The Liverpool Standard and General Commercial Advertiser.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1839-03-12 00:00:00

THE RECENT OUTRAGE ON THE BRITISH FLAG.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE LIVERPOOL STANDARD.
Sin,—Permit me to remark, as an old naval officer, that,
in relation to the outrage recently committed upon our na-
tional flag, there seems to be an ambiguity in not at once
producing the packet's log-book, instead of animadverting
about the lieutenant's private journal, whereas, legally •
speaking, it is to the ship's log-book per se, that reference
should be made. Moreover, in the first instance, on the
arrival, (a month since) of the lieutenant commit:ding, it is
my humble opinion that his functions should have been sus-
pended, pro tem., and, together with the log-book, (not his
journal,) ordered at the Admiralty. And, being that "old
and experienced officer," &c., so highly spoken of by the
editor of the Falmouth Express, in your last number, I think. ; v: •
he should have acted somewhat differently, to win—First
merely to have returned the fire, then immediately hauling L
down his colours thus, to a " superior force :" next going,o4
board the Frenchman, presenting his sword ; when, if a
suitable apology, in his opinion, was duly made, in writing
only, with which, returning to H.M. little vessel, waited t 1
arrival of the British commodore upon thesaid station; thus
whether he should have hoisted his colours again in the in.
terval may be waived. As to fighting " his brig while a spar
in her remained standing," &c.., mentioned also in the Fal-
mouth Express, under ordinary circumstances there can be
no doubt on the subject, but thus situated it is sheer nonsense
to have expected any such thing. And was the worthy
lieutenant my own brother, nay, my son, I should have ad-
vised him to request " a court of inquiry," in elucidating
forthwith the untoward affair, both in regard to his beloved
country and himself.—Yours, &c.,
A VETERAN NAVAL OFFICER,
One too fairly afloat the Ist of June, 1794.
March 11, 1839.

WOOD v. IRON.

r!

TO THE EDITOR OF THE GLASGOW CHRONICLE.
Glasgow, 7th March, 1839.
SlR,—Having observed in the Liverpool and Glasgow
newspapers, remarks on the trial trip which took place be-
the Royal Sovereign and Commodore steam-ships between
Glasgow and Liverpool, on their outward and home pass-ages,
on Saturday and Tuesday last, which vary from each other
in some respects, and in others, from being imperfectly stated,
leave erroneous impressions on the minds of readers, I will
f.'el obliged if you will give a place in your valuable columns
to the following remarks on the said trips. f.
Both these vessels left their berths, at Glasgow, on Satnr-wi •
day, at eleven, a.m., the Royal Sovereign being a-head ;
both vessels touched at Greenock : The Royal Sovereign an-Le
riving there seven minutes before the other, and, neither I
having lost any time, left that port in that relative situation4aa
Between Pladda and Ailsa Craig the Commodore came uptif
with and passed her competitor, and kept the lead, some..le
times the one and sometimes the other gaining or losing upon
her opponent, until they came within three hours sail ofs
Liverpool, when the Commodore was a-head, as nearly as
can be calculated, from ten to fifteen minutes. •
The weather, shortly after this, having become thick, both
vessels found difficulty in finding the channel. It appears,
however, that the captain of the Commodore was more for-
tunate than his competitor, having found it in less than half
an hour ; whereas, the captain of the Royal -Soiereign was
not so successful, having been more than two hours it, finding
it. It is, therefore, a fair deduction,• thatellowing the
Commodore to have gained for the remaining three hours'
sail to Liverpool, her average gain during the previous part
of her passage—the utmost difference in favour of the Com-
modore on arrival (if both had proceeded direct to the docks)
would have been twenty minutes.
As,regards the homeward passage, both vessels left the
Mersey, opposite the Clarence Dock-gate, abreast of each
otlier, at twenty-six minutes past one o'clock, p. m., on
Tuesday. For the first seventy miles, neither vessel could
be said to have gained a single yard upon each other •, on
reaching the Point of Ayr, being eighty-two miles from
Liverpool, the Commodore was two lengths of herself a-head;
however, on passing this light, the Royal Sovereign got
a-head, and maintained her position from that to between
Corsail Light and Ailsa Craig, a distance of between sixty
and seventy miles : the Commodore having here taken the
lead, kept it to Greenock, where she arrived about seventeen
minutes before the Royal Sovereign ; and as the Commodore,
from her draught of water, stopped at Greenock, and sent
her passengers up the river in a passage boat, the Royal
Sovereign had the advantage of coming direct to the Bromie-
law, although nearly low water, and arrived at her ultimate
destination six hours before her opponent.—l remain, Sir,
your very obedient servant, JOHN TASSIE.
P.S.—I understand it is reported, that rosin was burnt as
fuel on board the Royal Sovereign ;—this was not the fact—
not a pound.

THE ODD-FELLOWS.--We observe, from an advertise-
ment in another part of our paper, that the annual Ball of
the Loyal Minerva Lodge of Odd-Fellows will take place on
Easter Monday, and we have no doubt that it will be well
supported, as the proceeds are intended to be devoted to a
benevolent purpose.
COMMODORE AND ROYAL SOVEREIGN STEAM
We are requested to state, that the Commodore arrived at
Greenock twenty minutes before the Royal Sovereign, having
outstripped her that time on the run from Corsal Point to
Greenock, a distance of 60 miles, the wind being a-head. The
Commodore's passengers were sent up to Glasgow by,the
Luna steamer, and arrived there twenty minutes before those
by the Royal Sovereign.
HOWARD TOTAL ABSTINENCE ASSOCIATION.—The
above society will hold its first public meeting in the Tem-
plars'-hall, Great George-street, on Thursday evening next,
and, from what we have heard of its organization, the respec-
tability and talent of its leading members, we are well led
to think, that its operations will give impulse to the total
abstinence question.—Correspondent of the Albion.
We understand that the Dock Committee have withdrawn,
for the present session of Parliament, the bill asking for
power to erect warehouses on the dock quays.
THE PACKET-SHIP OXFORD.—This fine vessel, which
was stranded, in Bootle Bay, during the hurricane .on the
morning of the 7th of January, will, it is fully expectell, be
ready to take her place in the line on the 19th instant. She
has undergone a thorough repair, and is now, if possible, a
stronger ship than she was on the day .she-Ivas launched.
She is refitting in the Graving-dock to the northward -of the
Clarence-dock.

ihntrp.

