place them on his own brow.
Lord Palmerston's defence of the conduct of General
Evans, ,Was as unfortunate for his friend as it was ‘v.eak
in 'argument ; and if his lordship's future efforts are ex-
clusively devoted to the care of his own reputation, he
will only do an act of common justice to, his friends at,
large. In short,, every circumstance connected with :the
war, in Spain, must of necessity bring disgrace upon the
government, and they ought to know that the only way
to escape censure is to preserve silence.

MR. COLLIER.'S LECTURES ON THE EDUCATION
OF THE DEAF AND DUMB, AND BLIND.

On,,Thursday evening M r. Collier, who is generally known for
his,exertionson behalf of the deaf and dumb, and the blind, in
endeavouring to excite a feeling, by his lectures in various parts
of theeountcy, to raise establishments forahe primer tuition of
these objects of our compassionate • sympathy, delivered the
first of a course of two lectures: on the tuition of the deaf and
dumb, at the Medical Institution, Hope-street. 'l' he lecture
wallesspectably attended. In commencing hie lecture, Mr. Collier
weet,:into the statistics of the deaf and dumb, whom he stated
to fortis a 1500 sh part of the population of the world. In some
countries this proportion was less and in othets'more. In Switz-
erland, deaf persons existed in the great proportion of -I to 500.
In Pelginni.the proportion was Ito 3000. In the United States
of America the proportion was Ito 2000. In England, France,
and Germany the proportion was as low as 1 in 30t)0; but taking
the whisk world It_was .1. in 1500. Surely, then; with so great
a proportion of deaf and dumb persons, they would not he snf-
fared taliye neglected.. ..B.had been ascertained that at the pre-
sent moment there were 8000-little children deaf and dumb in
England .ready. to be placed under instruction; and the whole
of our noble institutions. raised for the purpose of teaching them
would nett centaiu so. many hundreds. It reflected dishonour on
an age distinguished by the progress of intellect that these be-
reft.mortals should be so much neglected. Liverpool, Manches-
teroind a few other towns had made efforts on their behalf, and
were e:settapt from. this censure. Had other towns taken up the
subject it); thesame manner, his appeal would not then have been
needed, This ueelect was not for the want of any charitable
feelings towards the deaf and dumb; it was because of the mul-
titude of other benexolent institutions that the poor little mutes
were forgotten. He could. not but mention the readiness of the
gendlernewinthe different towns in which he had lectured, to re-
medy this evil when brought before their notice. One reason
why, the deaf were not more thought of was because parents
were very loth, to believe that their children were in this bereaved
state,s4P4.their unwillingness to part with them. Each mother
wrappn4. herself up in the idea that the deafness would pass away,
and that it was perhaps but the result of some cold in infancy.
Whena deaf boy went first to school he saw others juyvms
around him, and when be attempted to enter inn) their gambols
he found he could net make himself understood, nor understand
theni, and he consequently became irritable and suspicious. If
others laughed or looked grave in his company he fancied they
laughed at him or that he had offended them. But proper in-
struction did away with this, and enabled him to communicate
with his fellows; and it did more, it prepared him for that eter-
nity which awaited him. Mr. Collier then introduced a Young
man of very intelligent appearance, whom he said he hail acci-.
dently heard of, and whose name it afterwards appeared was
James Carlene, and who is employed as a moulder in Messrs.
Fawcett and. Preston's foundry. In answer to questions put to
him with the fingers by Mr. Collier, he wrote on the slate that
he was born at a village in Perthshire, in Scotland, that he was
twenty-five. years of age, and came to England two years ago.
A number of questions were put to him in this way, the answers
to which he wrote with the greatest readiness, and in a good
band, with chalk, on the slate We were much struck with his
immediate answer to one question, " What is Grid ?" "God is
a spirit, unchangeable, and eternal ; infinite in his holiness,
goodness,. and truth:" He stated that he had been educated
in the deaf and dumb school at Glasgow. When a child was
first introduced-into a deaf and dumb institution he was allowed
a few days,to. bet:nine acquainted with the pupils, and with their
signs and mode of intercoerse. His attention was then directed
to some picture, and he was made to understand that there was
a resemblance between it and. the object which it was made
to represent between a hat, for instance, and the piinting of
one., This ,he was soon taught to know. The next thing
was to reprecant objects by written words, the instructor writ-
ing the. word ".hat" upon a board, and pointing alternately to
the bat and to the word,. The 'pupil felt at first rather puzzled
to know what resemblance there could be beta een a hat and
these signs on the board, and it required sometime to reconcile
him -to these words as the proper representatives of things.
The .signs made by the mutes were in the first instance fre-
quently very laughable, and one of the first objects of an insti-
tution was to refine those gestures. For instance if a person
had a sore lip or finger, these imperfections would be the.sign
for the, ,individual ever afterwards. Or if a person was
distinguished- by some p.ominrmt feature, as a large nose, a
mote would ever after notice this when describing him.
Mr. ,Collier then by means of the young man before al-
luiled,to exhibited .the way in which education was begun. by
writing on the board "ass, horse, row, dog, goose, tiger,
and thehasking the mute to describe what they were, and' he
immediately described by gesture something characteristic and
definite to each. animal. When they were-perfect in this lesson
and able to write the namem.iif the animals on the board at the
dictation of the teacher, the pupil was next taught the qualities
of objects, or adjectives., Ile was taught first such adjectives
as " LOP "short," "Frown," " narrow ;" and objeOts brought
before them having these iespective qualities to teach them.
After, Practising in this way for sonic time, the,ptipil was taught
to cenneet adjectives and substantives together, as " good
i•nr',,," Ste. It would be well if some of the systems of tho-
.eghly grounding in teaching adopted in the deaf and dumb

