The Sun.
London, England, 1858-12-30 00:00:00

THE LATE DREADFUL ACCIDENT AT
THE VICTORIA THEATRE.

[The following appeared in part of our impression of last
evening
An inquest was held yesterday afternoon at St.
Thomas's Hospital, before Mr. Payne, upon the
bodies of William Cooper, of No. 7, Anthony-
street, BermOidsey, and Henry Nash, aged 17, two
of the unfortunate persons who lost their lives; on
the afternoon of the 27th. %.•
The jury having been sworn,
The Coroner said the jury were assembled to •
quire into the deaths of two of the sufferers who
lost their lives in consequence of being trampled
upon, on an alarm of fire being raised at the Vic-
toria Theatre on Monday afternoon. • The other
unfortunate individuals had been conveyed to dif-
ferent parts of the metropolis, and that fact ac-
counted for the present inquest being limited
to the two persons above mentioned. Before
entering into the inquiry Ae begged to state
that, in order to set aside any notion to
the contrary that might exist, that if any
person wilfully raised the cry of fire in a crowded
assembly, and death was the consequence, he was,
without question, liable for all the fatal conse-
quences that might follow.
The jury having viewed the bodies returned to
the inquest room. The first witness called was
William Hands, who said—l am a money-taker
at the gallery of the Victoria Theatre. About half-
past 4on Monday afternoon I was in the gallery
saloon, when I saw the people in the gallery all
jump up. The morning performance was going on.
I wondered what was- the matter. The audience
commenced rushing towards the staircase crying

out " Fire."
Coroner—Who did that ?
Witness—l can't say. The check-taker and
myself tried to stop them going out the way they
were going. We directed them to go down the
cross staircase. Some went that way, but a good
many, however, got_past us and unfastened the
frontdoor. That was the commencement of the panic.
We did all that was possible to prevent fatal con-
sequences. The fatality took place on the third
landing. There was no fire at all, at least I saw
none. I cannot say how the cry arose.
By a Juror—There was an escape of gas after
the people had broken down the gas pipe. That
was after the fire. The pipe was pulled out of its
place by the people trying to escape. The alarm
was given in the boxes, not in the gallery. There
are two galleries. The staircase of the top gallery
is five feet six inches wide.
Mr. John Croft said—l reside at 3, Nursery-
row, Walworth, I was at the Victoria Theatre on
Monday afternoon. I entered the house a few
minutes after two. I was in the boxes—the dress
circle—almost in the centre of the house. Every-
thing went on quietly for an hour and a half. At
about a quarter to 4 some smoke arose from the
front part of the boxes, about eight or ten seats in
front of me, and I then heard some persons say—
" you're on fire—you're on fire." The persons who
called were in the boxes, and they said it to a man
who was close to them. The man's coat was on
fire. Immediately there was a rush to the doors
from the boxes.
.Coroner—Did you see what became of the man
whose coat was on fire ?
Witness—No. I ran out with the rest. I only
heard the words, " You're on fire," when the
audience began to leave.
By a Juror—l can't say what became of the
man who said, "you're on fire." I only saw a
little smoke. The people ran out frantically.
Mr. Edward Bowden said—l reside at 41, Grey-
street, Webber-street. I am assistant artist at the
Victoria Theatre. At the time the alarm was given
I was standing at the back of the boxes in the
lobby. I was looking at the last comic scene when
I took my eye off, and I saw some smoke. It was
about five feet from the boxes. It was such as
would be produced by about two or_ three boxes of
fusees. There was a sulphurous smell. I jumped
into the box where the smoke was. I saw a
quantity of stuff like blue-fire alight on the floor.
I trampled it out with my feet. A cry of
fire arose, and the people immediately rushed about
in a frantic manner, and began to make their
escape. I implored them to keep their seats. I
saw a man and three or four boys standing together
where this occurred. A loy told me another boy's
coat had caught fire. After the house was
empty I looked on the floor, but I only found
a piece of paper which smelled of sulphur. I found
no lucifer matches. My impression is that the
smoke was occasioned by fusees. No part of the
boxes was burnt. I imagine the fusees ignited of
themselves. I heard some person say, " His coat
tail is on fire." There was not a very great dis-
turbance made. I know nothing of what took
place outside.
By a Juror—There was no person smoking.
Mr. Henry Young said—l reside at 50, Elliot's-
row, and am treasurer at the Victoria Theatre.
When the cry of fire arose I was in the box lobby.
It seemed to proceed from the left centre of the
boxes. I saw the people rise up in a• mass. I
entreated the audience to keep their seats, and
asked them the cause of the alarm, when several
of them said, "There's fire, we can smell it and see
the smoke." Numbers then made a rush to tho
principal staircase. After a minute or two I suc-
ceeded in pacifying some persons near me, and
then went to the staircase and told the audience
they might safely return to their seats. They
did so. I heard the commotion in the gallery. The
alarm was perfectly electric. It spread over the
whole house in an instant. There was a smell of
lucifers or fusees. I looked on the floor but found
nothing to indicate fire. After the tumult sub-
dided several persons told me a boy's coat had
taken fire through having some fusees in his
pocket. I asked where the boy was, but I was
unable to find him.
By a Juror—l cannot say positively whether the
smoke was occasioned by lucifers or fusees. The
parties who lost their lives were on the gallery
stairs waiting to come in to the evening perform-
ance. That is my opinion. The persons rushing
out of the gallery must have opened one of the front
doors in their fright, and thus caused the cata-
strophe. The persons who opened that door were
cautioned not to do so. They were directed the
way out. There are three outlets to the gallery.
Joseph Holmes, 40, Salisbury-street, Bermondsey
said—l was on the top stair of the gallery near
the pay place, with Cooper (the deceased) and
Patrick Andrews; he is also dead. We started
from home about half-past three. We had all been
waiting at the door for about half an hour. There
were a great many people below us, wanting to go
in to see the night performance. Cooper stood
behind me, on the stair below. Andrews was on
the same stair as I was. He was on my left hand
side. I laid hold of the bannisters with my right
hand. The first thing I saw of the accident was
the gallery door opening from the inside, and some
persons said, " Get out; the place is on fire." We
all made a rush to get down stairs, and I was
thrown down on the top of the others. I looked
up,,and then I saw a gas pipe had burst. We
all laid on the first landing. I called out for help.
A policeman tried to pull me out, but failed, as
I was wedged in too tight. I saw Patrick Andrews
cry until he was black in the face. There wore
persons below and above him. It all happened in
consequence of the people trying to get out. I did
not see William Cooper. I can't say where the
alarm was first given. All I know is, that I heard
the person who opened the door say, " Get out ; the
place is on fire."
By a Juror—l never noticed the gas pipe. We
were all lying on the top of each other. I don't
know anything more. I was carried immediately
to a coffee-shop. I think the gas pipe was fitted too
high for the people to tread on it.
fames Cooper, a lad aged about 15, said—l live
at Anthony-street, Bermondsey. Cooper is my
brother. He was turned 17 years of age. He
worked with my father, who is a costermonger. I
went with him to the theatre. They advised me
to get out of the crowd previous to the alarm being
given. I, however, went back, when I heard some-
body say, " Get out, the place is on fire." The
people on the stairs all began to rush out. After
the alarm vas over I saw my brother lying down.

