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Empire | thumb|300px|imperialism and colonization in 1900 an empire is a geographically extensive group of states and peoples (ethnic groups) united and ruled by a central authority, either by a monarch (emperor, empress) or an oligarchy. the term empire is derived from the latin term imperium (a rule, a command; authority, control, power; supreme power, sole dominion; military authority; a dominion, realm) from imperare (to command). aside from the traditional usage, the term "empire" can also be used to describe a large-scale business enterprise (e.g., a transnational corporation), a political organisation controlled by a single individual (a political boss) or a group (political bosses). an imperial political structure can be established and maintained in two ways: (i) as a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force or (ii) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect conquest and control with power. the former method provides greater tribute and direct political control, yet limits further expansion because it absorbs military forces to fixed garrisons. the latter method provides less tribute and indirect control, but avails military forces for further expansion.ross hassig, mexico and the spanish conquest (1994), pp. 23â24, isbn 0-582-06829-0 (pbk) territorial empires (e.g., the mongol empire and median empire) tend to be contiguous areas. the term, on occasion, has been applied to maritime empires or thalassocracies, (e.g., the athenian and british empires) with looser structures and more scattered territories. empires are usually larger than kingdoms. ==definition== an empire is a multi-ethnic or multinational state with political and/or military dominion of populations who are culturally and ethnically distinct from the imperial (ruling) ethnic group and its culture.the oxford english reference dictionary, second edition (2001), p. 461, isbn 0-19-860046-1 this is in contrast to a federation, which is an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples. definitions of what physically and politically constitute an empire vary. it might be a state affecting imperial policies or a particular political structure. empires are typically formed from diverse ethnic, national, cultural, and religious components.{{cite book|last=howe|first=stephen|title=empire|year=2002|pub | [
"Constitutional_state_types",
"Empires",
"Former_empires"
] |
Eusebius_of_Alexandria | eusebius of alexandria is an author to whom certain extant homilies are attributed. ==biography== nothing is known of the author. in all events, he was not a patriarch of alexandria, as is affirmed in an early biography,mpg, lxxxvi. 1, pp. 297â310 written by one johannes, a notary, and stating that eusebius was called by cyril to be his successor in the episcopate. there has been much dispute regarding the details of his life and the age in which he lived. galland (vet. patr. biblioth., viii, 23) says: "de eusebio qui vulgo dicitur episcopus alexandræ incerta omnia" (concerning eusebius, commonly called bishop of alexandria there is nothing sure). his writings have been attributed to eusebius of emesa, eusebius of cæsarea, and others. according to an old biography said to have been written by his notary, the monk john, and discovered by cardinal mai, he lived in the fifth century and led a monastic life near alexandria. the fame of his virtues attracted the attention of cyril, bishop of alexandria, who visited him with his clergy, and in 444, when dying, had him elected his successor, and consecrated him bishop, though much against his will. eusebius displayed great zeal in the exercise of his office and did much good by his preaching. among those he converted was a certain alexander, a man of senatorial rank. after having ruled his see for seven or, according to another account, for twenty years, he made alexander his successor and retired to the desert, whence cyril had summoned him and there died in the odor of sanctity. while mai seems to have established the existence of a eusebius of alexandria who lived in the fifth century, it had been objected than neither the name of eusebius or his successor alexander, appears in the list of the occupants of that ancient see. dioscurus is mentioned as the immediate successor of cyril. nor does the style of the homilies seem on the whole in keeping with the age of cyril. it may be noted, however, that the biographer of eusebius expressly states that the cyril in question is the great opponent of nestorius. various solution of the difficulty have been proposed. thiloueber die schriften des eusebius v. alexandrian u. des eusebius von emesa, halle, 1832 thinks that the authorship of the homilies is to be assigned either to a certain monk â one of four brothers 3 of the fifth century, or to a presbyter and court chaplain of justinian i, who took an active part in the theological strifes of the sixth century. mai suggests that after the death of cyril, there were two bishops at alexandria, dioscurus, the monophysite leader, and eusebius, the head of the catholic party. the homilies cover a variety of subjects, and the author is one of the earliest patristic witn | [
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Eusebius_of_Nicomedia | eusebius of nicomedia (died 341) was the man who baptised constantine the great. he was a bishop of berytus (modern-day beirut) in phoenicia, then of the see of nicomedia, where the imperial court resided, and finally of constantinople from 338 up to his death. ==influence in the imperial family and the imperial court== distantly related to the imperial family of constantine, he owed his progression from a less significant levantine bishopric to the most important episcopal see to his influence at court, and the great power he wielded in the church was derived from that source. in fact, during his time in the imperial court, the eastern court and the major positions in the eastern church were held by arians or arian sympathizers.drake, "constantine and the bishops", pp.395. with the exception of a short period of eclipse, he undeservedly enjoyed the confidence both of constantine and constantius ii, although constantine never subscribed to eusebius' doctrinal tendencies. he also served as the tutor of the later emperor julian the apostate; and it was he who baptized constantine the great on may 22, 337 owing to his familial relationship with the emperor. also during his time in the imperial court, arianism became more popular with the royal family.ellingsen, "reclaiming our roots: an inclusive introduction to church history, vol. i, the late first century to the eve of the reformation", pp.121. it can be logically surmised that eusebius had a huge hand in the acceptance of arianism in the constantinian household. the arian influence grew so strong during his tenure in the imperial court that it wasn't until the end of the constantinian dynasty and the appointment of theodosius i that arianism lost its influence in the empire.young, "from nicaea to chalcedon", pp.92. it was of particular interest that eusebius was nearly persecuted because of his close relationship to the emperor licinius while serving as bishop of nicomedia during licinius' reign. ==relationship with arius== like arius, he was a pupil of lucian of antioch, and it is probable that he held the same views as arius from the very beginning; he was also one of arius' most fervent supporters who encouraged arius.jones, "constantine and the conversion of europe", pp.121. it was also because of this relationship that he was the first person whom arius contacted after the latter was excommunicated from alexandria by alexander.young, "from nicaea to chalcedon", pp.59. apparently, arius and eusebius were close enough | [
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"4th-century_bishops",
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Euphrates | {{geobox|river | name = euphrates | other_name = : al-furÄt | other_name1 = | other_name2 = | other_name3 = : prath | other_name4 = prat | other_name5 = : yeprat | category = river | etymology = from greek, from old persian ufrÄtu, from elamite ú-ip-ra-tu-iÅ¡ | nickname = | image = zalabiya,euphrat.jpg | image_caption =the euphrates near halabiye (syria); the site can be seen in the background on the left bank | image_size =300 | country = iraq | country1 = syria | country2 = turkey | country_flag=1 | state = turkey | state1 = syria | state2 = iraq | state3 = saudi arabia | state4 = kuwait | state_type = basin area | region = | district = | municipality = | parent = | tributary_left =balikh | tributary_left1 =khabur | tributary_right = sajur | city = birecik | city1 = ar-raqqah | city2 = deir ez-zor | city3 = mayadin | city4 = haditha | city5 = ramadi | city6 = habbaniyah | city7 = fallujah | city8 = kufa | city9 = samawah | city10 = nasiriyah | landmark = lake assad | landmark1 = lake qadisiyah | landmark2 = lake habbaniyah | landmark_type = | source = | source_location =murat su | source_region = | source_country =turkey | source_elevation = 3520 | source_lat_d = | source_lat_m = | source_lat_s = | source_lat_ns = | source_long_d = | source_long_m = | source_long_s = | source_long_ew = | source1 = | source1_location =kara su | source1_region = | source1_country =turkey | source1_elevation = 3290 | source1_lat_d = | source1_lat_m = | source1_lat_s = | source1_lat_ns = | source1_long_d = | source1_long_m = | source1_long_s = | source1_long_ew = | source_confluence = | source_confluence_location =keban | source_confluence_region = | source_confluence_country =turkey | source_confluence_elevation = 610 | source_confluence_lat_d = | source_confluence_lat_m = | source_confluence_lat_s = | source_confluence_lat_ns = | source_confluence_long_d = | source_confluence_long_m = | source_confluence_long_s = | source_confluence_long_ew = | mouth = shatt al-arab | mouth_location = al-qurnah| mouth_region = basra governorate| mouth_country =iraq | mouth_elevation = | mouth_lat_d =31 | mouth_lat_m =0 | mouth_lat_s =18 | mouth_lat_ns =n | mouth_long_d =47 | mouth_long_m =26 | mouth_long_s =31 | mouth_long_ew =e | length =2800 | length_note = approx. | width = | width_note = approx. | depth = | depth_note = approx. | volume = | volume_note = approx. | watershed = 500000 | watershed_note = approx. | discharge = 356 | discharge_max =2514 | discharge_min =58 | discharge_location = hÄ«t | free = | free_type = | map =tigr-euph.png | map_size=300 | map_caption = ma | [
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Exon | an exon is any nucleotide sequence encoded by a gene that remains present within the final mature rna product of that gene after introns have been removed by rna splicing. the term exon refers to both the dna sequence within a gene and to the corresponding sequence in rna transcripts. in rna splicing, introns are removed and exons are covalently joined to one another as part of generating the mature messenger rna. ==history== the term exon derives from the expressed region and was coined by american biochemist walter gilbert in 1978: "the notion of the cistron⦠must be replaced by that of a transcription unit containing regions which will be lost from the mature messengerwhich i suggest we call introns (for intragenic regions)alternating with regions which will be expressedexons." this definition was originally made for protein-coding transcripts that are spliced before being translated. the term later came to include sequences removed from rrna and trna, and it also was used later for rna molecules originating from different parts of the genome that are then ligated by trans-splicing. ===function=== in many genes, each of the exons contain part of the open reading frame (orf) that codes for a specific portion of the complete protein. however, the term exon is often misused to refer only to coding sequences for the final protein. this is incorrect, since many noncoding exons are known in human genes.{{cite journal|last1=zhan | [
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Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator | thumb|350px|edsac electronic delay storage automatic calculator (edsac) was an early british computer. inspired by john von neumann's seminal first draft of a report on the edvac, the machine was constructed by maurice wilkes and his team at the university of cambridge mathematical laboratory in england. edsac was the second electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service.the manchester small-scale experimental machine, nicknamed "baby", predated edsac as a stored-program computer, but was built as a test bed for the williams tube and not as a machine for practical use. http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/edsac99/history.html. however, the manchester mark 1 of 1949 (not to be confused with the 1948 ssem prototype) was available for general use by other university departments and ferranti in april 1949 http://www.computer50.org/mark1/mm1.html despite being still under development. later the project was supported by j. lyons & co. ltd., a british firm, who were rewarded with the first commercially applied computer, leo i, based on the edsac design. work on edsac started at the end of 1946,http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=560726&url=http%3a%2f%2fieeexplore.ieee.org%2fstamp%2fstamp.jsp%3ftp%3d%26arnumber%3d560726 and it ran its first programs on 6 may 1949, when it calculated a table of squares to be precise, edsac's first program printed a list of the squares of the integers from 0 to 99 inclusive. and a list of prime numbers. edsac 1 was finally shut down on 11 july 1958, having been superseded by edsac 2, which remained in use until 1965. ==technical overview== ===physical components=== as soon as edsac was operational, it began serving the university's research needs. it used mercury delay lines for memory, and derated vacuum tubes for logic. input was via five-hole punched tape and output was via a teleprinter. initially registers were limited to an accumulator and a multiplier register. in 1953, david wheeler, returnin | [
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Enrico_Fermi | enrico fermi (; 29 september 1901 â 28 november 1954) was an italian physicist, best known for his work on chicago pile-1 (the first nuclear reactor), and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. he is one of the men referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb". fermi held several patents related to the use of nuclear power, and was awarded the 1938 nobel prize in physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment and the discovery of transuranic elements. he was widely regarded as one of the very few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally. fermi's first major contribution was to statistical mechanics. after wolfgang pauli announced his exclusion principle in 1925, fermi followed with a paper in which he applied the principle to an ideal gas, employing a statistical formulation | [
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Enthalpy | enthalpy is a defined thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter "h", that consists of the internal energy of the system (u) plus the product of pressure (p) and volume (v) of the system:mark w. zemansky (1968), heat and thermodynamics, chapter 11 (5th edition) page 275, mcgraw hill, new york. ::h = u + pv since enthalpy, h, consists of internal energy, u, plus the product of pressure (p) and the volume (v) of the system, which are all functions of the state of the thermodynamic system, enthalpy is a state function. the unit of measurement for enthalpy in the international system of units (si) is the joule, but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the british thermal unit and the calorie. the enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical, biological, and physical measurements, because it simplifies certain descriptions of energy transfer. enthalpy change accounts for energy transferred to the environment at constant pressure through expansion or heating. the total enthalpy, h, of a system cannot be measured directly. the same situation exists in classical mechanics: only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. enthalpy itself is a thermodynamic potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined reference point; therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy, Îh. the change Îh is positive in endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes. for processes under constant pressure, Îh is equal to the change in the internal energy of the system, plus the pressure-volume work that the system has done on its surroundings.g.j. van wylen and r.e. sonntag (1985), fundamentals of classical thermodynamics, section 5.5 (3rd edition), john wiley & sons inc. new york. isbn 0-471-82933-1 this means that the change in enthalpy under such conditions is the heat absorbed (or released) by the material through a chemical reaction or by external heat transfer. enthalpies for chemical substances at constant pressure assume standard state: most commonly 1 bar pressure. standard state does not, strictly speaking, specify a temperature (see standard state), but expressions for enthalpy generally reference the standard heat of formation at 25 °c. enthalpy of ideal gases and incompressible solids and liquids does not depend on pressure, unlike entropy and gibbs energy. real materials at common temperatures and pressures usually closely approximate this behavior, which greatly simplifies enthalpy calculation and use in practical designs and analyses. ==origins== the word enthalpy is based on the greek enthalpein (á¼Î½Î¸Î¬Î»Ïειν), which means "to warm in".[h | [
"Energy_(physics)",
"Enthalpy",
"Physical_quantities",
"State_functions"
] |
Eligible_receiver | in american football and canadian football, not all players on offense are entitled to receive a forward pass. only an eligible pass receiver may legally catch a forward pass, and only an eligible receiver may advance beyond the neutral zone if a forward pass crosses the neutral zone. if the pass is received by a non-eligible receiver, the penalty for the foul "illegal touching" is assessed. if an ineligible receiver is beyond the neutral zone when a forward pass crossing the neutral zone is thrown, a foul of "ineligible receiver downfield" (penaltyâa loss of yardage, but not loss of down) is called. each league has slightly different rules regarding who is considered an eligible receiver. ==college football== the ncaa rulebook defines eligible receivers for college football in rule 7, section 3, article 3. the determining factors are the player's position on the field at the snap and their jersey number. specifically, any players on offense wearing numbers between 50 and 79 are always ineligible. all defensive players are eligible receivers and offensive players who are not wearing an ineligible number are eligible receivers if they meet one of the following three criteria: * player is at either end of the group of players on the line of scrimmage (usually the split end and tight end) * player is lined up at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage (running backs, fullbacks, etc.) * player is positioned to receive a hand-to-hand snap from the center (almost always the quarterback) players may only wear eligible numbers at an ineligible position when it is obvious that a punt or field goal is to be attempted. a receiver loses his eligibility by leaving the field of play unless he was forced out by a defensive player and immediately attempts to get back inbounds (rule 7-3-4). all players on the field become eligible as soon as the ball is touched by a defensive player or an official during play (rule 7-3-5). ==professional football== in both american and canadian professional football, every player on the defensive team is considered eligible. the offensive team must have at least seven players lined up on the line of scrimmage. of the players on the line of scrimmage, only the two players on the ends of the line of scrimmage are eligible receivers. the remaining players are in the backf | [
"American_football_terminology",
"Canadian_football_terminology"
] |
Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma | admiral of the fleet louis francis albert victor nicholas mountbatten, 1st earl mountbatten of burma (born prince louis of battenberg; 25 june 1900 â 27 august 1979) â known i | [
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E._O._Wilson | edward osborne "e. o." wilson fmls (born june 10, 1929) is an american biologist, researcher (sociobiology, biodiversity), theorist (consilience, biophilia), naturalist (conservationist) and author. his biological specialty is myrmecology, the study of ants, on which he is considered to be the world's leading expert.{{cite web|url=http://documentaryhive.com/lord-of-the-a | [
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EFTPOS | eftpos (pronounced ) â electronic funds transfer at point of sale â is an electronic payment system involving electronic funds transfers based on the use of payment cards, such as debit or credit cards, at payment terminals located at points of sale. in australia and new zealand it is also the brand name of a specific system used for such payments. the australian and new zealand systems are country specific and do not interconnect. eftpos technology originated in the united states in 1981 and was quickly adopted by other countries. debit and credit cards are embossed plastic cards complying with iso/iec 7810 id-1 standard. the cards have an embossed bank card number conforming with the iso/iec 7812 numbering standard. == history == eftpos technology originated in the united states in 1981 and was rolled out in 1982. initially, a number of nationwide systems were set up, such as interlink, which were limited to participating correspondent banking relationships, not being linked to each other. consumers and merchants were slow to accept it, and there was minimal marketing. as a result, growth and market penetration of eftpos was minimal up to the turn of the century. since 2002 the use of eftpos has grown significantly, and it has become the standard payment method, displacing the use of cash. subsequently, networks facilitating the process of money transfer and payment settlement between the consumer and the merchant grew from a small number of nationwide systems to the majority of payment processing transactions. for eftpos, us based systems allow the use of debit cards or credit cards. now, "prepaid" cards can also be used. in a short time, other countries adopted the eftpos technology, but these systems too were limited to the national borders. each country adopted various interbank co-operative models. in new zealand bank of new zealand started issuing eftpos debit cards in 1985 with the first merchant terminals being installed in petrol stations. in australia, the major australian banks started issuing debit or eftpos cards (each under a different brand name) starting in 1986 and merchants started installing eftpos terminals at the same time. debit cards issued by all banks could be used at all eftpos terminals nationally, but debit cards issued in other countries could not. prior to 1986, the australian banks organized a widespread uniform credit card, called bankcard, which had been in existence since 1974. there was a dispute between the banks whether bankcard (or credit cards in general) should be permitted into the proposed eftpos system. at that time several banks were actively promoting mastercard and visa credit cards. store cards and proprietary cards were shut out of the new s | [
