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Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1838-02-02 00:00:00

LivEttrooL STANDARD.

is formod by this combustion of the phosphorus, which is not
easily ►ncited. This powder is more inflammable than phos-
phorus- itself, and is used in the pieparation of phosphorus fire-
hoses. Phosphoric acid is formed by pouring a quantity of
aqua fortis o❑ some phosphorus. The' phosphorus oxidyzes
itself at the expense of the aqua fortis, and we obtain phosphoric
acid. Hypophosphur.c acid is procured by the action of phos-
phorus on a soitLion containing a base.- If phosphorus be
placed in a retort containing a solutiou of potash, it decomposes
the water, and hypophosphoric acid is formed, or that combina-
tion of phosphorus containing the least quantity of oxygen, and
pbosphuretted hydrogen is at the same time given off in a
gaseous form. This gas possesses the property of taking fire
the instant it comes into contact with atmospheric air. The
eason of this is, that the phosphorus, presenting a large sheet
of surface to the action of the air the mote readily it combines
with it. We are able to• prepare this gas in a variety of me-
thods, but when prepared by some of them it does not take tire
so speedily as by others. It is considered one of the most re-
miirkable instances of what Berzelius calls ismnetisru. The
peculiar acid which exists in sour apples, as Weil as in the berries
of the niourvaiu ash, is found to be similarly composed to citric
acid. It is now established that chemical substances of diff-
erent Origin can have the same composition. Professor Gra-
ham has brought forward some evidence toshew that the inflam-
mability of this gas is owing to foreign matters which can be
communicated to it in a partial manner. The phosphuretted
hydrogen is colourless, being precisely similar to atmospheric
air in appearance. It emits a remarkable odour resembling
garlic. It is heavier than atmospheric air, somewhat in the
proportion of 12 to 10. Phosphorus unites with chlorine in
three proportions, but in a practical point of view the combiaa-
lions are of little importance.

On Saturday Dr. Kane concluded his excellennt course.
Carbon is very extensively distributed through nature, and
i's remarkable for the variety of forms in which it presents itself.
It is met with in all the three kingdoms of nature, but there is
every reason to believe that the extent of its distribution in these
kingdoms is not altogether so great as might at first be con-
ceived, and that in point or fact its existence is strictly limited
to Iwo Of the kingdoms of nature, and that its existence in the
mineral department is owing to the accidental circumstance of
the destruction of the living beings ,of which it had formed a
part. We find carlyon constituting a considerable portion of
the whole mass of the fluids in the vegetable kingdom. In the
animal kingdom we find at least one half of the solid consti-
tuents of the animal to be carbon. In the vegetable we find a
still greater proportion. In fact the skeleton which iu the ani-
vial kingdom is composed of a different substance, consists in
Pie vegetable kingdom of carbon, in a state of almost complete
'purity. In the animal kingdom not only does carbon subsist in
the softer matters but in the harder portions of all anima,s. Iu
the, bony skeletons of the higher animals it exists in very minute
quantities, but in the lower animals provided with external
skeletons, the phosphorus of the higher animals is replaced by
carbon. In the mineral kingdom we find carbon very exten-
sively distributed indeed. In almost all countries we find large
muuntainons masses consisting of lime and carbonic acid—the
carbonic acid containing about one third of its weight of car-.
' bon. The various carboniferous rocks of this kingdom contain
about one sixth of their whole weight of carbon. On this ac-
count we should be at first led to imagine that carbon exists
more generally in the mineral than in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, but a more minute analysis leads us to different re-
sults, and we are almost inclined to argue that carbon has no
real existence in the mineral kingdom, bat that its presence is
owing lo the decomposition of the animal and vegetable remains
whirls have been deposited in it at former remote periods. In
fact we have been able to trace these remains through their
different strtgesof decomoosition, and according to the pressure
and temperature to which it has been subjected, we find the
shapes and constitution of the rocks of which they form a con-
sid,rrable portion. We are thus obliged to consider carbon as
au element exclusively of organic origin. There are one or
two apparent exceptions to their law, afforded by some of the
metallic bodies with which carbonic acid is found united, but
these are rare specimens, anti occur in the enormous masses of.
mountain limestone, from .which they may have obtained their
carbonic arid.