I cried for help, when two policemen came. When
I first saw my brother he was lying on the floor. ' I
thought he was dead. I put my hand to his heart,
but coult not feel it beat. lie was taken to the
doctor's, who said he was not quite cleat and that
he had better be taken to the hospital. That is all
I know about it.

Mr. W. Edgar—l am check-taker to the gallery.
My box is a flight above the waiting place. I saw
the people rushing out of the theatre—they were
rushing towards the front staircase. Two or three
boys opened the door. They gave the alarm.
people then began to rush down—that caused
mischief. The people, as they came out of the
ga lery called out " Fire." I don't know anything
but what I have been Told by Mr. Boden.
Mr. Johnson Towers said—l am lessee of the

acatre. The staircase is 6 ft. 6 in. wide, with 13

inches tread. It is the same width from top to
bottom. I was at the back of the stage when the
alarm was raised. My son and one of the attend-
ants at the pit bolted the door, and no acci-
dent occurred there. The same was done with
respect to the boxes. The explosion of gas spoken
of was merely a small fissure in the pipe. The
gas-man put out the flame with his cap. It was
fixed nine feet from the floor. The gas pipe, I
believe, was pulled from its place by persons trying
to see' what was the matter. Had the people gone
down the outlet they were directed, no fatal acci-
dent could have taken place.
Police constable L 168 gave evidence, but it re-
lated merely to carrying the wounded parties to
the hospital.
Sarah Bickers said—l know one of the boys
lying dead. He is my son. He was a porter. He
went by the name of Henry Nash.
Police constable 33 L said—l was on duty in the
Victoria Theatre when the accident occurred. I

fastened the gallery door, on the top of the stairs,
about 20 minutes past four. There were people
then waiting on the stairs for the evening perform-
ance. I was going to arrange the pit doors, when

I heard a confusion, and I ran back to the gallery
door, which I had fastened, and found it had been
opened. A man told me the gallery stairs were on
fire. I saw an unusual light under the third
landing. I went to see what was the matter. I
saw a number of persons lying huddled together.
The slit in the gas pipe was about the 16th of an
inch in width and half an inch in length. It would
not have done any harm had it burnt for hours.
George Batt, police sergeant, 9 L—l saw the mob
on the gallery stairs. I heard some of them say
" The place is on fire." I saw tie gas blazing from
the pipe. I don't know whether the light could be
seen inside the house. The people were shot from
the top of the gallery like coals. I saw two or
three people jump over the side of the stairs. The
whole of the unfortunates were completely wedged
down, none could get up, not even those who lay
on the top. _ _

Edwin Corbyn, the gasfitter, said the pipe was
quite perfect when the performance began in the
afternoon. The leakage might have been caused
by persons taking hold of the pipe to climb up by.
The gas pipe was here produced, and some of the
jurors were of opinion that the fracture was one of
old standing.
Mr. Henry Gervis, house-surgeon to St. Thomas's

Hospital, said both boys were dead when brough

to the institution. Nash had three ribs broken
on one side and four on the other. The lungs,
heart, and brain bore all the appearance of death
having been caused by suffocation. The same was
the case with Cooper, only he had no fracture.
The Coioner summed up, and said if it could be
proved that any person had wilfully raised the cry
of fire, and death had been occasioned thereby, he
would be guilty of manslaughter. _ _

A verdict of accidental death was returned, the
jury being of opinion that the alarm in the boxes
was the cause of the accident.