VIE LOVER'S LEAP.*

Oh ! have you not heard of that dark woody glen,
Where the oak-leaves are richest and rarest—
Where CONNAL, the chief and the foremost of men,
Lov'd LILY, of maidens the fairest?
She plighted her ihith, but as quickly withdrew,
At a story that slandered her lover :
She left him in wrath, but how little she knew
That her peace at their parting was over !
He met her in vale, and he met her in grove,—
At midnight he roam'd by her dwelling;
But he said not a word of the truth of his love,
For his cheek the sad story was telling !
He found her one eve by the rock in the Glen,
Where she once vow'd to love him for ever,—
He gaz'd, till she munnued " Dear Connal," and then
He leap'd from the rock to the river!
The summer passed on, and the chief was forgot,—
But one night when the oak-leaves were dying,
There came a sad form to that desolate spot,—
'Neath which the brake Connal was lying.
She gazed on the brown swelling stream 'mid the rocks,
As she lean'd the wild precipice over :
She looked a farewell to the glen of the oaks,
And Eily was soon with her lover !
* A romantic spot in the Dargle, county of Wicklow, so named
from numerous traditions resembling the present.

RELIGION.

BY THE REV. R. MONTGOMERY.

" And thou, religion, hell's appalling foe,
Yet least prevailing, on whose seraph wing
Far, far away from this benighted orb
The spirit mounts,—though many temples teach,
Thy sanctitude, and many tongues thy charm,
Repeat, how few have found thee as thou art,
The living SAVIOUR of mankind ! What hosts
Who bear my attributes, or ape my power,
Yet carry fospels in th,,ir saintly looks
Ye hypocrites! how often have I torn
Your veils away ! how often have I seen
A midnight where the world saw day ;
Beheld a demon, where they dreamt a Gon.
"'Tis not the vileness of hypocrisy

From which alone a hellish harvest springs ;
But that contempt which on religion frowns,
When hypocrites in unmasked truth appear ;
Then vice is comforted, and lifts her voice
Triumphant; pleased to have a broken step,
However slipp'ry, where to stand and cry,
Thank. GOD ! my soul religion never charmid !
Delusion vain, and exquisitely vile,
How gloriously thy cheating spells can work !
For thus might Painting and her fairy scenes
Be scouted, when a daubing mimic fails ;
Or Music have her seraph voice denied,
When a poor screech owl apes a melody ;
As true religion have her Heaven disown'd,
Because a false professor fbols the world."

LITERARY NOTICES.

The Asidic Journal March 1, 1839.

In this interesting repertory of Eastern news and
literature, we are furnished with a rich store of in-
formation at once valuable and interesting. Its selec-
tion of news relating to the politics, commerce, eccle-
siastical, civil, naval, and 'military proceedings of our
oriental colonies, is exceeding copious. It has also
several articles possessing high literary merit. In the
present number we have an excellent translation of a
" Tale from the Bostan ;" a capital narrative under the
title of " A Chapter of Accidents ;" and a continua-
tion of the " Analyses of -Eastern Works," which
latter is one of the most attractive features in the
ithiatic. The article on the " Civil Service of Bombay"
is elaborately written. " Russia and India" is the title
of a• very important paper on the recent policy of the
Autocrat. " Confucius and the Child" is a pleasing
tale, which we shall endeavour to introduce into a
future 'umber.

The Monthly Law Magazine and Political Review.

March, 1839.

We have already expressed ourselves in terms of
high admiration of this well conducted and truly con-
servative magazine. To the legal profession it must
be an invaluable acquisition ; whilst to the general
reader it presents attractions of no ordinary character.
As we have already intimated, its politics are strictly
constitutional, The number now before us displays
great ability in its original articles, and indefatigable in-
dustry in the arrangement and condensation of its re-
ports. The analysis of " Lord Durham's Report" is
a most masterly production. The paper on " The
House of Commons" deserves the especial notice of
every lover of his country. The review of the " Fourth
Report of the Poor Law Commissioners" is very ably
written, and administers the lash with very little mercy.
The article on " Bills of Exchange, &c., in reference
to Legal Discount" is of the greatest vaue to all who
are coucerned in monetary transactions. The remarks
on the " Legislative Assembly of Newfoundland" are
pertinent and forcible.

77se " New Statistical Account of Scotland. No. 21.
February, 1839.
The zeal displayed in the management of this inva-
luable work, the industry manifested in the collection
of the multifarious information which it contains, the
accuracy of its copious statistical details, and, above
all, the benevolent object to which its publication has
been made subservient, entitle it to the especial support
of every Scotsman ; whilst the interesting nature of
its contents must render it attractive to scientific read-
ere in general. The profits of the work are given to
the " Society for the benefit of the Sons and Daughters
of the Clergy." The present number contains a beau-
tifully executed map of Edinburghshire, and a copious
history of the parishes of Wigton, Kirkinner, Sorbie,
Glasserton, Whithorn, Mochrum, Old Luce, New
Luse, Inch, Stranraer, Kirkcolm, Leswalt, Portpatrick,
Stonykirk, Penninghame, Kirkowan, Kirkmaiden, all
in the county of Wigton.