We are eaahled to obtain carbon by the burning of bones or
wood in close vessels, when we obtain what is called ivory or
bone black and charcoal. In addition to these black masses of
pare carbon we are in possession of one other form of it of ex-
ceeding interest—the diamond. The diamond. the hardest and
most costly of all our gems, is chemically identical with char-
Coal. It is carbon in the purest form in which we are enabled
to obtain it. The diamond was at one time considered as car-
bon perfectly mineralized. It is crystalline, the form of its
crystals being octahedral, as those of common alum. We have
obtained so•ne facts lately with respect to the diamond, Which
are interesting, as affording us traces of its origin. If we take
barley sugar, whim quite fresh, it is opaque, but. after a few
days it ,becomes translucent, and appears like sugar candy.
From an amorphous mass it becomes crystalline. We fre-
quently meet with diamonds with cavities in the diamond as if
something had been in them, Sir David• Brewster found from
the appearances of these cavities that the diamond must have
been originally in a soft state ann then subjected to pressure,
and that like amber it has taken upon itself the crystalline
structure. It is considered to have been the exudation of some
tree, like the cherry tree of our climes, and that the diamond
has been the formation of many ages quite independent of any
original mineral nature. Carbon enters into combination with
oxygen in combustion more readily where its particles are less
closely bound together, thus coal will burn touch quicker
than plumbago, and ',lumbago than the diamond. Yet
the products of all three. are carbonic acid. If lime wa-
ter he passed into. a jar containing carbonic acid gas, it
will immediately be found to present a milky appearance,
insoluble carbonate of iime having been formed. Carbonic
acid is generated, not merely by the direct combination of burn-
ing carbon with oxygen, but when carbon is burned with atmos-
pheric air, as we every flay see it in a multiplicity of instances.
Animals, likewise, in respiring, generate carbonic acid gas.
This may he easily shown, by respiring through a tube dipped
in lime water, when the milkiness caused by carbonate of lime
will be perceived. Carbonic acid gas is readily obtained, by
adding a little acid to chalk, whiting, &c , and then collecting
the gas over a pnumatic trough. Carbonic acid is one and a
had times as heavy as atmospheric air, to which it is similar in
appearance. It will not support combustion, a burning taper
being immediately extinguished upon being plunged into it.
The action of carbonic acid on an animal is fatal. Not only is it
found that the animal is killed from the absence of oxygen, but
that the carbonic acid exercises a positively poisonous influence
on the animal, and, although a certain quantity. of oxygen
may be present, time animal will still be killed. Instead of ex-
ercising a neutral influence like nitrogen, it is fatal when Mixed
in the same proportion as nitrogen with oxygen. An experi-
ment was tried by Professor Rowland's, at Turin, which is well
worth noticing in this part of the subject. A tortoise is capa-
ble of living under circustances in which a warm blooded ani-
mal would be instantly killed. Professor ltowlando took a tor-
toise, and opened it at the part where the windpipe diverges
into a pair of lungs. He made an incision into one of these
lungs. and urged in a stream of carbonic acid gas, leaving the
other op-,n to the atmospheric air. By this means, the tortoise I
was breathing atmospheric air in-one lung, and carbonic acid
in the other. Now, a tortoise can live right well with one lung
tied tip, but the carbonic acid killed him, although he went on
breathing "3gen with theother lung. In this was' the poison-
ous; properties of carbonic acid is proved. In fermentation
carbonic acid is generated in prodigious quantities. The
vinous fermenta•hin takes place in all those liquors which con-
tain alcohi'd. The general theory of the process is that by
malting. sugar is produced, and by fermentation that sugar is
converted into spirit. Carbonic acid accumulates in the vessels
in which the liquors are made, and many persons are killed by
their imprudence in venturing into these vessels. Carbonic
acid is particularly liable ni accumulate in consequence of its
great density. Dr. Kane illustrated this in an elegant manner,
by means of a i air of cocnterpoised • bags attached to a fine
balance: • Into one of these bags he poured carbonic acid