' VALUE OF THE SELF-RIGHTING
PRINCIPLE IN LIFEBOATS.

(From the Lifeboat Journal.)

On another page we record one of the most fear-
ful catastrophes that has ever happened on the
seas. The burning of the emigrant ship Austria,
with 528 persons on board, of whom no less than
471 were drowned, suffocated, or burned to death.
This unfortunate vessel was foreign property,
belonging to a Hamburg company, and one of a
line of steamships running•between that place and
New York. We cannot, therefore, be held na-
tionally responsible for this terrible sacrifice of
human life, from whatever cause it may have arisen.
The question must, however, naturally occur to
many a thinking Englishman—Are our own pas-
senger ships any better prepared to meet such a
terrible visitation as destruction by fire, or may we
expect after a while to have our feelings shocked by
the account of some English Austria presenting the
same deplorable spectacle of panic, destruction of
boats, and loss of all on board but some small por-
tion whom accident may have led to a better boat,
or to one more fortunately managed than the
others ?

Alas ! that our reply must be, we may, and most
probably will, ere long have to record a similar sad
tale on board an English vessel ; for we have no
reason to suppose that this unhappy ship was a
whit behind the best of our own in the provision of
boats or other means for effecting the safety of those
on board in the event of accident at sea.
The Austria was a fine vessel, of capacious
size, being 2,500 tons ; she was new, and of English
build, having been launched only a year before in
the Clyde ; and she was considered to be most
complete in the supply of boats, life-buoys, and all
such appliances, after the most approved modern
custom. Yet all was of no avail to no less than
471 persons out of 528 who had trusted themselves
and their all on board her.
It will be well to consider what was the cause of
so great a sacrifice of life, and why the means pro-
vided for the security of the living cargo so terribly
failed in the final emergency, in order that we may
ascertain what steps might be adopted to prevent,
or at least to lessen the chances of such calamities
in future.

It appears from the account of the survivors that
there was considered to have been a good supply of
boats on board, although not enough to contain all
the passengers and crew ; but that accidents hap-
penened to all of them in the act of lowering or
after they reached the water, chiefly caused by the
panic which seized on the affrighted passengers,
who rushed indiscriminately into them, and crushed
or swamped them one after another, two or three
of them being also upset by the action of the vessel's
screw. As a panic amongst those on board was then
the immediate cause of the greater portion of this
fearful loss of life, it will be worth our while to in-
quire how far there was reason for panic, and what•
arrangements may, with advantage, be adopted to
lessen the probability of a panic in all similar cases.
The first of these inquiries is readily replied
to without other information than we are already
acquainted with. The second is one loudly demand-
ing the serious• attention of the Government and
Legislature of this country.
With regard to the first inquiry, we have only
to learn that there were not sufficient boats to take
off all those on board the ill-fated ship, and we
have at once ample cause for a panic. For if it
were known to those on board that the boats would
take off all but five or six, or even all but one in-
dividual, that knowledge would be sufficient to
cause a panic, since the fear of being that doomed
one would suffice to raise up the demon of fear in
nearly every breast, and a panic would be the sure
result.

We may then at once proceed with our second
inquiry, viz. :—What arrangements may with ad-
vantage be adopted to lessen the probability of a
panic, with all its fearful consequences, in every
future similar case ? To this inquiry we shall
devote our careful consideration, and we hope to
show that it is quite practicable to provide such
security for every person on board the most crowded
emigrant or any other passenger as shall
materially lessen the probability of a panic seizing
them, and shall diminish the chances of loss of life
even when a panic has ensued.
And surely, as we have remarked above, this
is a subject worthy of the serious consideration of
the Government and Legislature. of this .
s
For when we consider the mtoto tot c taphreraoytpilesei evidentlycivilisation
ie most
distant at in
oost
in God's providence before
distant parts of the world, andus ,i
and religion into its darkest corners ; when we con-
sider our enormous and increasing commerce, and
the vast number of our countrymen whose lives are
ea
which
on
the seas, how
the
eh peals
great
ofprivi-
leges, thecaanndwm,ellslubffiecoieonntsltyanestltyimiamtpeetliell
responsibility
rests on us, as a nation pospseosssseidbloef
to lessen as far as
deep?
In the answer to our first inquiry, we have
pointed out the necessity for sufficient boats in every
ship to convey every person on board_in, the event

of destruction impending, whether by fire or other
danger incidental to the sea.

