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Battle_of_Bosworth_Field

the battle of bosworth field (or battle of bosworth) was the last significant battle of the wars of the roses, the civil war between the houses of lancaster and york that raged across england in the latter half of the 15th century. fought on 22 august 1485, the battle was won by the lancastrians. their leader henry tudor, earl of richmond, by his victory became the first english monarch of the tudor dynasty. his opponent, richard iii, the last king of t

Earned_run

in baseball, an earned run is any run that was not necessarily enabled by a fielding error or a passed ball. in other words, an unearned run is one run that would not have been scored without the aid of an error or a passed ball committed by the defense, and an earned run is simply one that is not unearned. an error made by the pitcher in fielding at his position is counted the same as an error by any other player. regardless of the name, an unearned run is credited to the offensive team's score the same as any other run. it is only "unearned" in that it was, in a sense, "given away" by the defensive team. both total runs and earned runs are tabulated as part of a pitcher's statistics, but earned runs are specially denoted because of their use in calculating a pitcher's earned run average (era). one of the most prominent of baseball's traditional statistics for pitchers, the era is defined as the number of earned runs allowed per 9 innings pitched (i.e., averaged over a regulation game). thus, in effect, the pitcher is held especially accountable for earned runs, while the responsibility for unearned runs is shared with the rest of the team. to determine whether a run is earned, the official scorer must reconstruct the inning as it would have occurred without the errors (for purposes of this rule, the "errors" also include passed balls). the benefit of the doubt is always given to the pitcher in determining which bases would have been reached by errorless play. if no errors and no passed balls occur during the inning, all runs scored are automatically earned (assigned responsible to the pitcher). in a few cases, an error can be rendered harmless as the inning progresses. for example, a runner on first base advances to second on a passed ball and the next batter walks. since the runner would now have been at second anyway, the passed ball no longer has any effect on the earned/unearned calculation. on the other hand, a batter/runner may make his entire circuit around the bases without the aid of an error, yet the run would be counted as unearned if an error prevented the third out from being made before he came up to bat. ==unearned run== a run is counted as unearned when: * a batter reaches base on an error (including catcher's interference) that would have retired the batter except for the error, and later scores a run in that inning by any means. * a batter hits a foul fly ball (when the infield fly rule is not in play) that is dropped by a fielder for an error, extending the at bat, and later scores a run in that inning by any means. in this case, the manner in which the batter reached base becomes irrelevant. * a baserunner remains on base as the result of an error on a fielder's choice play that would put the baserunner out except for the error, and subsequently scores a run in that inning by an

Boogie_Down_Productions

boogie down productions was a hip hop group that was originally composed of krs-one, d-nice, and dj scott la rock. dj scott la rock was murdered on august 27, 1987, months after the release of bdp's debut album, criminal minded. the name of the group, boogie down, derives from a nickname for the south bronx section of the bronx, one of the five boroughs of new york city. the group pioneered the fusion of dancehall reggae and hip hop music and their debut lp criminal minded contained frank descriptions of life in the south bronx of the late 1980s thus setting the stage for what would eventually become gangsta rap. ==members== the membership of bdp changed continuously throughout its existence, the only constant being krs-one. the was originally founded by krs-one and dj scott larock, with producer lee smith, who was essential in the production of the songs in the groups first album criminal minded, being added as a member shortly after. from those beginnings, bdp members and collaborators included lee smith, scott la rock, d-nice, kenny parker (younger brother of krs-one), mad lion, dj premier,just-ice, icu channel live, mcboo, ms. melodie, heather b., scottie morris, tony rahsan, willie d., robocop, harmony, dj red alert, jay kramer, d-square, rebekah foster, scott whitehill, scott king, chris tait and sidney mills. bdp as a group essentially ended because krs-one began recording and performing under his own name rather than the group name. original member lee smith, who has co-producer credit on the original 12” "south bronx" single, was the last to be inexplicably jettisoned by krs-one and the future new label after scott’s death. in the liner notes on bdp's 1992 album sex and violence, krs-one writes: "bdp in 1992 is krs-one, willie d, and kenny parker! bdp is not d-nice, jamal-ski, harmony, ms. melodie, and scottie morris. they are not down with bdp so stop frontin'." steve "flash" juon of rapreviews.com claimed that this initiated the ultimate breakup of the group.juon, steve. [http://www.rapreviews.com/archive/bttl_sexandviolence.html "sex and violence