out of the kits in which it Was contained, when the bag instantly
descended with great rapidity.. He also introduced into a jar
a metal rod, having two lighted tapers affixed, the one at the
bottom of the jar, and-the other at its middle; he then intro-
duce] carbonic acid gas into the bottom of the jar, the conse-
quence of which was, that the lower taper was extinguished,
arid in .a short time, when the gas had risen to a sufficient
height in the vessel, the other was also put out. Carbonic acid
is given out very frequently from the surface of the earth, par-
ticularly in • countries of volcanic origin. This we find takes
place very frequently at the bottom of old wells, where, from
its density the gas occupies the lower surface, and frequently
on some individual being sent in to clean the well, fatal conse-
quences ensue. The proper precaution to be taken in such
cases is, fit st to let down a candle„ when if it be extinguished,
it is not probable that an individual would live in it. The car-
bonic acid at the bottom of a well may be removed, by throw-
ing a little slacked lime and water down, when the carbonic
acid will unite with the lime, and render it safe to descend into
the well. The burning of charcoal in close rooms, hiss fre-
quently led to suffication. One of the most promising chemists
that France has produced, destroyed himself. by this means, at
the commencement of the present century. , He was the son of
the celebiated Berthollet. Having determined to commit suicide,
he lighted a charcoal tire in his room, awl.sat down at a table
and wrote an account of the feelings which
.accompanied the
progress nf,suffication by carbonic acid gas.. His writing gra-
dnally.becaine less, and less intelligible, until at length it ap-
peared. the pen fell from his hand. An instance lately occurred
of five individuals being suffocated in London, with this-gas.
charcoal_ fire bad been lighted_in the room before they
went to be 4,
.aqdthe probability was, that there was no chim-
ney m the room. Four of these unfortunates-Were found
dead in bed. without the least symptoms of their having died in
pain. The'fifih appeared to have struggled a little. If there
he a free ,passage up the chimney, there is little or no danger,
but where there jsno vent death is inevitable. There are places
in the earth where carbonic acid is met with under peculiar cir-
. cc:instances. One of the most singular is the Grotto del cane,
near Naples. The bottom of this cave is lined a couple of feet
deep with c4.r4nnic acid gas, but' above the air is pure, so that
whilst a man can breathe in safety, a dug is suffocated. ,ram
the circumstance of the guides taking a dog with them, to show
this fact to travellers, the grotto has obtained its name of the
Do's grotto Another of time most extraordinary instances of
the emission of carbonic acid from volcanic sources is exhibited
on this island of Java, where there is an extinct crater of consi-
-derable height; the'volcatio itself having for a long period been
silent. From the bottom of the internal cone there issues car-
bonic acid, so that it presents the appearance of an enormous
cup or goblet of carbonic acid. Within this crater exists the
most luxuriant vegetation ever seen in tropical regions. Some
European
deserters were traced to this mountain, and were pur-
sued by a number of soldiers, stationed in the island. When
the troops got to the top of the volcano, they beheld the richest
verdure they had ever beheld, but the bottom of the cone was
lined with the carcases of birds and beasts of prey, as well as of
the very deserters they were in quest of. The natives were aware
of the properties•of this volcano; and gave to the cone the name
of the vale of death, for nn individual could descend a few yards
without meeting with instant death: Carbonic acid is absorbed
by water, in its escape from mountains, and this water. meeting
with lime, dissolves it.. If this solution of carbonate of lime lie
exposed to the air, the excess of carbonic acid is abstracted, awl
the carbonate of lime is deposited in the form of stalactites. In
this manner casts are obtained, coated with carbonate of lime,
by placing them in waters containing the solution. One of the
most elegant modes of analyzing carbonic acid is to pass a
stream of ',yes the metal potassium, when if heat be applied
.
to the tube containing the metal, a brilliant decomposition will
ensue, the oxygen of the earbonic arid will unite with the po-
tassium to form potash, and the carbon will be deposited in a
black mass.

