The Liverpool Standard and General Commercial Advertiser.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1836-11-18 00:00:00

THE LIVERPOQL STANDARD.

TOWN-COUNCIL PROCEEDINGS.

The council met again, by adjournment, on Wednesday, at
eleven o'clock, fur the despatch of public business.

THE REPORTERS.
As soon as the reporters were admitted into the council room,
The M A YOH said, he had always been an advocate for the ad-
mission of reporters into that room; but he thought when any
gentleman's statements were misrepresented it was only right
that he should have an opportunity of setting them right. They
certainly had made him appear to have spoken in a very rude
manner to Mr. Wood, and in a way that he should be very sorry
to do. He found he was made to say in one paper (reading
from the STANDARD) the following sentence to Mr. Wood:—
" The Mayor. Without suggesting what your presumptions
will be, the Town-clerk will be ready to answer your questions
as soon as you are seated. You have asked a great many
questions, and we must not hear your suppositions." Fie was
sure that was a very rude speech which he had made, and he
begged to say that he never did make it. He merely called
Mr. Wood to order, he having spoken before, who, in asking
questions, followed them by presuming something. He said,
"the Town-clerk would answer the questions when Mr. Wood
had done; but he had asked a great many,
and he would have
some difficulty in answering them." He did not think he had
said what he bad been made to say. and that if be had, Mr.
Wood would have called him to order. He did not, however,
believe
,that he had been intentionally misrepresented ; but he
thought that it was a mistake which had occurred iu the hurry
of business.
Mr. Councillor J. N. WOOD was perfectly sure that Mr. Earle
never did make use of the expressions which were in the
STANDARD.
Mr. Councillor LAWRENCE HEYWORTH.---" I hold in my
hand something which is very wrong, relative to what is said in
this council-
-1 he MAYOR presumed it only related to what had appeared in
the room.
Mr. Councillor Liw HENCE HEYWORTH.—“, I anz•quite aware.
I am iu order in speaking on this subject, and should be obliged for
your permtssion to do so. The paper 1 have in hattd. is a, gross.
misrepresentation. (What paper was not stated.) lam made
to express sentiments I never intended. If 1 understood right, the
main and original object of hoeing reporters in this room to report
what is said by this coanail—it is in order that the constituency who
have sent them here may form an opinion on our merits or .dente-
rite, by giving correct views. If our sentiments are misrepresented,
or made indeed the reverse of the sentiments we have expressed,
then the delusion is as great as can be to the public; and so far
from the reporters being of use' they are an actual nuisance.
(" Hear," from Mr. Councillor Francis Jordan.) Fur if a man
speaks nonsense, it is desirable that the publics should know it;
and if he expresses himself wisely, it is important that the public
should know it. I only mention this that the reporters in this room
would be so kind that they will endeavour to be correct in •What is
said by this board."
[Our REPORTER on referring to his notes of what the Mayor
did say to Mr. Wood, finds a slight discrepapcy between that
and what he is represented to have said, and which he can only
attribute to the hurry of writing oat four columns of the council
proceedings, occurring the day after a long meeting which re-
quired all his attention, and to having to dictate to au amanuen-
sis. The substance, howeiier, is precisely the same. "He finds
in his short-hand notes the following, without the omission of a
word, and, to the best of his belief, it is verbatim what occurred :
"The Mayor (interrupting Mr. Wood.)—sWithout suggesting
what your presumptions will be, the Town-clerk will be ready
to answer the questions as soon as you are seated. We must
not have your suppositions. You have asked a great many
questions, and it will be difficult to remember them. Our re-
porter begs to say that he invariably endeavours to give impar-
tially the meaning of every speaker, and, when space will allow
it, frequently the vary words. With regard to what Mr. Law-
rence Heyworth has been pleased to say, the reporter begs to
repeat that he does "endeavour to be correct;" and in order
that Mr. Lawrence Heyworth may not complain of him as a
nuisance (if he should be alluded to) iu subjecting Mr. H.'s
speeches to the rounding off for which not a few of the town
councillors are indebted to him, the reporter pledges himself in
future, when Mr. Councillor Lawreuce Heyworth may speak
at length, on any subject, to report him literally, in ate first
person, that when Mr. Lawrence Heyworth speaks "nonsense,
or wisely, the public may know it."' The reporter begs to state.
that he has begun to redeem his pledge on the present occasion.]
