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LtYmtpooL sTANDARD.

is fortnA by this combust on of she phosphorus, is !rich is not
easily melted. This powder is 1111.fe inflammable than phos-
phorus itself, and is used in the ineparation of phosphorus lire-
boxes. Phosphoric acid is formed by pouring a quantity of
,aqua fortis on some phosphorus. The phosphorus oxidyzos
itself at the expense of the aqua fortis, and we obtain phosphoric
acid. Hypophosphoric acid is procured by the action of phos-
phorus on a solution containing a base. If phosphorus be
placed in a retort containing a sutution of potash, it decomposes
the wafer, and bypophosphoric acid is formed, or that combina-
tion of phosphorus containing the least quantity of oxygen, arid
phosphuretted 11);drogeo is at the same time given off in a
gaseous form. rhis gas possesses the property of taking fire
the instant it comes into contact with atmospheric air. The
reason of this is, that the phosphorus, presenting a large sheet
of sulfate to the action of the air the more readily it combines
with it. We are able to prepare this gas in a variety of me-
thods, but when prepared by some of them it does not take tire
so speedily us by others. It is considered one of the most re-
markable instances of what Berzelius calls isomerism. 'the
peculiar acid which exists in sour apples, as well as in the berries
or the mountain ash, is found to be similarly composed to citric
acid. It is now established that chemical substances of diff-
erent origin can have tho same composition. Professor Gra-
ham has brought forward some evidence toshew that the inflam-
mability of this gas is owing to foreign matters which can he
communicated to it in a partial manner. The phosphuretted
hydrogen is colourless, being precisely similar to atmospheric
air in appearance. It emits a remarkable odour resembling
garlic. It is heavier than atmospheric air, somewhat in the
proportion of 12 to 10. Phosphorus unites with chlorine iu
three proportions, but in a practical point of view the combina-
[ions are of little importance.

On Saturday Dr. Kane concluded his excellennt course.
Carbon i 3 very extensively distributed through nature, and
is remarkable for the variety of forms in which it presents itself.
It is met with in all the three kingdoms of nature, but there is
every reason to believe that the extent of its distribution in these
kingdoms is not altogether so great as might at first be con-
ceived, and that in point of fact its existence is strictly limited
to two of the kingdoms of nature, and that its existence in the
mineral department is owing to the accidental circumstance of
the destruction of the living beings of which it had formed a
part. We find carbon constituting a considerable portion of
the whole mass of the fluids in the vegetable kingdom. In the
animal kingdom we find at least one half of the solid consti-
tuents of the animal to be carbon. In the vegetable we find a
still greater proportion. In fact the skeleton which in the ani-
mal kingdom is composed of a different substance; consists in
the vegetable kingdom of carbon, in a state of almost complete
purity. In the animal kingdom not only does carbon subsist in
the softer matters but in the harder portions of all animals. in
' the bony skeletons of the higher animals it exists in very minute
quantities, but in the Lower animais provided with external
skeletons, the phosphoi us of the higher animals is replaced by
carbon. In the mineral kin,_oloin we find carbon very exten-
sively distributed indeed. In almost all countries we find large
mountainous mus.,es consisting of lime and carbonic acid—the
carbonic acid containing about one third of its weight of car-
bon. The various earbonifetous rocks of this kingdom contain
about one sixth of their whole weight of carbon. On this lie-
count we should be at first led to imagine that carbon exists
more generally in the mineral than in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, but a more minute analysis leads us to different re-
sults, and we are almost inclined to argue that carbon ham no
real existence in the mineral kingdom, but that its presence
owing lo the decomposition of the animal and vegetable remains
which have been deposited in it at former remote periods. In
fact we have been able to trace these remains through their
different stages or decomposition, anti according to the pressure
and temperature to which it has been subjected, we timid the
shapes and constitution of the rocks of which they form a-con-
sid-.Table portion. We are thus obliged to consider carbon as
an element exclusively of organic origin. These are one or
two apparent exceptions to their law, afforded by some of the
metallic bodies with which carbonic acid is found united, but
these are rare specimens, and occur in the enormous masses of
mountain limestone, from which they may have obtained their
carbonic acid. _