Carbonic oxide s a substance of no considerable importance.
It may readily be obtained by mixing in a retort a quantity of
oxalic acid with oil of vitriol. It is always generated whenever
an imperfect combustion of carbon takes plaCe. Thus, if we
put carbonic acid through a heated iron tube containing carbon,
the carbonic acid will take up as much more carbon, and be-
come converted into carbonic oxide. Oxalic acid is composed of
water, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. The oil of vitriol •
unites with the water, and sets the gasses free. By passing
them through the water, the carbonic acid is absorbed: and thus
carbonic oxide is obtained in a pure state. Carbonic oxide is
much lighter than atmospheric air, it is iriflammable, and burns
with a blue flame. Oxalic acid exists in a greet variety of
plants. chiefly in the sorrel, description, in connection with
potash or linie forming an oxalate of potash or lime. We can
likewise produce it artificially iby heating starch or sugar with
nitric acid, and in this way great quantities of it are mann-

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factored for the purposes of the arts. Oxalic acid is recognized
very easily by ttie form of its crystal, and its acid properties. It
is the strongest of the vegetable acids. Its crystals are not un-
like those of epSOin salts, for which it has been frequently taken,
its properties are very iateresting on this account to the medical
chemist. If we take the blue infusion of red cabbage, and add
to it a very small quantity or the solution of oxalic acid, it is
turned into a very deep red. The redness which is produced is
not the same-in shade as that produced by the mineral acids; in
fact the different acids produce different reds. The oxalic acid
unites with bases, and in consequence is readily recognised.
Thus lime is one of the best tests for oxalic acid, forming with
it a while rrecipitate.
Carbon unites with nitrogen, and forms two compounds, one
of which is of very considerable interest. It was discovered by
Gay Lusac and another French chemist, and is one which may
be considered as one of paramount iuterest in chemistry, and,
indeed, as one of the most important substances to show us what
chemistry really is. This body is cyanogen, (or blue former,)
so called because it is one of the ingredients in Prussian blue.
In order to generate it we may have recourse to an exceedingly
simple process. It must be collected over quicksilver. We
take a combination of carbon, nitrogen, and quicksilver, and
expose it to heat, when the compound will be decomposed. The
carbon and nitrogen will be given off under the form of a
colourless gas, and the quicksilver willbe sublimed. cyanogen
is of such importance in chemistry, because it is a compound
burly. We can decompose it and analyze it; but yet it shni-
lutes the properties of a simple substance. A remarkable pro-
perty of cyanogen is the colour of its flame, as it burns with a
purple violet-coloured flame, in which it is not resembled by the
Elaine of any other substance. In order to show the extent to
which this body simulates a simple substance in its action, we
can heat it with potassium. The cyanogen will unite the potas-
sium without suffering any decomposition. The potassium will
burn in cyauogen just as it would in oxygen or chlorine. The
product of its combination with potassium is cyanide of potas7
Cyanogen is the base of Prussic acid and of a number of
other bodies of considerable importance iu the arts and manu-
factures. •

Carbon unites with hydrogen in an immense number of differ-
ent proportions. There is no class of bodies so comprehensive
• in its history as the carbonates of hydrogen • in fact we find
that the whole base of vegetable and animal hydrogen;
resolves
itself into the system of carbon and hydrogen. Of the-carbon-
ates of hydrogen there is one, practically speaking, of great
importance. It is a gas which was discovered in Holland, and
to which its discoverers gave the name of olefiant, or oil-making
gas. To Make this a very simple process is sufficiegl. •If we
take some spirits of wine, and put it into a retort, ancrthen add
to it some oil of vitriol, a very violent action takes place, the
mixture. becomes hot and red, and, after a short time, black.
By applying heat olefiant gas is distilled over, and may be col-
lected over, water. The sulphuric acid must be added in excess
or we shall obtain different products. Olefiant gas is thus ob-
tained by virtue of a very interesting chemical action. Spirits
of wine do not contain olefiant gas by• virtue of ite• natural
properties, but its parts are broken up by the sulphuric acid. It.
is perfectly colourless and invisible, it dues not exert any action
on vegetable colours, and it is not absorbed by water. Ulefiant
Tgas is inflaimnable., and it bums with an intensely brilliant flame.
he brilliancy of coal and oil gas is occasioned by the quantity
of olefiant gas which they contain. This brilliancy wises from
the quantity of carbon which enters into combustion owing to
the intense heat of the hydrogen. On observing the flame of
a gas burner, it will be seen that for a slight distance from the
orifice, at which the gas issues, there is a pale blue flame ; this
is owitiv, to the non-combustion of the carbon, which is not
ignited until it has passed beyond that portion of the flame. Dr.
Kane illustrated this by burning the gas as it passed through a
piece of isolated wire gauze, and explained thereby the con-
struction of the Davy lamp Chlorine combines with olefiant
gas under very- remarkable circumstances. Chlorine unites
with the hydrogen, anal the carbon is set free, consequently
when a jar of the mixed gases are inflamed the carbon is pre-
cipitated in a dense black cloud.. Chlorine unites silently with
this g%is, and produces a remarkably oily fluid, called the oil of
the Dutch chemists in consequence of their having discovered
it. It is a weak acid, of which chlorine is the oxide. Olefiant
gasburns perfectly when mixed with its own volume of oxygen,
it is then totally converted into water and carbon. A tremen-
dous explosion is the consequence, of a much more violent
nature than that which ensues from the combination of oxygen
with hydrogen. This results from the olefiant gas containing
within itself thrice its own volume of hydrogen, as well as a
quantity of carbon, by which we have, as. in gunpowder, the
ingredients of explosion in a much larger proportion.