"Debit_cards",
"Financial_services_companies_of_Australia",
"Financial_services_companies_of_New_Zealand",
"Interbank_networks",
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"Point_of_sale_companies"
] |
Pre-Islamic_period_of_Afghanistan | archaeological exploration of the pre-islamic period of afghanistan began in afghanistan in earnest after world war ii and proceeded until the late 1970s when the nation was invaded by the soviet union. archaeologists and historians suggest that humans were living in afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the region were among the earliest in the world. urbanized culture has existed in the land between 3000 and 2000 bc. artifacts typical of the paleolithic, mesolithic, neolithic, bronze, and iron ages have been found inside afghanistan. afghanistan was inhabited by the aryan tribes and controlled by the medes until about 500 bc when darius the great (darius i) marched with his persian army to make it part of the achaemenid empire. in 330 bc, alexander the great of macedonia invaded the land after defeating darius iii of persia in the battle of gaugamela. much of afghanistan became part of the seleucid empire followed by the greco-bactrian kingdom. the area south of the hindu kush had been given by seleucus i nicator to chandragupta maurya and became part of the maurya empire. the land was inhabited by various tribes and ruled by many different kingdoms for the next two millenniums. before the arrival of islam in the 7th century, there were a number of religions practiced in ancient afghanistan, including zoroastrianism, surya worship, paganism, buddhism and hinduism. the kaffirstan region, in the hindu kush, resisted conversion until the 1890s. ==prehistoric era== louis dupree, the university of pennsylvania, the smithsonian institution and others suggest that humans were living in afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the region were among the earliest in the world.john ford shroder, university of nebraska. archived 2009-10-31. {{quote|archaeologists have | [
"History_of_Afghanistan"
] |
Amiga_Enhanced_Chip_Set | the enhanced chip set (ecs) is the second generation of the amiga computer's chipset, offering minor improvements over the original chipset (ocs) design. ecs was introduced in 1990 with the launch of the amiga 3000. amigas produced from 1990 onwards featured a mix of ocs and ecs chips, such as later versions of the amiga 500 and the commodore cdtv. other ecs models were the amiga 500+ in 1991 and lastly the amiga 600 in 1992. notable improvements were the super agnus and the hires denise chips. the sound and floppy controller chip, paula, remained unchanged from the ocs design. super agnus supports 2 mb of chip ram, whereas the original agnus/fat agnus and subsequent fatter agnus can address 512 kb and 1 mb, respectively. the ecs denise chip offers productivity (640×480 non-interlaced) and superhires (1280×200 or 1280×256) display modes (also available in interlaced mode), which are however limited to only 4 on-screen colors. essentially, a 35 ns pixel mode was added plus the ability to run arbitrary horizontal and vertical scan rates. this made other display modes possible, but only the aforementioned modes were supported originally out of the box. for example, the linux amiga framebuffer device driver allows the use of several other display modes. other improvements were the ability of the blitter to copy regions larger than 1024×1024 pixels in one operation and the ability to display sprites in border regions (outside of any display window where bitplanes are shown). ecs also allows software switching between ntsc and pal video modes. these improvements largely favored application software, which benefited from higher resolution and vga-like display modes, rather than gaming software. as an incremental update, ecs was intended to be backward compatible with software designed for ocs machines, though some pre-ecs games were found to be incompatible. additionally, features from the improved kickstart 2 operating system were used in subsequent software, and since these two technologies largely overlap, some users misjudged the significance of ecs. it is possible to upgrade some ocs machines, such as the amiga 500, to obtain partial or full ecs functionality by replacing ocs chips with ecs versions. ecs was followed by the third generation aga chipset with the launch of the amiga 4000 in 1992. ==see also== * ocs * amiga ranger chipset * aga * amiga custom chips * aaa * aa+ * hombre chipset * [[list of home computers by video h | [
"Amiga",
"AmigaOS",
"Graphics_chips"
] |
Euphonium | the euphonium is a conical-bore, baritone-voiced brass instrument. the euphonium derives its name from the greek word euphonos, meaning "well-sounding" or "sweet-voiced" (eu means "well" or "good" and phonos means "of sound", so "of good sound"). the euphonium is a valved instrument; nearly all current models are piston valved, though rotary valved models do exist. a person who plays the euphonium is sometimes called a euphoniumist, euphophonist, or a euphonist, while british players often colloquially refer to themselves as euphists, or euphologists. similarly, the instrument itself is often referred to as eupho or euph. == name recognition and misconceptions == the euphonium is part of the family of brass band instruments. it is sometimes confused with the baritone horn. the euphonium and the baritone differ in that the bore size of the baritone horn is typically smaller than that of the euphonium, (leading to a "darker" tone from the euphonium and a brighter sound from the baritone horn) and the baritone is primarily cylindrical bore, whereas the euphonium is predominantly conical bore. the two instruments are easily interchangeable to the player, with some modification of breath and embouchure, since the two have identical range and essentially identical fingering. the cylindrical baritone offers a brighter sound and the conical euphonium offers a mellower sound. the so-called american baritone, featuring three valves on the front of the instrument and a curved, forward-pointing bell, was dominant in american school bands throughout most of the 20th century, its weight, shape and configuration conforming to the [[marching instrument|needs of the marching | [
"B-flat_instruments",
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Euclidean_algorithm | <!-- for reasons of accessibility to visually-impaired readers (see wp:access), this article avoids math mode, unless it's necessary. please do not add math-mode formulae, unless you also add the corresponding alt text as well, e.g., . examples can be found below, e.g., in the "matrix method" section. --> in mathematics, the euclidean algorithm, or euclid's algorithm, is a method for computing the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two (usually positive) integers, also known as the greatest common factor (gcf) or highest common factor (hcf). the gcd of two integers is the largest non-negative integer that divides both of them without leaving a remainder. the algorithm is named after the greek mathematician euclid, who described it in books vii and x of his elements (c. 300 bc). in its simplest form, euclid's algorithm starts with a pair of positive integers, one larger than the other. a new pair is formed consisting of the smaller number and the difference between the numbers. for example, for 105 and 252, the first iteration gives 105 and 147. the process is repeated, 42 and 105, then 42 and 63, then 42 and 21, until the numbers in the pair are equal, 21, and this is the greatest common divisor of the original pair of integers. the elements describes the algorithm for natural numbers and for geometric lengths. in the 19th and 20th centuries, generalized forms of the euclidean algorithm were developed. it allows for the efficient reduction of a fraction to its irreducible form. it can be used to generate almost all the most important traditional musical rhythms used in different cultures throughout the world.{{citation |last=toussaint |first=godfried |author-link=godfried toussaint |url=http://cgm.cs.mcgill.ca/~godfried/publications/banff.pdf |title=the euclidean algorithm generates traditional musical rhy | [
"Euclid",
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Eric_Cheney | eric cheney (5 january 1924 â 30 december 2001) was an independent british motorcycle designer and constructor. he was known as one of the best motorcycle frame designers of his era. ==early life== cheney attended the lancasterian school in winchester before joining the royal navy at the age of 18, where he served on wartime arctic convoys and in motor torpedo boats and gained experience of engineering and working on high performance engines. cheney also worked on the development of remote controlled submarines for the royal navy. ==career== after world war ii, cheney joined the motorcycle dealers archers of aldershot as a mechanic. cheney began racing motocross and became one britain's best riders, along with his travelling companion les archer, who went on to become european champion. he had ten successful years on the continental circuit but a prolonged illness due to an infection contracted while racing in algeria ended his riding career. he moved into bike preparation and designs for motorcycle chassis and suspension systems. cheney had no formal training as a motorcycle designer yet was able to create original and high performance motorcycle chassis designs working in a simple workshop that was essentially a domestic garage. his approach has been described as "like a medieval engineer" as in an age of computer aided design and significant resources for research and development teams, he worked entirely by intuition. eric relied on his long personal experience of international off road competition riding and would prepare his initial designs for a new motorcycle frame in chalk on the wall of his workshop. experimenting with different lines until he was satisfied, eric would then form the steel tubing using his chalk drawings as a guide. only when he had built a working prototype motorcycle would he star | [
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"British_automobile_designers",
"British_motorcycle_designers",
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Esperanto_grammar | :for esperanto morphology, see also esperanto vocabulary esperanto is a constructed auxiliary language. a highly regular grammar makes esperanto much easier to learn than most other languages of the world, though particular features may be more or less advantageous or difficult depending on the language background of the learner. parts of speech are immediately obvious, for example: Τhe suffix -o indicates a noun, -a an adjective, -as a present-tense verb, and so on for other grammatical functions. an extensive system of affixes may be freely combined with roots to generate vocabulary; and the rules of word formation are straightforward, allowing speakers to communicate with a much smaller root vocabulary than in most other languages. it is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary built upon 400 to 500 roots, though there are numerous specialized vocabularies for sciences, professions, and other activities. reference grammars of the language include the plena analiza gramatiko () by kálmán kalocsay and gaston waringhien, and the plena manlibro de esperanta gramatiko () by bertilo wennergren. ==grammatical summary== esperanto has an agglutinative morphology, no grammatical gender, and simple verbal and nominal inflections. verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the indicative has three tenses, and are derived for several aspects, but do not agree with the grammatical person or number of their subjects. nouns and adjectives have two cases, nominative/oblique and accusative/allative, and two numbers, singular and plural; the adjectival form of personal pronouns behaves like a genitive case. adjectives generally agree with nouns in case and number. in addition to indicating direct objects, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and adverbs to show the destination of a motion, or to replace certain prepositions; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. the case system allows for a flexible word order that reflects information flow and other pragmatic concerns, as in russian, greek, and latin. these concepts are illustrated below. ==script and pronunciation== esperanto uses the latin alphabet. the orthogra | [
"Esperanto",
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Elementary_function | in mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable built from a finite number of exponentials, logarithms, constants, and nth roots through composition and combinations using the four elementary operations (+ â à ÷). by allowing these functions (and constants) to be complex numbers, trigonometric functions and their inverses become included in the elementary functions (see trigonometric functions and complex exponentials). roots of polynomial equations are the functions implicitly defined as solving a polynomial equation with constant coefficients. for polynomials of degree four and smaller there are explicit formulae for the roots (the formulae are elementary functions), but roots of general higher-degree polynomials are not elementary functions. note that some elementary functions, such as roots, logarithms, or inverse trigonometric functions, are not entire functions and their definition may be ambiguous, especially for non-real numbers. elementary functions were introduced by joseph liouville in a series of papers from 1833 to 1841. an algebraic treatment of elementary functions was started by joseph fels ritt in the 1930s. ==examples== examples of elementary functions include: :addition e.g. (x+1) :multiplication e.g. (2x) : \frac{e^{\tan(x)}}{1+x^2}\sin\left(\sqrt{1+\ln^2 x}\,\right) and : -i\ln(x+i\sqrt{1-x^2}), \, this last function is equal to the inverse cosine trigonometric function \arccos(x) in the entire complex domain. hence, \arccos(x) is an elementary function. an example of a function that is not elementary is the error function : \mathrm{erf}(x)=\frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}}\int_0^x e^{-t^2}\,dt, a fact that cannot be seen directly from the definition of elementary function but can be proven using the risch algorithm. ==differential algebra== the mathematical definition of an elementary function, or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra. a differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation). using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra. by starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary fun | [
"Computer_algebra",
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] |
Empress_Suiko | (554 â 15 april 628) was the 33rd monarch of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): æ¨å¤å¤©ç (33) according to the traditional order of succession.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, p. 48. suiko's reign spanned the years from 593 until her death in 628.brown, delmer et al. (1979). gukanshÅ, pp. 263â264; varley, h. paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki, pp. 126â129; titsingh, isaac. (1834). in the history of japan, suiko was the first of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. the seven women sovereigns reigning after suiko were kÅgyoku/saimei, jitÅ, gemmei, genshÅ, kÅken/shÅtoku, meishÅ and go-sakuramachi. ==traditional narrative== before her ascension to the chrysanthemum throne, her personal name (her imina)brown, pp. 264; prior to emperor jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their iminia) were very long and people did not generally use them. the number of characters in each name diminished after jomei's reign. was mikekashiya-hime-no-mikoto,varley, p. 126. also called toyomike kashikiya hime no mikoto.ashton, william. (2005). nihongi, p. 95 n.2. empress suiko had several names including princess nukatabe and (possibly posthumous) toyomike kashikiya. she was the third daughter of emperor kimmei. her mother was soga no iname's daughter, soga no kitashihime. suiko was the younger sister of emperor yÅmei. they had the same mother. ===events of suiko's life=== empress suiko was a consort to her half-brother, emperor bidatsu, but after bidatsu's first wife died she became his official consort and was given the title Åkisaki (official consort of the emperor). she bore seven sons. after bidatsu's death, suiko's brother, emperor yÅmei, came to power for about two years before dying of illness. upon yÅmei's death, another power struggle arose between the soga clan and the mononobe clan, with the sogas supporting prince hatsusebe and the mononobes supporting prince anahobe. the sogas prevailed once again and prince hatsusebe acceded to the throne as emperor sushun in 5 | [
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Emperor_Junnin | was the 47th emperor of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): æ·³ä»å¤©ç (47) according to the traditional order of succession.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, p. 59. the seventh son of prince toneri and a grandson of emperor temmu, his reign spanned the years 758 to 764.brown, delmer et al. (1979). gukanshÅ, p. 275; varley, h. paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki. p. 143-144; titsingh, isaac. (1834). ==traditional narrative== before his ascension to the throne, his name (imina)brown, pp. 264; prior to emperor jomei, the personal names of the emperors were very long ,and people did not generally use them. the number of characters in each name decreased after jomei's reign. was Åi-shinnÅ (Åi-no-Å).brown, p. 275, varley, p. 143. he was the seventh son of prince toneri, a son of emperor temmu.brown, p. 275. and although his father died when he was three, he was not given any rank or office at the court. in the older japanese documents, he is usually referred to as haitei (å»å¸), the unthroned emperor. the posthumous name of emperor junnin was given by emperor meiji a thousand years later. ===ascension and reign=== in 757 the empress kÅken, his third cousin appointed him to be her crown prince instead of prince funado, who had been appointed to this position in the will of the emperor shÅmu. in the tenth year of kÅken-tennÅ 's reign (称徳天ç10å¹´), on december 7, 758 (tenpyÅ-shÅhÅ 2, 1st day of the 8th month), the empress abdicated and the succession (senso) passed to her adopted son. shortly afterwards, emperor jimmu is said to have ascended to the throne (sokui).titsingh, p. 75; brown, p. 275; varley, p. 44, 144; a distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to emperor tenji; and all sovereigns except jitÅ, yÅzei, go-toba, and fushimi have achieved senso and sokui in the same year, until the reign of emperor go-murakami. in 76 | [
"733_births",
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] |
Emperor_Suizei | , sometimes romanized as suiseinussbaum, louis-frédéric. (2005). "annei tennÅ" in . and known as kamu-nuna-kaha-mimi no mikoto; was the second emperor of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): ç¶é天ç (2); retrieved 2013-8-22. according to the traditional order of succession.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, p. 29. no firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 581 to 549 b.c.titsingh, isaac. (1834). ; brown, delmer m. (1979). gukanshÅ, pp. 250-251; varley, h. paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki, pp. 88-89. ==legendary narrative== modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors; suizei's descendant, emperor sujin is the first that many agree might have actually existed.yoshida, reiji. "life in the cloudy imperial fishbowl," japan times. march 27, 2007; retrieved 2013-8-22. the name suizei-tennÅ was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.brinkley, frank. (1915). ; excerpt, "posthumous names for the earthly mikados were invented in the reign of emperor kammu (782-805), i.e., after the date of the compilation of the records and the chronicles. suizei is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" and there is a paucity of information about him. there is insufficient material available for further verification and study.kelly, charles f. "kofun culture," japanese archaeology. april 27, 2009. the reign of emperor kimmei (509?â571 ad), the 29th emperor,titsingh, [http | [
"Legendary_Emperors_of_Japan",
"People_of_JÅmon-period_Japan"
] |