We shall be at once told that in the crowded
emigrant or troopship our remedy would be inap-
plicable, since a sufficient number of boats could not
be stowed on board. We are prepared to maintain
that sufficient boats can be stowed to carry the ful-
lest complement of passengers or troops conveyed
in any ship, and that it is therefore as much the
duty of the Legislature to require that such boats
shall be carried, as it is to limit the number of per-
s ms conveyed by any land carriage to such a num-
ber as may be safely carried by it. A similar law
requiring that no ship should carry more persons
on board than she had boat accommodation for,
would very quickly produce;the desired result, and
difficulties which appeared insurmountable when
seen through the mingled and conflicting atmos-
phere of Christian duty and worldly interest would
spedily disappear when viewed in the unobscured
light of commercial enterprise.
The spirit of emulation and competition, and the
keen desire for pecuniary profit would soon, as by
magic, build boats and rig davits, and find out
blank spaces of stowage-room. We must not, how-
ever, be satisfied with vague generalities, or
trust even to the all-potent motive of worldly
interest, which more frequently busies itself
in seeking to evade the law than in endeavouring
to turn it to best account. It is, therefore, indispen-
sable in the first place that the number, size,
description, and place of stowage of every boat on
board a ship should be exactly defined and subject
to official inspection and approval, so as to leave no
loophole through which they who would dis-
honestly evade the Jaw might obtain advantage
at the expense of those who conscientiously abided
by it. The necessity of such definition being
granted, we will proceed to explain the exact
character of those requirements which we think
might be advantageously defined and rigorously
insisted on.
I. That there should be a sufficient number of
boats to carry every person on board a ship, each
fitted as a lifeboat, of the size and description as
per given standard, hoisted to davits at the vessel's
sides, fitted with Clifford's or other sanctioned im-
proved lowering apparatus, and having always in
her such articles of equipment as should be defined
by law.
11. That every such boat should have painted on
her exterior, in legible and conspicuous characters,
the number of persons she was legally authorized
carry ; , in order that every passenger, or other
person on board, could, at any time, by adding the
total numbers together, satisfy himself that there
was lifeboat accommodation for all. It would also
be a manifest advantage that every boat should be
of corresponding size, so as to take an equal num-
ber of persons on board. Thus, if each was autho-
rized-to carry 30 persons, it would be readily cal-
culated that 10 ;boats would carry 300, and
the number would be so familiar to every one, that
in the hurry of taking to the boats, the regulated
safe cargo of each would be more certainly known
and less likely to be departed from.
111. That on leaving port, and at certain inter•
vals during every long voyage, the captain of the
ship should muster all hands, and call over the
names of the officer to take charge, the crew to
work, and the passengers to embark in each boat
individually specified.
IV. That the boats of every passenger ship
should be especially and carefully inspected and
reported on by the appointed Government Inspec-
tor previous to each voyage. At present, the
inspection of ships' lifeboats is of no service, as
there is no fixed standard, and it is notorious that
the generality of those in passenger ships, and
nearly or quite all of those in our coast passenger
steamers, are a mere sham, unentitled to the name
of lifeboats.
We will offer some remarks on the above recom-
mendations to make plain their practicability, and
to meet any objections which may be made against
them.
lstly. As to the number of boats to be carried,
and their places of stowage, How and where
could a sufficient number be stowed to suffice for
a full cargo of passengers ? In reply to this
question, we must acknowledge that there might
be difficulty in stowing a sufficient number of
ordinary boats to take on board them all the
denizens of a crowded passenger ship ; if, therefore,
such boats only are carried, the rights of humanity
call for the interference of the law, which should
allow no more passengers to be carried than should
be proportional to the number of boats. But by
the aid of the Berthon collapsible lifeboat, the diffi-
culty of stowage can be at once got over, and any
passenger ship may carry on board, in readiness for
instantaneous lowering on the occurrence of danger,
as many boats as she could carry passengers to
occupy them. Thus, it will be acknowledged that
a-ship of 2,500 tons, such as the Austria, could
readily carry, if a screw vessel, six pairs of boats'
davits along each of her sides, or if a paddle-steamer,
five pairs besides those of her paddlebox-boats. This
number, supposing each boat on board capable of
carrying 30 persons, would give boat accommoda-
tion for 360 persons. But we showed . in the 25th
Number of this Journal, to -which we must refer
our readers, that a Berthon's collapsible lifeboat
can be easily stowed at the inner part of, every
pair of davits, against the ship's side, the other
ordinary boats being hoisted up to the davit ends,
the latter being first lowered, and the former then
in readiness for lowering. We have thus the boat
accommodation doubled, and in the case of such a
vessel as the Austria we have boats for 720 persons,
all hoisted to davits at the vessel's sides ready for
instantaneous lowering. Here, then, we have at
once an important source of safety—" there are
boats enough for all on board."
But, 2dly, each of these boats should be life-boats
of a standard description, as defined by the Legis-
lature. The Berthon boats are life-boats of a supe-
rior description, but every other boat should be
also a life-boat after a given standard, or no life-
boats worth the name will ever be provided by
shipowners. For a review of the whole question
of the importance of a " Standard Life-boat," we
must refer our readers to a paper on that subject in
the 23d number of this journal. It will be suffi-
cient here to point out the advantages to be de-
rived from every boat being a life-boat, not only in
name, but in reality. In addition to the greater
safety of such boats in the event of bad weather
overtaking them after their leaving a sinking or
burning ship, there would be this immediate advan-
tage, that if such boats were upset in lowering,
they would not founder, and if several such boats
capsized in lowering, they might be again righted
by the aid of the remaining boats that had been
safely lowered, which could not be done with com-
mon open boats : this capability would still further
diminish the evils of a panic.
3rdly. These boats should be all fitted with
Clifford's lowering apparatus, which has been
proved to be superior to all other similar inventions,
and which, as an additional source of security, would
be a further means to prevent or allay a panic.
4thly. The advantage of a legalised number of
persons to be carried by each boat, and of painting
that number in legible characters on the exterior
of every boat, will be sufficiently obvious without'
further observation.
sthly. The periodical mustering and stationing
of the passengers, officers, and ship's company to
the several boats would have the advantage, be-
sides those already mentioned, of making the
officer, crew, and passengers of each boat familiar
with each other's personal appearance, which would
be a means of preventing confusion, and therefore
of lessening the chances of a panic in the hour
of danger.
6thly. The advantages of inspection by autho-
rised and qualified Government officers arc too
obvious to require comment.
There are two incidents in the history of this
disaster deserving of notice. The/one, that the only
boat which it is reported was safely lowered from
the davits full of people was a Francis's metallic
life-boat. The other, that two or three of the boats
were drawn towards the screw by the stream of
water which always tends to it, and were thus
upset.
An account of Francis's galvanised iron life-boats
will be found in the 22d number of this journal ;
their great strength, their unliability to leak or rot,
and their being to a great extent fire-proof, give
them strong claims to the attention of shipowners.
They, however, require considerable modification,
of their interior fittings, and increase of " extra
buoyancy" to make them what a ship's lifeboat
ought to be.
The danger of destruction by the action of the
screw-propeller is a novelty in the history of these
disasters ; it may, however, be readily guarded-
against by a simple precaution, which also adds
much to the safety of the process of lowering a boat
at sea in other respects. Every boat should have
its " painter," or some other rope from its bow' fast
to the vessel at some distance before it ; any boat•
will be safer hoisted up or lowered by adopting
this precaution, as it steadies a boat greatly in the
act of lowering or hoisting, and thus prevents her
being damaged against the vessel's side, whilst, as
soon as she is in the water, she is prevented going ;
adrift, and can be immediately, by the use of the
rudder, kept away from the vessel's side, or brought
close to it at will. Every boat would thus not
only be prevented from being drawn within the
action of the screw, but would be retained alongside
the ship, even if upset, until she had her proper
cargo of passengers on board : by the aid of a small
hatchet, to be kept in the bow of each boat, this
rope might then be cut at the right, 'moment, and
the boat at once steered clear of the ship.
There remains but one serious obstacle to be
alluded to, but it is one which surely ought to be