At the termination of the lecture, Dr. i(ane addressed the
members to the following effect, in a speech the eloquence of
which was only equalled by the unaffected modesty with which
it was delivered :

" We have thus brought to a termination our researches into
, the elements of nonmetallic chemistry, in which we have had
the pleasure of being engaged; and I cannot, after trespassing
upon your patience, this eveniug, to so unreasonable an hour,
take leave of you without expressing my gratitude for the pa-
hence and attention with which you have received and listened
'to my lectures. I deem myself very highly indebted to the
Directors of the Institution for the excellent arrangements
which they have placed at my disposal, without which I should
not have been enabled to have brought forward the different
subjects I have introduced in an order suited to the importance
or interest which chemistry ought to possess. I deem myself
bound, in common justice, to express my deep sense of the in-
valuable assistance which I have received from a gentleman
who, I am glad to find, is recognised and received, in this town,
as a well informed chemist, a gentleman whose practical ac-
quaintance with science has rendered every hour I have passed
in his society one of the greatest pleasure. This I owe to Mr.
Wilson, and I cannot lake my leave of the scientific circles of
Liverpool without expressing the feelings of astonishment which
occurred to me on finding, that a gentleman so well acquainted
with every department of chemistry was to be found here. Be-
fore concluding, I must beg leave to address a few words to the
junior classes, which i am glad to find are so numerous, and
which, by their attendance at these lectures, testify their in-
_ terem in scientific pursuits. The science which is available in
life is not the science of the lecture, In bt inving forward, in a
lecture of this description, the elements of chemical science, it
is our duty to present them in as interesting and popular a
manner as possible. In order to do this, we are obliged to
crowd together a number of brilliant experiments, which, to i
one unacquainted with science, would appear to be the most'
pleasing part of it. This, I would beg to state, is not the case.
I trust that there are many of the juniors here in whom these
And the other lectures which may be delivered here, will excite
the desire of studying science; and 1 venture to predict to
them, that, after a little time, the mysteries of science, when
properly understood,—when entered upon with enthusiasm,—
will present beauteous points of interest far surpassing those
which we are enabled to bring forward in lectures, such as will
well repay their trouble, and that the time which they may de-
vote to what, at present. may appear to them to be dry principles
of chemical theory, will be found not to be mispent, but directed ,
to the pursuit of what must • throw deeply into the shade all
that they have previously learned. Science the inure it is stu-
died, the more beautiful it will become. In every department
of the arts, the accomplished chemist must become the friend,
the benefactor, the teacher of all by whom he is surrounded.
Let the strident, in Liverpool, contemplate what Liverpool and
Manchester must become. You are here in the metropolis of
science in the British Empire. You must here practice prac-
tical science ; you have here the development of the vital
wealth of the nation depending•upon the applications of science
to the arts. It' these applications are worked out, you must be
prosperous;
if they are not well worked out here, they will be
elsewhere; and, if so, it must lead to the downfal of the trade
and commerce of the country. We look forward, then, to young
students, in iiistit utions similar to the one in which I have now
the honor of speaking, for improvements in practical chemistry.
Having mentioned this point of interest, I beg to repeat, that
the further students in chemistry may advance in these studies,
the less they will find them to be of that abstruse character
which they may now appear to them to be, and the more fin-
portant and interesting they will become. I should apologize
for the necessarily imperfect manner in which many of the
topics to which I have alluded have been discussed. For this I
could plead, first, the hinder' time at my disposal; secondiy,
the necessarily popular manner in which I had to discuss the
subject. which rendered it at times exceedingly difficult to
speak up to the present state of the science; and, thirdly, I
must put in a plea somewhat personal, that hitherto my prac-
tice being confined to the teaching of classes, I bad not directed
my attention specially to those departments of the science
which it was necessary to bring forward in a popular course. I
am certain, therefore, that many circumstances have occurred
to show, not, I trust, lack of information on my part, but lack
of tact in introducing the requisite illustrations. I trust, how-
ever, that the causes to which I allude will be my apology."
The Doctor then retired, amidst the most enthusiastic plan-
dits. Oil Wednesday evening Dr. Epp, of metropolitan cele-
brity, commenced a course of popular lecture's on phyidology.
This is a subject but rarely made the theme of a popular course
of lectures; and, th.refore, we trust, that from its novelty,
i im-
will partance, and the well known ability of the lecturer, t draw.
as numerous audiences as those which have attended Dr. Kane.