THE LECTURER OF ST. JOHN'S STIPEND.
The MAvoit immediately proceeded to the business of the
council. He was happy to say they had not much business
before them. The reason of adjourning the council tothat day
was to get through the business which remained at the termina-
tion of the last quarterly meeting. The first thing in order was.
a notice from the Rev. Mr. Moss.
The TOWN-CLERK then read a notice sent to him from the
Revs Mr. Moss, lecturer of St. John's, respectfully demanding
that the annual stipend of £lBO, which during the seven years
past had been usually paid and granted, should forthwith be
secured to him, together with all arrears, in pursuance to the
provisions of an act of parliament to that end provided. The
town-clerk said he should explain that this claim rested on the
68th section of the municipal act, according to which "all pen-
sions and allowances granted on or before the sth day of June,
1835, by the corporate body to any retired officer or servant,
or to the widow or child of any officer or servant, and all sti-
pends or allowances which during seven years next before the
said sth day of Juue have been usually granted and paid to the
minister or late minister of any church or chapel, or to the rnas-
ter or usher of any school, &c. by such corporate body, shall be
secured, as sous as conveniently may be after the passing of
this act, to every person entitled or accustomed to have and re-
ceive the same, by bond or obligation under the common seal
of the borough, out of whose funds the same shall be payable,
together with all arrears of such stipend." The sub-committee,
who had reported on the church proceedings, under the advice
of counsel, reported to Mt. Moss that he was not to be consi-
dered a minister cr late minister of the Chapel of St. John, but
appointed by the common council not as minister, but as lec-
turer. A supplementary report had been made ou the circum-
stance of Mr. Moss being appointed under the nomination of
the bishop and under the seal of the corporation, with a view to
its being taken into consideration when the subject should again
be brought forward; Mr. Bolton's motion having left that and
other claims to stand over. Mr. Moss had urged, in bringing
forward his claim, that in not residing in the parish of Liver-
pool he would not be entitled to benefit under thesetriewment
deed. He would read several letters on the claim which had
paSsed betwixt him (the townclerk) and Messrs Shuttleworth
and Hopkins, of Preston; Mr. Moss's solicitors, to show the
amicable manner in which the question was treated. The town-
clerk then read over several letters and replies on the subject.
It would be very right, if Mr. Moss had a claim to this bond,
that he should have it without any expensive litigation. The
course that he should recommend was, that the claim Should be
referred to the finance committee.
Mr. Aldermen RoutstsoiS inquired if Mr. Moss was the offi-
ciating minister of St. John's; for, as far as he could collect,
his claim seemed founded on the word "minister," meaning the
officiating clergyman. If he' was not the officiating minister,
he should think that claim would not avail him.
The TOWN-CLERK said the question really turned on this,
whether the act of parliament meant any other person than the
minister of the church authoriied to be appointed by the act of
parliament. The opinions of counsel were, that it did not- It
would answer no good purpose to enter into the discussion there.
lie thought Mr. Moss was entitled to have the questiOn fairly
considered. If its legality could be ascertajned fairly, it ought
to be done so..
Mr. Councillor JANIZS HICIWORTII wished the 68th clause
alluded to to be read again, which was accordingly done by the
town-clerk as above.
Mr. Councillor J. Hoestes moved thatd
t the subject be referred
to the select finance committee.—A6
!dr. BIBBY wished to know if Mr. Moss had ever
officiated for the last twenty years for the church named ?
The TOWN-CLERK apprehended there could be no doubt but
that he had.
The MAYOR thought this was rather opening the question
after it had been decided, which was rather unusual.
Mr. Councillor Moon believed he could state that Mr. Moss
did officiate occasionally.
TABLE OF FEES.
The Tow ts-cenae said under the municipal act the council
had to settle the tables of fees for the clerk of the peace of the
borough, the clerks of the magistrates, and also of the fees of
the registrar of the civil court. These fees in strictness ought
to have been settled before that time, but, in consequence of its
being understood that some procedure was intended by govern-
ment to fix uniform tables for these tees, it had been delayed.