Emperor_ChÅ«ai | ; also known as tarashinakatsuhiko no sumeramikoto; was the 14th emperor of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): 仲å天ç (14); retrieved 2013-8-25. according to the traditional order of succession.titsingh, isaac. (1834). ; brown, delmer m. (1979). gukanshÅ, pp. 254-255; varley, paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki, pp. 100-101; no firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 192â200.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, p. 34. ==legendary narrative== chÅ«ai is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" who might be real; and there is a paucity of information about him. there is insufficient material available for further verification and study.kelly, charles f. "kofun culture," japanese archaeology. 27 april 2009. the reign of emperor kimmei (509?â571 ad), the 29th emperor,titsingh, pp. 34â36; brown, pp. 261â262; varley, pp. 123â124. is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates;hoye, timothy. (1999). japanese politics: fixed and floating worlds, p. 78; excerpt, "according to legend, the first japanese emperor was jimmu. along with the next 13 emperors, jimmu is not considered an actual, historical figure. historically verifiable emperors of japan date from the early sixth century with kimmei. however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of emperor kammu (737â806), the 50th sovereign of the yamato dynasty.aston, william. (1896). nihongi, pp. 109. if chÅ«ai did exist, there is no evidence to suggest that the title tennÅ was used during the time to which his re | [
"2nd-century_monarchs_in_Asia",
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] |
Emperor_AnkÅ | was the 20th emperor of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): å®åº·å¤©ç (20); retrieved 2013-8-28. according to the traditional order of succession.titsingh, isaac. (1834). annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 26-27;brown, delmer m. (1979). gukanshÅ, p. 258; varley, h. paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki, p. 113. no firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 453â456.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, p. 40. ==legendary narrative== ankÅ was a 5th-century monarch.kelly, charles f. "kofun culture," japanese archaeology. 27 april 2009. the reign of emperor kimmei (509?â571 ad), the 29th emperor,titsingh, pp. 34â36; brown, pp. 261â262; varley, pp. 123â124. is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates;hoye, timothy. (1999). japanese politics: fixed and floating worlds, p. 78; excerpt, "according to legend, the first japanese emperor was jimmu. along with the next 13 emperors, jimmu is not considered an actual, historical figure. historically verifiable emperors of japan date from the early sixth century with kimmei. however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of emperor kammu (737â806), the 50th sovereign of the yamato dynasty.aston, william. (1896). nihongi, pp. 109. according to kojiki and nihon shoki, ankÅ was the second son of emperor ingyÅ. his elder brother prince kinashi no karu was the crown prince, but due to an incestuous relat | [
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Emperor_Senka | , also known as senkwa, was the 28th emperor of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): 宣å天ç (28) according to the traditional order of succession.varley, paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki, p. 121; titsingh, isaac. (1834). no firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 536â539.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, p. 45. ==legendary narrative== keitai is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. when emperor ankan died, he had no offspring; and succession passed to his youngest brother who will come to be known as emperor senka. emperor senka was elderly at the time of his enthronement; and his reign is said to have endured for only three years. senka's contemporary title would not have been tennÅ, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of emperor tenmu and empress jitÅ. rather, it was presumably sumeramikoto or amenoshita shiroshimesu Åkimi (治天ä¸å¤§ç), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven." alternatively, senka might have been referred to as (ã¤ãã大ç/大å) or the "great king of yamato." during this reign, soga no inametitsingh, p. 33. is believed to have been the first verifiable "great minister" or omi (also identified as Å-omi). this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial shinto shrine (misasagi) at nara. the imperial household agency designates this location as senka's mausoleum. it is formally named musa no tsukisaka no e no misasagi;ponsonby-fane, p. 419. however, the actual sites of the graves of the early emperors remain problematic, according to some historians and archaeologists. ==see also== * emperor of japan * list of emperors of japan * imperial cult ==notes== ==references== * aston, william george. (1896). nihongi: chronicles of japan from the earliest times to a.d. 697. london: kegan paul, trench, trubner. [http://www. | [
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Edwin_Hubble | edwin powell hubble (november 20, 1889 â september 28, 1953) was an american astronomer who played a crucial role in establishing the field of extragalactic astronomy and is generally regarded as one of the most important observational cosmologists of the 20th century. hubble is known for showing that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from the earth, implying the universe is expanding. known as "hubble's law", this relation had been discovered previously by georges lemaître, a belgian priest/astronomer who published his work in a less visible journal. there is still much controversy surrounding the issue, and some argue that it should be referred to as "lemaître's law", although this change has not taken hold in the astronomy community. edwin hubble is also known for providing substantial evidence that many objects then classified as "nebulae" were actually galaxies beyond the milky way. american astronomer vesto slipher provided the first evidence for this argument almost a decade befo | [
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"University_of_Chicago_alumni"
] |
Emperor_Uda | was the 59th emperor of japan,imperial household agency (kunaichÅ): å®å¤å¤©ç (59) according to the traditional order of succession.ponsonby-fane, richard. (1959). the imperial house of japan, pp. 67â68. uda's reign spanned the years from 887 through 897.brown, delmer et al. (1979). gukanshÅ, pp. 289â290; varley, h. paul. (1980). jinnÅ shÅtÅki, pp. 175â179; titsingh, isaac. (1834). ==traditional narrative== ===name and legacy=== before his ascension to the chrysanthemum throne, his personal name (imina)brown, pp. 264; prior to emperor jomei, the personal names of the emperors were very long and people did not generally use them. the number of characters in each name diminished after jomei's reign. was titsingh, p. 125; brown, p. 289; varley, 175. or chÅjiin-tei.ponsonby-fane, p. 8. emperor uda was the third son of emperor kÅkÅ. his mother was empress dowager hanshi, a daughter of prince nakano (who was himself a son of emperor kammu).varley, p. 175. uda had five imperial consorts and 20 imperial children.brown, p. 289. particularly important sons include: * prince atsuhito (884â930). * prince atsumi (æ¦å®è¦ªç) (893-967).kitagawa, hiroshi et al. (1975). the tale of the heike, p. 503. ===historical background=== in ancient japan, there were four noble clans, the gempeitÅkitsu (æºå¹³è¤æ©). one of these clans, the minamoto clan (æºæ°), is also known as genji. some of uda's grandchildren were granted the surname minamoto (minamoto is the most used surname for former japanese royalty.). in order to distinguish uda's descendants from other minamoto clan families (æºæ°) or genji, they became known as the uda genji (å®å¤æºæ°). some of the uda genji moved to Åmi province and known as sasaki clan (ä½ã
æ¨æ°) or Åmi genji (è¿æ±æºæ°). among the uda genji, minamoto no masazane (æºé
ä¿¡), a son of [[:ja:æ¦å®è¦ | [
"867_births",
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"9th-century_rulers_in_Asia",
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] |
Epilepsy | epilepsy (from the ancient greek verb á¼Ïιλαμβάνειν meaning "to seize, possess, or afflict") is a group of neurological disorders characterized by epileptic seizures. epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable to long periods of vigorous shaking. in epilepsy, seizures tend to recur, and have no immediate underlying cause while seizures that occur due to a specific cause are not deemed to represent epilepsy. the cause of most cases of epilepsy is unknown, although some people develop epilepsy as the result of brain injury, stroke, brain tumor, and drug and alcohol misuse. genetic mutations are linked to a small proportion of the disease. epileptic seizures are the result of excessive and abnormal cortical nerve cell activity in the brain. the diagnosis typically involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar symptoms such as syncope. additionally it involves determining if any other cause of seizures are present such as alcohol withdrawal or electrolyte problems. this may be done by doing imaging of the brain and blood tests. epilepsy can often be confirmed with an electroencephalogram (eeg) but a normal test does not rule out the disease. seizures are controllable with medic | [
"Disorders_causing_seizures",
"Epilepsy",
"Medical_terminology",
"Neurological_disorders_in_children"
] |
Environmental_skepticism | environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists, and the environmental scientists who support them, are false or exaggerated. the term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general. environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism. environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim, or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence, or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives. one of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties. the popularity of the term was enhanced by bjørn lomborg's book the skeptical environmentalist. lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint, and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated. lomborg argued, on the basis of cost-benefit analysis, that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern. however, in 2010, lomborg reversed his position and he now agrees with "tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change" and declared global warming to be "undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today" and "a challenge humanity must confront".brett michael dykes, "noted anti-global-warming scientist reverses course", yahoo news (august 31, 2010) he summarized his position, saying "global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem. but it is not the end of the world." ==criticism== environmentalist organizations and lobbies argue that such widespread skeptical doubts have not developed independently, but have been "encouraged by lobbying and pr campaigns financed by the polluting industries". supporters of environmen | [
"Environmental_skepticism",
"Pseudoscience"
] |
Frisian_languages | the frisian laurie bauer, 2007, the linguistics studentâs handbook, edinburgh languages are a closely related group of germanic languages, spoken by about 500,000 members of frisian ethnic groups, who live on the southern fringes of the north sea in the netherlands, germany and denmark. the frisian dialects are the closest living languages to english, after scots. however, modern english and frisian are mostly unintelligible to each other. frisian languages bear similarities to low german, dutch (from which many frisian words have been borrowed), and danish. additional shared linguistic characteristics between the great yarmouth area, friesland, and denmark are likely to have resulted from the close trading relationship these areas maintained during the centuries-long hanseatic league of the late middle ages. ==division== there are three varieties of frisian: west frisian, saterland frisian, and north frisian. some linguists consider these three varieties, despite their mutual unintelligibility, to be dialects of one single frisian language, whereas others consider them to be three separate languages, as do their speakers. west frisian is strongly influenced by dutch, and, similar to dutch, is describe | [
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] |
List_of_female_tennis_players | this is a list of female tennis players who meet one or more of the following criteria: * in singles, she must have reached ** either the wta top 200 world rankings on or after january 1, 2000 ** or the wta top 100 world rankings before january 1, 2000, and the ranking must be verifiable ** or she must have reached at least the quarterfinals of at least one grand slam tournament before the inception of the wta world rankings system. * in doubles, she must have won at least one wta tour event. ==list== {|class="sortable wikitable" !width=250|name !width=150|nationality !width=50|birth !width=50|death !width=50|grand slam singles titles !notes |- | || egypt || || || || 1960 french championships quarterfinalist |- | || croatia || 1983 || || || ranked world no. 143 in 2004 |- | || australia ||1983 || || || ranked world no. 138 in 2009 |- | || united states ||1968 || || || ranked world no. 67 in singles and world no. 8 in doubles 1989 |- | || united states ||1989 || || || ranked world no. 158 in 2009 |- | || united states || || || || 1965 wimbledon quarterfinalist |- | || united states ||1943 ||2009 || || three doubles titles |- | || united states ||1957 || || || ranked world no. 21 in 1983 |- | || united states ||1962 || || || ranked world no. 65 in 1983 |- | || bolivia ||1989 || || || ranked world no. 187 in 2009 |- | || croatia ||1988 || || || ranked world no. 159 in 2006 |- | || spain ||1905 ||1998 || || ranked world no. 2 at the end of the year in 1927 and 1928 ⢠1926/1927/1928 wimbledon runner-up |- | || brazil ||1983 || || || ranked world no. 132 in 2005 |- | || uzbekistan ||1984 || || || ranked world no. 50 in singles in 2008 and world no. 36 in doubles in 2010 |- | || france || 1963 || || || ranked worl | [
"Lists_of_female_tennis_players"
] |
Free_software_movement | the free-software movement is a social movementrichard stallman on the nature of the free software movement in 2008 on emacs-devel mailing list. with the goal of obtaining and guaranteeing certain freedoms for software users, namely the freedom to run the software, to study and change the software, and to redistribute copies with or without changes. although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture, richard stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the gnu project. stallman founded the free software foundation in 1985 to support the movement. == philosophy == the philosophy of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented from cooperating with each other. in practice, this means rejecting "proprietary software", which imposes such restrictions, and promoting free software, with the ultimate goal of liberating everyone "in cyberspace" â that is, every computer user. stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the progression of technology, since "it means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will be avoided. this effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art". members of the free-software movement believe that all users of software should have the freedoms listed in the free software definition. many of them hold that it is immoral to prohibit or prevent people from exercising these freedoms and that these freedoms are required to create a decent society where software users can help each other, and to have control over their computers. some adherents to the free-software movement do not believe that proprietary software is strictly immoral. "while social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change." this quote by san jose state professor joel west explains much of the p | [
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] |
Republic_of_Fiji_Military_Forces | thumb|280px|structure of the military of fiji the republic of fiji military forces (rfmf) is the military force of the pacific island nation of fiji. with a total manpower of 3,500 active soldiers and 6,000 reservists, it is one of the smallest militaries in the world. however, most of its surrounding island nations have no militaries at all. the ground force is organized into six infantry and one engineer battalions, with approximately 6,000 reserves. there was formerly one "zulu" company of counter-revolutionary specialists, which was deactivated in late 2000 due to a mutiny by some of its members. the first two regular battalions of the fiji infantry regiment are traditionally stationed overseas on peacekeeping duties; the 1st battalion has been posted to lebanon, iraq, and east timor under the command of the un, while the 2nd battalion is stationed in sinai with the mfo. peacekeepers income represents an important source of income for fiji. the 3rd battalion is stationed in the capital, suva, and the remaining three are spread throughout the islands. == organization == *commander-in-chief - the president of the republic serves as commander-in-chief of the military forces. *commander rfmf - the commander rfmf is of one-star rank. he is assisted by the deputy commander and the chief of staff, who are responsible for strategic command and land force command. the current commander is brigadier mosese tikoitoga{{cite web|url=http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=261888 |title=by the book |publisher=fiji times online |first=tevita |last=vuibau |date | [
"Air_forces_by_country",
"Armies_by_country",
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] |
Friedrich_Nietzsche | friedrich wilhelm nietzsche ( or ;"nietzsche". random house webster's unabridged dictionary. ; 15 october 1844 â 25 august 1900) was a german philologist, philosopher, cultural critic, poet and composer. he wrote several critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor,mckinnon, am. (2012). 'met | [
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"University_of_Bonn_alumni",
"Writers_from_Saxony-Anhalt"
] |
List_of_French_people | french people of note include: ==actors== ===a–c=== *isabelle adjani *renée adorée *anouk aimée *flo ankah *arletty *antonin artaud *fanny ardant *jeanne aubert *jean-louis aubert *jean-pierre aumont *claude autant-lara *daniel auteuil *charles aznavour *brigitte bardot *emmanuelle béart *jean-paul belmondo *françois berléand *charles berling *suzanne bianchetti *juliette binoche *bernard blier *sandrine bonnaire *Ãlodie bouchez *bourvil *dany boon *angelique boyer *charles boyer *guillaume canet *capucine *martine carol *leslie caron *isabelle carré *vincent cassel *jean-pierre cassel *laetitia casta *robert clary *grégoire colin *marion cotillard *clotilde courau *darry cowl ===dâl=== *béatrice dalle *lili damita *danielle darrieux *alain delon *danièle delorme *julie delpy *catherine deneuve *Ãlisabeth depardieu *gérard depardieu *guillaume depardieu *patrick dewaere *arielle dombasle *michel drucker *morgane dubled *jean dujardin *anny dupérey *romain duris *nicolas duvauchelle *fernandel *brigitte fossey *louis de funès *félicité du jeu *jean gabin *julie gayet *annie girardot *judith godrèche *eva green *sacha guitry *isabelle huppert *irène jacob *claude jade *marlène jobert *valérie kaprisky *mélanie laurent *jean-pierre léaud *virginie ledoyen *noémie lenoir *max linder *sheryfa luna ===mâz=== *marcel marceau *sophie marceau *jean marais *olivier martinez *jean-baptiste maunier *miou-miou *mistinguett *yves montand *jeanne moreau *michèle morgan *musidora *gérard philipe *michel piccoli *clémence poésy *alexia portal *yvonne printemps *pérette pradier *jérôme pradon *rachel (actress) pseudonym for elisa-rachel félix *gabrielle réjane *jean reno *marine renoir *pierre richard *sebastian roché *jean rochefort *béatrice romand *philippine de rothschild *nathalie roussel *michel roux *emmanuelle seigner *delphine seyrig *simone signoret *audrey tautou *jean-louis trintignant *marie trintignant *gaspard ulliel *michael vartan *hervé villechaize *lambert wilson ==architects== *jacques-françois blondel *germain boffrand *Ãtienne-louis boullée *[[salomon de | [
"Lists_of_French_people"
] |
Geography_of_the_Falkland_Islands | the falkland islands are located in the south atlantic ocean between 51°s and 53°s on a projection of the patagonian shelf, part of the south american continental shelf. in ancient geological time this shelf was part of gondwana, and around 400 million years ago split from what is now africa and drifted westwards from it. today the islands are subjected to the roaring forties, winds that shape both their geography and climate. the falklands comprise two main islands, west falkland and east falkland, and about 776 small islands. ==geology== the geological history of the falkland islands began during the precambrian 'era' more than 1000 million years ago, when proterozoic granites and gneisses were laid down in gondwana. these rocks became part of the cape meredith formation and outcrop at the cape.bgs paper during the siluro-devonian era, these rocks were overlain with quartzose and subarkosic sandstones with some siltstone and mudstone, rocks that are particularly erosion- and weather-resistant giving these parts of the islands a rugged landscape and coastline. thumb|left|location of the falkland islands in gondwana tectonic forces continued to form the region: a mountain chain formed, part of which now creates wickham heights on east falkland island and extends westwards through west falkland into the jason islands. a basin developed and was filled with land-based, or terrigenous, sediments. these layers of sand and mud filled the basin as it sank and as they hardened they produced the rocks of the sedimentary lafonia group of the falklands. these rocks are similar to those in southern africa's karoo basin.{{cite journal |url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s089953620 | [
"Geography_of_the_Falkland_Islands"
] |