Dearden's Miscellany. No. 3. March, 1839.
This new aspirant for public favour, is, we perceive,
printed at Nottingham. From the number before us
we venture to say that it cannot but be successful, if
conducted hereafter with the same ability as at present.
Several of its articles display ability of the very highest
order. " A Sketch from Life" is an affecting tale, with
an agreeable termination. We have been highly de-
lighted with tne perusal of the " Chapters on Poetry
and Poets." The author is evidently a man of culti-
vated. taste, as well as a good classical scholar. " Float-,
ing Remembrances of an Old Sailor" contain a very
powerful narrative. The article on the " Ecclesiastical
Statistics in the Church of England" is alone worth
the price of the magazine. We shall endeavour to find
room for it on some future day. Its defence of the
church is unanswerable. The poetry dispersed through
this interesting miscellany is generally excellent. We
are glad to recognize the name of James Montgomery
among its contributors.

Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. By
Christopher Wordsworth, D.D. Part 2. London :
Wm. S. Orr and Co.
The eminent character of the author of this splendid
work is a sufficient guarantee forthe ability with which
it is conducted. lie classical attainments of Dr.
Wordsworth peculiarly qualify him for the execution
of the task which he has undertaken. When com-
pleted, this work will prove an invaluable acquisition
to the school library. Independently of the literary
portions of the work, each part contains two or three
highly finished landscapes, engraved on steel, and nu-
merous engravings on wood, illustrative of the topo-
graphy, ruins, monuments, medals, coins, and scenery
of the country. The pictorial embellishments are ex-
ceedingly well executed, and very considerably enhance
the value of the work. We hope it will meet with an
extended circulation, which it amply deserves.

The Aldine Magazine of Biography, Bibliography, Cri-
ticism, and the Arts. Part 3. March, 1839. Lon-
don : Masters.
This agreeable miscellany is conducted with much
spirit and with great ability. its pages are chiefly oc-
cupied with original articles and valuable extracts from
standard publications. The biographical and biblio-
graphical departments are particularly interesting, arid
abound with curious reminiscences of celebrated authors
and publishers. The frontispiece to the present num-
ber contains fac-similes of the autographs of some of
the metropolitan publishers of the day. " The fate of
Louis the Seventeenth" is a curious paper, in which
the existence of the Dauphin is strenuously maintained.
" Letters to my Son at Home" contain some interest-
ing details. The essay on "Woman" is written with
great taste. The reviews and miscellaneous articles
are copious and entertaining.

The Farmers' Magazine, and Monthly Journal of Pro-
ceedings affecting the Agricultural Interest. March,
1839.
This is decidedly one of the most useful periodicals
of the day. It contains a large mass of carefully di-
gested information'• respecting the management of the
land in general—the selection of grain, seeds, root, &c.
—the nature and properties of manures—ploughing
and draining—the economy of farm houses and la-
bourers' cottages—plantations—the breeding and
diseases of cattle, &c., &c. The numerous papers
which the present number contains on the corn laws
will be found of great value. Altogether this work
forms a complete encyclopiedia of agricultural science,
and no farmer ought to be without it. Its price places
it within the reach of all who are interested in farming
affairs.

The Sportsman. March, 1839.
The illustrative engravings in the present number
are "Grouse Shooting in the Highlands" and " The
Teal;" both of which are executed in the first style of
art. The letter press explanations of these plates are
very cleverly written. " The Sporting Club" promises
to form a very agreeable series of papers. The article
on " Coursing" contains some valuable practical
suggestions. " A Night March" is evidently from
the pen of an old sportsman. "The Trout; and how
to catch him" is a valuable piscatorial dissertation,
abounding with information of great utility to all
" lovers of the gentle art." To the curious in horse
flesh, the " Account of the Stud at Morney" will be
acceptable. The essay on " Stable Economy" is also
adnurably compiled and full of instruction.

The Vew Monthly Belle Assemblee. March, 1839.
Thie pleasing naiacellanq contains a great variety of

light and amusing reading, which renders it an agree-
able companion to the fair readers for whose enter-
tainment it professes to cater. Its illustrative plates of
the monthly fashions seem to be executed with care
and fidelity. The literary contents of the number un-
der notice are of a very superior character. They con-
sist chiefly of tales, romances, anecdotes, and poetry.
The poetry does not always rise above mediocrity.
" Nights at the Kiosk" form an interesting series.
" The Victim"—" Puffing"—" Sybil Dalton"—" Leaves
from my Life"—" The Bandbox Maker"—" The Be-
reavement of Mary O'Brien"—" Rejoicings in the year
1770"—" Our Book Club"—and " The Broken Heart"
will be found an agreeable succession of tales, quite
sufficient for a single number.

Wilson's Historical, Traditionary, and Imaginative
Tales of the Borders, and of Scotland. Parts 55
and 56. Edinburgh : Sutherland.
This very amusing and instructive series of tales
continues to rise in public estimation. They are
generally unexceptionable in their character. Every
tale conveys a moral lesson, which is frequently dilated
upon at considerable length. The numbers before us
are exceedingly rich in legendary lore. The tales are
" Hogmany ; or, the Lady of Ballochgray"—" The
Rightful Heir"—" The Duel".—" Johnny Reid's
Wedding"—" The Bewildered Student"—" Sketches
from a Surgeon's Note-Book" —" John Square's
Voyage to India"—" Phebe Fortune"—" The Enthu-
siast" and "The Laird of Lucky 's How." The
cheapness of this series is almost unprecedented.

A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom. By Thos.
Rymer Jones, F.Z.S. Part V.
We are glad to find that this admirable work is
becoming popular. The subject itself is sufficiently
interesting to render the perusal of this publication an
object of general attraction : whilst the eminent quali-
fications of. the author cannot fail to secure' for it an
extended circulation. Science and simplicity are so
admirably blended together in its pages as to render it
intelligible to the cursory reader, as well as instructive
to the more learned in the study of natural history.
The present part treats of the Annelida, the Illyriapoda,
and the Insecta. The illustrative engravings are exe-
cuted with great accuracy. We understand that, in
order to accommodate the work as much as possible to
unscientific readers, a glossary of technical and scien-
tific terms will be given in the concluding part.