A letter bad been received from Mr. Phillips, of the Home-
office, on the subject. The town-clerk read the letters'which
stated that Lord John Russell, having seen the great disparity
which existed in the tables of fees, thought it would be ad.visa-
ble that a revised and uniform table of fees should- be fixed, and
enclosing a copy of fees, requesting it to be returned with such.
observations as might be made upon it. This subject had been
referred to the consolidated committee en the duties and ernes
lurnents of the town-clerk, but that committee not having been
continued, some other might be appointed to have the claims
referred. It would be for the council to appoint which.—
Mr. Councillor RATHBONE begged to move that itbesreferreds
to the borough court
committee;
their province.
Mr. Alderman RorirNsors seconded that. Agreed.tO.:
•
APPOINTMENT ,OF AUDITORS FOR THE DOCKS,,AHD HIDE!
CONSTABLE.
The MAYOR said the next thing was the appolptineta of four
auditors for the docks.
and heel. it
The Town-ccanK said the order of standing:notices was,
when a vacancy occurred, to name it at one council
filled., up the meat. lie thought, however, in .this Casa; the
strictness of the rule might be diapensed with in the sieetion.of'
four auditors the dock ,question, uestion, who were to- eight
auditors chosen by the ship-owners and 'other rate-payers h
, and
who were. to be teected aenually. Thits was a vacancy whic;
in point of law; the council were bounsd to* taki,notiee of ; and
the day of appointment• might be either fired for the following
Wednesday, or, in strict accordance with the standing rule,
od
the next nionthly.council. Another thing was the appointment
of an officer to be called High-constable. In laying the watch
rate, the amendment act directed that the warrant dile mayor'
for .levying the rate should be directed to a person filling an
office of the nature of the high constable, which rendered it ne7
cessary that there should be a person appointed to that office.
The office would be one of very little trouble and not requiring
any emolument; and •when it had been mentioned before, (by
the town-clerk) it was proposed (by the town-clerk) that the
office •should be filled up by the deputy town'-clerk ; this might
also be referred to the next meeting. These appointments
were accordingly refer; ad.
DOCKS AT TRANMERE.
Mr. Councillor E. SMITH said he had been struck by an ad-
vertisement in one of the Chester papers that morning, which,
in its object, materially affected the interests of the town. It
was a proposal to construct at Tranmeie two or pore wet docks
and graving docks, to be exempt from paying deck rates to
Liverpool. He would hand over the advertisement to the town-
clerleto read. •
The Tow N-CLRRK then read the advertisement, which was a
notice, signed Samuel Brittain, Chester, to the effect that ap-
plication would be made to parliament for leave to bring in a
bill for building, in the township of Tranmere, two or more wet
docks, and two or more graving docks, with proper piers, works,
warehouses, &c. for the loading and discharging of all ships and
vessels going there, and for the discharge of ships loaded for
Liverpool, and that a provision would be made in the act to
exempt all vessels. loading and discharging there from th spayf
ment of all dues and rates levied on ships entering the prt o
Liverpool, and for imposing such dues, on such vessels, for en-
tering the said dock, as in the said act would be particularly
mentioned.
The MAYOR said in the old councils there was an order that
the Town-clerk should have his eye on things of this sett, which
were likely to militate against the interests of the town of Liver-
pool; and the last year there had been a resolution to the same
effect which had. not this year been passed.
'The Town-ceuitx said the resolution was, "that the Town-
clerk he instructed to watch all hills before Foarliament bearing
on the interests of
.Liverpool. This notice directly affected the
rights of the town, for so long ago as the reign of Queen Anne
there was an act
,which stated -that Liverpool was entitled to
dock dues as far as 'lloylsilte, and all the intermediate Alas Mr. Alderman LEATHOM, BS chairman. of the doeit commit-
tee, would state that the eontroittee would take it into their cons
sideration. 116-was not aware of it before.
The Mason said the' subject might be referred to the select
finance cvaunittee.-- Referred.