Politics_of_the_Faroe_Islands | the politics of the faroe islands function within the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the prime minister of the faroe islands is the head of government,mfa.fo, prime minister's office, government and of a multi-party system. the faroe islands are politically associated with the kingdom of denmark, but have been self-governing since 1948. executive power is exercised by the government. legislative power is vested in both the government and the løgting. the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and the responsibility of denmark. as of october 25, 2007, the faroe islands became one electoral district. ==executive branch== |high commissioner |dan m. knudsen | |january 1, 2008 |- |prime minister |kaj leo johannesen |union party |september 26, 2008 |} the high commissioner is appointed by the queen of denmark. the high commissioner has a seat in the løgting, he or she is allowed to speak in the løgting regarding common danish/faroese affairs, but he or she is not allowed to vote.stm.dk, the website of the high commissioner of the faroe islands, as part of the danish prime minister's office following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually given the initiative to establish a new coalition by the faroese parliament, unless the current løgmaður (prime minister in english) is still in power. however, if he fails, the chairman of the parliament asks all chairmen of the parties elected to the parliament, and asks them to point to another chairman who they feel can rightly form a new coalition. the chairman with the most votes is then handed the initiative. after forming the coalition, the løgmaður leads the landsstýri. the landsstýri will often consist of around 7 members. the coalition parties divide the various ministries among themselves and after this, the parties elect their representative to these ministries. any other member of the cabinet is called a landsstýrismaður if the person is a man, or landsstýriskvinna if the person is a woman. the word ráðharri is also used for a member of the cabinet, i.e. mentamálaráðharri (minister of culture) or heilsumálaráðharri (minister of health). === current government === kaj leo johannesen's second government consists of a coalition between union party (sambandsflokkurin), people's party (fólkaflokkurin) and centre party (miðflokkurin). until 5 september 2013 the coalition also included the [[self-government party | [
"Politics_of_the_Faroe_Islands"
] |
Economy_of_Finland | {{infobox economy |country = finland |image = helsinki_viewed_from_a_hot_air_balloon.jpg |width = 300px |caption = helsinki, finland |currency = euro (eur) |year = calendar year |organs = eu, wto and oecd |gdp rank = 41st (nominal) / 53rd (ppp) |gdp = $194.1 billion (2012 ppp est.)$244.3 billion (2012 nominal est.) |growth = -1.4% (2013 est.) http://tilastokeskus.fi/til/vtp/2013/vtp_2013_2014-03-03_tie_001_en.html |per capita = $38,271 (ppp; 2012 est.) |sectors = agriculture: 2.8%industry: 25.9%services: 71.2% (2012 est.) |inflation = 3.2% (2012 est.) |gini = 28.2 (2010)http://www.stat.fi/til/tjkt/2010/tjkt_2010_2011-12-16_tie_001_en.html |poverty = 17.9% at risk of poverty or social exclusion |edbr = 12th |labor = 2,385 million (january 2014) |occupations = agriculture and forestry 4.4%industry 15.5%construction 7.1%commerce 21.3%finance, insurance, and business services 13.3%transport and communications 9.9%public services 28.5% (2011 est.) |unemployment =8,5% (2014) |average gross salary = 3,190 ⬠/ 3,988 $, monthly (2012) |average net salary = 2,321 ⬠/ 2,901 $, monthly (2012) |industries = metals and metal products, electronics, machinery and scientific instruments, shipbuilding, pulp and paper, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, clothing |exports = $78.23 billion (2012 est.) |export-goods = electrical and optical equipment, machinery, transport equipment, paper and pulp, chemicals, basic metals; timber |export-partners = 11.1% 10.0% 9.2% 6.3% 6.3% {{flag| | [
"Economy_of_Finland",
"European_Union_member_economies",
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French_Armed_Forces | the french armed forces encompass the french army, the french navy, the french air force and the national gendarmerie. the president of the republic heads the armed forces, with the title "chef des armées" ("chief of the military forces"). the president is the supreme authority for military matters and is the sole official who can order a nuclear strike. ==history== the military history of france encompasses an immense panorama of conflicts and struggles extending for more than 2,000 years across areas including modern france, greater europe, and french territorial possessions overseas. according to the british historian niall ferguson, france has participated in 168 major european wars since 387 bc, out of which they have won 109, drawn 10 and lost 49: this makes france the most successful military power in european history - in terms of number of fought and won. the gallo-roman conflict predomina | [
"Military_of_France"
] |
Politics_of_French_Guiana | french guiana is not a separate territory but is both an overseas région and overseas department of france, with the same government institutions as areas on the french mainland. the administrative center is cayenne. the president of france appoints a prefect (resident at the prefecture building in cayenne) as his representative to head the local government of french guiana. there are two local executive bodies: the 19âmember general council and the 34âmember regional council, both elected. they will soon be reunited into a single council, since they have authority on exactly the same territory. in 2014 the prefect is Ãric spitz. the president of the general council is alain tien-liong and the president of the regional council is rodolphe alexandre. ==key issues and players== politics in french guiana are dominated by the guianese socialist party. a chronic issue affecting french guiana is the influx of illegal immigrants and clandestine gold prospectors from brazil and suriname. the border between the department and suriname is formed by the maroni river, which flows through rain forest and is difficult for the gendarmerie and the french foreign legion to patrol. there have been several phases launched by the french government to combat illegal gold mining in french guiana, beginning with operation anaconda beginning in 2003, followed by operation harpie in 2008, 2009 and operation harpie reinforce in 2010. colonel françois müller, the commander of french guiana's gendarme, believes these operations have been successful. however, after each operation ends, brazilian miners, , return.untoldstories.pulitzercenter.org soon after operation harpie reinforce began, an altercation took place between french authorities and brazilian miners. on march 12, 2010, a team of french soldiers and border police were attacked while returning from a successful operation, during which "the soldiers had arrested 15 miners, confiscated three boats, and seized 617 grams of gold... currently worth about $22,317". garimpeiros returned to retrieve the lost loot and colleagues. "the soldiers fired warning shots and rubber âflash ballsâ but the miners managed to retake one of their boats and about 500 grammes of gold. âthe violent reaction by the garimpeiros can be explained by the exceptional take of 617 grammes of gold, about 20 percent of the quantity seized in 2009 during the battle against illegal | [
"Politics_of_French_Guiana"
] |
Funk | funk is a music genre that originated in the mid to late 1960s when african-american musicians created a rhythmic, danceable new form of music through a mixture of soul music, jazz, and r&b. funk de-emphasizes melody and harmony and brings a strong rhythmic groove of electric bass and drums to the foreground. funk songs are often based on an extended vamp on a single chord, distinguishing them from r&b and soul songs, which are built on chord progressions. funk uses the same extended chords found in bebop jazz, such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths, or dominant seventh chords with altered ninths. like much african-inspired music, funk typically consists of a complex groove with rhythm instruments such as electric guitar, electric bass, hammond organ, and drums playing interlocking rhythms. funk bands sometimes have a horn section of several saxophones, trumpets, and in some cases, a trombone, which plays rhythmic "hits". funk originated in the mid-1960s, with james brown's development of a signature groove that emphasized the downbeatâwith heavy emphasis on the first beat of every measure, funky bass lines, drum patterns, and syncopated guitar riffs.slutsky, allan, chuck silverman (1997). the funkmasters-the great james brown rhythm sections. isbn 1-57623-443-6 othe | [
"1960s_in_music",
"1970s_in_music",
"Funk"
] |
Cinema_of_Poland | the history of cinema in poland is almost as long as history of cinematography, and it has universal achievements, even though polish movies tend to be less commercially available than movies from several other european nations. from 1955 onwards, the works of directors of the so-called polish film school had a great influence on the contemporary trends such as french new wave, italian neorealism or even late classical hollywood cinema. after world war ii, despite censorship, filmmakers like roman polanski, krzysztof kieÅlowski, agnieszka holland, andrzej wajda, andrzej Å»uÅawski impacted the development of the cinematography. in more recent years, while no longer struggling with censorship, and with a large number of independent filmmakers of all genres, polish productions tend to be more inspired by american film. == history == ===early history=== the first cinema in poland (then occupied by the [[russian | [
"Cinema_of_Poland",
"National_Film_School_in_Åódź"
] |
Freestyle_music | freestyle or latin freestyle is a form of dance-pop or electronic dance music that emerged in the united states in the mid-1980s. it experienced its greatest popularity from the late-1980s until the early 1990s. it continues to be produced today and enjoys some degree of popularity, especially in the urban communities where latinos and italian americans are found. notable performers in the freestyle genre include stevie b, corina, timmy t, george lamond, tka, noel, company b, exposé, the cover girls, lisa lisa and cult jam, information society, sa-fire, sweet sensation, trilogy, shannon, nancy martinez, johnny o, coro, lisette melendez, judy torres, rockell, and many others. the music can be heard on some radio stations such as wktu in new york city. ==history== ===1982â1987: origin of latin freestyle=== freestyle music developed primarily in the latino communities of new york city in the early 1980s. it initially was a fusion of synthetic instrumentation and syncopated percussion of 1980s electro, as favored by fans of breakdancing. sampling, as found in hip hop music, was later incorporated. key influences include afrika bambaataa & soul sonic force's "planet rock" (1982) and shannon's "let the music play", the latter of which was a top 10 billboard hot 100 hit as early as 1984.{{cite web| | [
"1980s_in_music",
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"Latin_American_culture"
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Fax | thumb|300px|a fax machine from the late 1990s fax (short for facsimile), sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material (both text and images), normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device. the original document is scanned with a fax machine (or a telecopier), which processes the contents (text or images) as a single fixed graphic image, converting it into a bitmap, and then transmitting it through the telephone system in the form of audio-frequency tones. the receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, printing a paper copy. early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner; since the 1980s most machines modulate the transmitted audio frequencies using a digital representation of the page which is compressed to quickly transmit areas which are all-white or all-black ==fax in the 21st century== although businesses usually maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology has faced increasing competition from internet-based alternatives. fax machines still retain some advantages, particularly in the transmission of sensitive material which, if sent over the internet unencrypted, may be vulnerable to interception, without the need for telephone tapping. in some countries, because electronic signatures on contracts are not yet recognized by law, while faxed contracts with copies of signatures are, fax machines enjoy continuing support in business. in japan, faxes are still used extensively for cultural reasons, and are available for sending to both domestic and international recipients from over 81% of all convenience stores nationwide. convenience-store fax machines commonly print the slightly re-sized content of the sent fax in the electronic confirmation-slip, in a4 size.http://www.lawson.co.jp/service/counter/fax.html in | [
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Frequency_modulation | in telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (fm) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. (compare with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency remains constant.) in analog signal applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input-signal amplitude. digital data can be encoded and transmitted via a carrier wave by shifting the carrier's frequency among a predefined set of frequenciesâa technique known as frequency-shift keying (fsk). fsk is widely used in modems and fax modems, and can also be used to send morse code. radioteletype also uses fsk. frequency modulation is used in radio, telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting, and monitoring newborns for seizures via eeg.b. boashash, editor, âtime-frequency signal analysis and processing â a comprehensive referenceâ, elsevier science, oxford, 2003; isbn 0-08-044335-4 fm is widely used for broadcasting music and speech, two-way radio systems, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems. in radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally-occurring noise. frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the fm signal. ==theory== if the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is x_m(t) and the sinusoidal carrier is x_c(t) = a_c \cos (2 \pi f_c t)\,, where fc is the carrier's base frequency, and ac is the carrier's amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal: :y(t) = a_c \cos \left( 2 \pi \int_{0}^{t} f(\tau) d \tau \right) ::= a_{c} \cos \left( 2 \pi \int_{0}^{t} \left[ f_{c} + f_{\delta} x_{m}(\tau) \right] d \tau \right) :: = a_{c} \cos \left( 2 \pi f_{c} t + 2 \pi f_{\delta} \int_{0}^{t}x_{m}(\tau) d \tau \right) in th | [
"Radio_modulation_modes"
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Frank_Herbert | franklin patrick herbert, jr. (october 8, 1920 â february 11, 1986) was an american science fiction writer best known for the novel dune and its five sequels. though he became famous for science fiction, he was also a newspaper journalist, photographer, short story writer, book reviewer, ecological consultant and lecturer. the dune saga, set in the distant future and taking place over millennia, deals with complex themes such as human survival and evolution, ecology, and the intersection of religion, politics and power. dune itself is the "best-selling science fiction novel of all time" and the series is widely considered to be amongst the classics of the genre. ==biography== frank herbert was born on october 8, 1920, in tacoma, washington, to frank patrick herbert, sr. and eileen (mccarthy) herbert. because of a poor home environment, he ran away from home in 1938 to live with an aunt and uncle in salem, oregon.herbert, brian. chapter 2. he enrolled in high school at salem high school (now north salem high school), where he graduated the next year. in 1939 he lied about his age to get his first newspaper job at the glendale star. herbert then returned to salem in 1940 where he worked for the oregon statesman newspaper (now [[statesman journ | [
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The_Trial | the trial (original german title: , later , and ) is a novel written by franz kafka in 1914 and 1915 but not published until 1925. one of kafka's best-known works, it tells the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor the reader. like kafka's other novels, the trial was never completed, although it does include a chapter which brings the story to an end. because of this, there are some inconsistencies and discontinuities in narration within the novel, such as disparities in timing. after kafka's death in 1924 his friend and literary executor max brod edited the text for publication by verlag die schmiede. the original manuscript is held at the museum of modern literature, marbach am neckar, germany. in 1999, the book was listed in le monde's 100 books of the century and as no. 2 of the best german novels of the twentieth century. == plot == on his thirtieth birthday, the chief financial officer of a bank, josef k., is unexpectedly arrested by two unidentified agents from an unspecified agency for an unspecified crime. the agents' boss later arrives and holds a mini-tribunal in the room of k.'s neighbor, fräulein bürstner. k. is not taken away, however, but left "free" and told to await instructions from the committee of affairs. he goes to work, and that night apologizes to fräulein bürstner for the intrusion into her room. at the end of the conversation he suddenly kisses her. k. receives a phone call summoning him to court, and the coming sunday is arranged as the date. no time is set, but the address is given to him. the address turns out to be a huge tenement building. k. has to explore to find the court, which turns out to be in the attic. the room is airless, shabby, and crowded, and although he has no idea what he is charged with, or what authorizes the process, k. makes a long speech denigrating the whole process, i | [
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Plurality_voting_system | the plurality voting system is a single-winner voting system often used to elect executive officers or to elect members of a legislative assembly which is based on single-member constituencies. this voting method is also used in multi-member constituencies in what is referred to as an exhaustive counting system where one member is elected at a time and the process repeated until the number of vacancies is filled. the most common system, used in canada, the lower house (lok sabha) in india, the united kingdom, and most elections in the united states, is simple plurality, first-past-the-post or single-choice voting. in this voting system the single winner is the person with the most votes (plurality); there is no requirement that the winner gain an absolute majority of votes, but rather only a plurality, sometimes called a relative/simple majority. the distinction between american and british english is described by fowler (1965) as follows: "with three-cornered contests as common as they now are, we may have occasion to find a convenient single word for what we used to call an absolute majority... in america the word majority itself has that meaning while a poll greater than that of any other candidate, but less than half the votes cast is called a plurality. it might be useful to borrow this distinction..."(fowler, h.w. 1965 a dictionary of modern english usage) in some countries such as france (as well as in some jurisdictions of the united states, such as louisiana and georgia) the "two-ballot" or "runoff election" plurality system is used. in order to ensure that the winner gain a majority of votes, two rounds of voting may occur. if any candidate in the first round gains a majority of votes, then there is no second round. otherwise, the two highest-voted candidates of the first round compete in a two-candidate second round or all candidates above a certain threshold in the first round compete in a two-, three- or four-candidate second round. in political science, the use of the plurality voting system alongside multiple, single-winner constituencies to elect a multi-member body is often referred to as single-member district plurality or smdp. this combination is also variously referred to as win | [
"Electoral_systems"
] |
Fundamental_interaction | fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces or interactive forces, are modeled in physics as patterns of relations in physical systems evolving over time whose objects appear not to be reducible to more basic entities. there are four conventionally accepted fundamental interactionsâgravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclearâeach understood as the dynamics of a field. the gravitational force is modeled as a continuous classical field. each of the other three is modeled as a discrete quantum field, and exhibits a measurable unit or elementary particle. gravitation and electromagnetism act over potentially infinite distanceâacross the universeâand mediate everyday phenomena of human experience. the other two fields act over minuscule, subatomic distances. synthesizing chemical elements via nuclear fusion within stars and quasars, the strong binds the atomic nucleusâthe power released during nuclear fission as in detonation of a nuclear bombâwhereas the weak mediates radioactive decay. modest gravitational effects are conventionally predicted via refinements of the theory of universal gravitation (ug). yet the gravitational phenomenon itself is conventionally explained as a consequence of spacetime's dynamic geometry "curving" in the vicinity of mass, and is modeled by the general theory of relativity (gr). ug and gr comprise classical mechanics. as energy alters spatial and temporal relationsâeffects notable at vast energy levelsâsuch relativistic effects on space and time are modeled in relativistic mechanics, whose relativity theory extends classical mechanics via gr and special theory of relativity (sr).a consequence of sr is massâenergy equivalence, whereby mass is a variant form of energy, energy that has cohered into an object. experimentally detected phenomena of elementary particles were first modeled in quantum mechanics (qm). for predictive accuracy at high energy, however, qm was set to sr,introduced by einstein as a limited principle, special relativity aligned classical electromagnetic field theory with the gravitational principle newtonian relativity or invariance. used as a theory, rather, special relativity holds for objects at vast speed but of negligible mass, for instance elementary particles | [
