The Liverpool Standard and General Commercial Advertiser.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1838-03-13 00:00:00

TILE LIVERPOOL STANDARD.

LIVERPOOL MECHANICS' INSTITUTION.

LECTURES ON ,PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY,

On SatiirdaY -e-cenini.,_Mr. John Smith terminated his course,
which has been attended throughout by numerous and respect-
able,audiences. At_the conclusion the applause was universal.
The views certainty were beautiful spCciin'OUX of alt. and will
be'tt valuable present of the instiiution. The following were
exhibited during this lecture f—water-spimi.at sea;- triple wa-
ter-spout ; —sand-storm in the desert ;—the- Stinffleur';—the'
Great Geyser; —sulphur mountains ; —air and mud volcanoes;
Volcano -de lortillo;—Chimboraz,i; —the Condor ;—Crater of
Monnt Etna :—Bay;of Naples;—Vesuvius in eruption;--earth-
quake at ',Messina;—restored city of Pompeii ; —Con vent of An-
tonio ;—Mount Lebanon ;—cedars of Lebanon ;—the ancient
Cedars; the Dead Sea;—Moubt Ararat, and rainbow.

It is a singular and interesting fact that man is the only or-
,ganized being whose constitution is adapted to the various cli-
maates of the earth. His habitatious reach almost to the Poles,
the ocean supplying him with food when the snow-clad or ice-
bound land will do longer yield it to him. And yet, man is pos-
sessed of if more delicate organization than other animals, and,
;is liable to a greater variety of diseases. How beneficent then
must those provisions be by which he is enabled to accommo-
date himself to every climate and to adapt, his necessities and
means- niutually to each other. Yet doubtless, with all his
:capabilities, he suffers some disadvantages from residing, gene-
'ration after genetation, in extreme climates, as it is in the
temperate zone alone,' that he is to be found in the highest
state of perfection both of body and mind.
The relative position of the sun with regard to the earth's
surface is not the' sole cause of difference of climate, otherwise
upon. ascending a 'mountain we should feel much warmer in
proportion at we approached 'to the sun. We find, however,
that the higher we ascend these inequalities of the earth's surface,
the more attenuated is the atmosphere and the more remote we
became from the reflected heat of the plains: Nay we find that
eternal snows clothe the summits of our loftiest mountains, and
are thus instructed that even in hot tropical climates, a residence
placed a few hundred feet up the side of a bill will be encircled
by. an, atmosphere similar in 'temperature'to that of our own'
country. The inhabifamt of the torrid plain are freqnentlyre-
lieved from nppressive heats by breezes from snow-capped
mountains.' There are various soils which retain orreflect very
differeetly the solar heat. An island is more equal in its tern-
peratu're than a continent, and those parts 'of a continent which
are exposed to sea breezes are coolerin summer and warinerin
winter than the interior portions of the sarneland, This'occurs
because the sea being a 'better recipient of 'the solar heat than
the land, is affected to a greaterdepth by it, and by this means
is enabled to give otit'its store of Warmth long after' the earth
has patted with the slight quantity which it has absorbed. To
this cause is to be ascribed the land and sea breezes so common
in tropical regions, During the day the air over the land being,
strongly heated is rarified and ascends, a cool breeze therefore
sets infrom the-sea to supply its place.' In the night, how:
ever, the matters are reversed; the air over the land becomes
cooled,'whilst that over the sea retains neatly an average tem-
aerature, and the consequence is, that the land breeze being
now the heavier, blows over the sea. The sea breeze generally
commences at ten in the morning, and lasts till six ih the even;
ing. At seven the land breeze begins, and continues till eight'
in the morning, when it dies away; •Besides Modifying the
temperature, winds purify the air by dispersing noxious
exhalations. They' also convey the vapours and cletids
of one district to another. They refresh and dry sur-
face of the ground,—they prevent decomposition water
which would otherwise be stagnant, and supply a powerful
agency to man in his mechanical arts. HurriCanes, the most
violent of atmospherical agitations, are of electric origin. A
large vacuum .is suddenly created, into which the-surrotinding
air rushes with immense' rapidity, sometimes from, opposite
points of the compass, spreading tfie most frightful devistatiOn
atone its track. They rage with the greatest fury near the tropics,
in the vicinity of land or islands, while far out at seathev rarely
occur. Whirlwinds sometimes arise from winds blowing
among lefty and precipitous Mountains, the form ofwhieh
ences their direction and occasions gusts to.descend with a'sniral
or whirling motion. They are frequently, however, occasioned
by two winds meeting each other at an ahgle, and then turning
upon a centre. When two winds thui encounter each other;
any cloud which happens to be hetiveen them is, of cotirse;con-
densed and rapidly turned round; and all substances sufficient-
ly light'are carried up into the air by the whirling motion which
ensues. The attion of a whirlwind at sea occasions the
curious' phenomenon called a water-spout.' This generally
consists of large drops, like dense rain,' much agitated, and de-
scending or ascending with a'spiral motion. At the same time
that the spout is forming the whole of it is carried along by the
prevailing breeze, accompanied-in general by a sound like that
of-the dashing of waves. The' spouts are' commonly; largest
above; being very similar to a speaking-trumpet with the broad
end uppermost. They are, however, met with of various forme.
The best way to disperse them is bv' firing cannon in their di-
rection. Whirlwinds also produce very powerful effects on
land. In the sandy deserts of Arabia and Libya, they are of
frequent occurrence, and carry up the sand in-clouds, which,
rising over the surface of the country, bury every thing beneath
them. Thus often whole caravans, and even armies, have been
overwhelmed and destroyed. The fathom; souffleur on'the coast
of the Mauritius presents several curious phenomena, illustra-
tive of the power of air and water. The sea rushes into 'hollovi
caverns- with two upwafd apertures or chimneys at the extre-
mity, and, owing to its extreme violence, is thrown upwards
thiough these chimneys to the height of sixty feet. The mo-
ment the wave recedes, the air enters the aperture with a loud
humming noise; which is heard at a considerable distance.