TIM IMPROVEMENTS IN POOL-LANE.

Mr. Counbinor ExtGLIT Said souse of the tradesmen in Pool-
ane-eintititain:ed, that:-They were_ served with a notice to quit
their dwellings before this veer, and many of them had dune so
as early as January last. 'lite house's of those who had done so
were prepared now for their return, but they could uut do so
without material injury to their stocks in trade, as the building
of other houses in their immediate vicinity was still going on,
whilst many houses still remained iu their original state, their
tenants uot•liaving left them, and when the demolition of these
houses should be commenced it would be very injurious to the

stocks el retail dealers. *
The ma von said be believed he could answer this himself.
The improQeinent committee were alive to the improvement of
this street, and regretted very much that there was some legal
difficulty relating to some of the proper; and particularly to a
warehouse belonging to Mr. Cyrus Morrall.
Mr. Councillor RATIIIIONE had no doubt but this would prove
a very serious inconvenience to individuals.
Mr. Councillor BRIGHT said in consequence of improper no-
tices having been given, some of the tenants could hold over.
Mr. Councillor HOPE said it was merely a question between
landlord and tenant; the improvement committee would give
every attention to it.
Mr. Councillor BOLTON said the houses in Pool-lane belonged
to a variety of individuals, and he conceived the corporation
had no right to give notices to quit to tenants of property which
was not theirs.

SALES OF CORPORATE PROPERTY.
The MAYOR was happy to say that the business of the day
was finished.
Mr. Councillor HOPE.-" Excuse me, there is a notice I have
had on the books for some time—a notice fora special purpose."
After looking over the notice-book—"
'!'be MAYOR said the notice of Mr. Hope, given for the 9th of
this month, was, "that a committee be appointed to consider
the best mode of disposing of all corporate property, and espe-
cially for securing due publicity and uniformity in the sale of
such property."
Mr. Councillor Hoes then spoke as follows : —" In conformity
with the spirit of that notice I-move, " that a committee be now
appointed to consider the .best mode of securing due publicity
and uniformity in.the sale of corporate property, and that the
following members do form it." It may be remembered, on in-
troducing this subject; that I-adeerted to a paragraph which had
appeared of a very objectionable nature in the Standani paper.
1 did net then press my motion, as we were then on the eve of
an election. 1 took the liberty of commenting on the manner in
which it had been made a party question, and the manner in
which it reflected ou the improvement committee. I feel it
quite due to the council to state that the remarks in question
appear to me still as they did appear to me at that time, to
discover an intentional malignity in imputing dishonourable and
base motives without any foundation, and without even a colour
to support any asserted tract, and must meet with the reprehen-
sion or all.. it is true, that the editors, or editor of that paper,
or amateur editors, have made remarks since a little in extenua-
tion of their own conduct in, this particular, but I am free to add
not altogether in a satisfactory manner. But !forbear, in con-
sideration of this extenuation, and I trust the contrition they i
have expressed will be followed by fruits of repentance, and that
they will not venture to establish for themselves the unenviable
distinction of maligning the conduct of members whose public
conduct will have the support of every member of this council.
The resolution I have in my hand you will recollect was occa-
sioned by an aet of the improvement committee, which has been
made the comment not only of the individuals referred to but of
others out of 'hors not aware of the facts. The committee have
made a report, and they have expressed in the most decided
manner their conviction on. the sale which -has been made. I
don't mean to enter into any further explanation further than
to add, on a matter of so much importance as the sale of the
corporate property, we should adopt the very, best course not
only for securing the very best sale of property, but in order to
give the public mind the most entire satisfaction. The result of
the present proposition I hops will be, that though there will be
great difficulty it at- least is a subject deserving consideration;
and if four or five gentlemen be appointed to take this task, I
hope it. will be conducted as its great importance merits." He
concluded with moving the resolution.
Mr. Alderman STUART begged to state, for the information
of the council, that there was now a sub-committee of the finance
committee appointed to investigate the whole of the corporate
property, aad it appeared to ban that that matter might very
well be deputed to theni if the council thought tit.
Mr. Alderman BARCLAY begged to second Mr. Hope's motion.