The Church Magazine. March, 1839.
Although we cannot express our unqualified appro-
bation of some of the articles which appear in this
Magazine, it is calculated to effect Much good, espe-
cially by its uncompromising hostility to Popery. The
present number contains some very powerful articles
in repudiation of Popery. The paper on " Popish Er-
rors" is of the number; and exposes the heretical'
notions of the Church of Rome on the subjects of
Absolution, Confession to Priests, Prayers to Saints,
the Worship of Images, the Supremacy of the Bishop
of Rome, and Public Worship in an Unknown Tongue.
The articles on "The Church" and "Tradition" sa-
vour too strongly of Puseyism to please us. The mis-
cellaneous information will be found very interesting.

Preparations for the Session of 1839.—0 n the Crimi-
nal Returns of Ireland. By Jeffries Kingsley,
M. R. I. A., &c. Dublin : Folds. 1839.
This work contains a mass of carefully digested
statistical information relating to the state of crime in
Ireland. We need scarcely say that it affords the most
conclusive evidence in refutation of the oft-repeated
boasts of Lord Normanby and the whigs in reference
to the " tranquillity" of that country. As it would be
impossible for us, in the brief space at our command
this day, to do justice to the contents of this pamphlet,
we shall hereafter present our readers with a number
of startling facts, sufficient to convince the most im-
partial that the affairs of Ireland have been grossly
mal-administered, and that its actual condition has, for
sinister purposes, been palpably misrepresented by the
liberal press:

Confessions of Harry Lorrequer. Illustrated by Phiz.
No. I. Dublin : W. Curry, jun. and Co.
We have often been delighted with the perusal of
these " Confessions," as they appeared in the columns
of the Dublin University, and we are glad to find that
the spirited publisher has determined upon issuing
them in -monthly parts, accompanied by humorous
illustrations, after the manner of the Pickwick Papers,
&c. The strange incidents detailed in this amusing
narrative cannot fail to render it a favourite with the
public. We know of no work more calculated to ex-
cite the risible nerves into a state of unwonted activity.

LIVERPOOL MECHANICS' INSTITUTION.

LECTURES ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

A course of lectures upon this subject is now in process of
delivery at the above Institution, by R. H. Brett, Esq.,
M.A., Professor of Chemistry at the magnificent institution
in Colquitt-street,---the Apothecaries' Hall,—which has cer-
tainly commenced its career with much honour to the direc-
tors, so far as regards the engagement of this highly-accom-
plished chemist. The first lecture was delivered on Wednes-
day evening. The audience was numerous and attentive, and
seemed to appreciate the intellectual treat laid before them
by the worthy lecturer.
The department of chemistry which I am about to intro-
duce to your notice, observed Dr. Brett, has been attended
to in this country only within the last few years. It is
singular that whilst our chemists have kept pace with conti-
nental chemists in the department of inorganic chemistry,
they seem to have almost entirely lost sight of that branch
which belongs to the organic kingdom of nature. It cannot
be urged that the subject is either devoid of interest or im-
portance, for a branch of knowledge which has for its object
so extensive a range, and which is almost certain to reward
our researches by splendid discoveries, can hardly fail to
excite a lively interest in the heart of every true lover of
science ; and I do say, that the many discoveries which have
resulted not only to chemical science, but to the arts and
manufactures, are undeniable evidences of its importance. I
am aware that organic chemistry has seldom or never been
introduced in what is called a popular course of lectures on
chemistry ; but when I bear in mind the many and excellent
opportunities which the members of this institution have
enjoyed, and still enjoy, of becoming acquainted with prac-
tical details of chemical science, and more particularly in the
organic department, I venture to introduce to them this
course of lectures, feeling confident that the subject upon
which they treat possesses a great claim upon attention, how-
ever weak or incapable I may be found as an advocate.
In treating upon the subject of organic chefnistry, it is
necessary that we should have a clear idea of the difference
between organic and inorganic bodies. It may be observed,
that all the principles which we recognise as organic are
essentially the products of vital action ; that the varied
secretions which are met with in the animal kingdom, as
well as the numerous products which we recognise in vege-
table bodies, are all the result of vital action producing
chemical change. It is this circumstance which makes the
great distinction between organic and inorganic bodies. We
are able to imitate, in our laboratories, many of those com-
pounds which belong to the inorganic kingdom • but with a
very few exceptions indeed, none of those which belong to
the organic class. During the existence of an animal or
plant those changes of a chemical nature to which I have
alluded go on whilst the vital principle influences them, and