ltnas—judiCiOusly beets. observed that the highest mountain
upon our globe would be represented on a'rnodel-of the earth of
sixteen inches in diameter by a grain'of sand, aml that thedeep-
est mine would present so slight an indentation as not to be visi-
ble without the aid of a,strong magnifier. Mr. Babbage, in his
Bridgewater treatise, in alluding to penetrations into the earth's
interior,.-pays,; ": An increase of one degree (Fahrenheit) for
); fifty
ever or sixty feet we- descend below the earth's surface
seems nearly the average result of observations. If the rate
continue, it is obvious that, at a comparatively small depth, we
shall airiye'at a heat which will' keep suhstances.with which
we acquainted'in a state of fusion." The experiment now
in progress in France; with respect to Artesian Welk, excites
great interest as to the interior Ofthe glcibe. It is.notconsidered
unlikely that in this-manner hot springs or gases may be reach-'
ed by boring sufficiently deep, and made available for manufac-
ing purpoSes. The boiling snrings of ICeland, which are
among the most sublime as well as beautiful objects of nature,
are supposed to arise from natural bares penetrating the earth
to the depth sufficient to inipatt this degree of heat. They
mostly rise in a plain near the base'of hills; fait many of theiri
break. ohefroni the sideS of hills, and some very 'near their suni-
mits.. trove a hundred of thein are contained' within a circle
Of two miles. Three or four are distinguished by the name
of G4yser, which' is said to be the old' Seandinavian name
for aTountain. The eruptions are'not continuous, but are an-
nounced at intervals by a' sound like that of stibterraneous
thunder, initriediately Wrier whiCh a column of water, accom-
panied with prodigiouivOluines ofsteam, bursts forth and rushes
from the top bathe height -offrom fifty to sixty feet. Mr. Lvell
stippoies'that a hollow edye'exists at a great depth beneath' the
surface of t:he earth, Where water and steairi collect; and where
the 'free escape Of the steam is. prevented until it acqUires guffi-
cient force to exPel the water.
AlthOugli inlCanoes occupy but a small pillion of the earth's
surface, and their eruptions are fat from freOent, they have, in
conseqnerice of their terrific grandeur.meit forciblY arrested
the attention of mankind in all ages. Their number is eStirnat
ed at 'about two hundred,' of which the continent and'islands of
America contain 116, Asia and'its iSIeS 66, and gurope'and its
isles 13. No volcanoes have as yet been found'on the Afrieatt
continent, and those of its iSlands are few. The boiling springs
of Iceland throw considerable light upon the'subject Of volcanoes.
Indeed water appearsto be a necessary agent iii the production
of volcanic fire, for it is found that columnioraqueoik vapour
ascend and tot rents of salt water flo* fi'om thok, reservoirs of
eleMetital strife; various minerals and metals also, with sulphur
and other combustibles, contriblite to the'production of subter-
ranenus. fire. These substances, lying together, oe 6:nbrdded
in separate strata, are supposed to remain quiescent until
water noses in upon them; when a chemical action takes place.
as when water is thrown upon lime; &c.. By the decomposition
and eon Sequent ignition which then take plice, each substance
is resolved into its primary element, and occupies a greater
bulk than itdid preVionsly. 'l'hus' the interior of the earth is
disturbed' acid the surface shaken, producing the phenorrienon
known by the name of earthquake, whilstthe decomposed com-
bustible matter, becoming every moment more and more bulky
and incapable of cOiftinuitig longer Withia•its Confines, obtains,
vent by heaving up the superincumbent earth and rucks into;
' the shape of a cone or inverted' funnels' and di's:charges itself
from the' crater or aperture which it ntakes at theiop into' the
surrounding atmosphere and Over the adjacent .conittry. The
most forrnidahle of all the volcanoes are those of the Andes.
The volcano of .rortillo; iii Mexico, was the scene of an awful
eruption in 1759. The celebrated mountain of Chimberazo," if
. not the whole of the Andes. is considered to be the'restilt of vol-
canic action; Among the European volcanoes, Mthint Etna
claims pre7eminenee, not only on account of its size but for the
classical recollections Which it must awaken. The next great
voleario, Vesuvius, is likelise celebrated in ancient history.
It is situate foitr miles from N aples, the largest city of Italy,
and one of the most beautiful. of EuroPean capitals. • The
lages of PortiCi and:Resinia; whiCh stand upon the ancient city
of Flercularieutn, reprise at-the' feet of Mount. Vesuvius. One
Of the most striking, features of Naples'is' the predominance
every Where of volcanic Matter. Water, impregnated with
sulphur, guShes-out iri.the town; every street is paved all over
with broad flags of dark:lava; cut and "brought froth 'Mount
snvins, as'indeed are all the roads near the' capital'. 'Blocks of
lava meet you 'every 'Wlibre. They are throWn into the sea' to
fOrm piers and jetties, and the' finer sorts farnish-.Materials to
carvers and other artilans, who. cut theni into sniiff-boxes, pi-
per presSe`rs, chess-then, 'and chimney-piece ornaments. By
fir the most tremendous recent.eruption of Vesuvius occurred
in 183./ The earliest recorded eruption of this' mountain oc-
' ctirred in 79, when the cities of Stabia; Pompeii, and Hercit-
'larietini Were biiried beneath' it'S'ashes.. It was at thii'eitiptiOn
that the elder Pliny lost his life, in his anxiety to obtain a
nearer view of the phenomenon. AlliuM igh this s the earliest
recorded' eruption, it is evident from' the appearance of Pemp'eii;
the housei of which'are built of lava, that ireould not have been
the first. The Lipari' Islands are'entirely volcanic, and one of
them,' Stromboli, is now the Seat of a volcano, remarkable for
Icing in perpetual activity. At night it serves as a-beacon' to
. mariners. The activity Of stilt-marine fires has been manifested
6fi'anether Side.of Sicily, by the recent rise 'and depression' of
Graham's Island.