• Mr. Alderman LEATEGM betted to second the proposition of
Mr. Stuart.
1 After some further conversation it was agreed that a commit-
tee should be appointed, and that the committee should consist
of. Messrs. Currie, Bolton, Bitch, T. Holmes, cud Hope.

THE LA.NOING PIERS.
Mr. Councillor PLATT begged to be allowed to bring before
the council the great.necessity there was for adopting some plan
for the embarkation of people at the steam-boats, which had
now become &matter of very pressing necessity. Accidents
had frequently happened. He was quite aware that the sub-
ject had been very frequently brought forwards, and it was
allowed gat something should be done. He believed that
within a fsw days past there had been a very serious accident
there, in it hich a man had lost his life.
The MAyon said he believed the Finance Committee had the
subject wider consideration. He hoped it would be mentioned
at every ouncil till some plan was adopted.
Mr. Alderman BROWN thought the duty ought to be seen to
by the improvement committee; it was an improvement much
to be desired.

DOCKS AT THE SOUTH END OP THE TOWN.
Mr. Councillor JORDAN presented a petition which had been
delivered to his care and which was very numerously signed,
praying that there might be accommodation for steamers at
the south end of the town. He begged that it might be referred
by the council to the consideration of the Dock Dues Com-
mittee.
Mr. Alderman Evaivs said there was that accommodation
before.
,Mr. Councillor JORDAN begged his pardon.
Mr. Alderman BROWN said this matter bad undergone a very
deep consideration before. It was thought that the nuisance of
these steamers to that part of the town—the danger to life was
such that they had better remain where they were.
Mr. Alderman LEATHOM _said the business of the Dock Com-
mittee was, arranged into different divisions, a sub-committee
being appointed.to investigate into each branch. This ob-
i jest would be taken into full and mature consideration. The
committee having been so recently formed, and having much
business on its hands, it might be a few weeks before it was
considered. But it was on the notices for consideration.
Mr. Councillor PLATT agreed in the prayer of the petition.
There formerly had been accommodation on the east side of the
Brunswick Dock for steamers ; they only wanted encourage-
ment. With regard to what Mr. Brown had said about danger
and smoke—there was some smoke, but there was the same se-
curity and accommodaton for steamers as for carriages on the
road.
The TOWN-CLERK then read ono of the standing rules, that
the Mayor should,. e.a qfficio, be a member of all committees,
and that all committees should cease on the 9th of November,
which was agreed to.
The TowN-CLERK then proposed that the standing orders of
the council should be printed and distributed amongst the mem-
bers of the council, which was also agreed to.
The couueil then adjourned shortly after twelve o'clock till
Wednesday next, when the question of the corporation schools
will be discussed. -

LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY-MECHANICS'

INSTITUTION.

On Wednesday evening, John Hemming, Esq. President of
the Marylehone institution, London, commenced a course of
twelve lectures, at the above institution, on Chemistry, as ap-
plied to the arts. The high reputation .which this gentleman
deservedly enjoys as a lecturer on chemistry, attracted a crowd-
ed audience, which, from the excellent iutroductory lecture he
delivered, the Substance of which will be found below, he wilt
eoutinue to the end of the course.