We are enabled to obtain carbon by the burniug of bones or
wood in close vessels, when we obtain what is called ivory or
bone black and charcoal. In addition to these black masses of
pure carbon we are iu possession of one other form of it of ex-
ceeding, interest—the diamond. The diamond. the hardest and
most costly of all our gents, is chemically identical with char-
coal. It is carbon in the purest form in which we are enabled
to obtain it. The diamond was at one time considered as car-
bon perfectly mineral:zed. It is crystalline, the form of its
crystals being octahedral, as those of common alum. We have
obtained some facts lately with respect to the diamond, which
are interesting, as affording us traces of its origin. If we take
barley sugar, when quite fresh, it is opaque, but after a few
days it becomes translucent, and appears like sugar candy.
From an amorphous mass it becomes crystalline. We fre-
quently meet with diamonds with cavities in the diamond as if
something had been in them. Sir David Brewster found from
the appearances of these cavities that the diamond indst have
beeu originally in a soft state ann then subjected to pressure,
and that like amber it has taken upon itself the crystalline
structure. It is considered to have been the exudation of some
tree, like the cherry tree of our climes, and that the diamond
has been the formation of many ages quite independent of any •
original mineral nature. Carbon enters into combination
oxygen in combustion more readily where its particles are less
closely bound together, thus coal will born much quicker'
than pluitibago, and plum than the diamond. Yet
the products of alt three are carbonic acid. If lime wa-
ter be passed into a jar containing carbonic acid gas, it
will immediately be found to present a milky appearance,
iusoluble carbonate of lime having been formed. Carbonic
acid is generated, not merely by the direct combination of burn-
ing carbon with oxygen, but when carbon is burned with atmos-
pheric air, as we every day see it in a multiplicity of instances.
Animals, likewise, its respiring, generate carbonic acid gas.
This may be easily shown, by respiring through a tube dipped
in lime water, when the milkiness caused by carbonate of lime
will be perceived. Carbonic acid gas is readily obtained, by
adding a little acid to chalk, whiting, &e and then collecting
the gas over a pnumatic trough. Carbonic arid is one and a
half times as heavy as atmospheric air, to which it is similar in
appearance. It will not support combustion, a burning taper
being immediately extinguished upon being plunged into it.
The action of carbonic acid on an animal is fatal. Not only is it
found that the animal is killed front the absence of oxygen, but
that the carbonic acid exercises a positively poisonous influence
on the animal, and, although a certain quantity of oxygen
may be present, the animal will still be killed. Instead of ex-
ercising a neutral influence like nitrogen, it is fatal when mixed
in the same proportion as nitrogen with oxygen. An experi-
ment was tried by Professes Rowland°, at Turin, which is. well
worth noticing in this part of the subject. A tortoise is capa-
ble of living under circustances in which a warm blooded ani-
mal would be instantly killed. Professor Rowland° took a tor-
toise, and opened it at the part where the windpipe diverges
into a pair of lungs. Ile made an incision into one of these
lungs, and urged in a stream of carbonic acid gas, leaving the
other open to the atmospheric air. By this means, the tortoise
was breathing atmospheric air in one lung, and carbonic acid
in the other, Now, a tortoise can live right well with one lung
tied up, but the carbonic acid killed him, although he went ou
breathing oxygen with the other lung. In this way the poison-
ous properties of carbonic acid is aruved. In lerineuta,ion
carbonic acid is generated iu prodigious quantities. The
vinous fermenta ion takes place in all those liquors which con-
tain alcohiol. The general theory of the process is that by ,
malting, sugar is produced, and by fermentation that sugar is
converted into spirit. Carbonic acid accumulates in the vessels
to which the liquors are made, and many persons are killed by
their imprudence in venturing into these vessels. Carbonic
acid is particularly liable to accumulate in consequence of its
great density. Dr. Kane illustrated this in an elegant manner,
by means of a lair of counterpoised bags attached to a fine
balance: Into one of these bags he poured carbonic acid