•
schools were adopted in other schools. It was true it was a very
circuitous mode, but the foundation was-sure. - The must irra-
tional systems were pursued in some schools. He had seen
little children who could repeat whole pages by rote, without
knowing anything about the meaning; the reason of this was,
because the mod,- by which they were taught was not sufficiently
circuitous: their young minds were hurried through te.ks, too
rapidly. Slow and gradual nteaus were. .taken with Site
meat' and dumb pupils; they had to build ou a sure feon-
ilatiou, otherwise their future teaching would be valuelevs.
When a pupil had acquired the names of objects, he bad
proceeded very far. The attainment of this knowledge was
a very slow process, as they frequently forgot the words snit
their characters, having nothing but the .eye, unassisted by
sound by which to remember. We were accustomed to
remember • things by sound, dependiug on the ear, but
not on the eye. If we read " Liverpool is a fine town," it was
easily remembered because the sound of the words was
associated with them; but if we struck out the vowels in
those words and endeavoured to remember their character
from the eye; we should then perceive the difficulty.—
The next point was to teach tha pupils the prepositions, in which
there was some difficulty; this was taught them ,by showing
them the relation of objects and their connection. Mr. Collier
then read several productions of deaf and dumb children, to
Show the simple and unconnected style in which they wrote.
These productions betrayed generally much simplicity of
thought. The deaf and dumb could not only be_ taught to cor-
respond by signs, but could he taught to articulate; this was a
great triumph of eductition, and h4d first been attempted at the
institution in London. -The very intelligent mute prevent was
made to understand by signs several questions, putt() him, and
gave artietilate and correct answers; and when we consider that
he had nu ear to direct the sounds which he tittered, this was truly
extraordniary. He gave his name, and said he was truly grate-
ful to Mr. Watson for teaching him this, as he could make
himself understood by speaking. He then. being requested,
by signs, repeated the Lord's prayer with great correctness.
the audience being capable of understanding -easily evert( word
he said. There way Ho deaf mute but could make a noisa, he could
shout and laugh and mutter some unmeaning words. On these
sounds articulation was to be raised. Laughing and shouting
embodied the sounds of vowels, and by much patient teaching
they were taught to repeat these sounds, and attach them to
signs They were then tatteht to pronounce the consonants,
Which was a work of great difficulty, the pupil frequently having
to feel the teacher's threat as tie was learning, to he assisted by
the vibration and by the toock in the attainment of. the proper
sound.• They were then taught to combine the vowels and the
consonants. They were also taught several of the sciences by
a greatly simplified method.

Mr. Collier delivered his second lecture on .Friday evening.
The subject was the tangible modes of teaching persons born
blind. The inventions display much ingenuity, and excited
great curiosity. Some very amusing anecdotes connected with
the instruction of blind children were related, which tended to
prove the great benefits. of affording them a literary and religi—
ons education. Our space
.does not enable us to give_ any full
report of this ititereAing lecture: but as Mr. Oollierappoonced
his intention of givinga concluding lecture on Tuesday, (this
evening.) we may advert to the subject again.