no obstacle at all. We allude to the expense of I
providing a sufficient number of lifeboats for every
ship. Undoubtedly a considerable 'additional ex-
pense would be incurred ; but shouldexpense be
pitted against huinan life ? Surely it is a secon-
dary question ! Besides, if required from all alike,
it would give no advantage to one shipowner over
another, and the additional outlay would, in fact,
be paid for by the passengers themselves ; who, by
a small addition to their passage-money, would,
after a few voyages, have paid for the whole cost
of the boats of a ship.
We have now considered this most important
subject in all its bearings. We consider it
to be one the importance of which cannot be ex-
aggerated ; one in which the national character is
implicated. We have now, as on several preirious
occasions, raised our feeble voice to urge its serious
consideration by the authorities of the land. We
earnestly hope that we may not have.. given
uttterance to it altogether in vain.

THE-NAVIES OF ENGLAND AND OF

FRANCE.

(From the Conversations _Lexicon, Leipzig, 1858.)

The history of the last ten years has exhibited .
two mighty Powers playing a part which has asto-
nished the world. Within that period of time, and
mainly by the instrumentality of these Powers, the
serious political complications which had shortly
before disturbed all Europe were brought for the
present, at least, to a close, and at all events,
Europe has to thank those Powers that the Eastern
war was so speedily concluded. We allude to the
fleets of the two Western empires, whose enormous
display of forces gave the world a sight such as it
had never until then witnessed, and whose impos-
ing power astounded at the same time that it
showed how much can be accomplished by deter-
mination and earnest efforts.
From centuries back we are accustomed to see
England great at sea. From the days of Queen
Elizabeth she has claimed the reputation of being
the first Power on the seas, with her numerous
fleets, to exercise lordship over them, and has
proudly made true the lines of her national hymn,
" Rule, Britannia," &c. Derived from the peculiar
geographical position of Great Britain, become
necessary for the requirements of her trading inha-
bitants, essential for the maintenance of the State,
called for by the people, and intimately connected
with their growth, the English navy is no political
measure of modern date, nor any means of satisfy-
ing the national pride ; but it is a natural pheno-
menon, growing out of the peculiar conditions of
the country. From that time forward when this
necessity was recognised, and Henry VII. united
in one national navy the contingent of ships which
the five principal ports of England were called
upon to furnish for the protection of the country,
continually advancing in its development, the Eng-
lish navy has always recovered itself in a very short
time from the blows which it may have received
from other fleets, and especially from the immortal
naval heroes of lolland, and has gradually grown
to a magnitude which enabled it with truth to take
the first rank among navies, and to retain that
position for centuries.
Looking at the enormous extent of her merchant
marine, the inexhaustible financial resources of the
country, and the well-known tenacity of the. cha-
racter of the English nation in following out any
determinate object, we cannot much wonder that
-during the events of late years we have seen Eng-
land's fleet attain in number and power that posi-
tion which we should have expected it would do
from its antecedents. But so much the more must
we wonder to witness a naval Power rise up by
the side of England, which, as it were, raised from
nothing, and called into life with magical rapidity
by the iron will of one man, has in a few years been
elevated to a position which is not only command-
ing general attention, but which demands loudly,
from England a share in the command of the seas.
From the remembrance of the continual wars of
these two rivals from the days of Louis XIV. down
to the end of the empire of Napoleon 1., in which
the French were-almost always beaten, we have
involuntarily formed a very unfavourable opinion
of the French navy, and it became the general opi-
nion that the latter could never take up any com-
manding position at sea, assuming commonly as
the reason that the French were not a seafaring
people.
Nowhere, however, was this view of the subject
more deeply-rooted than in England itself, where,
dwelling on the past glory of Nelson at Aboukir
and Trafalgar, they till recently beheld with com-
passionate shrugs of the shoulder the efforts of
France in this direction, and made merry over the
struggles of their neighbour on this side of the
Channel. The Eastern war first opened the eyes of
England, and let them,'„to their no small alarm, see
their error. Individual voices had, it is true, during
the Presidency of Louis Napoleon, made themselves
heard, and far-seeing persons had pointed out the
threatening possibility of a French invasion of the