nut of the jars in whiCh it was contaieed, when the bag instantly
descended with great rapidity. He also introduced into a jar
a metal rod, having two lighted tapers affixed, the one at the
bottom of the jar, and the other at its middle; he then intro-
duced carbonic acid gas into the bottom of the jar, the conse-
quence of which was, that the lower taper was extinguished,
and its a short time, when the gas bad risen to a sufficient
height in the vessel, the other was also put out. Carbonic acid
is given out very frequently from the surface of the earth, par-
ticularly in countries of volcanic origin. This we find takes
place very frequently at the bottom of old wells, where, from
its density the gas occupies the lower surface, and frequently
on some individual being sent in to clean the well, fatal conse-
quences ensue. Tbe proper precaution to be taken in such
eases is, first to let down a candle„ when if it be extinguished,
it is not probable that an individual would live in it. The r car-
bonic acid at the bottom of a well may be removed, by throw-
ing a little slacked lime and water down, when the carbonic
acid will unite with the lime, and render it safe to descend into
tbe well, The burning of charcoal in close rooms, has fre-
quently led to suffication. One of the most promising chetnists
that. France has produced, destroyed himself by this means, at
the commencement of the present century. He was the son of
the celebrated Berthollet. Having determined to commit suicide,
he lighted a charcoal tire in his room, and sat down at a table
and wrote an account of the feelings which aecompanied the
progress of suffication by carbonic acid gas. His writing gra-
dually because less, and less intelligible, until at length it ap-
peared, the pen fell from his hand. An instance lately occurred
of five individuals being suffocated in London, with this gas.
A charcoal fire had been lighted iu the room before they
went to bed, and the prebabilify was, that there was 'nu chim-
ney in the room. Four of these unfortunates were found
dead in bed, without the least symptoms of their having died in
pain. The fifth appeared to have struggled a little. If there
be a free passage up the chimney, there is little or no danger,
hut where there is no vent death is inevitable. There are places
in the earth where carbonic acid is met with under peculiar cir-
cumstanees. One of the most singular is the Grotto del cane,
near Naples. The bottom of this cave is lined a couple of feet
deep with csrbonie acid gas, but above the air is pure, an that
whilst a maim can breathe in safety, a dog is suffocated. From
the circumstance Of the guides taking a dog with them, to show
this fact to travellers, the grotto has obtained its name of the
Dog's grotto Another of the most extraordinary instances of
the emission of carbonic acid from volcanic smilers is exhibited
on the island of Java, where there is an extinct crater of consi-
derable height; the volcano itself having for a long period been
silent. From the bottom of the internal cone there issues car-
bonic acid, so that it presents the appearance of an enormous
cup or goblet of carbonic acid. Within this crater exists the
most luxuriant vegetation ever seems in tropical regions. Some
European deserters were traced to this mountain, and were ►pur-
sued by a number of soldiers, stationed in the island. When
the troops got to the top of the volcano, they beheld the richest
verdure they had ever beheld, but the bottom of the cone was
lined with the carcases of birds and beasts of prey, as well as of
the very deserters they were in quest of. The natives were aware
of the properties of thus volcano, and gave to the cone the name
of the vale of death, for no individual could descend a few yards
without meeting with instant death. Carbonic acid is absorbed
by water, in its escape from mountains, and this water. meeting
with lime, dissolves it. If this solution of carbonate of lime be •
exposed to the air, the excess of c,trimitic acid is abstracted, and
the carbonate of lime is deposited in the form of stalactites. In
this manner casts are obtained, coated with carbonate of lime,
by placing them in waters containing the solution. One of the
most elegant modes of analyzing, carbonic acid is to pass a
Sfream of it over the metal potassium, when if heat he applied
to the tube containing the metal, a brilliant decomposition will
ensue, the oxygen of the earbonic acid will mate with the po-
tassiurn to form potash, and the carbon will be deposited iu
black Mass.