Beowulf

beowulf (; in old english or ) is the conventional title of an old english epic"beowulf is the longest epic poem in old english" according to the british library, where the manuscript is kept poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in scandinavia, possibly the oldest surviving long poem in old english and thus commonly cited as one of the most important works of anglo-saxon literature, and also arguably the earliest vernacular english literature. the full poem survives in the manuscript known as the nowell codex, located in the british library. written in england, its composition by an anonymous anglo-saxon poet{{refn | group = "lower-alpha" | in scholarship, the poet is commonly referred to as the "beowulf poet".{{sfn | robinson | 2001 | loc = ? | ps =: 'the name of the poet who assembled from

Baseball

baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each who take turns batting and fielding. the offense attempts to score runs by hitting a ball thrown by the pitcher with a bat and moving counter-clockwise around a series of four bases: first, second, third, and home plate. a run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate. players on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. a player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates' turns batting, such as on a hit or by other means. the teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. one turn batting for both teams, beginning with the visiting team, constitutes an inning. a game comprises nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. evolving from older bat-and-ball games, an early form of baseball was being played in england by the mid-18th century. this game was brought by immigrants to north america, where the modern version developed. by the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the united states. baseball is now popular in north america and parts of central and south america and the caribbean, east asia, and europe. in the united states and canada, professional major league baseball (mlb) teams are divided into the national league (nl) and american league (al), each with three divisions: east, west, and central. the major league champion is determined by [[major league base

American_League_Division_Series

in major league baseball, the american league division series (alds) determines which two teams from the american league will advance to the american league championship series. the division series consists of two concurrent best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and the winner of the wild-card game. ==history== the division series was implemented in 1981 as a result of a midseason strike, with the first place teams before the strike taking on the teams in first place after the strike. after 1993, it was implemented for good when major league baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but their next playing was in 1995 due to the cancellation of the 1994 playoffs. in 1981, a split-season format forced the first ever divisional playoff series, in which the new york yankees won the eastern division series over the milwaukee brewers (who were in the american league until 1998) in five games while in the western division, the oakland athletics swept the kansas city royals (the only team with an overall losing record to ever make the postseason). the yankees have currently played in the most division series in history, with fifteen appearances. the houston astros and the toronto blue jays are the only teams to have never played in the alds, houston not having made the postseason since 2005 when they won their only pennant to date while still a member of the national league, and toronto being the last team to win the world series under the old 4 division format in 1993. before switching leagues in 2013, houston had competed in seven national league division series. ===determining the matchups=== from 1998 to 2011, the wild-card team was assigned to play in the division winner with the best winning percentage (outside of their own division) in one series, and the other two division winners met in the other series. however, if the wild-card team and the division winner with the best record were from the same division, the wild-card team played the division winner with the second-best record, and the remaining two division leaders played each other. beginning with the 2012 season, the wild card team that advances to the division series was to face the number 1 seed, regardless of whether or not they are in the same division. the two series winners move on to the best-of-seven alcs. home field advantage goes to the team with the better regular season record, except for the wild card team, which never receives the home field advantage. beginning in 2007, mlb has implemented a new rule to give the team from the league that wins the all-star game with the best regular sea

Herman_Boerhaave

herman boerhaave (, 31 december 1668 – 23 september 1738) was a dutch botanist, christian humanist and physician of european fame. he is regarded as the founder of clinical teaching and of the modern academic hospital and is sometimes referred to as "the father of physiology,"kelly, kate (2010). the scientific revolution and medicine: 1450-1700. infobase publishing. p. 20 along with his pupil albrecht von haller. he is best known for demonstrating the relation of symptoms to lesions and, in addition, he was the first to isolate the chemical urea from urine. his motto was simplex sigillum veri; simplicity is the sign of truth. ==biography== boerhaave was born at voorhout near leiden. the son of a protestant pastor,robert siegfried (2002). from elements to atoms: a history of chemical composition, volume 92, issues 4-6. american philosophical society. p. 128 in his youth boeerhave studied for a divinity degree and wanted to become a preacher.mendelsohn, p.287 after the death of his father, however, he was offered a scholarship and he entered the university of leiden, where he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation de distinctione mentis a corpore (on the difference of the mind from the body). there he attacked the doctrines of epicurus, thomas hobbes and spinoza. he th