Earthquake-8 are much more tremendous in their action than
volcanoes. They are frequently accompanied by lbud'Oubter-
ranehes noises, and are sometimes st) violent thht the earth
heaves up and undulates like an' digitated sea. They are felt al-
most at the same instant over a most astOtiishing extent, though
happily their deStructiv'e ravages' are confined within a' small
range. No doubt' can exist of their connection with volchnic
eruptions'; their frequktCy in countries Where the latter take
place, and the fact of the one occurring at the same period as
the other, sometimes at great' distances apart, tend to establish
such a' connection. It ie worthy ofnotice; that thebgh earth-
qualt.es are sometimes reit towards the interior of continents
their terrible effects occur chiefly kit:Wit the-coasts; d'eexempli-
fied.id the earthquakes of Lima, Lisbon; Caraecie, -end many
others. In a multitude of chtedearthqbakei have eaused'a-great
number of re'n'ts and chaxiasin the earth, which have frequently
enguiphed houses, trees, cattle', and' mea. -
Mt.' Smith (hen terminated 'hiS lecture by describing and il-
lustrating a namber of highly interesting scenes in. the Holy
tand and its neighbourhood', after which he thanked the au-
didn't° fel' the attention which they had paid him;• and com'pli-•
niented the institution upon' fhe orderly den-tear:Mr of the boys
of, tbe_loer school durifig; the course, a' circumstance' which
was- highly creditable not only to the boyS themselves hut to
their teachers, and was a good Otnen of future maccess.
The annual meeting of the memberiorthis institution will be
held to-Morrow evening, W. W. Carrie, Esq., in the chair, at
which a report will be read of the state of the institatioh, and a
number of drawings, the work of the pupils, exhibited. We
eApect much gratification.
.On Sattirday John Scouler, Esq„
4.11, of Dublin, commences a courie'apon

is:coirponATlorr OF BOLTON.—The deputafion for and
againit the.petition for an incorporation of this borough had an
audinee. of the privy council on Monday last, when it IF as ar-
ranged that commissioners should be'sent down to take evidence,
and devidti the borough' into wards, as in the case of thrilling-
barn.