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Force | in physics, a force is any interaction which tends to change the motion of an object. in other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or a pull. a force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. it is measured in the si unit of newtons and represented by the symbol f. the original form of newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. if the mass of the object is constant, this law implies that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object. as a formula, this is expressed as: :\vec{f} = m \vec{a} where the arrows imply a vector quantity possessing both magnitude and direction. related concepts to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an object; drag, which decreases the velocity of an object; and torque which produces changes in rotational speed of an object. in an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is the so-called mechanical stress. pressure is a simple type of stress. stress usually causes deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids. ==development of the concept== philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines, but thinkers such as aristotle and archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force. in part this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometime | [
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Fluid | in physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. fluids can be defined as substances that have zero shear modulus or in simpler terms a fluid is a substance which cannot resist any shear force applied to it. although the term "fluid" includes both the liquid and gas phases, in common usage, "fluid" is often used as a synonym for "liquid", with no implication that gas could also be present. for example, "brake fluid" is hydraulic oil and will not perform its required function if there is gas in it. this colloquial usage of the term is also common in medicine and in nutrition ("take plenty of fluids"). liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by the container) while gases do not. the distinction between solids and fluid is not entirely obvious. the distinction is made by evaluating the viscosity of the substance. silly putty can be considered to behave like a solid or a fluid, depending on the time period over which it is observed. it is best described as a viscoelastic fluid. there are many examples of substances proving difficult to classify. a particularly interesting one is pitch, as demonstrated in the pitch drop experiment currently running at the university of queensland. ==physics== fluids display properties such as: * not resisting deformation, or resisting it only lightly (viscosity), and * the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the shape of the container).this also means that all liquids have the property of fluidity. these properties are typically a function of their inability to support a shear stress in static equilibrium. solids can be subjected to shear stresses, and to normal stressesâboth compressive and tensile. in contrast, ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal, compressive stress which is called pressure. real fluids display viscosity and so are capable of being subjected to low levels of shear stress. ===modelling=== in a solid, shear stress is a function of strain, but in a fluid, shear stress is a function of strain rate. a consequence of this behavior is pascal's law which describes the role of pressure in characterizing a fluid's state. depending on the relationship between shear stress, and the rate of strain and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as one | [
"Fluid_dynamics"
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Functional_programming | in computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm, a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs, that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids changing-state and mutable data. it is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with expressions. in functional code, the output value of a function depends only on the arguments that are input to the function, so calling a function f twice with the same value for an argument x will produce the same result f(x) each time. eliminating side effects, i.e. changes in state that do not depend on the function inputs, can make it much easier to understand and predict the behavior of a program, which is one of the key motivations for the development of functional programming. functional programming has its roots in lambda calculus, a formal system developed in the 1930s to investigate computability, the entscheidungsproblem, function definition, function application, and recursion. many functional programming languages can be viewed as elaborations on the lambda calculus. in the other well-known declarative programming paradigm, logic programming, relations are at the base of respective languages. in contrast, imperative programming changes state with commands in the source language, the most simple example being assignment. imperative programming does have functions, not in the mathematical sense, but in the sense of subroutines. they can have side effects that may change the value of program state. functions without return values therefore make sense. because of this, they lack referential transparency, i.e. the same language expression can result in different values at different times depending on the state of the executing program. functional programming languages, especially purely functional ones such as hope and rex, have largely been emphasized in academia rather than in commercial software development. however, prominent functional programming languages such as common lisp, scheme, clojure, [[rack | [
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Fahrenheit_451 | fahrenheit 451 is a dystopian novel by ray bradbury published in 1953. it is regarded as one of his best works.{{cite book |last=reid |first=robin anne |title=ray bradbury: a critical companion |series=critical companions to popular contemporary writers |year=2000 |publisher=greenwood press |location=westport, ct |isbn=0-313-30901-9 |page=53 |quote=fahrenheit 451 is considered one | [
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Fay_Wray | fay wray (born vina fay wray; september 15, 1907 â august 8, 2004) was a canadian-american actress most noted for playing the female lead in king kong. through an acting career that spanned 57 years, wray attained international renown as an actress in horror movie roles. she was one of the first "scream queens". after appearing in minor movie roles, wray gained media attention being selected as one of the "wampas baby stars". this led to wray being contracted to paramount pictures as a teenager, where she made more than a dozen movies. after leaving paramount, she signed deals with various film companies, being cast in her first horror film roles among many other types of roles, including in the bowery (1933) and viva villa (1934), both huge productions starring wallace beery. for rko radio pictures, inc., she starred in the film with which she is most identified, king kong (1933). after the success of king kong, wray appeared in many major movie roles and on television, finishing her acting career in 1980. ==early life== wray was born on a ranch near cardston in the province of alberta, canada, to two mormons, elvina marguerite jones, who was from salt lake city, and joseph heber wray, who was from kingston upon hull, england. she was one of six children. her family returned to the united states a few years after she was born; they moved to salt lake city in 1912the salt lake tribune, 26 january 2009, "utah-hollywood connection runs deep", p. b2 and moved to lark, utah in 1914. in 1919, the wrays returned to salt lake city again and then relocated to hollywood, california, where fay attended hollywood high school. ==early acting career | [
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Final_Fantasy | is a media franchise created by hironobu sakaguchi, and is developed and owned by square enix (formerly square). the franchise centers on a series of fantasy and science fantasy role-playing video games (rpgs), but includes motion pictures, anime, printed media, and other merchandise. the eponymous first game in the series, published in 1987, was conceived by sakaguchi as his last-ditch effort in the game industry; the title was a success and spawned sequels. the video game series has since branched into other genres such as tactical role-playing, action role-playing, massively multiplayer online role-playing, racing, third-person shooter, fighting, and rhythm. although most final fantasy installments are stand-alone stories with different settings and main characters, they feature identical elements that define the franchise. recurring elements include plot themes, character names, and game mechanics. plots center on a group of heroes battling a great evil while exploring the characters' internal struggles and relationships. character names are frequently derived from the history, languages, pop culture, and mythologies of cultures worldwide. the series has been commercially and critically successful; it is square enix's best selling video game fr | [
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Felix_Hausdorff | felix hausdorff (november 8, 1868 â january 26, 1942) was a german mathematician who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory, function theory, and functional analysis. ==life== ===childhood and youth=== hausdorff's father, the jewish merchant louis hausdorff (1843-1896), moved in the autumn of 1870 with his young family to leipzig and worked over time at various companies, including a linen-and cotton goods factory. he was an educated man and had become a morenu at the age of 14. there are several treatises from his pen, including a long work on the aramaic translations of the bible from the perspective of talmudic law. hausdorff's mother, hedwig (1848-1902), who is also referred to in various documents as johanna, came from the jewish tietz family. from another branch of this family came hermann tietz, founder of the first department store, and later co-owner of the department store chain called "hermann tietz". during the period of nazi dictatorship the name was "aryanised" to hertie. from 1878 to felix hausdorff attended the nicolai school in leipzig, a facility that had a reputation as a hotbed of humanistic education. he was an excellent student, class leader for many years and often recited self-written latin or german poems at school celebrations. in his graduation in 1887 (with two oberprimen), he was the only one who reached the highest grade. the choice of subject was not easy for hausdorff. magda dierkesmann, who was often a guest in the home of hausdorff as a student in bonn in the years 1926-1932, reported in 1967 that: "his versatile musical talent was so great that he only the insiste | [
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Freenet | freenet is a peer-to-peer platform for censorship-resistant communication. it uses a decentralized distributed data store to keep and deliver information, and has a suite of free software for publishing and communicating on the web without fear of censorship.what is freenet?, freenet: the free network official website.taylor, ian j. from p2p to web services and grids: peers in a client/server world. london: springer, 2005. both freenet and some of its associated tools were originally designed by ian clarke, who defined freenet's goal as providing freedom of speech on the internet with strong anonymity protection. archived at webcite the guardian writes about freenet (ian clarke's response) archived at webcite == history == the origin of freenet can be tr | [
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February_19 | ==events== * 197 – emperor septimius severus defeats usurper clodius albinus in the battle of lugdunum, the bloodiest battle between roman armies. * 356 – emperor constantius ii issues a decree closing all pagan temples in the roman empire. *1594 – having already inherited the throne of the polish-lithuanian commonwealth through his mother catherine jagellonica of poland in 1587, sigismund iii of the house of vasa is crowned king of sweden, having succeeded his father john iii of sweden in 1592. *1600 – the peruvian stratovolcano huaynaputina explodes in the most violent eruption in the recorded history of south america. *1649 – the second battle of guararapes takes place, effectively ending dutch colonization efforts in brazil. *1674 – england and the netherlands sign the treaty of westminster, ending the third anglo-dutch war. a provision of the agreement transfers the dutch colony of new amsterdam to england, and it is renamed new york. *1807 – former vice president of the united states aaron burr is arrested for treason in wakefield, alabama and confined to fort stoddert. *1819 – british explorer william smith discovers the south shetland islands, and claims them in the name of king george iii. *1846 – in austin, texas the newly formed texas state government is officially installed. the republic of texas government officially transfers power to the state of texas government following the annexation of texas by the united states. *1847 – the first group of rescuers reaches the donner party. *1859 – daniel e. sickles, a new york congressman, is acquitted of murder on grounds of temporary insanity. this is the first time this defense is successfully used in the united states. *1861 – serfdom is abolished in russia. *1876 – founding of the national amateur press association (napa) in philadelphia. *1878 – thomas edison patents the phonograph. *1884 – more than sixty tornadoes strike the southern united states, one of the largest tornado outbreaks in u.s. history. *1915 – world war i: the first naval attack on the dardanelles begins when a strong anglo-french task force bombards ottoman artillery | [
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February_15 | ==events== * 590 Рkhosrau ii is crowned king of persia. * 706 Рbyzantine emperor justinian ii has his predecessors leontios and tiberios iii publicly executed in the hippodrome of constantinople. *1113 Рpope paschal ii issues a bill sanctioning the establishment of the order of hospitallers. *1493 Рwhile on board the ni̱a, christopher columbus writes an open letter (widely distributed upon his return to portugal) describing his discoveries and the unexpected items he came across in the new world. *1637 Рferdinand iii becomes holy roman emperor. *1690 Рconstantin cantemir, prince of moldavia and the holy roman empire sign a secret treaty in sibiu, stipulating that moldavia would support the actions led by the house of habsburg against the ottoman empire. *1764 Рthe city of st. louis, missouri is established. *1798 Рthe roman republic is proclaimed after louis alexandre berthier, a general of napoleon, had invaded the city of rome five days earlier *1804 Рthe serbian revolution begins. *1835 Рthe first constitutional law in modern serbia is adopted. *1862 Рamerican civil war: general ulysses s. grant attacks fort donelson, tennessee. *1870 Рstevens institute of technology is founded and offers the first bachelors of engineering in mechanical engineering. *1879 Рwomen's rights: american president rutherford b. hayes signs a bill allowing female attorneys to argue cases before the supreme court of the united states. *1898 Рthe battleship explodes and sinks in havana harbor in cuba, killing 274. this event leads the united states to declare war on spain. *1901 Рthe association football club alianza lima is founded in lima, peru, under the name sport alianza. *1909 Рthe flores theater fire in acapulco, mexico kills 250. *1921 Рkingdom of romania establishes its legation in helsinki. *1923 Рgreece becomes the last european country to adopt the gregorian calendar. *1925 Р1925 serum run to nome: the serum arrives in nome, alaska, with balto being the lead dog of the last team. *1933 Рin miami, florida, giuseppe zangara attempts to assassinate president-elect franklin d. roosevelt, but ins | [
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Fluid_dynamics | in physics, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flowâthe natural science of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion. it has several subdisciplines itself, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion). fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modelling fission weapon detonation. some of its principles are even used in traffic engineering, where traffic is treated as a continuous fluid, and crowd dynamics. fluid dynamics offers a systematic structureâwhich underlies these practical disciplinesâthat embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. the solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time. before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. this is still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic stability, both of which can also be applied to gases. ==equations of fluid dynamics== the foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum (also known as newton's second law of motion), and conservation of energy (also known as first law of thermodynamics). these are based on [[classical mechanics] | [
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Fascism | fascism () is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century europe. influenced by national syndicalism, fascism originated in italy during world war i, combining more typically right-wing positions with elements of left-wing politics,tobias abse (1982). syndicalism and the origins of italian fascism. the historical journal, 25, pp 247-258. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00009961. in opposition to liberalism, marxism, and traditional conservatism. although fascism is often placed on the far-right within the traditional leftâright spectrum, several academics have said that the description is inadequate. fascists sought to unify their nation through an authoritarian state that promoted the mass mobilization of the national community and were characterized by having leadership that initiated a revolutionary political movement aiming to reorganize the nation along principles according to fascist ideology. fascist movements shared certain common features, including the veneration of the state, a devotion to a strong leader, and an emphasis on ultranationalism and militarism. fascism views political violence, war, and imperialism as a means to achieve national rejuvenation,stanley g. payne. a history of fascism, 1914â1945. p. 106.jackson j. spielvogel. western civilization. wadsworth, cengage learning, 2012. p. 935. and it asserts that stronger nations have the right to expand their territory by displacing weaker nations.cyprian p. blamires. world fascism: a historical encyclopedia, volume 2. santa barbara, california, usa: abc-clio, 2006. p. 331. fascist ideology consistently invokes the primacy of the state. leaders such as benito mussolini in fascist italy and adolf hitler in nazi germany embodied the state and claimed immense power. fascism borrowed theories and terminology from socialism but replaced socialism's focus on class conflict with a focus on conflict between nations and races. fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the principal goal of achieving autarky to secure national self-sufficiency and independence through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. following world war ii, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, and the term is usually used pejoratively by political opponents. the terms neo-fascist or [[p | [
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Finger_Lakes | thumb|250px|right|satellite view of new york's finger lakes. in addition, lake ontario appears at top, oneida lake upper right, cazenovia lake directly below oneida. the finger lakes are a pattern of lakes in the west-central section of upstate new york in the united states. this region is defined as a bioregion. they are a popular tourist destination. the lakes are long and narrow (resembling fingers), and are oriented roughly on a north-south axis. the two longest, cayuga lake and seneca lake, are among the deepest in america. both are close to 40 miles (64 km) from end to end, and never more than 3.5 miles (5.6 km) wide. cayuga is the longest (38.1 miles, 61 km) and seneca the largest in total area. seneca is the deepest (618 feet, 188 m), followed by cayuga (435 feet, 133 m), with their bottoms well below sea level. these largest lakes resemble the others in shape, which collectively reminded early map-makers of human fingers. oneida lake is generally not considered one of the finger lakes, but it is sometimes called the "thumb", while seneca lake is the middle finger. == lakes == thumb|400px|left|map of the finger lakes the eleven finger lakes from east to west are: otisco lake, skaneateles lake, owasco lake, cayuga lake, seneca lake, keuka lake, canandaigua lake, honeoye lake, canadice lake, hemlock lake, and conesus lake. cazenovia lake to the east, although smaller, is sometimes called "the twelfth finger lake," because it is similar in shape, located in appalachian hill terrain, with a historic village linked to other finger lakes by us 20. it may have been formed in the same manner as the finger lakes, as satellite photos show three valleys similar in character and spacing to the finger lakes east of otisco lake. the first is the tully valley, which includes a chain of small lakes at the south end that could be a "finger lake" that never formed because of a terminal moraine. the moraine caused the tioughnioga river to flow south instead of north, the opposite of the other waters of the finger lakes. the next two valleys to the east contain butternut creek, which flows north, and the east branch of the tioughnioga river, which flows south. the next valley contains limestone creek, which flows north. the next valley after that contains cazenovia lake. oneida lake, to the northeast of syracuse, new york, is sometimes included as the "thumb," although it is shallow and somewhat different in chara | [