British islands. The national pride of England
alone, however, derided all such warnings, until
1854 revealed 38 French ships of the line ready for
action, with 66 frigates and corvettes, and thus si-
lencedall scoffs. In three years Louis Napoleon had
built 24 sail of the line; and in the course of 1854
alone were, 13 ships of war launched, of (which
nine were ships of the line, and 52 taken in hand,
of which three were of the line and six frigates.
The English had not only the vexation of leaving
their allies to take precedence on land, but also of
seeing in them an equality of rivalship by sea where
they had hoped for an undoubted supremacy.
These painful convictions established at once in
England a complete revolution of public opion, and
just as they had previously looked disparagingly
on the navy of France, now for the first time they
• watched her progress with serious attention, which
was far from free from anxiety, as was more than
' once shown in the public press. The neighbour
which with little noise, but with all the more en-
ergy, was extending itself, defeated the efforts of
the English press, which, laboured to make its
' readers acquainted with the newest details, and
with each progressive step.of the French navy, and
• despite the entente cordiale to place prominently
• forward the threatening danger of a French inva-
sion. The apprehension of the latter has become so
prevalent that even after the last visit of Napoleon
' 111. to Osborne (1857), which, however, in the
' general opinion was onlyviewed as a new strength-
ening of the English and French friendly alliance,
voices have been loudlyraised in Parliament which
with plain undisguised words pointed out the
threatening probability of such an invasion, and
when; moreover, the Euglish Prime Minister re-
pelled these insinuations with becoming hauteur,
' he seemed himself not the less imbued with simi-
lar thoughts.
Germany, however, is also interested in casting
a glance at the neighbouring navies, in order to
arrive at an impartial judgment as to their powers
of action by a comparison of their respective navies
as the outward appearance alone of a fleet gives no
true criterion of its intrinsic value.
We have before observed that the navy of Eng-
land, from the earliest period, has been making
continued progress, and that its development was
only for a short time ever delayed by any defeats
which it experienced, the whole existence of the
British empire being involved in a powerful navy.
These conditions we do not find in France. Although
her navy is older than that of England, and reaches
back to the days of Craeee's triumphant campaigns,-
hers has suffered the greatest variety of fate and
condition. At one time we sec her rise like a shin-
ing meteor, at another time sink ;into a nullity;
and while the navy of England sprang from the
people, lived with their life, and advanced step by
step with their gradual growth, we find that of
France altogether distinct from the people and only
the plaything of her rulers. While Gallia of old
possessed 9. numerous fleet and held the neighbour-
ing coasts in perpetual terror, we find her as a naval
power, after the conquest of Cesar, entirely retire
from the political stage, and so remain until the
days of Charlemagne. Under the Carlovingians the
navy first recovered. Later, during the crusades,
under Philip 11. and Louis IX., and subsequently
under Philip of Valois, it attained a certain im-
portance; only,. however, despite the efforts of
Louis XII., Francis 1., and Louis XIII., who fitted
gut large squadrons, soon again to decay.
As Louis XIV. appeared on the political horizon,
and with him commenced a glorious century for
France, so also a new era opened for' her navy.
Under Colbert's administration the French saw
with pride a new fleet of 40 sail-of-the-line and 60
frigates arise. Several arsenals and ports were
constructed, and the maritime war which broke out
under Louis XIV. perfected in every respect the
work of that great Minister. In the years 1680-82
the navy of France numbered 100 sail-of-the-line,
and this host was commanded by such men as
d'Estrees, Duquesne, Jean Bart, Toueville, and
others, who carried the honour of the flag of their
fatherland into all seas. A highly-gifted ship-
builder, Chateau Renault, who without Colbert
would have remained unknown, essentially im-
proved the construction of the ships, and invented
the bomb vessels, with which. France checked the
Barbary States. What the celebrated Vauban was
for land fortresses, that Renault was for the navy.
Moreover, a new administration
.elasee minuteststablishetl
for the navy, and every point, oven tov the
detail, laid down.
Under Louis XV. the navy could not be kept up
at the same high point-which it had assumed under ,
the beforeonentioned leaders. The Ministers -
Dubois and Fleury let it entirely droop. But
under Louis XVI. the French fleet again rose, and,
under Napoleon 1., took part in the unfortunate
but glorious engagements, such as those of Aboukir