Carbonic oxide is a substance of no considerable importance.
It tnay readily be obtained by inking in a retort a quantity of
oxalic acid with oil of vitriol. It is always generated, whenever
an imperfect combustion of carbon takes place. Thus, if we
put carbonic acid through a heated iron tube containing carbon,
the carbonic acid will take up as mod' more carbon. and be-
come converted into carbonic oxide. Oxalic acid is composed of
water, carbonic oxide and car;oinic .61. The oil of vitriol
unites with the water, and sets the ca,,es free. B passing
them tirrough the Water. the c:irbonie avi:i is absiirbeit, and thus
cat bob oxide is obtained in a pure htato. Carbonic oxide is
much lighter than atmospheric air, it is inflammable, and burns
with a blue flame. Oxalic acid exists in a great variety of
plants, chiefly in the sorrel description, in .connection .nth
notash.or lime forming au oxalate of potash or lime.. We can
likewise produce it artificially day heating starch or sugar with
nitric acid, and in this way great quantities of it are mann-

).444),.

factured for Ito. Iglrposes of the arts. Oxalic acid is recognized
very ea,ily by Ihe lona of its en stal, and its acid properties. It
is the strongest of the vegetable acids. Its crystals are not un-
like-those or epsoin salts, for which it has been frequently taken,
its properties are very interesting on this account to the medical
chemist. If we take the blue infusion of red cabbage, and add
to it a very
.small quantity of the solution of oxalic acid, it is
turned into a very deep red. The redness which is produced is
not the same in shade as that produced by the mineral acids; in
fact the different acids produce different reds. The oxalic acid
unites with bases, and in consequence is readily recognised.
Thus lime is one of the best tests fur oxalic acid, forming with
it a white rrecipitate.
Carbon unites with nitrogen, and forms two compounds, one
of which is of very considerable interest., It was discovered by
Gay Lusac and another French chemist, and is one which may
be considered as one of paramount interest iu chemistry, and,
indeed, as one of the most important substances to show us what
chemistry really is. This body is cyanogen, (or blue former,)
so called-because it is one of the ingredients in Prussian blue..
In order to generate it we may have recourse to an exceedingly
simple process. It must be collected over quicksilver. We
take a combination of carbon, nitrogen, and quicksilver, and
expose it to heat, when the compound will be decomposed. The
cat hou and nitrogen will be given off under the form of a
colourless gas, and the quicksilver will be sublimed. Cyanogen
is of such importance in chemistry, because it is a compound
body. We can decompose it and analyze it; but yet it siini-
hates the properties Of a simple substance. A remarkable pro-
perty of cyanogen is the colour of its flame, as it burns with a
purple violet-coloured flame, in which it is not resembled by the
flame of any other substance. In order to show the extent to
which this body simulates a simple substance iu its action, we
can heat it with potassium. Tne cyanogen will unite the potas-
sium without suffering any decomposition. The potassium will
burn in cyanogen just us it would in oxygen or chlorine. The
product of its combination with potassium is cyanide of potas-
sium. Cyanogen is the base o; Prtisic acid and of a number of
other bodies of considerable importauce in the arts and manu-
factures.