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Félix_Guattari | pierre-félix guattari ( ; april 30, 1930 â august 29, 1992) was a french militant, an institutional psychotherapist, philosopher, and semiologist; he founded both schizoanalysis and ecosophy. guattari is best known for his intellectual collaborations with gilles deleuze, most notably anti-oedipus (1972) and a thousand plateaus (1980), the two volumes of capitalism and schizophrenia. ==biography== ===clinic of la borde=== guattari was born in villeneuve-les-sablons, a working-class suburb of north-west paris, france.guattari (1989, ix). he trained under (and was analysed by) the psychoanalyst jacques lacan in the early 1950s. subsequently, he worked (until his death from a heart attack in 1992) at the experimental psychiatric clinic of la borde under the direction of lacan's pupil, the psychiatrist jean oury. la borde was a venue for conversation among many students of philosophy, psychology, ethnology, and social work. one particularly novel orientation developed at la borde consisted of the suspension of the classical analyst/analysand pair in favour of an open confrontation in group therapy. in contrast to the freudian school's individualistic style of analysis, this practice studied the dynamics of several subjects in complex interaction; it led guattari into a broader philosophical exploration of, and political engagement with, a vast array of intellectual and cultural domains (philosophy, ethnology, linguistics, architecture, etc.). ===1960s to 1970s=== from 1955 to 1965, guattari edited and contributed to la voie communiste (communist way), a trotskyist newspaper.guattari (1989, x). he supported anti-colonialist struggles as well as the italian autonomists. guattari also took part in the g.t.p.s.i., which gathered many psychiatrists at the beginning of the | [
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Flamsteed_designation | flamsteed designations for stars are similar to bayer designations, except that they use numbers instead of greek letters. each star is assigned a number and the latin genitive of the constellation it lies in (see 88 modern constellations for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names). flamsteed designations were assigned to 2554 stars. the numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing right ascension within each constellation, but due to the effects of precession they are now slightly out of order in some places. this method of designating stars first appeared in a preliminary version of john flamsteed's historia coelestis britannica published by edmond halley and isaac newton in 1712 without flamsteed's approval. the final version of flamsteed's catalogue published in 1725 after his death omitted the numerical designations altogether. flamsteed designations gained popularity throughout the eighteenth century, and are now commonly used when no bayer designation exists. where a bayer designation does exist for a star, it is usually used in preference to the flamsteed designation. examples of well-known stars that are usually referred to by their flamsteed numbers include 51 pegasi, and 61 cygni. flamsteed designations are often used instead of the bayer designation if the latter contains an extra attached number; for example, "55 cancri" is more common than "rho-1 cancri". there are examples of stars, such as 10 ursae majoris in lynx, bearing flamsteed designations for constellations in which they do not lie, just as there are for bayer designations, because of the compromises that had to be made when the modern constellation boundaries were drawn up. flamsteed's catalogue covered only the stars visible from great britain, and therefore stars of the far southern constellations have no flamsteed numbers. some stars, such as the nearby star 82 eridani, were named in a major southern-hemisphere catalog called uranometria argentina, by benjamin gould; these are gould numbers. rather than flamsteed numbers, and should be differentiated with a g, as in 82 g. eridani. except for a handful of cases, gould numbers are not in common use. some entries in flamsteed's catalog are errors: for instance, flamsteed observed uranus in 1690 but did not recognize it as a planet and entered it into his catalog as a star called "34 tauri". ==list of constellations using flamsteed star des | [
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Fresnel_equations | right|thumb|250px|partial transmission and reflection amplitudes of a wave travelling from a low to high refractive index medium. the fresnel equations (or fresnel conditions), deduced by augustin-jean fresnel , describe the behaviour of light when moving between media of differing refractive indices. the reflection of light that the equations predict is known as fresnel reflection. ==overview== when light moves from a medium of a given refractive index n1 into a second medium with refractive index n2, both reflection and refraction of the light may occur. the fresnel equations describe what fraction of the light is reflected and what fraction is refracted (i.e., transmitted). they also describe the phase shift of the reflected light. the equations assume the interface between the media is flat and that the media are homogeneous. the incident light is assumed to be a plane wave, and effects of edges are neglected. ===s and p polarizations=== the calculations below depend on polarisation of the incident ray. two cases are analyzed: #the incident light is polarized with its electric field perpendicular to the plane containing the incident, reflected, and refracted rays, i.e. in the plane of the diagram above. the light is said to be s-polarized, from the german senkrecht (perpendicular). #the incident light is polarized with its electric field parallel to the plane described above. such light is described as p-polarized. ==power or intensity equations== right|thumb|300px|variables used in the fresnel equations. in the diagram on the right, an incident light ray io strikes the interface between two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 at point o. part of the ray is reflected as ray or and part refracted as ray ot. the angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the normal of the interface are given as θi, θr and θt, respectively. the relationship between these angles is given by the law of reflection: :\theta_\mathrm{i} = \theta_\mathrm{r} and snell's law: :\frac{\sin\theta_\mathrm{i}}{\sin\theta_\mathrm{t}} = \frac{n_2}{n_1} the fraction of the incident power that is reflected from the interface is given by the reflectance or reflectivity r and the fraction that is refracted is given by the transmittance or transmissivity t (unrelated to the [[transmittance|transmission through | [
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February_17 | ==events== * 364 – emperor jovian dies after a reign of eight months. he is found dead in his tent at tyana (asia minor) en route back to constantinople in suspicious circumstances. *1370 – northern crusades: grand duchy of lithuania and the teutonic knights meet in the battle of rudau. *1411 – following the successful campaigns during the ottoman interregnum, musa Ãelebi, one of the sons of bayezid i, becomes sultan with the support of mircea i of wallachia. *1500 – duke friedrich and duke johann attempt to subdue the peasantry of dithmarschen, denmark, in the battle of hemmingstedt. *1600 – the philosopher giordano bruno is burned alive, for heresy, at campo de' fiori in rome. *1621 – myles standish is appointed as first commander of plymouth colony. *1753 – in sweden february 17 is followed by march 1 as the country moves from the julian calendar to the gregorian calendar. *1801 – an electoral tie between thomas jefferson and aaron burr is resolved when jefferson is elected president of the united states and burr vice president by the united states house of representatives. *1814 – war of the sixth coalition: the battle of mormans. *1819 – the united states house of representatives passes the missouri compromise for the first time. *1838 – weenen massacre: hundreds of voortrekkers along the blaukraans river, natal are killed by zulus. *1854 – the united kingdom recognizes the independence of the orange free state. *1863 – a group of citizens of geneva founded an international committee for relief to the wounded, which later became known as the international committee of the red cross. *1864 – american civil war: the becomes the first submarine to engage and sink a warship, the . *1865 – american civil war: columbia, south carolina, is burned as confederate forces flee from advancing union forces. *1871 – the victorious prussian army parades through paris, france after the end of the siege of paris during the franco-prussian war. *1904 – madama butterfly receives its première at la scala in milan. *1913 – the [[a | [
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Foobar | the terms foobar (), fubar, or foo, bar, baz and qux (alternatively, quux) and sometimes norfhttp://www.vidyokarma.com/article.php?c=r-programming-language&page=1 are sometimes used as placeholder names (also referred to as metasyntactic variables) in computer programming or computer-related documentation. they have been used to name entities such as variables, functions, and commands whose purpose is unimportant and serve only to demonstrate a concept. the words themselves have no meaning in this usage. foobar is sometimes used alone; foo, bar, and baz are sometimes used, when multiple entities are needed. the usage in computer programming examples and pseudocode varies; in certain circles, it is used extensively, but many prefer descriptive names, while others prefer to use single letters. eric s. raymond has called it an "important hackerism" alongside kludge and cruft. == history and etymology == the word foo originated as a nonsense word from the 1930s, the military term fubar emerged in the 1940s, and the use of foo in a programming context is generally credited to the tech model railroad club (tmrc) of mit from circa 1960. however, the precise relationship of these terms is not known with certainty, and several anecdotal theories have been advanced to identify them. the etymology of foo is explored in the internet engineering task force (ietf) rfc 3092, which gives the earliest documented use as being in the 1930s comic smokey stover by bill holman, where it is used as a nonsense word.http://catb.org/jargon/html/f/foo.html foohttp://catb.org/jargon/html/index.html holman states that he used the word due to having seen it on bottom of a jade chinese figurine in chinatown, san francisco, meaning "good luck".http://www.smokey-stover.com/history.htmlsmokey-stover.comhttp://members.aol.com/eocostello/ this is presumably as a transliteration of the fu character (fú, ç¦), which is a common character for fortune, and figurines of the trio of eponymous male "star gods" fú, lù, shòu are common in chinese communiti | [
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Fingerspelling | fingerspelling (or dactylology) is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. these manual alphabets (also known as finger alphabets or hand alphabets), have often been used in deaf education, and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages; there are about forty manual alphabets around the world.zaitseva, galina. jestovaia rech. dak't'ilologia. (sign speech. dactylology.) vlados. moscow. 2004. p. 12 historically, manual alphabets have had a number of additional applications â including use as ciphers, as mnemonics, and in silent religious settings. ==forms of manual alphabets== as with other forms of manual communication, fingerspelling can be comprehended visually or tactually. the simplest visual form of fingerspelling is tracing the shape of letters in the air, or tactually, tracing letters on the hand. fingerspelling can be one-handed such as in american sign language, french sign language and irish sign language, or it can be two-handed such as in british sign language. thumb|alt=british sign language chart colouring picture|british sign language chart colouring page to print thumb|alt=american sign language chart in graffiti coloring picture|american sign language chart in graffiti coloring printable ===latin alphabet=== ====one-handed==== there are two families of manual alphabets used for representing the latin alphabet in the modern world. the more common of the twocarmel, simon (1982). international hand alphabet charts. national association of the deaf (united states); 2nd edition. (june 1982). isbn 0-9600886-2-8 is mostly produced on one hand, and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in europe from at least the early 15th century. the alphabet, first described completely by spanish monks, was adopted by the abbé de l'Ãpée's deaf school in paris in the 18th century, and was then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learned it in paris. over time, variations have emerged, brought about by natural phonetic changes that occur over time, adaptions for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand), and avoidance of handshapes that are considered obscene in some cultures. the most widely used modern descendant is the [[american | [
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FA_Cup | the football association challenge cup, known worldwide as the fa cup, is an annual knockout cup competition in english football; it is the oldest association football competition in the world.the oldest cup competeti on [sic] in the world is at the fourth round stage, while manchester united are in premier league action. raidió teilifÃs Ãireann. retrieved 22 january 2010. the fa cup is organised by and named after the football association. a concurrent women's tournament is also held, known as the fa women's cup. the fa cup was first held in 1871â72. entry is open to all teams who compete in the premier league, the football league and in steps 1 to 5 of the fa national league system, as well as selected teams in step 6.the fa cup, the fa trophy, the fa vase and the fa youth cup competitions the fa.com. retrieved 15 february 2011 this means that clubs of all standards compete, from the largest clubs in england and wales down to amateur village teams. the tournament has become known for the possibility for "minnows" from the lower divisions to become "giant-killers" by eliminating top clubs from the tournament and even theoretically winning the cup, although lower division teams rarely progress beyond the early stages. the qualification rounds and a system of byes mean that the very smallest and very biggest teams almost never meet. arsenal are the current holders, having beaten hull city 3â2 after extra time in the 2014 final. with their 11th fa cup title, arsenal are now level with manchester united for the greatest number of title victories in the history of the competition. ==format== the competition is a knockout tournament with pairing | [
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Fine_Gael | {{infobox political party |country = the republic of ireland |name_english = fine gael |logo = 250px |leader = enda kenny, td |leader1_title = deputy leader |leader1_name = james reilly, td |foundation = |founder = w. t. cosgrave,frank macdermot,eoin o'duffy |headquarters = 51 upper mount street, dublin 2, ireland |ideology = |position = centre-right |membership_year = 2012 |membership = 35,000analysis - irish referendum puts sinn fein in the spotlight. padraic halpin. reuters. |youth_wing = young fine gael |international = centrist democrat international |european = european people's party |europarl = european people's party |colours = blue |merger = cumann na ngaedheal,[[nat | [
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Two_Tribes | "two tribes" is the second single by frankie goes to hollywood, released in the uk by ztt records on 4 june 1984. the song was later included on the album welcome to the pleasuredome. songwriters, johnson, gill and o'toole received the 1984 ivor novello award for best song musically and lyrically.lister, david, pop ballads bite back in lyrical fashion, the independent, 28 may 1994 the single was a phenomenal success in the uk, entering at the number one position on 10 june 1984 and staying at the top of the uk singles chart for nine consecutive weeks, during which time the group's previous single "relax" climbed back up the charts to number two. it was the longest running number-one single in the uk between 1978 and 1991. it has sold 1.58 million copies in the uk as of november 2012. the track has a relentless pounding bass line and guitar riff coupled with orchestral arrangements and narrated excerp | [
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Elementary_particle | in particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle whose substructure is unknown, thus it is unknown whether it is composed of other particles. known elementary particles include the fundamental fermions (quarks, leptons, antiquarks, and antileptons), which generally are "matter particles" and "antimatter particles", as well as the fundamental bosons (gauge bosons and higgs boson), which generally are "force particles" that mediate interactions among fermions. a particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite particle. everyday matter is composed of atoms, once presumed to be matter's elementary particlesâatom meaning "indivisible" in greekâalthough the atom's existence remained controversial until about 1910, as some leading physicists regarded molecules as mathematical illusions, and matter as ultimately composed of energy. soon, subatomic constituents of the atom were identified. as the 1930s opened, the electron and the proton had been observed, along with the photon, the particle of electromagnetic radiation. at that time, the recent advent of quantum mechanics was radically altering the conception of particles, as a single particle could seemingly span a field as would a wave, a paradox still eluding satisfactory explanation. {{cite journal | [
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Folklore | folklore (or lore) consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales, stories, tall tales, and customs included in the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. it also includes the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. the study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristics, and people who study folklore are sometimes referred to as folklorists. the english antiquarian william thoms introduced the word "folklore" in a letter published in the london journal the athenaeum in 1846.georges, robert a., michael owens jones, "folkloristics: an introduction," indiana university press, 1995. in usage, there is a continuum between folklore and mythology. stith thompson (1885â1976) made a major attempt to index the motifs of both folklore and mythology, providing an outline for classifying new motifs within which scholars can keep track of all older motifs. folklore can be divided into four areas of study: # artifacts (such as voodoo dolls) # describable and transmissible entity (oral tradition) # culture # behavior (rituals) these areas do not stand alone, however, as often a particular item or element may fit into more than one of these areas.georges, robert a., michael owens jones, folkloristics: an introduction, p. 313, indiana university press, 1995. ==oral tradition== while folklore can contain religious or mythic elements, it equally concerns itself with the sometimes mundane traditions of everyday life. folklore frequently ties the practical and the esoteric into one narrative package. it has often been conflated with mythology, and vice versa. ancient roman religion, for instance, is called "myth" today. sometimes folklore is religious in nature, like the tales of the welsh mabinogion or those found in icelandic skaldic poetry. many of the tales in the golden legend of jacob de voragine also embody folklore elements in a christian context. examples of such christian mythology are the themes woven around saint george or saint christopher. in this case, the term "folklore" is being used in a pejorative sense. "folktales" is a general term for different varieties of traditional narrative. the telling of stories appears to be a cultural universal, common to basic and complex societies alike. even the forms folktales take are certainly similar from culture to culture, and comparative studies of themes and narrative ways have been successf | [
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Father_Ted | father ted is a sitcom that was produced by independent production company hat trick productions for british broadcaster channel 4. written jointly by irish writers arthur mathews and graham linehan and starring a predominantly irish cast, it originally aired over three series from 21 april 1995 until 1 may 1998, including a christmas special, for a total of 25 episodes. the show also aired on rtà two in ireland, and in australia on nine network (season 1) and abc television (seasons 2 and 3). set on the fictional craggy island, a remote location off ireland's west coast, the show starred dermot morgan as the eponymous father ted crilly, alongside fellow priests father dougal mcguire (ardal o'hanlon) and father jack hackett (frank kelly). exiled on the island for various past incidents, the priests live together in the parochial house with their housekeeper mrs. doyle (pauline mclynn). the show was critically acclaimed, receiving multiple bafta awards. the series also featured a number of contemporary irish actors and comedians, including dervla kirwan, graham norton, tommy tiernan, patrick mcdonnell, don wycherley, joe rooney, jason byrne, [[jim no | [
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February_3 | this day marks the approximate midpoint of winter in the northern hemisphere and of summer in the southern hemisphere (starting the season at the december solstice).http://www.archaeoastronomy.com/ ==events== *1112 – ramon berenguer iii of barcelona and douce i of provence marry, uniting the fortunes of those two states. *1377 – more than 2,000 people of the italian city of cesena are slaughtered by papal troops (cesena bloodbath). *1451 – sultan mehmed ii inherits the throne of the ottoman empire. *1488 – bartolomeu dias of portugal lands in mossel bay after rounding the cape of good hope, becoming the first known european to travel so far south. *1509 – the portuguese navy defeats a joint fleet of the ottoman empire, the republic of venice, the sultan of gujarat, the mamlûk burji sultanate of egypt, the zamorin of calicut, and the republic of ragusa at the battle of diu in diu, india. *1534 – irish rebel silken thomas is executed by the order of henry viii in london, england. *1637 – tulip mania collapses in the united provinces (now the netherlands) as sellers could no longer find buyers for their bulb contracts. *1690 – the colony of massachusetts issues the first paper money in the americas. *1706 – during the battle of fraustadt swedish forces defeat a superior saxon-polish-russian force by deploying a double envelopment. *1781 – american revolutionary war: british forces seize the dutch-owned caribbean island sint eustatius. *1783 – american revolutionary war: spain recognizes united states independence. *1787 – militia led by general benjamin lincoln crush the remnants of shays' rebellion in petersham, massachusetts. *1807 – a british military force, under brigadier-general sir samuel auchmuty captures the spanish empire city of montevideo, now the capital of uruguay. *1809 – the territory of illinois is created by the 10th united states congress. *1813 – josé de san martÃn defeats a spanish royalist army at the battle of san lorenzo, part of the argentine war of independence. * 1825 – vendsyssel-thy, once part of the jutland peninsula that formed w | [