In the application of chemistry to the purposes of the arts
and manufactures, there is, perhaps, no branch of it so useful
and of so much importance as that of chemical attraction ; or,
as it is more generally called now, of chemical affinity. in
almost every process which is not sti ictly mechanical, may be
traced the important agency of the affinity between dissimilar
bodies and 'the product, new properties and characters in the
substances acted upon. In acquiring a knowledge of chemistry
the attention of the student should first be directed towards this
important part of it, for he will require its aid in every step of
his progress. By this we learn what bodies combine with other
bodies, and the nature of the resulting compound. By the su-
perior affinity of one substance for another, we are enabled to
separate proximate or ultimate elements from each other, and
ascertain the nature or components of any substance submitted
to examination. By the same power we unite bodies, and thus
create in the compound a substance possessing valuable and
useful properties, which none of its elements possessed in their
separate state. in considering this branch of the subject it be-
comes necessary to knew not only what bodies are capable of
chemical combi,nation, but also, under what circumstances they
combine, and what causes will promote, modify, or prevent
their combination. The art of the chemist may create in dif-
ferent bodies powers of energetic affinity which they do not
naturally possess. Sand and pearl ash and red lead have no
tendency to unite, nor will they form any other than a mechani-
cal mixture, if no other than mechanical means are to be 'em-
ployed, but when we subject them to the chemical process of
long continued fusion, they unite together and form that cora-
pound and valuable material called glass. In like manner,
grease and water do not unite together, but each of them has an
affinity for a caustic alkali, and if this be added to either, or to
both of them, the three bodies unite permanently add form the,
important and useful material called soap. The detergent pro-
perty of the soap exists in the alkali, but the alkali alone would
be corrosive and injurious to our clothing or person. The dyer•
acts on similar principles in most of his operations, for the co-
louring matter of the dye will seldom unite directly with the fibre
of the article to be dyed. A medium which has an affinity both-
for the dye and for the fibre is employed, and by the agency of
the mordant, as it is called, the colour is permanently fixed
wherever it is required, and only there.
It will, doubtless, be enquired what is the cause of certain
bodies combining chemically with some substances while they
will not with others. A cause there must be, but-that cause re-
mains at present unknown. The probability is, that the-differ-
eat states of electricity of bodies capable of uniting, causes Pthent.
to unite, and that by their union electrical equilibrium is re-
stored. It seems already manifest that electricity is developed
in every case of chemical action. It was usual to divide the
elementary bodies into two classes, electro-positive and nega-
tive, but this mode of distinction is arbitrary and unscieutihc.
Electro-positive bodies combine, and on decomposing thew, we
find that one is negative with respect to the other. The same
will apply to electro-negative bodies. Indeed, the .roctiody is
sometimes positive and sometimes negative; sulphur,- for 'es-
ample, will combine with oxygen and hydrogen ; in these cases
the sulphur is negativeto the hydrogen and positive to the oxy-
gen. In our present state of knowledge it is safer to adopt the
general statement of Sir Isaac Newton, who said that bodies
combined together chemically because they had an affinity for
each other, and that they did not because such affinity was
wanting. if our opinions on this subject are not satisfactory,
those of the earlier chemists were much less so, if, indeed, they
were not positively absurd. Even Hooke, the illustrious con-
temporary of Newton, was infected by them, and attributed the
changes which occur by chemical union to a new mechanical
arrangement of the particles. There is no evidence in favour
of this opinion, nor a single fact to justify it. With respect to
.the form or size of the atoms of elementary matter we are en-
tirely ignorant, as also of their weight—their relative weights
we are pretty well acquainted with, and for this important and
valuable knowledge we are indebted chiefly to the bold and
masterly researches of Dalton.
Mayow appears first to have noticed the phenomena of affi-
nity with a philosophic eye. He said if oil of vitriol is mixed
with salt of tartar,. that vitriolated tartar is produced, but car-
bonic acid escapes with effervescence. If a solution of sulphate
of iron be poured into a solution of salt of tartar vitriolic tartar
is produced, but without effervescence, the carbonic acid uuit-
ingwith the iron, and forming carbonate of iron. The highest
praise which can be bestowed on Mayow is, that Sir Isaac New-
ton adopted his views and opinions almost in his own words.
Pursuing this subject, Sir Isaac Newton, with his usual saga-
city, writes, that if we expose common salt and saltpetre .to the
air they do not liquify, but salt of tartar does. Newton says
that the reason of this is, that salt of tartar attracts water from
the atmosphere, whilst the others do not. Newton made various
other experiments, and one of these was very remarkable. If,
said he, you dissolve' silver in aquafortis the silver may be sepa-
rated by means of mercury, in like manner the mercury may be
separated by means of copper, and the copper by iron. Does
not this show that the acid particles are more strongly attracted
by the mercury than by the silver, by the copper than by the
mercury, and by the iron strongest of all. In these two in-
Stances his exposition was exceedingly beautiful, but there was,
perhaps, one circumstance unknown to Newton by which we
must explain the nature,of the combination. We say fur con-
venience that the metal is dissolved by the acid, but the state-
ment, nevertheless, is untrue. for we must convert the metal
into an oxide before the acid will dissolve it. We cannot dis-
solve silver, but we can dissolve the oxide of silver. When
mercury isiadded, the oxygen having a greater affinity for it
than 'the silver,leaves thesilver for it, and the silver again as-
sumes the metallic state, and subsides in the vessel.