and Trafalgar, which will ever remain memorable
in history. These battles of themselves had utterly
ruined the nas=al power 'of France, and while Eng-

land in the year 1815 numbered in her fleet 117
ships of the line, 238 frigates, and 328 smaller ves-
sels—in all 743 sail, the French navy consisted of
only 69 ships of war, of which the greater number
were small and-not seaworthy. The continual de-
feats by sea, in which France had suffered excessive
losses, had so disheartened and shaken their reliance
on their navy, that they for many years hesitated
to bring it again to that point which her geogra-
phical situation and political power as a nation
imperatively called for. On the contrary, the fleet
was totally neglected. It numbered in the year
1820 but 48, and in 1833 actually only 33 ships of
war—a low figure such as it had scarcely ever
stood at.* The war with Algiers had, it is true,in
the year 1830, rendered some exertions necessary ;
but they were not followed up, and, for the first

time, in 1839 the. state of 'affairs in the East
and the war of Mehemet Ali with the Sublime

Porte demanded a reawakening of the power of
France, and the building a near navy, was under-
taken with energy. While the French squadron
at first consisted of only three ships of the line, it
was increased in six months to 13, and already in
the spring of 1840 to 40 sail of the line. From that
year dates mainly the present French fleet, a cir-
cumstance which has great weight in favour of
France in any comparison with the English navy.
The value and power of a fleet consist of two
_ _

points—of the ma-teriel, in which have to be consi-
dered the quantity and quality of the ships and of
the artillery, and of the personel.
Let us now turn our attention to the materiel of

the two States, which is, and often with reason, con-
sidered the test of efficiency in a navy, and we
find on the list of the English navy for the year
1857 the number of 546 ships of all descriptions,
to which must be added also 162 steam gunboats;
while the official French accounts give the state of
the French navy at 450 ships of war and 30 steam
gunboats. The number of ships of the line, on
which the issue of the larger and more decisive
naval actions more or less depends, stands by these
accounts at 78 for England against 63 for France,
the proportion of screw and sailing ships of the line
being about like. France is, therefore, as regards
England, in a minority of 15 sail of the line, 100
smaller vessels, and 60 steam gunboats.
_ .

'Were one only to look at this minority, which of
itself comes to the amount of a whole second-rate
navy, the anxiety of England at the superiority of
France would appear to be unfounded. However,
it cannot, as observed, be forgotten that not alone
the number, but also, to an equal degree, the quality
of the- ships establishes the strength of a navy.
Keeping this in view the comparison becomes far
better as regards France. For while in the English
list of ships all the vessels of war are reckoned
which she possesses, whether they are unrigged or
in commission, whether old or new—and we find
still included among them ships of the line and
others, such as the Victory, which were built either
in the last century or in the commencement of the
present—the French navy, which, as we have be-
fore observed, first came into existence in 1840, pos-
sesses scarcely any ship over 20 years old. This is,
however, of considerable importance, and is a circum-
stance oimuch weight in favour ofFrance. Although
each old English ship appears on the list as sea-
, worthy and fit for action, still they are, as Admiral
Sir C. Napier pointed out, in his celebrated letter to
the First Lord of the Admiralty in 1849, either
utterly useless, or it must be taken into account that
their durability as old ships in real warfare must be
only slightly relied upon. Apart from the introduc-
tion of the screw, the armament, as well as the con-
struction of ships of war, has experienced such a
change in 50 years that a modern ship of the line of
120 guns with the calibre now in use could maintain
a fight with 10 such as the Victory and come off
victorious. If we reckon the number of old English
ships of the line at 20, that of unfit frigates at 40,
and of the bad smaller vessels at 60, certainly not
too low a reckoning, while France possesses at the
most 10 old ships of the line and 20 frigates and
corvettes, since in 1833 her whole navy consisted
but of 33 vessels ; the amount of materiel in the two
nations may be considered as equal, so long as the
important difference in the number of steam gun-
boats, 160 to 30, is left out of the calculation ; but
we shall return to these later.