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Felix_Wankel | felix heinrich wankel (august 13, 1902 Рoctober 9, 1988) was a german mechanical engineer and inventor after whom the wankel engine was named. ==early life== wankel was born in lahr, baden, in the upper rhine valley. he was the only son of gerty wankel (n̩e heidlauff) and rudolf wankel, a forest assessor. his father fell in world war i. thereafter, the family moved to heidelberg. he went to high schools in donaueschingen, heidelberg, and weinheim, and left school without abitur in 1921. he learned the trade of purchaser at the carl winter press in heidelberg and worked for the publishing house until june 1926. he and some friends had already run an unofficial afterwork machine shop in a backyard shed in heidelberg since 1924. wankel now determined to receive unemployment benefits and to focus on the machine shop. one of his friends, who had graduated from university, gave his name and transformed the shop into an official garage for dkw and cleveland motor bikes in 1927, where wankel worked from time to time until his arrest in 1933.marcus popplow: felix wankel. mehr als ein erfinderleben., sutton, erfurt 2011, 32-36, 51f. wankel was gifted since childhood with an ingenious spatial imagination, and became interested in the world of machines, especially combustion engines. after his mother was widowed, wankel could not afford university education or even an apprenticeship; however, he was able to teach himself technical subjects. at age 17, he told friends that he had dreamt of constructing a car with "a new type of engine, half turbine, half reciprocating. it is my invention!". true to this prediction, he conceived the wankel engine in 1924 and won his first patent in 1929. ==wankel and the nsdap== during the early 1920s wankel was a member of various radical right-wing and anti-semitic organizations. in 1921 he joined the heidelberg branch of the deutschv̦lkischer schutz und trutzbund and in 1922 he became a member of the nsdap, which was banned soon afterwards. wankel founded and led youth groups associated with a cover-up organization of the nsdap. with them he conducted p | [
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Fabius_Maximus | thumb|200px|roman dictator quintus fabius maximus verrucosus — cunctator quintus fabius maximus verrucosus cunctator (; c. 280 bc â 203 bc) was a roman politician and general, who was born in rome around 280 bc and died in rome in 203 bc. he was a roman consul five times (233 bc, 228 bc, 215 bc, 214 bc and 209 bc) and was twice appointed dictator, in 221 and again in 217 bc. he reached the office of roman censor in 230 bc. his agnomen cunctator (cognate to the english noun cunctation) means "delayer" in latin, and refers to his tactics in deploying the troops during the second punic war. he is widely regarded as the father of guerrilla warfare due to his, at the time, novel strategy of targeting enemy supply lines in light of being largely outnumbered. his cognomen verrucosus means "warty", a reference to a wart above his upper lip. ==beginnings== descended from the ancient patrician gens fabii, he was the son of quintus fabius maximus gurges, a grandson of another quintus fabius maximus gurges and a great-grandson of quintus fabius maximus rullianus, all famous consuls. according to fabius' biographer plutarch, fabius possessed a mild temper and slowness in speaking. as a child, he had difficulties in learning, which was perceived by other children to be a sign of inferiority. however, according to plutarch, these traits proceeded from stability, greatness of mind, and lion-likeness of temper. according to accounts, by the time he reached adulthood, his virtues exerted themselves, and his slowness was revealed to be a symptom of his energy, passion, prudence, and firmness. during his first consulship, he was awarded a triumph for his victory over the ligurians, a tribe of gauls, whom he had defeated and then driven into the alps. he might have participated in the first punic war, the first of three wars fought between the roman republic and ancient carthage, although no details of his role are known. after the end of the war, he rapidly advanced his political career. he served twice as a roman consul and as a roman censor. in 218 bc, he took part in the embassy to carthage. it was, according to livy, fabius hi | [
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First_Epistle_of_Peter | the first epistle of peter, usually referred to simply as first peter and often written 1 peter, is a book of the new testament. the author presents himself as peter the apostle, and the epistle was traditionally held to have been written during his time as bishop of rome or bishop of antioch, though neither title is used in the epistle. the letter is addressed to various churches in asia minor suffering religious persecution. == authorship == the authorship of 1 peter has traditionally been attributed to the apostle peter because it bears his name and identifies him as its author (1:1). although the text identifies peter as its author the language, dating, style, and structure of this letter has led many scholars to conclude that this letter is pseudonymous. many scholars are convinced that peter was not the author of this letter because the author had to have a formal education in rhetoric/philosophy and an advanced knowledge of the greek language.achtemeier, paul. peter 1 hermeneia. fortress press. 1996 graham stanton rejects petrine authorship because 1 peter was most likely written during the reign of domitian in ad 81, which is when he believes widespread christian persecution began, which is long after the death of peter.stanton, graham. eerdmans commentary of the bible. wm.b. eerdmans publishing company. 2003. current scholarship has abandoned the persecution argument because the described persecution within the work does not necessitate a time period outside of the period of peter. many scholars also doubt petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 peter is dependent on the pauline epistles and thus was written after paul the apostleâs ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in ephesians, colossians, and the pastoral epistles.bartlett, david. new interpreters bible commentary, 1 peter. abingdon press. 1998. others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to peter when it could have been ascribed to paul. one theory used to support petrine authorship of 1 peter is the "secretarial hypothesis", which suggests that 1 peter was dictated by peter and was written in greek by his secretary, silvanus (5:12). john elliot, however, suggests that the notion of silvanus as secretary or author or drafter of 1 peter represents little more than a counsel of despair and introduces more problems than it solves because the greek rendition | [
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Franconia | thumb|right|franconian coat of arms , the term franconia () commonly refers to the eastern part of the historic duchy of franconia in germany, mainly represented by the bavarian administrative districts of lower franconia (unterfranken, capital city: würzburg), middle franconia (mittelfranken, capital city: ansbach), and upper franconia (oberfranken, capital city: bayreuth). due to the respective local east franconian german dialects, the adjacent northeastern parts of the heilbronn-franken region in baden-württemberg, parts of thuringia south of the rennsteig ridge, and a small part of hesse (gersfeld) also count as franconian regions. the two largest cities of franconia are nuremberg and würzburg. though located on the southeastern periphery of the area, the nuremberg metropolitan area is often identified as the economic and cultural centre of franconia. ==geography== thumb|320px|the present-day upper, lower, and middle franconian administrative districts (in blue), with adjacent east franconian language areas in thuringia (red) and in baden-württemberg (yellow) the franconian lands lie principally in bavaria, north and south of the winding main river, which together with the left (southern) regnitz tributary, including its rednitz and pegnitz headstreams, drains most parts of franconia. other large rivers include the upper werra in thuringia and the tauber, as well as the upper jagst and kocher streams in the west, both right tributaries of the neckar. in southern middle franconia, the altmühl flows towards the danube; the rhineâmainâdanube canal crosses the european watershed. the artificial franconian lake district has become a popular destination for day-trippers and tourists. the landscape is characterized by numerous mittelgebirge ranges of the german central uplands. the western natural border of franconia is formed by the spessart and rhön mountains, separating it from the former rhenish franconian lands around aschaffenburg (officially part of lower franconia), whose inhabitatnts speak hessian dialects. to the north rise the rennsteig ridge of the thuringian forest, the thuringian highland and the franconian forest, the border with the upper saxon lands of thuringia. the franconian lands include the present-day south thuringian districts schmalkalden-meiningen, hildburghausen and sonneberg, the historic gau of grabfeld held by the house of henneberg from the 11th century and later part of the wettin duchy of [[saxe-meining | [
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Fiorello_H._La_Guardia | fiorello henry la guardia (; born fiorello enrico la guardia)he signed his surname as a single word with no space between the "la" and the capitalized "g" which follows, but also with no space between his initial "f" and the surname; in his lifetime his surname was almost always written as two words. (december 11, 1882september 20, 1947) was the 99th mayor of new york for three terms from 1934 to 1945 as a republican. previously he had been elected to congress in 1916 and 1918, and again from 1922 through 1930. irascible, energetic, and charismatic, he craved publicity and is acclaimed as one of the three or four greatest mayors in american history.he was ranked first in melvin g. holli, the american mayor (1993) only five feet (1.52m) tall, he was called "the little flower" (fiorello is italian for "little flower"). la guardia, a republican who a | [
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Full_moon | a full moon is the lunar phase that occurs when the moon is completely illuminated as seen from the earth. this occurs when the moon is in opposition to the sun (when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun; more precisely, when the ecliptic longitudes of the sun and moon differ by 180 degrees). this means that the hemisphere of the moon that is facing the earth (the near side) is almost fully illuminated by the sun and appears round (while the far side is almost completely unilluminated). lunar eclipses can occur only at full moon, where the moon's orbit allows it to pass through the earth's shadow. lunar eclipses do not occur every month because the moon usually passes above or below the earth's shadow (which is mostly restricted to the ecliptic plane). lunar eclipses can occur only when the full moon occurs near the two nodes of the orbit, either the ascending or descending node. this causes eclipses to only occur about every 6 months, and often 2 weeks before or after a solar eclipse at new moon at the opposite node. the time interval between similar lunar phasesâthe synodic monthâaverages about 29.53 days. therefore, in those lunar calendars in which each month begins on the new moon, the full moon falls on either the 14th or 15th of the lunar month. because calendar months have a whole number of days, lunar months may be either 29 or 30 days long. ==characteristics== a full moon is often thought of as an event of a full night's duration. this is somewhat misleading because the moon seen from earth is continuously becoming larger or smaller (though much too slowly to notice with the naked eye). its absolute maximum size occurs at the moment expans | [
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Federated_States_of_Micronesia | {{infobox country |conventional_long_name = federated states of micronesia |common_name = the federated states of micronesia |image_flag = flag of federated states of micronesia.svg |image_coat = seal of the federated states of micronesia.svg |symbol_type = seal |image_map = micronesia on the globe (small islands magnified) (polynesia centered).svg |national_motto = "peace, unity, liberty" |national_anthem = patriots of micronesiafile:micronesia national anthem.ogg |languages_type = languages |languages = english a |ethnic_groups = |ethnic_groups_year = 2000 |demonym = micronesian |capital = palikir |latd=6 |latm=55 |latns=n |longd=158 |longm=11 |longew=e |largest_city = weno |government_type = federal parliamentary republic under a non-partisan democracy |leader_title1 = president |leader_name1 = manny mori |leader_title2 = vice president |leader_name2 = alik l. alik |legislature = congress |area_rank = 191th |area_magnitude = 1 e8 |area_km2 = 702 |area_sq_mi = 271 |percent_water = negligible |population_estimate = 106,104 |population_estimate_rank = 192th |population_estimate_year = 2013 |population_density_km2 = 158.1 |population_density_sq_mi = 409.6 |population_density_rank = 75th |gdp_ppp = $310 million |gdp_ppp_rank = |gdp_ppp_year = 2011 |gdp_ppp_per_capita = $3,000 |gdp_ppp_per_capita_rank = |gdp_nominal = $277 million |gdp_nominal_year = 2011 |gdp_nominal_per_capita = $2,300 |sovereignty_type = independence |established_event1 = compact of free association |established_date1 = november 3, 1986 |gini_year = 2000 |gini_change = |gini = 61.1 |gini_ref = |gini_rank = |hdi_year = 2013 |hdi_change = steady |hdi = 0.630 |hdi_ref = |hdi_rank = 124th |currency = [[united states | [
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Frédéric_Bazille | jean frédéric bazille (december 6, 1841 â november 28, 1870) was a french impressionist painter. many of bazille's major works are examples of figure painting in which bazille placed the subject figure within a landscape painted en plein air. ==life and work== frédéric bazille was born in montpellier, hérault, languedoc-roussillon, france, into a wealthy protestant family. he became interested in painting after seeing some works of eugène delacroix. his family agreed to let him study painting, but only if he also studied medicine. bazille began studying medicine in 1859, and moved to paris in 1862 to continue his studies. there he met pierre-auguste renoir and alfred sisley, was drawn to impressionist painting, and began taking classes in charles gleyre's studio. after failing his medical exam in 1864, he began painting full-time. his close friends included claude monet, alfred sisley, and Ãdouard manet. bazille was generous with his wealth, and helped support his less fortunate associates by giving them space in his studio and materials to use. bazille was just twenty-three years old when he painted several of his best-known works, including the pink dress (ca. 1864, musée d'orsay, paris). this painting combines a portrait-like depiction of bazille's cousin, thérèse des hours, who is seen from behindâand the sunlit landscape at which she gazes.rosenblum, 1989, p. 225 his best-known painting is family reunion of 1867â1868 (musée d'orsay, paris). frédéric bazille joined a zouave regiment in august 1870, a month after the outbreak of the franco-prussian war. on november 28 of that year he was with his unit at the battle of beaune-la-rolande when, his officer having been injured, he took command and led an assault on the german position. he was hit twice in the failed attack and died on the battlefield at the age of twenty eight. his father travelled to the battlefield a few days later to take his body back for burial at montpellier over a week later.[http://w | [
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Free_verse | free verse is an open form (see poetry analysis) of poetry. it does not use consistent meter patterns, rhyme, or any other musical pattern. it thus tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech. ==prefatory== poets have explained that free verse is, despite its freedom, not entirely free. free verse displays some elements of form. most free verse, for example, self-evidently continues to observe a convention of the poetic line in some sense, at least in written representations, though retaining a potential degree of linkage. donald hall goes as far as to say that "the form of free verse is as binding and as liberating as the form of a rondeau",donald hall, in the essay 'goatfoot, milktongue, twinbird' in the book of 0-472-40000-2. and t. s. eliot wrote, "no verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job".in the essay "the music of poetry"jackson (1 january 1942) asin b0032q49ro kenneth allott the poet/critic said the adoption by some poets of vers libre arose from 'mere desire for novelty, the imitation of whitman, the study of jacobean dramatic blank verse, and the awareness of what french poets had already done to the alexandrine in france'.introductory note by kenneth allott (ed) the penguin book of contemporary verse , penguin books, harmondsworth, england 1950 the american critic john livingston lowes in 1916 observed 'free verse may be written as very beautiful prose; prose may be written as very beautiful free verse. which is which ?' lowes, livingston john, nation feb 1916 some poets have considered free verse restrictive in its own way. in 1922 robert bridges voiced his reservations in the essay 'humdrum and harum-scarum.' robert frost later remarked that writing free verse was like "playing tennis without a net." william carlos williams said "being an art form, verse cannot be free in the sense of having no limitations or guiding principles".free verse ,princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics,2nd ed ,1975 yvor winters, the poet/critic said 'the free verse that is really verse, the best that is, of w.c. williams, h. d., marianne moore, wallace stevens, and ezra pound is the antithesis of free 'primitivism and decadence: a study of american experimental poetry arrow editions , new york , 1937 ==antecedents== as the name vers libre suggests, this technique of using more irregular cadences is often said to be d | [
"Poetic_form"
] |
Foot | the foot (plural feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. it is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. in many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws or nails. ==structure== the human foot and ankle is a strong and complex mechanical structure containing 26 bones, 33 joints (20 of which are actively articulated), and more than a hundred muscles, tendons, and ligaments.podiatry channel, anatomy of the foot and ankle an anthropometric study of 1197 north american adult caucasian males (mean age 35.5 years) found that a man's foot length was 26.3 cm with a standard deviation of 1.2 cm. the foot can be subdivided into the hindfoot, the midfoot, and the forefoot: the hindfoot is composed of the talus (or ankle bone) and the calcaneus (or heel bone). the two long bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula, are connected to the top of the talus to form the ankle. connected to the talus at the subtalar joint, the calcaneus, the largest bone of the foot, is cushioned inferiorly by a layer of fat. the five irregular bones of the midfoot, the cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform bones, form the arches of the foot which serves as a shock absorber. the midfoot is connected to the hind- and fore-foot by muscles and the plantar fascia. the forefoot is composed of five toes and the corresponding five proximal long bones forming the metatarsus. similar to the fingers of the hand, the bones of the toes are called phalanges and the big toe has two phalanges while the other four toes hav | [
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Fandom | fandom (consisting of fan [fanatic] plus the suffix -dom, as in kingdom) is a term used to refer to a subculture composed of fans characterized by a feeling of empathy and camaraderie with others who share a common interest. fans typically are interested in even minor details of the object(s) of their fandom and spend a significant portion of their time and energy involved with their interest, often as a part of a social network with particular practices (a fandom); this is what differentiates "fannish" (fandom-affiliated) fans from those with only a casual interest. a fandom can grow up centered on any area of human interest or activity. the subject of fan interest can be narrowly defined, focused on something like an individual celebrity, or more widely defined, encompassing entire hobbies, genres or fashions. while it is now used to apply to groups of people fascinated with any subject, the term has its roots in those with an enthusiastic appreciation for sports. merriam-webster's dictionary traces the usage of the term back as far as 1903.merriam-webster.com fandom as a term can also be used in a broad sense to refer to the interconnected social networks of individual fandoms, many of which overlap. ==organized subculture== thumb|sherlock fandom on telephone booth fans of the literary detective sherlock holmes are widely considered to have composed the first modern fandomhttp://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/magazine/17-05/pl_brown creating some of the first fan fiction as early as 1887 and holding public demonstrations of mourning after holmes was "killed" off in 1893. outside the scope of media, railway enthusiasts are another early fandom with its roots in the late 19th century that began to gain in popularity and increasingly organize in the first decades of the early 20th century. a wide variety of western modern organized fannish subcultures originated with science fiction fandom, the community of fans of the science fiction and fantasy genres. science fiction fandom dates back to the 1930s and maintains organized clubs and associations in many cities around the world. fans have held the annual world science fiction convention since 1939, along with many other events each year, and has created its own jargon, sometimes called "fanspeak"."dr. gafia's fan terms" in addition, the society for creative anachronism, a medievalist re-creation group, has its roots in science fiction fandom. it was founded by members thereof; and many sci | [