Carbon unites with hydrogen in an immense number of differ-
ent proportions. There is no class of bodies so comprehensive
in its history as the carbonates of hydrogen; in fact we fiud
that the whole base of vegetable and animal chemistry resolves
, itself into the system of carbon and hydrogen. Of the carbon-
' ates of hydrogen there is one, practically speaking, of great
importance. It is a gas which was d;scoveted.iti Holland, and
to which its discoverers. gave the name of olefiant, or oil-making
gas. To make this a very simple process is sufficient. If we
take some spirits of wine, and put, it into a retort, and then add
to it some oil of vitriol, a very violent, action takes place, the
mixture becomes hot and red, and, after a short time, black.
By applying heat oletiant gas is distilled over, and may be. col-
lected over, water. The c aeirl'must be added in excess
or we shall obtain different products. Oleflaut gas is thus ob-
tained by virtue of a very interesting chemical action. Spirits
of wine do not contain (defiant gas by virtue 'of its natural
properties, but its parts are broken up by the sulphuric acid. It
is perfectly colourless and invisible, it does not exert any act ion
on vegetaltlevolours, and it is not absorbed by water. Olefiant
gas is inflammable, and it burns with an intensely brilliant flame.
The brilliancy of coal and oil gas is occasioned. by the quantity
of (defiant gas which they contain. This brilliancy at ises front
the quantity of carbon which enters into combustion owing to
the intense heat of the hydrogen. On observing the flame of
a gas burner, it will be seen that for a slight distance from the
orifice, at which the gas issues, there is a pale blue flame ; this
is owing to the non-combustion of the carbon, which is not
ignited until it has passed beyond that portion of the flame. Dr.
Kane illustrated this by burning the gas as it passed through a
piece of isolated wire gauze, and explained thereby the con-
struction of the Davy lamp. 'Chlorine combines with olefiant
gas under very remarkable circumstances. Chlorine unites
with the hydrogen, and the carbon is set free, consequently
when a jar of the mixed gases are inflamed the carbon is pre-
cipitated in a dense black cloud. Chlorine unites silently with
this gas, and produces a remarkably oily fluid, called the oil of
the Dutch chemists iu consequence of their having discovered
it. It is a weak acid, of which chlorine is the oxide. Olefiant
gas burns perfectly when mixed with its own volume of oxygen,
it is then totally converted into water and carbon. A tremen-
dous explosion is the consequence, of a much more violent
nature than that which ensues from the combination of oxygen
with hydrogen. This results from the olefiant, gas containing
within itself' thrice its own volume of hydrogen, as well as a
quantity of carbon, by which we have, as in gunpowder, the
ingredients of explosion in a much larger proportion.

At the termination of the lecture, Dr. i(ane addressed the
members to the fallowing 'effect, in a speech the eloquence of
which was only'equalled by the unaffected modesty with which
it was delivered :