We turn now to the second and more important
aspect of the materiel, to the construction and to
the goodness of the timber employed in building
the ships. There can be no doubt that up to some
years back the English ships far exceeded French
ones in durability and strength. The continued de-
feats which the French sustained from the English
in the wars dating from the outbreak of the Revo-
lution were by no means the result of less bravery
on the part of the French, nor yet so entirely of the
want of professional capacity, as is very commonly
assumed, but mainly the consequence of worse ships
and guns. It is a known fact, and is also much in-
sisted upon by English historians, that the French
were not deficient in battle either in courage or en-
durance. On the contrary, the annals of naval war-
fare reveal an extraordinary number of examples of
French captains only striking their flag at the mo-
ment that their ship was sinking under them, or
was so battered as to be incapable of further con-
test. These destructions of French ships in action
happened, hawever, so frequently, because the ships
were slighter built, worse fitted out, and had not
the power of tenacityofEnglish ships. Compare the
individual accounts in the history of each battle,
and it will be found that the hulls of the English
ships were not less riddled by shot than those of
the French ships, while, however, the latter sunk,
and the former, in consequence of their superior
material, floated through all, and remained mas-
ters of the field. When Nelson at Trafalgar
formed his bold plan cif. attack, and, contrary to
all the rules of nsval tactics, bore down before'
the wind on the line of battle of the united French
and Spanish fleets, he knew well what he was about,
as by thismanceuvre he exposed his ships for a long
time to a frightful raking fire. He knew his ships
could endure the enemy's broadsides without sink-
ing, but that the enemy's ships, when he had once
broken through their line, mad opened an effectual
fire, could not similarly support his fire. How cor-
rectly the English Admiral had calculated is proved
by the result of the battle, which ended in the cap-
ture of 13'French and Spanish ships of the line, of
which half sunk.

While, however, the English ships everywhere
exceeded the French in strength, the latter, on the
other hand, distinguished themselves as ' faster
sailers. This was thoroughly recognised by the
English, and they consequently not only built
henceforth mainly after French models, but added
to their navy all such French captured ships as
could in any way-be repaired.
So find we the respective positions up to the year
1844. About this time a man stepped into the chief
command of the French marine who united to a
thorough knowledge of the subject a high patriotism,
and addressed himself with rare devotedness and
all his talents to the welfare and progress of the
navy. His keen glance detected the former failings
—he made the country acquainted with them
through his writings—he applied himself energeti-
cally to their removal, and laid the foundations for
the present naval power of France. This man was
the Prince de Joinville, who, it is true, as the son
of a king, had a favourable position and could do
more than others. He achieved what up to that
time no French leader had done. Remade the navy
- .popular, and thereby- improved it. Previously it
was only an ornament—one shining jewel more in
the crown of the splendour-loving kings of France.;
and Louis XIV. himself, under whom the navy
reached its zenith, only desired to make by it one
more show of the power of his rule, although Col-
bert had prepared it for an altogether different
and nobler destination. Neither leaders nor people
had as yet become aware that for every mer-
cantile, and seaboard State a corresponding navy
is a condition of its existence and prosperity,
and a political necessity. The Prince de Joinville
made great efforts to convince the French nation of
these facts, and he seems to have succeeded. The
road-cut out by him has been also wisely followed
byLouis Napoleon, and the nation now looks with
pride on the work which, completed by his will and
efforts, has now given to France- so imposing a po-
sition. Napoleon 111. has prepared the materiel in an
energetic manner ; but the credit of having raised
up the inner kernel and condition of the fleet, as
well as the corps of officers, belongs alone to the
Prince de Joinville and to his instructor, the Admiral
Lalonde ; and this, moreover, is well kno.wn to the
French. Shortly after the banishment of the Bour-
bons the Delegate Collas proposed, in his brilliant
critique on the budget of the navy, from the-Tribune
of the National, Assembly, a vote of thanks from the
country to the Prince for his patriotic exertions.
Equally practically as philosophically educated,
Joinville turned his attention especially to the con-
struction of ships, tried carefully all the new inven-
tions in naval matters, and adopted them when they
had been proved. He more particularly kept in
view the steam navy, and France produced under
his auspices real masterpieces of construction, which
the English afterwards net only equalled in every
respect, but even exceeded. And truly these results
were attained with a far smaller expenditure than is
the case in England, for there was system—they
avoided the failures of the English shipwrights, and
even turned them to account. The same sph it wh!oh
pc rvades the English people also governs the English
Admiralty. As each new discovery finds applause
everywhere, and money is found to work it out, be
it ever so problematic, so the Admiralty appears to

*This number relates only to seaworthy ships of the line
and frigates, which alone in war can be taken into 4ny kind
of account. Including Useless and small vessels, the num,
ber is brought up to 110,