it is only when this vital principle is extinct that the orga-
nised being comes under the influence of ordinary chemical
affinity. It is then, and then only, that those laws which are
called ordinary chemical laws come into operation. So soon
then as vitality ceases, from whatever cause, either the
organic materials are resolved into their simple elements, or
into compounds differing from those which existed in the
living being. These compounds are either gaseous, liquid,
or solid. Independent of these important differences between
the organic and inorganic substances, we have some which
are of a more purely chemical nature. For example; bodies
belonging to the inorganic kingdom are for the most part
made up of numerous elements, those recognised as com-
pounds at least. There are not less than 54 elements in the
inorganic kingdom of nature ; but in organic bodies four
simple elements only are essential for their constitution. We
have here then a very decided difference between inorganic
and organic bodies. Whilst then inorganic bodies differ from
the organic, in the variety and number of the elements com-
posing them, we find that the organic bodies differ materially
from the inorganic in the combining proportions of the ele-
ments which are employed in their formation. We know
that substances belonging to the organic classes, although the
elements of which they are composed are simple and few, are
compounded of these elements in numerous proportions. To
make myself more clearly understood, I would notice two
substances, selected from the two kingdoms of nature. We
will take sulphate of ,lime. This substance contains sul-
phuric acid and lime. The sulphuric acid is composed of
four proportions of elements : one of sulphur and three of
oxygen. The lime is composed of two proportions of simple
elements, namely, the metal calcium and oxygen. We thus
find six proportions entering into the constitution of sulphate
of lime, which is an inorganic substance. If we take starch,
or sugar, which is an organic body, we shall find the elements
to be 32, namely, 12 of carbon, 10 of hydrogen, and 10 of.
oxygen. Inorganic substances, it will be perceived from this
statement, are made up of elements in few proportions,
whereas in organic bodies the compounds are made up of
elements in many proportions.
Having stated the principal differences which exist be-
tween organic and inorganic bodies, I shall now direct your
attention to the important changes which take place du-
ring the germination of seed and the growth of plants,
for this is necessary before entering upon a consideration of
those changes of an organic nature which will occupy your
attention. In order that germination may take place with
vigour and effect, certain conditions must he observed. In
the first place the seed must be exposed to a certain tempera-
ture ; supplied with oxygen and also receive the advantage of
moisture. It is a well known fact that seeds placed in cir-
cumstances favourable for germination have that process en-
tirely stopped by the operations of cold. If, for example, the
seed be germinating at a medium summer temperature, and
we expose it to the temperature of freezing water, we shall
find that that pencess will be stopped, and in some cases
entirely annihilated. The advantage of atmospheric air, and
the oxygen which it contains is recognised by almost all. It is
well known that seeds may be placed deep in the ground
without germinating so long as atmospheric air is excluded
from them. and we find that asland is turned up, germination
takes place in seeds by their becoming exposed to the vivifying
action of the atmospheric, having previously laid for years in
a dormant state. The importance of moisture in germination,
it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon, because every person
must be acquainted with the faet. We all know how import-
ant it is that a proper supply of moisture should be afforded
to the seed, and must have remarked, that when it is exposed
to the burning influence of the sun, and is unable to obtain
moisture from any source, it speedily perishes, but when it
receives the influence of fresh vapour and moisture in a.
condensed state, it speedily developes itself and becomes ul-
timately a fine grown plant. The changes then which take
place, (these several conditions being observed) may now be
spoken of, The seed being placed under favourable circum-
stances increases considerably in bulk by the absorption of
water. During the process of germination the starch which
enters largely into the composition of the seed becomes con-
verted into sugar and gum. A quantity of carbonic acis is
disengaged into the atmosphere in consequence of the carbon
of the seed combining with the oxygen of the air, and that
seeds under such circumstances do give out their carbon is
demonstrated by the fact that if we examine seeds which have
germinated for a certain time, .we find that they contain
much more carbon than they didbefore. Whilst that portion of
the seed termed the plumula rises above the ground to be-
come the future plant, another portion, called the radicle,
descends and ultimately becomes the root. This portion
sinks into the earth, and it is from it that the upper portion