At about.the same period Boyle was investigating the diffe-
rent tests or reagents for the detection of minute particles of
matter incapable of being detected by the ordinary means. Blue
vegetable bodies, such as Infusions of cabbage, violet, &c., were
found to be expellent tests for the presence of acids and alkalis,
as a slight portion of the former rendered them red, and of the
latter green; but these tests are of very limited use, because by
adding a portion of acid to the infusion rendered green by an
alkali the colour will be restored, thus indicating the presence
of neither acid nor alkali when the contrary is the fact. This
test can therefore only be applied when the acid and alkali are
in free states. Modern.chemistry has furnished us with a va-
riety of different tests which viill enable us to separate the acid
and alkali from its combination in any state of combination,
and enable us to say what acid or
instance, alkali was employed. If ni-
trate of barytes, for be added to any quantity of sul-
phuric acid in combination with another liquid body, a white
insoluble compound is immediately
.formed, called sulphate of
barytes. Papers saturated in infusions of litmus or turmeric
are very common tests. The latter is a very delicate test for
alkali, and the former for acidois a minute portion of either
will change the colours of the papers.
The. term chemical affinity is employed in speaking of the
attraction which bodies chemically combined exert towards each
other, to distinguish it from the different species of attraction
exerted by gravitation, electricity, magnetism, &c. The former
of these is the most iroportant, as upon its agency the ex-
istence of the whole universe depends. Chemical attrac-
tion differs from it, however, in as much as it cannot take place
between masses of matter, but only between the ultimate par-
ticles of matter. It cannot take place at sensible distances,
but at insensible distances. It cannot take place between
matter of similar kinds, for if we mix together similar matter
we shall have a inure mechanical mixture. In 1781; the elder
Geoffrey coueeived the idea of arranging lists of certain sub-
stances which were capable of combining together, in the order
of their power of affinity, and accordingly constructed tables of
affinity. These tables, however, cannot be implicitly relied
upon, as there are various causes which modify, or even reverse,
the order of affinity. The power and habit of combination is
modified by various circumstances, such as the mode of operat-
ing, change of temperature, solubility, and other considerations.
For example, iron has so great an affinity for oxygen that it
decomposes water and takes the oxygen from it. If we add
acid to the water containing the iron, the' acid will dissolve the
oxide as soon as formed, and thus continually present a new
surface for oxidation. In this manner hydrogen is liberated
from alb water. Oxygen thus has a greater affinity for iron
than hydrogen has; but if we heat.the oxide of iron m a tube
and pass a current of dry hydrogen gas over it, the hydrogen
will have an affinity for the iron, and leave it in a metallic state
in the tube. By different modes of operating we might reverse
the order of affinity c fur instance, if to a solution of muriate of
lime a solution of carbonate of ammonia be added,
.a solid sub-
tepee is formed, called earbonate of lime, or chalk. The car-
bonic acid leaves. the ',ammonia and goes
.over to the lime; but
if we take the muriate of ammonia and heat it with common
chalk, then the 'carbonic acid of the chalk unites with the am-
monia, and carbonate of ammonia will be sublimed, whilst the
muriatic acid of the ammonia combines with the chalk, forming
muriate of lime. Another instance is furnished in the metal
potassium. Potassium is made from. the alkali potash, by heat-
ing potash (which is a compound of oxygen, carbon, and metal)
in a close vessel, with charcoal; the charcoal takes away tbe
oxygen and the carbon from the potash, and the metal flows
over. if we heat a portion of the potassium in carbonic acid,
it will take back the carbon and the oxygen which it previgua:
yielded. Nevertheless, these tables must uot he despi„s!,a
they are of great use uuder ordinary circumstances.
t for
told by them that sulphuric acid has the highest affi
_nt
B yOUT-
potash or soda,. nitric acid next, and then touristic.