LIVERPOOL MECHANICS INSTITUTION.

LECTURES ON GEOLOGY.

On Saturday evening, John Scouter, Esq., M.D., Professor
of Geology to the. Royal Dublin Society, commenced a course.
of lectures upon this mysterious scienect. Judging from the
first lecture, it promises to be the most profound course which
has yet been delivered upon the.subject in this town. The ape-
cimens of minerals, fossils, &c. were abundant and valuable, so
that the student In geology is readily enabled to store up, from
actual observation, such'knowledge as will be important to him
in, his pursuit of the science, and render him much assistance in
his invextie,ations of nature.
The natural history of the earth may be considered in a two-
fold point of view, as forming an object of study for the astro-
nomer and geologist. The astronomer studies its configuration,
diameter, specific gravity, position with respect to the other
heavenly bodies. and its distance from the sun and planets. In
short, he considers the earth as a body existing in space, and
nut susceptible of renovation and decay. On the other hand,
we may investigate the interior structure of our planet, and.
from the remains of extinct animals and plants, which we find
included in the solid reek, as welt as from the order of superpo-
sition of the different stony masses, which comprise. the crust of
our globe, we learn, that the earth has passed through nuttier-
ousphases of change. To explain the nature ofthese changes,
and to consider them as successive, is the business of the geolo-
gist, who considers the earth as existing in time, and hence his
science may he considered as the physical chronology of the
globe.
The revolutions which have affected the surface of our globe
have produced two series of phenomena which, although they
have existed contemporaneously, have acted and reacted on
each other, and are so intitnately related, that the one may be
considered as the measure of the other, are exceedingly differ-
ent in their nature, and belong to such widely remote sciences,
that, until geology hail brought then' into contact, they were
supposed
to have no common bond of union. 'l' he'oneseries of
changes are entirely chemical and mechanical, and relate to,
the mutations of the inorganic world, which have repeatedly
transferred:the materials of the loftiest, mountains•to, the chan-
nel of the ocean, and again elevated the bottom of the sea, and
all its marine productions to the lofty regions of the Andes or
Himalaya. The other series of changes are of a purely physio-
lugicai nature, and consist of the repeated destructions and re-
newals of animal and vegetable life, so that the secondary strata
Of our globe may be considered as the catacombs of tamer crea-
tions of whose existence the fossil skeletons are the only evi-
dences which remain.
If we examine the most superficial parts of the earth's surface,
we shall find that even at the present moment it is undergoing
a silent change, which, though interceptihle, when viewed front
day to day, will attain a vast amount when measured by.centu-
ries. We find that the loftiest mountains are subject to inces-
sant decay,—rain enters into their pores, which in winter being
converted into ice, expands and tears them asunder. These dis•
integrated portions are washed down ,by the heavy rains of the
spring into rivers, and by this means carried to the ocean. The
amount of these changes can be ascertitiated with very great
ease with respect to those ancient countries, of which we have
historical re-cords. Thus the Po and other rivers which flow
into the Adriatic have, during the last twenty centuries, pro-
duced an extent of new land amounting td 11)0 miles in length,
and from 2..t0 20 miles in breadth, by depositions of .the earthy
materials which they have brought down from the.Appenines
and other Italian rocks. • We have additional evidence of the
most distinct and clear nature afforded us of these depositions
in the instance of the town olltavenna, which, during the time
of A.ligustus. was one of the havens of the Romanfleet, hut now
is an inland town, far from the sea. Spina, which was formerly
on .the coast of the Adriatic, is now 21) miles from it. If we ex-
tend our observatienn, we find in various quarters of the work'
great masses of level country which owes their existence to this'
process of disintegration, and which is at present as active an
agent of change as it has been since it has•been observed by
man. In Otis-manner the extensive alluvial plains of Bengal
have been formed by the detritits of thellimalayas, and the
deltas, of the Nile. and various• other large rivers trace their
existence to the same originating cause.
If we now examine. the older strata we shall find that they
abound -threughout•ityrriarine shells, which show that they were
likewise formed under water. We find still inure striking evi•
dence of their. marine formation in the rounded .rabbles which
exist in these rocks. These are commonly met with. iu con
(glomerate, which is composed of antunber of different &scrip_
lion of pebbles worn round by.the attrition caused in the.water
which . are eaeglutinated together. Therefore these rocks-
althom!tt met with thousands of miles Fiona she sea, and thou
sands of .feet above it, were obviously farmed .under water, for
nothing, but the action of the, water could have produced the
rounded forms ef the pepples which we tied ,in them. These
strata have, of course, been regularly deposited in horizontal
layers in the water, but the, peaceful changes whit h preemie('
them have been interrupted by convulsions of a• very different
nature, by which they have beeu elevated cud turned upon
their edges, or upheaved at great angles. The elevation of the
.different rocks. has taken place at different periods.
But not only, have the solid portions of the globe been trans-
ported into the.sea, and the sea, been converted into dry land.
More astonishing changes than these have taken place; no less
than that of the Hying inhaltitaPts of our globe. We find that
different species of animals and plants have. successively ap-
peared and disappeared from the globe, leaving only their
fossil remains to mark their. existence. . We cannot examine
the most superficial deposits without meeting, with the remains
or species .of the Irish elk, elephant, and mastoden,.which are.
no longer to be met with in the world. There is no doubt that
if they did still exist, their magnitude would. have.revealed them
to travellers. Beyond the newest deposits these pninnis .
pear, lint in their place we find the peleot berium and other ani-
mals, equally extinct at the present period. Passing tbroneli
the Various fortnatiens, we in this manner find in fossil chrono-
logy the:same evidence of successive change.
Geology is as science which is interesting from the beauty of
its established principles, and from the splendour .of its epecu•
lative inquiries. It is not, however, a mere idle amusement,
offering only occupation for ingenious and fanciful minds; it is
also a science of great and increasing practical importance.. lit
agriculture the excellence of the soil
;depends greatly upon the
proper mixture of the earths, which, in their unmixed state,
would be unable to 'support vegetation. Thus the clayey soils
of Essex have very much improved by .being mixed with chalk,
which by loosening its tenacity renders it less damp and cold..
In like manner the sandy soils of Norfolk and Suffolk have been.
so improved by the admixture with the clays of Essexeas•
to hear good crops of wheat, barley end turnips. New in these
cases it is obvious that a knowledge of stratification is of great
use, as we find at a small depth beneath our own land the clay
or, sand which we should otherwise have to travel many miles
in quest of. In road-makina mere hardness is not the only
quality required in the materials; elasticity is aiso an essential,
requisite. Flints have no elasticity, and, in consequence, soon
become, worn to a powder. Lime stone is .soft and soon be-