receives its nourishment. The nutritious portions of the i
seed are taken up by the radicle, and thence pass on to the
plumula or young plant. As soon as the plant begins to de-
velope leaves, it causes certain changes in the atmosphere
and media in which it is immersed, and this change will be
in relation to the earth in which it is implanted, and re-
lative to the atmosphere, and in relation to moisture. It
is now perfectly well understood that plants will not grow
vigorously unless they receive certain substances from the
earth. It is well known that the saline ingredients which
are met with so abundantly in different plants are de-
rived from the earth, and that these salts are essen-
tial to the well being of the plants. Some very interest-
ing experimentswere made some years ago on this particular
point. It was found that plants possessed a peculiar
power of secretion with respect to the saline matters with
which the earth was impregnated ; that some of these salts were
imbibed more energetically than others, and, what appears
somewhat strange, that poisonous salts were imbibed with
more avidity than those which cannot be at all noxious to
vegetable bodies. The relation, however, which exists be-
tween growing plants and the atmosphere are of much more
interest than that which exists between them and the soil,
although both are essential to the growth of the plants.
When a plant is exposed to the atmosphere, carbonic acid is
disengaged in the night, and oxygen in the day. Dr. Priest-
ley was the first to observe, that an atmosphere which had
become vitiated by the ,presence of carbonic acid, was puri-
fied, so to speak, by the presence of plants ; that when plants
were placed in water containing carbonic acid, they removed
this carbonic acid and decomposed it, taking to themselves
the carbon and liberating the oxygen—this taking placedur-
ing the time the sun's rays fell upon the plant;—that during
the night a different train of circumstances took place ; car-
bonic acid was disengaged, but the whole of the carbon which
had been taken up by the plants during the day was not dis-
engaged, a portion being retained to assist in the growth and
to allow of nutrition. In order to prove that plants detive
their carbon from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, or
that which is diffused through water, experiments were in-
stituted. It was found that when plants were placed in
water which had been perfectly boiled, so as to free it from
gaseous matters, and placed under the same circumstances
as ordinary water, there was no disengageMent of oxygen
gas ; but when carbonic acid was forced into it, oxygen was
freely liberated from the water. An artificial atmosphere
has been made, containing 8 or 10 per cent. of carbonic acid,
the remaining portion being composed of oxygen and nitro-
gen in similar proportions as in the atmospheric air. It was
found that when plants were placed in such an atmosphere,
and exposed to the sun's rays in the usual way, after a few
days the whole of the carbonic acid was taken up, as well as
a portion of the oxygen, and their ulaces supplied with ni-
trogen or azote.
Having in this cursory manner introduced to your notice
the action of plants over the media in which they are placed,
I shall now turn to the elementary constitution of organized
bodies, and endeavour to show to you that such bodies are
compounded of three gaseous and one solid bodiy, and that
although other substances enter into the constitution of such
bodies, they are not essential to their existence. They con-
sist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. Azote does
not essentially enter into the constitution of vegetable bodies.
Independently' of these- four simple elements, we occasion-
ally meet with two other elementary bodies, which also be-
long to the inorganic kingdom of nature, namely, sulphur
and phosphorus. Sulphur is diffused through the animal
kingdom, and we occasionally meet with it in the vegetable,
but phosphorus is confined to animal substances. Whenever
an organic substance is exposed to a certain temperature, we
find the elements which entered into its composition are
separated, that a number of gaseous products are the result
of such application of heat, and when the decomposition
takes place without the access of atmospheric air, that solid
carbon is obtained. If, for instance, we place a small quan-
tity of starch in a small crucible, cover it so as to prevent
the ready access of the atmosphere, and apply heat to it, we
shall after a time separate the hydrogen, and the oxygen and
the greatef part of the carbon will be left behind. Indepen-
dent of the application of heat, there are other means by
which we are enabled to show the presence of carbon in
organic substances. If I add a portion of concentrated sul-
phuric acid to common sawdust, the latter will become in-
tensely black. The change which takes place under such
circumstances is this : the sawdust consists of carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen; when I add sulphuric acid, I add a sub-
stance which has a great affinity for water or the elements of
water ; it therefore causes the elements of water (oxygen and
hydrogen), in the ligneous fibre, to unite and form water,
and leaves the carbon free, which assumes a black colour.
Instead of using a concentrated acid, I can produce the same
effect by a weak acid, by applying a moderate degree of heat.
I shall trace a few letters upon writing-paper with dilute
acid, and, by holdiag it above a lamp, we shall be able to
show that the hydrogen and oxygen have been set free, and
the carbon left behind. Having thus demonstrated to you
the 'modes in which we ascertain the presence of carbon in
organic substances, I shall proceed to the notice of
hydrogen, a very abundant element of organic bodies.
If we take an organic substance which is perfectly free from
hygrometric moisture, and apply a high temperature to that
body, we shall convert it into gaseous substances, which will
be carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, carburetted hydrogen and
water. You will readily understand how the different ele-
ments combine to form these gaseous products. One por-
tion of the carbon, for example, of the vegetable body unites
with a portion of oxygen to form carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide. A portion of the hydrogen unites with another por-
tion of the carbon to form carburetted hydrogen, while the
remaining portions of the hydrogen and oxygen Unite to con-
stitute water. Hence we have by these means an experi-
mental proof of the existence of hydrogen, oxygen, and
carbon, taking care that no hygrometric moisture be present.
Another means by which we ascertain the presence of hydro-
gen in an organic substance is the following. We take the
organic body perfectly dry, for this is essential in examining
an organic substance for hydrogen, and mix it with calomel,
"the chloride of mercury, a salt somposed of chlorine and
mercury. If we apply heat to the mixture, we shall find that
the chlorine will combine with the hydrogen of the sub-
stance and form muriatic acid. This muriatic acid is capable
of producing a cloudiness in a solution of nitrate of silver,
and this will determine the existence of hydrogen in
an organic substance, simply by combining it with some
other elementary body, and causing it to act upon some
of the salts of silver. The presence of oxygen in organic
substances, and the mode of ascertaining its existence, is by
no means a striking experiment. The simple circumstance
of the application of heat to a perfectly dry organic body, if
the substance contains oxygen and hydrogen, will produce