_sY,f.' we,
ing nitric acid on common salt, which is muriate
sin set free
liberate the muriatic acikand the nitric acid is ag
by the addition of Ailphuric acid. • . effecting,
N.veare
to 19 .
There are malty -circumstances to be attended
chemical union. It is an axiom in
.chemistry
becomes cone
weak in proportion as cohesion is strong. Itbe elented-to each
dispensable there fore that wastes:should dot be
affinity is
over-
other, but particles to g then is to
particles.: The
come the adhesion of matter. This i
6,rdsntrie mechanically and
ns al e beating, grind-
chemically. *The usual mechanical
ing, rasping, and so forth. will
it merely enables us
be dissolved by acid
to act' with greater effect. a
wall be, comparatively slow ;
Dut in many cases it becomes
deredstate, the action will
du .e combination. Chlorine
without breaking, but the aperMaati
if, however, we take marble in
_p
alloy :oats. Many metals which
be very much more energeticto.
necessary to divide minutely
a extreme degree of heat will, when
enters into combination vital
ao
tney
sufficient a n d copt
showo f u r-
t a degree of division, be ignited
we cannot burn without
AThnetisuel
reduced to an extreme . , ted when
must not be despised'iu che-
pinired into a
however, seldom that the mechanical
nish striltingexjivarn;lvfise-ieseiiiii°Elle
altateeLtr•
that mechanical at
• letniosiu h for our
enough
Th purpose; we must therefore
resort to chemical means. Therefore the chemist resorts to the
dmivicisailooopoefrauttiotntes;
operation of dissolyiegrefractory substances in a proper men-
employed. The particles of the substances dissolved have
strum or solvent: Water, oil, and the acids are the solvents ge-
Yerfect freedom of motion, and are prered for any fresh
cnthoeuriarsabiPlivation. .It became once an axiom inc hemistry that no
action will take place unless one of the bodies is in solution;
but this axiom is only true to a certain extent, as a portion of
dry iodine will enter into combination with another portion of
dry potassium, and a very intense action will take place. In the
case of carbonate of soda and tartaric acid the axiom holds
gond; these substances may be mixed and kept in a dry state
without any combination, but when immersed in water a violent
effervescence ensues. But the grand agent in the hands of the
chemist is heat, which he applies in various ways, sometimes
for the purpose of promoting an affinity, as in the instance of
the sand, potash and red lead, but more -frequently to overcome
affinity, as in the manufacture of lime front chalk. Chalk is a
compound of lime and carbonic acid, and in order to convert
it into lime the workmen heat it to redness for along time, until
the carbonic acid quits the lime, when caustic lime is the re-
siduum. We obtain our oxygen gas by heating an oxide of
manganese to a red heat, when we obtain a portion of the oxyreell
which it contains. This mode of operation is constantlyr
uosetfodl
to by the worker of metals. Almost every one of th
hen
metals is combined with oxygen or some other subset
dug out of the earth. In ernes to reduce thorn tarseuic, sul-
state, the ores are first roasted, to drive off all ,
l'hen all we
phur and other volatile matters they rosy coatMe
ore,
and this is
have to do is to separate the oxygen floouisnroftatter.
Sometimes
aanac.learallic
done by healing the ore with carb
one of which is fused at
the chemist employs heat to
have a chemical union of two metals,
Copper will iuse and
Luta temperature and the other at another.
mudilt-7,caes for instance, where we

leave the iron, and by this measure we obtain pureeopper. Mer-
cury is chiefly obtained in conjunction with sulphur, from which
it is separated with great facility by Mixing the ore with iron
filings or lime and applying heat, when the sulphur enters intp
a fresh combination with the lithe dr iron, and the mercury
sublimes and-Condehsei in the Waal fortn
This lecture was illustrated throughout by the most brilliant
and conclusive. experimenta. , To-inorroiv evening Mr. Hem.,
ming will explain the laws of chemistry—iLe causes that modify
or prevent affinity—Abe atomic theory of definite proportions—
and the system of chemical nomenclature and notation.