cognes converted into mud. Green stone is the best material

we know of for that. purpose, and it is better to bring it from a
distance than to use inferior matters which are more accessible.
In a county in Ireland, the material used. in road making was
lime stone, wnich required continual renovation. Now along
the whole line of the roads there were masses of green stone in
every direction, and vet it was only within the last ten years,
that this material has been employed upOn these roads. Geo-
logy is also useful in enabling us to select those stones. most
suitable for building purposes. Some sand stones are exceed-
ingly, porous,. in consequence of which they absorb water.
When winter comes the, water freezes, and the stone is
speedily decayed If. on the other hand, sand stones are
ferruginous' they are equally ohjectionahle, be.canse by ex-
posure to the at mospherethe 'iron rusts. and causes pp; tines of
the, stone to chifroff in the- form of scales. .Even granites are of
different qualities, som,e being exceedingly liable to decomposi,
lien. whilst others are almost perennial, as they never decay..
Nothing is easier than to choose hetween.agoqd. and a ha t
granite. Those granites whirl, co,ntain_a great portion oftnica
soon decay, whilst those containing hornblende are less liable
to decay., The science of gimlogy, is of infinite. use to miners.
For want of its knowledge, the important inineralonanganese,
was fortnerlyemployed in Perbyshire in road-inaking, as well as
a Ilst.uable ore of zinc. In Cornwatl a profit of Many thousands
of pounds has been obtained within, a short period, hy extract-
ing silver from the refuse matter which had accumulated during
a long series of years.
The thickness of the crust of the globe with which we are ac-
quainted heals but a small proportion to its diameter. The
greatest depth to which we have penetrated from the surface of
the,earth does not. exceed. 3000 feet. Thus our knowledge of
the crust of .the earth is very limited indeed. Still, however, as
rocks are not disposed in horizontal beds, hat are inclined at
angles, we can obtain a considerable insight into the. construc—
tion of the earth. The total thickness of the British strata may
be considered .to exceed 60,W0 feet. According to Playfair,
we have the composition of the earth revealed to us for sixty
one; miles in depth, or one sixty-fifth of the radius of the. globe
1 his is .probably an extreme case, but our knowledge is still
more.complete than is generally imagined.
Now, if we examine the nature of the materials of which these
rocks are composed, we shall find that. all the rocks consist of

