The Sun.
London, England, 1855-09-20 00:00:00

OBSERVATIONS ON RAIN-FALLS AND HAILSTOR3IS.

Mr. P. L. SIMMONDS read a paper on this subject.
After pointing out the advantages which would result
from an accumulation of facts that would serve to guide
us to a knowledge of the mean average fall of rain in cer-
tain periods—the proportionate evaporation, and the alter-
nation of wet and dry seasons, Mr. Simmonds pointed ont
the value of such inquiries to the agriculturist, the phy-
sician, and the statist; and showed how important was
this knowledge of the mean annual fall of rain in par-
ticular localities, and the average number of days in
which rain fell in the year. Particular crops, as the
sugar cane, the indigo plant, the cotton ai al tobacco
plants, might be entirely ruined by too much or too
little rain. Many localities, such as Malta, Gibraltar,
Ascension, &c , are obliged to husband the rain-water in
tanks. The navigation of rivers, and the irrL.:ation of ad-
jacent lands, are also dependent on a certain amount of
rain. And the potato, the vine, and other plants, are
:njuriously affected by the condition of the atmosphere,
and the superabundance of moisture. Even the fact of
whether the moon has any influence on the fall of rain
is still a disputed point. The relative proportions of
rain that fall by night and by day was another point
touched on. Mr. Simmonds then took a survey of the
records of this branch of meteorology in the various
quarters of the globe, citing the comparative falls of rain
in the tropics, and in temperate regions in various
countries. The enumerations were, perhaps, the most
IrAef M
tO devastation NDS sub zeq n
in India
yd
Ceylon. submitted
ey
At few
A factsg
ra
full and complete that have ever been collected on this
important subject.
Mr.o
about bail-storms in the East," which have lately com-
mitted
visited by a stormi e the o
wf
e hail,rld which
The
e ha
g,)rSga ,
and Meerut much damage was done by hal in
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s
b nw
been surpassed April this year. On the 11th May, this; year, Nynee Tal, in
thees
Himalayaprobably never
er
range,ev as regards the size, weight, and numbers of the stones,
natives were startled by a shower of more than cricket-
ball size. Some of these weighed 6to 10 oz., and one or
two more than 111 b. avoirdupois, with circumferences
varying from 9to 13 inches. Though hail is common in
this locality in the hot weather, for ten years past no
hailstones have fallen of a size exceeding 21 inches in
circumference. At Ceyloia hail is unusual, but in April
last there was a heavy fall which lasted an hour, and of
the size of marbles. Mr. Simmonds then furnished in a
paper "A detailed account of the various earthquakes
which have visited the islands of the Eastern Archipe-
lago, and the New Zealand group," particularly of the
last shock at New Zealand, in January this year.
Sir R. MURCHISON read a paper in the Geological
Section, which was much crowded, upon the relations of
the crystalline rozks of the North Highlands to the old
red sandstone of that region, and on the recent disco-
veries of Mr. Peach.

An interesting discussion ensued, in which Mr. Hugh
Miller, Professor Sedgwick, Dr. Wright, Sir C. Lye!),
Professors Nicol, Ramsey, Philips, and others took part.

NEW MATERIALS FOR PAPER MAKING.

The Chevalier CLAUSSEN read a paper on Papyrus, Bo-
napartea, and other plants which can furnish fibre for paper
pulp. Referring to want of material experienced by paper
makers, M. Claussen said that what they had desiderated
was a cheap substitute for rags, with a strong fibre,
easily bleached, and of which an unlimited supply may
be obtained. Paper-makers regard rags containing 50
per cent. of vegetable fibre, mixed with wool or silk, as
useless ; but by boiling these rags in caustic alkali, the
animal fibre is dissolved, and the vegetable fibre is avail-
able for the manufacture of white paper pulp. Senn or
jute, the inner bark of eorchorus indices, produced a
paper pulp of inferior quality, bleached with difficulty.
Agave, phormiunt tenax, and Banana or plaintain fibre
(Manilla hemp) are not only expenkiye, but it is nearly