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Fair_Isle | fair isle (from old norse friðarey; scottish gaelic fara) is an island in northern scotland, lying around halfway between mainland shetland and the orkney islands. it is famous for its bird observatory and a traditional style of knitting. ==geography== thumb|left|150px|west cliffs, looking southwest towards malcolm's head the most remote inhabited island in the united kingdom. it is administratively part of shetland and is roughly equidistant from sumburgh head some to the northeast on the mainland of shetland"unknown: atlantic" canmore. retrieved 7 january 2012."fair isle" northlink ferries. retrieved 7 january 2012. and north ronaldsay, orkney, some to the southwest. fair isle is in length and wide. it has an area of 768 hectares (3 square miles), making it the tenth largest of the shetland islands. it gives its name to one of the british sea areas. the majority of the seventy islanders live in the crofts on the southern half of the island, with the northern half consisting of rocky moorland. the western coast consists of cliffs of up to 200 metres (660 | [
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Quotient_group | in mathematics, specifically group theory, a quotient group (or factor group) is a group obtained by aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that preserves the group structure. for example, the cyclic group of addition modulo n can be obtained from the integers by identifying elements that differ by a multiple of n and defining a group structure that operates on each such class (known as a congruence class) as a single entity. in a quotient of a group, the equivalence class of the identity element is always a normal subgroup of the original group, and the other equivalence classes are precisely the cosets of that normal subgroup. the resulting quotient is written , where g is the original group and n is the normal subgroup. (this is pronounced "g mod n," where "mod" is short for modulo.) much of the importance of quotient groups is derived from their relation to homomorphisms. the first isomorphism theorem states that the image of any group g under a homomorphism is always isomorphic to a quotient of g. specifically, the image of g under a homomorphism is isomorphic to where ker(Ï) denotes the kernel of Ï. the dual notion of a quotient group is a subgroup, these being the two primary ways of forming a smaller group from a larger one. any normal subgroup has a corresponding quotient group, formed from the larger group by eliminating the distinction between elements of the subgroup. in category theory, quotient groups are examples of quotient objects, which are dual to subobjects. for other examples of quotient objects, see quotient ring, quotient space (linear algebra), quotient space (topology), and quotient set. ==product of subsets of a group== in the following discussion, we will use a binary operation on the subsets of g: if two subsets s and t of g are given, we define their product as . this operation is associative and has as identity element the singleton {e}, where e is the identity element of g. thus, the set of all subsets of g forms a monoid under this operation. in terms of this operation we can first explain what a quotient group is, and then explain what a normal subgroup is: :a quotient group of a group g is a [[partition of a set|p | [
"Group_theory"
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Fianna_Fáil | {{infobox political party |country = the republic of ireland |country2 = northern ireland |name = fianna fáil |logo = 250px |leader = micheál martin td |secretary_general = seán dorgan |founded = |founder = Ãamon de valera |split = sinn féin |headquarters = 65â66 lower mount street, dublin 2, ireland |ideology = conservatismpopulism |position = centrist to centre-right |youth_wing = Ãgra fianna fáil |membership_year = 2013 |membership = 18,500 |international = liberal international (observer) |european = [[alliance of liberals and democrats for europe party|alli | [
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Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor | francis ii () (12 february 1768 â 2 march 1835) was the last [[hol | [
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Federal_jurisdiction_(United_States) | the united states of america, being a federal country is made up of many (currently fifty) states and a central government. this central government may be known as the union, the united states, or the federal government. similarly federal jurisdiction refers to the legal scope of the union's powers. == legislative branch == one aspect of federal jurisdiction is the extent of federal legislative power. under the constitution, congress has power to legislate only in the areas that are delegated to it. under clause 17 article i section 8 of the constitution however, congress has power to "exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever" over the federal district (washington, d.c.) and other territory ceded to the federal government by the states, such as for military installations. federal jurisdiction is said to exist over such territory. federal jurisdiction in this sense is important in criminal law because federal law, being based on a concept of enumerated powers, does not deal with crimes as comprehensively as the laws of any particular state. to fill in any potential federal gaps, congress has enacted the assimilative crimes act (), which provides that any act that would have been a crime under the laws of the state in which a federal enclave is situated is also a federal crime. since most of these enclaves are occupied by the military, military law is especially concerned with these enclaves, especially the issue of establishing who has jurisdiction and what type of jurisdiction. specifically, in these enclaves, the federal government may have proprietary jurisdiction (only the rights of any other landowner), concurrent jurisdiction (the right to legislate concurrently with the state government), or exclusive jurisdiction over the land where an act was committed in order to establish jurisdiction over the actor. this is not necessary for courts-martial involving military members subject to the uniform code of military justice as those military members are bound by the ucmj regardless of their location. == judicial branch == the american legal system includes both state courts and federal courts. generally, state courts hear cases involving state law, although they may also hear cases involving federal law so long as the federal law in question does not grant exclusive jurisdiction to federal courts. federal courts may only hear cases where federal jurisdiction can be established. specifically, the court must have both [[subject-matter juris | [
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Feminist_theology | feminist theology is a movement found in several religions, including buddhism, christianity, judaism, and new thought, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a feminist perspective. some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about god, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts and matriarchal religion. == methodology == feminist theology attempts to consider every aspect of religious practice and thought. some of the questions feminist theologians ask are: *how do we do theology? the basic question of how theologians may go about creating systems of thought is currently being reinterpreted by feminist theologians. many feminist theologians assert that personal experience can be an important component of insight into the divine, along with the more traditional sources of holy books or received tradition. (the relevance of personal experience to the policies of groups of people is a familiar notion to veterans of the feminist movement.) *who is god? feminist theologians have supported the use of non- or multi-gendered language for god, arguing that language powerfully impacts belief about the behavior and essence of god. *where are women in religious history? feminist historical theologians study the roles of women in periods throughout history that have impacted religion: the biblical period, the early christian era, medieval europe, and any period of import to a particular religion. they study individual women who influenced their religion or whose religious faith led them to impact their culture. the work of these scholars has helped feminist theologians claim historical figures as their predecessors in feminist theology. for example, sojourner truth's "ain't i a woman?" speech pointed out, "and how came jesus into the world? through god who created him and the woman who bore him. man, where was your part?" elizabeth cady stanton produced the woman's bible, excising the traditional christian text of all references she thought contradicted the positions of women's rights. ===development of theology=== according to grenz and olson in their review of feminist theology, "it was developed in three distinct steps. they begin with a critique of the pastâ such that they review the ways women have been oppressed; âthey seek alternative biblical and extrabiblical traditions that supportâ the ideals feminists are trying to advance; and finally âfeminists set forth their own unique method of theology, which includes th | [
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Frances_Abington | frances "fanny" abington (1737 â 4 march 1815) was a british actress, known not only for her acting, but her sense of fashion. ==biography== she was born frances barton, the daughter of a private soldier, and began her career as a flower girl and a street singer. as a servant to a french milliner, she learned about costume and acquired a knowledge of french which afterwards stood her in good stead. her early nickname, nosegay fan, came from her time as a flower girl. her first appearance on the stage was at haymarket in 1755 as miranda in mrs centlivre's play, busybody.chambers biographical dictionary, isbn 0-550-18022-2, page 5 in 1756, on the recommendation of samuel foote, she became a member of the drury lane company, where she was overshadowed by hannah pritchard and kitty clive. in 1759, after an unhappy marriage to her music teacher james abington, a royal trumpeter, she is mentioned in the bills as "mrs abington". her first success was in ireland as lady townley (in the provok'd husband by vanbrugh and cibber), and it was only after five years, on the pressing invitation of david garrick, that she returned to drury lane. there she remained for eighteen years, being the first to play more than thirty important characters, notably lady teazle (1777). in april 1772, when james northcote saw her miss notable in cibber's the lady's last stake, he remarked to his brother {{quote|i never saw a part done so excellent in all my life, for in her acting she has all the simplicity of nature and not the least tincture of the theatrical.letter, 8 april 1772, in william t. whitley, arti | [
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] |
Francesco_I_Sforza | francesco i sforza (july 23, 1401 â march 8, 1466) was an italian condottiero, the founder of the sforza dynasty in milan, italy. he was the brother of alessandro, with whom he often fought. ==biography== ===early life=== francesco sforza was born in san miniato, tuscany, one of the seven illegitimate sons of the condottiero muzio sforza and lucia da torsano. he spent his childhood in tricarico (in the modern basilicata), the marquisate of which he was granted in 1412 by king ladislaus of naples. in 1418, he married polissena ruffo, a calabrese noblewoman. from 1419, he fought alongside his father, soon gaining fame for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands. he later proved himself to be an expert tactician and very skilled field commander. after the death of his father, he fought initially for the neapolitan army and then for pope martin v and the duke of milan, filippo maria visconti. after some successes, he fell in disgrace and was sent to the castle of mortara as a prisoner de facto. he regained his status after a successful expedition against lucca. in 1431, after a period during which he fought again for the papal states, he led the milanese army against venice; the following year the duke's daughter, bianca maria, was betrothed to him. despite these moves, the wary filippo maria never ceased to be distrustful of sforza. the allegiance of mercenary leaders was dependent, of course, on pay; in 1433-1435, sforza led the milanese attack on the papal states, but when he conquered ancona, in the marche, he changed sides, obtaining the title of vicar of the city directly from pope eugene iv. in 1436-39, he served variously both florence and venice. in 1440, his fiefs in the kingdom of naples were occupied by king alfonso i, and, to recover the situation, sforza reconciled himself with filippo visconti. on october 25, 1441, in cremona, he could finally marry bianca maria. the following year, he allied with rené of anjou, pretender to the throne | [
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Francis_of_Assisi | saint francis of assisi (; born giovanni di pietro di bernardone, but nicknamed francesco ("the frenchman") by his father; 1181/1182 october 3, 1226) was an italian catholic friar and preacher. he founded the men's order of friars minor, the womenâs order of st. clare, and the third order of saint francis for men and women not able to live the lives of itinerant preachers, followed by the early members of the order of friars minor, or the monastic lives of the poor clares. though he was never ordained to the catholic priesthood, francis is one of the most venerated religious figures in history. francis' father was pietro di bernardone, a prosperous silk merchant. francis lived the high-spirited life typical of a wealthy young man, even fighting as a soldier for assisi. while going off to war in 1204, francis had a vision that directed him back to assisi, where he lost his taste for his worldly life. on a pilgrimage to rome, he joined the poor in begging at st. peter's basilica. the experience moved him to live in poverty. francis returned home, began preaching on the streets, and soon gathered followers. his order was authorized by pope innocent iii i | [
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Factoid | a factoid is a questionable or spurious (unverified, false, or fabricated) statement presented as a fact, but without supporting evidence, although the term can have other meanings. ==usage== the word is defined by the compact oxford english dictionary as "an item of unreliable information that is repeated so often that it becomes accepted as fact". the word can also be used to describe a particularly insignificant or novel fact, in the absence of much relevant context. as read on his hit bbc radio show "steve wright in the afternoon". the term was coined by american writer norman mailer in his 1973 biography of marilyn monroe. mailer described a factoid as "facts which have no existence before appearing in a magazine or newspaper", and created the word by combining the word fact and the ending -oid to mean "similar but not the same". the washington times described mailer's new word as referring to "something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, but in fact is not a fact". in essence, a factoid is a statement that seems factual, but which is not accurate, or not verified, according to this sense. accordingly, factoids may give rise to, or arise from, common misconceptions and urban legends. several decades after the term was coined by mailer, it grew to have several meanings, some of which are quite different from each other. william safire, december 5, 1993, the new york times, on language; only the factoids, accessed june 15, 2014 in 1993 safire identified several contrasting senses of factoid: # factoid: accusatory: "misinformation purporting to be factual; or, a phony statistic." # factoid: neutral: "seemingly though not necessarily factual" # factoid: (the cnn version): "a little-known bit of information; trivial but interesting data." for some, '' | [
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Fantastic_Four | {{infobox comics team and title |name = fantastic four |image = ff509.jpg |imagesize = |caption = promotional art for fantastic four #509 (march 2004)by mike wieringo and karl kesel. |publisher = marvel comics |debuthead = |debut = the fantastic four #1 |debutmo = november |debutyr = 1961 |creators = |group = y |team = y |base = |members = |fullroster = list of fantastic four members |title = fantastic four |cvr_image = ff1kirby.jpg |cvr_caption = the fantastic four #1 (nov. 1961). cover art by jack kirby (penciller) and unconfirmed inker. |schedule = monthly |ongoing = y |superhero = y |1stishhead = vol. 1 |1stishyr = 1961 |1stishmo = november |endishyr = 1996 |endishmo = september |1stishhead1 = vol. 2 |1stishyr1 = 1996 |1stishmo1 = november |endishyr1 = 1997 |endishmo1 = november |1stishhead2 = vol. 3 |1stishyr2 = 1998 |1stishmo2 = january |endishyr2 = 2003 |endishmo2 = august |1stishhead3 = vol. 1 cont. |1stishyr3 = 2003 |1stishmo3 = september |endishyr3 = 2011 |endishmo3 = april |1stishhead4 = ff |1stishyr4 = 2011 |1stishmo4 = may |endishyr4 = 2011 |endishmo4 = december |1stishhead5 = vol. 1 cont. #2 |1stishyr5 = 2012 |1stishmo5 = january |endishyr5 = 2012 |endishmo5 = december |1stishhead6 = vol. 4 |1stishyr6 = 2013 |1stishmo6 = january |endishyr6 = 2014 |endishmo6 = march |1stishhead7 = vol. 5 |1stishyr7 = 2014 |1stishmo7 = april |endishyr7 = |endishmo7 = |issues = (vol. 1): 416 plus 27 annuals(vol. 2): 13(vol. 3): 70(vol. 1 cont.): 89(ff): 11(vol. 1 cont. #2): 13 (#600-611 plus #605.1)(vol. 4): 17 (#1-16 plus #5au)(vol. 5): 8 (as of october 2014 cover date |main_char_team = |writers = |artists = |pencillers = {{list collapsed|(vol. 1)jack kirby, john romita, sr., john buscema, rich buckler, george pérez, keith pollard, john byrne, bill sienkiewicz, jerry ordway, walt simonson, [[arthur adams (comics)|arthur a | [
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False_friend | false friends are pairs of words or phrases in two languages or dialects (or letters in two alphabets) that look or sound similar, but differ significantly in meaning. an example is the english embarrassed and the spanish embarazada/o, which means pregnant. however, there is often a partial overlap in meanings, which creates additional complications. similar words may also fail to catch all the nuances of each word in both languages. for instance, the french demande simply means a 'request', which is similar to but also very different from a demand in english and demandar in spanish. the term should be distinguished from "false cognates", which are similar words in different languages that appear to have a common historical linguistic origin (whatever their current meaning) but actually do not. as well as producing completely false friends, the use of loanwords often results in the use of a word in a restricted context, which may then develop new meanings not found in the original language. for example, angst means "fear" in a general sense (as well as "anxiety") in german, but when it was borrowed into english in the context of psychology, its meaning was restricted to a particular type of fear described as "a neurotic feeling of anxiety and depression". also, gymnasium meant both 'a place of education' and 'a place for exercise' in latin, but its meaning was restricted to the former in german and to the latter in english, making the expressions into false friends in those languages as well as in greek, where it started out as 'a place for naked exercise'. ==implications== false friends can cause difficulty for students learning a foreign language, particularly one that is related to their native language, because students are likely to identify the words wrongly due to linguistic interference. for this reason, teachers sometimes compile lists of false friends as an aid for their students. false friends are also a frequent source of difficulty between | [
"Error",
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"Language_comparison"
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Franz_Boas | franz uri boas (; ; july 9, 1858 â december 21, 1942)norman f. boas, 2004, p. 291 (photo of the graveyard marker of franz and marie boas, dale cemetery, ossining, n.y.) was a german-americanboas, franz. a franz boas reader: the shaping of american anthropology, 1883–1911. university of chicago press, 1989. p. 308 anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "father of american anthropology".holloway, m. (1997) the paradoxical legacy of franz boasâfather of american anthropology. natural history. november 1997.stocking. george w., jr. 1960.franz boas and the founding of the american anthropological association. americananthropologist62: 1â17. studying in germany, boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography. he then participated in a geographical expedition to northern canada where he became fascinated with the culture and language of the baffin island inuit. he went on to do field work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the pacific northwest. in 1887 he emigrated to the united states where he first worked as a museum curator at the smithsonian, and in 1899 became professor of anthropology at columbia university where he remained for the rest of his career. through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, boas profoundly influenced the development of american anthropology. among his most significant students were a. l. kroeber, ruth benedict, edward sapir, margaret mead, and zora neale hurston.{{cite book|last=moore|first=j | [
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