a very small number of minerals, i❑ which respect geology
affords a very great contrast to zoology and botany: the speci-
mensof which differ materially in different quarters of the globe.
Rocks are, however, combined in nearly the same proportions,

and exhiLit also the same forms wherever they ere met with.
Thus-the granite of the North t'ote differs very little Irmo that
of the Clpe of Good Hope or Sohth America. The reason of
this is very plain. Chemists have male known upwards of 50
different elementary substances which they cannot further de-
compose. In!general, however, only eight of these substances
enter into the compositi.in of the vast amount of reeks cumpos-
ing the crust of the globe, and iiiese are magnesium, iron, cal-
cium, carbon, silica. sulphur, ox gen ant: oydregen. Very few
substailves occur in name iu,a pure stale, beiug in general
highly combined with oxygen. Oxygen ferias 50 per cent of
the matter of the globe. Some geelogists believe twit toe crust
of the earth was oxydieed by combination with oxygen when the
mass of matter composing it was in a molten state.
At this stage of our prpceeding,s, it will be well. to notice the
most common of the minerals Of which toe earth is cotopeseil.
The fist and most important of these is siiiva. Quartz is
chiefly composed of it. Silica is universally diffused through
nature, and exists in two. conditions, either in, the state of au
acid to form silicates, or as a simple mineral to form compound
rocks or entire strata. The reason why lime forms so durable
and hard.? when mixed with 'sand, is, because the silica oldie
sand combines with the lime to form silicate of lime. When
silica occurs in the simple state it is ealled quartz.
.Quartz
possesses a vitreous lustre, and is harder than most minerals.
'lt gives out sparks when struck with steel, and is infusible with
the blow pipe. Its most curious form' is that of a sic sided
prisM, although it is met with of a great variety of forms.
Sometimes it occurs covered over with the rust of iron, and at
others mixed with carboniferous inagers.and of a black hue.
In this state it occurs very abundantly in nature, forming one-
third part of granite and the same of gneiss. The sand stones
which we meet with are nattily, else than grains of quartz or
silica agglutinated together. 'Opal, is a compound of quartz
and water. If subjected to . the blow pipe, opal gives our its
water. Flint is also a Mass of silica. Some very curious dis-
coveries have been recently made with respect to this sub-
stance. We find that a great portion of siliceous matters have
been the production of animals. if a piece of animal matter
be left to macerate in water, a number of little animalculm will
- make their appearance, and move through the water with
great rapidity. A celebrated German naturalist, found that
these animalculie, many of them only ..1-300th of an inch in
length, possessed little skeletons. Bv.colouring the wather with
indigo and vermillion, he was able to discover their internal
Structide. The skeletons of these animalcular are not like
those of muscles,' formed of carbonate of lime, :but of silica.
_There are in Hungary three strata of. silica, Composed entirely
of the skeletons of these animalculea. This silica is used b`y,
the seloiers of the l'rusi.,ian army, for the purpose of polishing.
their arms. What is equally remarkable is the fact, that gun
flints are composed of the skeletons of such little creatures.
The secoutl mineral of extreme frequency is the substance
called felspar. It is distinguished from quartz by .being softer,.
and it can be melted. by the blow-pipe into glass or enamel. It
is a silicate of alumina and potash. It enters largely into basalt,:
granite, and trap rocks in general. It ;presents a great variety
of forms and colours, the predominant of which are green. and
white. It is exposed to a great variety of changes, and decom-
poses on exposure to the atmospheric.air, and leaves a substance
which is used as putter's clay. .In the neighbourhood of volca-
noes it often happeris that the. silica is wash:d away, end that
sulphur combines with the alumiva and
.potassium. Another va-
riety of felspar, called albite is a composition of alumina and
soda.• The vitreous felspar found in the nighbourlmod of volca,
noes is a compnund of lime
.and alumina.; ,The Labrador, a.
beautiful black mineral, is. oftenconfounded with felspar,, item,
which it, however, differs in comp.ositipn. It occurs iu many
green stones, amid in, the lavas of volcanoes.
Pyroxene and hornblende are. silicates ofiron. They occur
in the lavas of Etna and Vesuvius, in the Giant's Causeway,
and, Stain. They are composed of lime, magnesium, silica, and.
iron. The first can be firmed artificially. It is found in the slag
of furnaces. If we take the materials of which it is composed,
it can be formed by exposing it to a great heat in a crucible.
This experiment is ioteresting, inasmuch as these minerals,
being only produced, in lavas,-we are,able, to produce ip °aria-
briroplies what nature produces in her great furnaces. The
hornblende we cannot form by any process of art; -on the con,
trary,if we jut it into a crucible we find that pyroxene is formed
Hence we find tbat..pyroxene is formed infavas which have,
cooled. with great rapidity, but that hprublendewas formed front
the process Of cooling having been slow and under great pres-
sure