impossible to bleach them. The banana leaves contain
40 per cent. of fibre. Flax would be suitable to replace
rags in paper, but the high price and scarcity of it,
Icaused partly by the war, and partly hy'the injudicious
way in which it is cultivated, prevents that. Six tons
of flax straw are required to produce one ton of flax
fibre, and by the present mode of treatment all the
woody part, or stems, are lost. By the Chevalier's process
the bulk of the flax straiv is lessened by partial cleaning
before rotting, whereby about 50 or 60 per cent, of
&oyes, a valuable cattle food, are saved, and the cost of
the fibre reduced. The flax pulp thus produces nearly
from 12 to 15 per cent, of paper pulp. Hemp produces
25 per cent. of paper pulp. Nettles produced 25 per
cent, of a very beautiful and easily bleached fibre. Palm
leaves contain 30 to 40 per cent. fibre, but are not ea3ily
bleached. The Brorncliaccce contain from 25 to 40 per
cent. fibre. Bonapartea juncoides contain 35 per cent. of
the most beautiful vegetable fibre known, which could be
used for all kinds. of manufactures in which flax, cot.
ton, silk, or wool are•etnployed. This plant exists in
very large quantities in Australia, and it is most desir.
able that some of our large manufacturers would import
a quantity of it. The plant wants no other preparation
than cutting, drying, and compressing like hay. The
bleaching and finishing of it may be done here. Ferns,
equisetum,,the inner bark Of the lime tree, althea, stalks
of beans, pea., hops, buck-wheat, potatoes, heather,
broom, and many other plants contain 10 to 15 and '2.0
per cent, of fibre, but in most of them there are obvious
difficulties preventing their economical use. The straws
of the cereals cannot be manufactured into paper pu'p,
unless cut before they are ripe, as the joints or knots of
the stalks are so hardened by ripening as to resist bleach.
ing agents. Many' grasses contain from 30 to 50 per
cent. of fibre, not very stronr, . but easily bleachedi.
Ground reeds and canes contain about an equal amount:.
The wood of the coniferce gives a large proportion of
fibre suitable for paper pulp ; but the cost of preparing
would be about three times that of preparing rags. As
none of these (said M. Claussen) would entirely satisfy
on all points the wants of the paper-makers, I continued
my researches, and, at last remembered the papyrus (the
plant of which the ancients made their paper), which I
examinad,:andloand-to contain about 40 per cent. of
strong fibre, excellent for paper, and very easily bleached.
The only point which was not entirely satisfactory was
relative to the supply of it. • I directed, therefore, my
attention to plants growing in this country, and
found, to my great satisfaction, that the common rushes
(juncus eff'usus, and others) contain 40 per cent, of
fibre, quite equal, if not superior, to the papyrus fibre,
and a perfect substitute for rags in the manufacture of
paper, and that one ton of rushes contains more fibre
than two tons of flax straw.
ARTIFICIAL INDIA-RUBBER.

The Chevalier CLAUSSEN also read a paper on artificial
gutty percha and India rubber. After describing the
Hancornia specioso, a South American plant, which has
qualities similar to those of India-rubber, said that he
had succeeded in mixing starch, gluten, or flour, with
tannine, and resinous or oily substance, and had com-
pounded them with India-rubber or gutta percha with.
out altering its character. By this means he could so
increase the hardness of India-rubber and gutta percha
as to make it like horn. In this form he thought it
might be used as shields to protect the soldiers from
Minie balls, and some of these compounds, ill combination
with iron, might be useful in floating batteries and many
other purposes, such as covering electric telegraph wires,
imitation of wood, ship-building, &c.
THE AURIFEROUS DISTRICTS.
_ -

Mr. E. HOPKINS read a paper containing the results
of his'own observations on the auriferous districts olthe
world, in which he stated that gold was found only in
the primary rocks, and chiefly in quartz, because, when
the gold was precipitated, as it were, in nature, the
quartz was that with which its particles most readily
mixed. Gold might be found in all primary rocks of a
meridional structure, where crystalline sands predomi-
nated. It was a curious fact that gold might often be
found at the roots of large trees, because the roots,
having assimilated to its nourishment the other materials,
left the gold as an indigestible surface behind.
Professor NICEIOL also read a paper, written by Mr.
Campbell, on the auriferous districts of Australia, in
which it was stated that the deeper the diggers wcnt
in the solid rock the greater quantity of gold was found,
and that the supply was inexhaustible.
The CHAIRMAN (Sir R. Murchison) said he could not
agree with either of these papers. So far from gold being
found only in primary rocks, he kneW that it was often
found in fossil-bearing rocks, and even in limestone. Am
to Mr. Campbell's idea that the supply of gold was inex-
haustible, the would oppose to that theory the proved
and well-known fact, that of late years, with a greatly
increased number of diggers, the supply of wild had
greatly diminished. He did not doubt that there were
many gold-fields still untouched ; but be was quite satis-
fied that all the gold lay in troughs, and that in the
course of time it would be exhausted. As to gold being
found by vertical digging, he would oppose to that
theory the remarkable fact, that when the Spaniards
first conquered America and saw the amount of gold
there, they said, if these poor Indians have obtained so
much in the rive: beds, how much more shall we obtain
by digging. And yet they soon found out their mis-
take, so that it became a proverb with them—`'lf a man
wants to make a large fortune let him mine for copper ;
if a moderate fortune, let him try silver; but if he
wants to ruin himself, let him dig for gold."