water ; and if we find after exposing the substance to a
strong heat for some time, that water is not produced, we
having previously ascertained the presence of hydrogen. The
may be assured that' the substance is free from oxygen,
readiest mode of ascertaining the presence of nitrogen in or-
ganic bodies, is by applying heat to such organic bodies,
placing them in contact with some caustic alkali, for organic
substances are prone to generate acids during the applica-
tion of heat. Caustic alkali is necessary, therefore, to
neutralize the acid and cause the amonia to pass off in a pure
state. I have here oxamide a combination of carbon, oxygen,
and nitrogen hydrogen. When, therefore, we apply heat to
this substance by contact with a caustic alkali, the hydrogen
united with the nitrogen to form ammonia, whiCh is a volatile
alkali capable of rendering vegetable reds green. Oxamide
is a substance which contains a great quantity of nitrogen, it
does not exist naturally, but is the product of the action of
one organic substance upon another, as will be explained in a
subsequent lecture. Independent, however, of those simple
elementary substances which enter into the composition of
organic bodies, there are certain substances common to the
organic as well as to the inorganic kingdom. To these sub-
stances I shall now direct your attention. The inorganic
substances which enter into the composition of organic
bodies, divide themselves into the acids and base. We have
as acids the sulphuric,'the muriatic, the phosphoric, and the
silicic. The latter is the acid of flints, which possesses many
of the properties of acids, as it combines with potash or
soda, and possesses the neutralizing properties of an acid.
Amongst the bases we have, potass, soda, lime, manganese,
iron, magnesia, and copper, and these substances enter into
the composition of many organic bodies. Potass enters into
the composition of all inland vegetables, whilst soda is found
in all the marine plants. Manganese also is found in combi-
nation with the iron, and copper has been found by the Ger-
man chemists to exist in some plants. I have a few solutions
of the ashes of an inland vegetable. Now, potash and soda
are extremely soluble in water, therefore upon adding the
solution of a red vegetable infusion I obtain a green colour.
This experiment demonstrates the existence of an alkali in
vegetable substances. After the vegetable ashes have been
heated with, water, to remove all the alkali, there will re-
main a number of earthy substances, such as lime, magnesia,
and the metalic oxide of iron. It is necessary to get these
substances into solution by other means than that for dis-
solving the alkali, as water is, not a solvent for these sub-
stances. They have therefore been dissolved in muriatic
acid. If this solution contains magnesia we shall find
by the addition of potash a white precipitate will take
place. The precipitate is not abundant, because magnesia
does not exist in large quantities in vegetables. I have said
that lime is one of those earths met with in vegetable bodies.
It also requires to be dissolved in muriatic acid in the same
way in which the magnesia was, and if I add to it a salt
called the oxalate of ammonia, I shall throw down the lime
in the form of a white powder, by whiCh we show that the
vegetable ashes contained lime. In order to prove the ex-
istence of iron in vegetable substances it is necessary to dis-
solve the iron also in muriatic acid; when, by the addition of
a solution of prussiate of potash we produce Prussian blue ;
and a very minute portion of iron can be detected by this
means. Amongst the acids to which I have alluded we have
the sulphuric, muriatic, and the silicic. The mode of de-
decting the presence of phosphoric acid I shall not now no-
tice. The sulphuric acid which is met with in the ashes of
plants is associated with bases. If to a solution of the ashes
in water we add a solution of the muriate of barytes, which
precipitates the sulphuric acid either in a state of com-
bination as sulphate of barytes, we, shall obtain a white
precipitate. The presence of muriatic acid is shown by
means of a salt of silver, precisely in the same way as when I
alluded to the decomposing action of an organic substance by
chloride of mercury. The precipitate in this case is also
white, being the chloride of silver. The presence of silicic
acid in vegetable substrnces is shown by the fact, that, if we
take common straw or ordinary grass, which contains a very
large quantity of silica, and incinerate it, by mixing the ashes
with carbonate of potass, and applying a considerable heat,
we shall get glass. I have here some glass buttons obtained
in this way.
I will now proceed to the notice of a more interesting part
of our subject, namely, the ultimate analysis of organic sub-
stances. Organic substances, as analized by the older che-
mists, were treated in a manner very peculiar to themselves.
In consequence of their imperfect apparatus, and less ex-
tended,knowledge, they employed very rude means to ascer-
tain the ultimate composition of organic substances. They,
for the most part, simply exposed them to heat, and collected
the products, which were found to be solid or fluid. From
such products, as well as they were able, the elementary
properties of the substance under nniice were calculated. The
method which has been since adopted in ultimately analizing
organic bodies is much more perfect. It consists in the con-
version of all the carbon into carbonic acid and the hydrogen
into water. When nitrogen exists in organic substances that
product is obtained in a separate and free state. The • sub-
stance which was formerly employed for examining the car-
bon and the hydrogen was a salt called chlorate of potash.
This salt is one which contains a very large quantity of oxygen,
and not only does it contain a very large quantity of oxy-
gen gas, but gives it out very readily, and under easy circum-
stances. The action of sulphuric acid upon chlorate of potash
is attended with the evolution of a large quantity of oxygen.
Such a substance, therefore, appeared very favourable for the
object which chemists had in view in converting the carbon
into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. If we place a
quantity of chlorate of potash and starch in a tube, and ap-
ply heat to it, oxygen will be disengaged, which uniting with
the carbon will produce carbon acid, and with the hydrogen
water. This change is attended with a very considerable dis-
engagement of light and heat. Although a large quantity of
oxygen is disengaged, there is not sufficient time for, the com-
bination of the oxygen and hydrogen, and a large quantity of
the organic products is carried along the tube without perfect
combustion. In order to show the powerful effect of chlo-
rate of potash upon organic substances and upon ceetain in-
flammable compounds, I shall cause a small quantity to be
rubbed in a mortar with sulphur, when a violent detonative
will ensue. This entirely depends upon the ve.ly rapid dis-
engagement of oxygen when simply rubbed in contact with
an inflammable ingredient. If we take portions of the
chlorate of potass, and phosphorus and place them together
upon a paper, and give them a sharp blow with a hammer,
we shall have the phosphorus immediately inflamed. The
action of chlorate of potash in this case is similar to that
which took place with the starch. If a small quantity
of the chlorate of potash is mixed with mettalic sulphu-
ret, and we drop upon the mixture a small quantity
of sulphuric acid, a sufficient quantity of oxygen will be
disengaged to inflame the metallic sulphuret. In this
case we have the action of chlorate of potash simply upon