" We have thus brought to a termination our researches into
the elements of nonmetallic chemistry, in which we have had
the pleasure of being engaged; and I cannot, after trespassing
upon your patience, this evening, to so unreasonable au hour,
take leave of you without expressing my gratitude for the pa-
tience and attention with which you have received and listened
to my lectures. I deem myself very highly indebted to the
Directors of the Institution for the excellent arrangements
which they have placed at my disposal, without which I should
not have been enabled to have brought forward the different
subjects I have introduced in au order suited to the importance
or interest which chemistry ought to posSess. I deem myself
bound, iu common justice, to express my deep sense of the in-
valuable assistance which I have received from a gentleman,
who, I am glad to find, is recognised and received, in this town,
as a well informed chemist, a gentleman whose practical ac-
quaintance with science has rendered every hour I have passed
in his society one of the greatest pleasure. This 1 owe to Mr.
Wilson, and I cannot take toy leave of the scientific circles of
Liverpool without expressing the feelings of astonishment which
occurred to me on finding, that a gentleman's° well acquainted
with every department of chemistry was to be found here. Be-
fore concluding, I must beg leave to address a feW words to the
junior classes, which I am glad to find are so numerous, and '
which, by their attendance at these lectures, testify their in-
terest in scientific pursuits. The science which is available in
life is not the science of the lecture, In ininging forward, in a
lecture of this description, the elements of chemical science, it
is-our duty to present them in as interesting and popular a'
manner as possible. Iu order to do this, we are obliged to
crowd together a number of brilliant experiments, which, to
one unacquainted with science, would appear to be the most
nleasiug part of it. This, I would beg to state, is not the ease.
I trust that there are many of the juniors here in when' these
• and the other lectures which may be delivered here, will excite
the desire of studying science; and I venture to predict to
them, that, after a little time, le mysteries of science. when
properly understood,—when entered upon with enthusiasm,—
will present beauteous points of interest far surpassing those
which we are enabled to bring forward in lectures, such as will
well repay their trouble, and that the tune which they may de-
vote to what, at present. may appear to them to he dry principles
of chemical theory, will be found not to be mispent, but directed
to the pursuit of what must throw deeply into the shade all
that they have previously
i learned. Science the inure it is stu-
died, the more beautiful t will become. In every department
of the arts, the accomplished chemist must become the friend,
time benefactor, the teacher of all by whom he is surrounded.
Iletthe student, in Liverpool, contemplate what Liverpool and
Manchester must become. You are here in the metropolis of
science in the British Empire. You must here practice prac-
tical science ; you have bete the development of the vital
wealth of the nation depending upon the applications of science
to the arts. If these applications are worked out, you must be
prosperous; if they are not well worked out here, they will be
elsewhere; and, if so, it must lead to the downfal of the trade
and commerce of the country. We look forward, then, to young
students, in institutions similar to the one in which I have now
the honor of speaking, for improvements in practical chemistry.
Having mentioned this point of interest, I beg to repeat, that
the further students in chemistry may advance in these studies,
the less they will find them to be of that abstruse character
which they may now appear to them to be, and the more im-
portant and interesting they will become. I should apologize
for the necessarily imperfect manner in which many of the
topics to which t have alluded have been discussed. Vor this I
could plead, first, the limited time at in disposal; secondly,
the necessarily popular manner iu which I had to discuss the
subject, which rendered it at times exceedingly difficult to
speak up to the present state of the science ; and, thirdly, I
limit put in a plea • somewhat personal, that hitherto nay lilac-
tice being confined to the teaching of classes, I had not directed
my attention specially to those departments of the science
which it was necessary to bring forward in a popular course. I
am certain, therefore, that many circumstances have occurred
to show, not, I trust, lack of information on my part, but lack
oftact in introducing the requisite illustrations. ' I trust, how-
ever, that the causes to which I allude will be my apology."
The Doctor then retired, amidst the most enthusiastic plau-
dits. On Wednesday evening Dr. Epps, of metropolitan cele-
brity, commenced a course of popular lectures on physiology.
Thi, is a subject but rarely made the theme of a popular course
of lectures ; and, therefore, we trust, that from its novelty, im-
portance, and the well known ability of the lecturer, it wilt draw
as numerous audiences as those which have attended Dr. Kane.

STATE OF TRADE.

MANCHESTER. —There is very little change to notice in the
Manchester market. Owi-ug to the stoppage,of tae canals very
little business has been done tor the last fortnight, especially in
vain, which has been sold at rather lower pOces. For power-
loom printing cloths there WiS'a !Otte motelnquiry on Monday
and '1 uesday ; but the demand was by no Means general, nor
can it be expected to become so until we have a change of
weather.

RPCHDA LE FLANNEL M A RKET.—There was but a dull
market on Monday, though perhaps more goods were sold than
on the previous Monday. Prices have rather given way, and
many have been bought for one or t►cu shillings a couple below
the previous rates. There has been little doing in the, wool
market, hut the last week's prices haVe been maintained.
PA DI AM.—We learn from these'districts that within the last
fortnight the cotton trade has been generally very dull. Hand-
loom weaving has been very much depressed, and considerable
distress exists among the operatives. Potatoes, a staple article
of food, have rather advanced in prke.—Manchester Guardian.