Hvpersthene occurs in Cumberland and Greenland. It is a
silicate of iron and magnesium.
Mica occurs very frequently in nature in pieces of great size.
It is distinguished from talc by being elastic. In Russia it is
used in the catiin windows of ships instead Ott
.glass, as it is not
so liable to be broken. It occurs of different colours. It is an
almost essentially component part of granite. It is easily distin-
guished by its elasticity, besides which, it is easily scratched
With a needle.

! Talc, which resembles mica in its general chararters,differs
from it in total want.of elasticity. It is soft, unctuous to the
touch, and infusible. It is a silicate of magnesium.
Iron pyrites are Composed of sulphur and iron. They are
found in the form of a cube, but they exist in crystals of other
forms. In some cases, a portion of the pyrites is converted into
oxide of iron,-and we get copperas or sulphate of iron from the
remaining portion. There are caves in au Irish county which
are exciting some attention, in consequence of the variety of
curious metamorphoses which the iron pyrites undergo in them.
In some cases, the cave is covered
.with gypsum or sulphate of
lime, which is no donht owing to the decomposition of the sul-
phate of iron, and the combination of its sulphuric acid with
the lime.

Carbonate of lime is a substance which.is easily recognisable.
Calcareous spar is easily recognised by scratching it with.the
knife, or by pouring a drop of any acid upon it, when efferves-
cence takes place: Next to siiica, carbonate of. lime is by far
the most abundant mineral in nature, and forms the greater.
-portion of the secondary rocks of England. It has been, men.-
tioued, that silica is formed by anitnal,culaa, but what, takes
place in an extremely limited degree,
.with respect to silica,
takes place t., a very great extent with cabonaceous minerals;
and if we trace them through every portion of the globe we may,
invariably attribute them to animal origin. Even when the
skeletons of the animals composing it are not visible, we can
easily detect their detritus, or the wearing down of their
skeletons..

The forms of the different rocks ate. very remarkable, aad
give to certain countries highly picturesque appearances. Thus
for instance if we look at what are called the primary moun-
tains, composed of granite, we find them to present spiral
,ridges intersected with very deep ravines, with exceedingly
sharp angles and peaks. The rocks called Quartz, which occur
very comnusonly in nature, 'exercise a very remarkable effect
upon the scenery of countries. If they occur upon their edges
as they sometimes do, and there are frequently beds of clay oc-
curring between their strata, the clay, in process of time, is.
washed away,,whilst the Quartz I-et:rains. Thus in some por-
tions of central India there are lines nt mountain chains coin
posed entirely of Quartz. The Quartz does not exist.in perpen-
dicular but in horizontal strata, presenting a conical outline,
so that a person acquainted with geol,rgy could tell at 20 miles
•distance the formation of the rocks: Anyone who has entered
the bay of Dublin roust have noticed the two mountains which
go by the name of the greater and lesser sugar loaf. These are
Quartz rocks. The Jour mountains in Scotland are instances
of the same kind. Not only is the picturesque character of a
country thus constituted, but in some measure the vegetation.
Of a country is modified by the nature of the rocks of which it
is cotniisvd. There arc a satiety of plants which maybe con-
sidered geological plants, Weranse they only occur upon particu-
lar rocks or minerals. Thus the lichens afford a very striking,
instance of this tact. Numerous other examples were cited in
suppiet of this fact, which is of great importance to the agricul-
turist, because it shows that every kind of mineral soil has its
owsn-kind of plants adapted to it.
To-morrow evening Mr. Scouler delivers his second lecture,
in which he will enter upon a detail of the structure of rocks.