inflammable ingredients. But we are unable to show the
action of the same substance upon an organic substance,
namely, sugar. The experiment is striking, as it shows the
rapidity with which organic substances are decomposed by
the oxygen disengaged. This experiment will sufficiently
show how energetic chlorate of potash is, not simply with in-
organic bodies, but with organic bodies of a less inflammable
nature, and it is this circumstance that called the attention of
chemists to its use in ultimate analysis. Finding, however,
that this substance was far too sapid in its action, they had
recourse to other means, such as metallic oxide, amongst
which may be ranked the oxides of lead, copper, and manga-
nese. Oxide of iron, it will be remembered, gives up its
oxygen to the carbon of vegetable substances to form car-
bonic oxide, and water is found. When manganese is
heated with an organic substance, the oxygen unites
with the carbon to form a carbonic oxide, the manga-
nese is reduced to a lower state of oxidation. But these
substances do not answer the object for which they are
intended in ultimate analysis, for several reasons. First,
oxide of iron requires too high a degree of heat—oxide of
lead, although better adapted to the purpose, itself fuses at no
very high temperature, and is, therefore inefficient. Oxide
of manganese gives off oxygen gas when no organic substance
is present, and is therefore calculated to vitiate the experi-
ment, the object being to obtain an oxide which will only
give give up its oxygen to the hydrogen and carbon of an or-
ganic substance. Now such an oxide is the black oxide of
copper, ano it is this oxide which is now employed in organic
analysis. In order to cause the decomposition of an organic
substance by analysis with black oxide of copper, it is neces-
sary that the two substances should be intimately mixed
together. The apparatus employed for this purpose is very
simple. If we have an organic substance, which by previous
experiment we have shown to consist of oxygen, carbon,
and hydrogen, and we can get the weight of hydrogen and
carbon in this substance, we can tell by the loss of weight
the quantity of oxygen which enters into its composition ;
and the oxygen is found to be the difference between the
carbon and hydrogen, and the original weight of the organic
substance. There are several circumstances which must be
observed in order satisfactorily to perform this analysis.
Unless the whole of the substance be perfectly free from
hygrometric moisture, we shall estimate its hydrogen too
high and its oxygen too low. Having obtained it perfectly
dry, the organic substance is to be mixed with the metallic
oxide, and placed in the tube. In the first place, one inch
of the length of the tube is to be filled with black oxide of
copper, we must then put in a mixture of the organic sub-
stance and black oxide of copper, to the extent of 24 inches
of the tube, we then introduce two inches of black oxide of
copper, and the remainder of the tube may be filled up with
copper chippings. Having prepared the tube, we insert into
its mouth a small tube, supplied with a bulb, containing a
substance which has a great affinity for water, namely, dry
muriate of lime. To this tube, which may be called the dry-
ing tube, an apparatus, consisting of a series of bulbs, is
attached, and these bulbs are to be nearly filled with a solu-
tion of patass. This contrivance originated with the cele
brated chemist Liebig, and the name of Liebig's bulbs has
been given to them ; the alkaline solution which they con-
tain has a great affinity for carbonic acid gas, which it ab-
sorbs with much avidity. We first apply heat to that end of
the tube near to the chloride of calcium. The heat is then
gradually continued to the other extremity of the tube.
When it arrives at the mixture of the black oxide of copper
and the organic substance, the organic substance is decom-
posed, and the carbon unites with the oxygen of the dent-
oxide of copper, as also does the hydrogen, and carbonic acid
and water are the results ; so that all carbon which is set free,
is fully oxidised before it leaves the tube. The carbonic
acid is entirely absorbed by the caustic potash. If there-
fore we weigh the muriate of lime both before and after,
and in the same manner the caustic potash in the bulbs,
the difference of weight will give us the quantity of water
formed, and the quantity of carbonic acid formed. By this
means we ascertain the due amount of hydrogen and carbon,
in the organic substance ; and if we then deduct from the
original weight of organic substance, the sum of both we get
the quantity of oxygen. There is another mode of ascer-
taining the quantity of azote or nitrogen in organic sub-
stances, as the preceding one will not apply. In order care-
fully to analyze a substance containing nitrogen, it is neces-
sary
to perform a very delicate analysis. In the first place,
we ascertain the quantity of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen,
by means such as we have described, and afterwards we per-
form a separate experiment for the nitrogen. The apparatus
used for this purpose consists of a furnace, (which also
belongs to Liebid,) consisting of a simple oblong iron trough,
with perforations at the bottom to allow the access of atmos-
pheric air. This trough is supplied with a number of bars,
for the tube to rest upon. The tube is supplied with a mix-
ture of dentoxide of copper and the organic substance to be
analyzed, and in this case it is also necessary to employ the
copper clippings of which I before spoke. The copper
clippings are introduced at the further end of the tube, and
their object is of a preventive nature, for bodies containing
azote, when submitted to the action of heat with dentoxide
of copper, are found to generate nitric aoid, or nitrous acid,
which being driven over with the other products of decom-
position, would be of course absorbed by the caustic potash,
and consequently be a source of fallacy, as the object is to
obtain nothing gaseous but carbunic acid and nitrogen. We
have attached to the tube containing the mixed substance, a
long tube containing dry caustic potash, in lumps, from the
further end of which is a bent barometer tube, which dips
into a glass containing mercury. We then employ a tube,
graduated into 10 cubic inches, which is placed in such a
mannar, as to receive the end of the conducting tube. A
small quantity of atmospheric air is svffered to remain in this
cubic inch tube. Let us observe what will take place. Heat
being applied by means of ignited charcoal, we are able to
govern the temperatnre. By this means we decompose the
organic matter. The carbonic acid, aqueous vapour, and
nitrogen traverse the tube containing dry caustic potash.
The carbonic acid and aqueous vapour are absorbed by the
caustic potash, whereas the nitrogen enters into the cubic
inch tube, and of course causes a depression of the mercury
inside. When the gas has entirely come over we remove the
source of heat, and allow the whole apparatus to become
cool. As this takes place an absorption occurs, but the
absorption will be exactly equal to the quantity of gaseous
fluid which occupied the apparatus prior to the applica-
tion of heat, it is of no importance whether all the nitro-
gen enters the cubic inch tube so long as the qu-antity of
gaseous matter absorbed is the *same as was in the apparatus
at the beginning of the experiment. Therefore the quantity
of gaseous matter in the tube will be equal to the quantity of
' nitrogen-contained in the substance, so that it will be neces-
sary only to estimate the quantity of gas in the tube, making
an allowance for the atmospheric air originally left in it.
When we ascertain the weight of any volume of gus, it is ne-
cessary that we pay attention to the temperature at which
the gas is examined and the pressure of the atmosphere at
the time, for 'it is obvious that the same weight of gas will
occupy less bulk at 50!? Fahrenheit than at 60° or 70°. Also
if the pressure of the atmosphere be different, the weight of
gas as compared with the mean barometic pressure will like-
wise vary. Accordingly if the barometer stands at 29 inches,
then the mean pressure being 30, we of course fall into error
without we apply a correction. It is therefore necessary that
a correction should be made. The correction of a gas for
pressure is very simple, for it will be found that any gas
which occupies a certain volume at 29 inches of barometrical
pressure, will occupy a bulk according to a simple ratio at 30,
this may be readily calculated by the rule of proportion. The
correction for temperature is not so simple, but by the appli-
cation of the law established by Gay, Lusac, and Dalton, all
gaseous substances condense one part in 480 for every degree
of Fahenreits scale, beginning at 32°, and proceeding up-
wards, and the converse of this holds good in every degree of
the descending scale. By this correction we have a ready
means for ascertaining the exact weight of the gaseous matters
we are operating upon, and in this manner we do obtain them
in practice.
Dr. Brett illustrated his lecture with numerous brilliant
and appropriate experiments, in the performance of which he
was assisted by Mr. William Radcliff, whose abilities in this
department of science have gained for him the first prize given
at the evening schools of this institution to the chemical
class, under the able direction of Mr. Wilson.