Basketball

basketball is a sport played by two teams of five players on a rectangular court. the objective is to shoot a ball through a hoop in diameter and high mounted to a backboard at each end. basketball is one of the world's most popular and widely viewed sports. a team can score a field goal by shooting the ball through the basket during regular play. a field goal scores three points for the shooting team if the player shoots from behind the three-point line, and two points if shot from in front of the line. the team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but additional time (overtime) is issued when the game ends in a draw. the ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it while walking or running or throwing it to a team mate. it is a violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling. as well as many techniques for shooting, passing, dribbling and rebounding, basketball teams generally have player positions and offensive and defensive structures (player positioning). traditionally, the tallest and strongest members of a team are called a center or power forward, while slightly shorter and more agile players are called small forward, and the shortest players or those who possess the best ball handling skills are called a point guard or shooting guard. ==history== ===creation=== in early december 1891, canadian dr. james naismith,{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/inventions/invent

Blue_Velvet_(film)

blue velvet is a 1986 american neo-noir mystery thriller film written and directed by david lynch. the movie exhibits elements of surrealism. the film stars kyle maclachlan, isabella rossellini, dennis hopper and laura dern. the title is taken from the clovers' 1955 song of the same name. although initially detested by some mainstream critics, the film is now widely acclaimed, and earned lynch his second academy award nomination for best director. as an example of a director casting against the norm, blue velvet is also noted for re-launching hopper's career and for providing rossellini with a dramatic outlet beyond the work as a fashion model and a cosmetics spokeswoman for which she had until then been known. after the commercial and critical failure of lynch's dune (1984), he made attempts at developing a more "personal story", somewhat characteristic of the surreal style he displayed in his debut eraserhead (1977). the screenplay of blue velvet had been passed around multiple times in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with many major studios declining it because of its strong sexual and violent content. the independent studio de laurentiis entertainment group, owned at the time by italian film producer dino de laurentiis, agreed to finance and produce the film. since its initial theatrical release, blue velvet has achieved cult status, significant academic attention and, alongside eraserhead and mulholland drive, is widely regarded as one of lynch's finest works. it is also seen by

Banca_d\'Italia

banca d'italia (italian for bank of italy), also known as bankitalia, is the central bank of italy and part of the european system of central banks. it is located in palazzo koch, rome, via nazionale. the bank's current governor is ignazio visco, who took the office on 1 november 2011. ==functions== after the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the european central bank, within the european institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues euro banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces. the main function has thus become banking and financial supervision. the objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance to rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities. following reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the credit sector, which is now shared with italy's antitrust authority. other functions include, market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, state treasury service, central credit register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy. bank of italy gold reserves are 2,451.8 tonnes (2006). ==history== the institution was established in 1893 from the combination of three major banks in italy (after the banca romana scandal).alfredo gigliobianco and claire giordano, economic theory and banking regulation: the italian case (1861-1930s), quaderni di storia economica (economic history working papers), nr. 5, november 2010 banca d'italia - origins the new central bank first issued bank-notes during 1926.banca d'italia - history retrieved 2012-05-28 until 1928, it was directed by a general manager, after this time instead by a governor elected by an internal commission of managers, with a decree from the [[presid

Biopolymer

biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules. since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. there are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides (rna and dna), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures. mohanty, a.k., et al., natural fibers, biopolymers, and biocomposites (crc press, 2005) chandra, r., and rustgi, r., "biodegradable polymers", progress in polymer science, vol. 23, p. 1273 (1998) meyers, m.a., et al., "biological materials: structure & mechanical properties", progress in materials science, vol. 53, p. 1 (2008) kumar, a., et al., "smart polymers: physical forms & bioengineering applications", progress in polymer science, vol. 32, p.1205 (2007) cellulose is the most common organic compound and biopolymer on earth. about 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose. the cellulose content of cotton is 90 percent, while wood's is 50 percent. klemm, d., heublein, b., fink, h., and bohn, a., "cellulose: fascinating biopolymer / sustainable raw material", ang. chemie (intl. edn.) vol. 44, p. 3358 (2004) == biopolymers vs synthetic polymers == a major defining difference between biopolymers and other polymers can be found in their structures. all polymers are made of repetitive units called monomers. biopolymers often have a well-defined structure, though this is not a defining characteristic (example:ligno-cellulose): the exact chemical

Boat

a boat is a watercraft of any size designed to float or plane, to work or travel on water. small boats are typically found on inland (lakes) or in protected coastal areas. however, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment. in naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). another less restrictive definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water. some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as 1000-foot bulk freighters on the great lakes are called oreboats. for reasons of naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as 'boats' rather than 'ships', regardless of their size and shape. boats have a wide variety of shapes and sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose, available materials or local traditions. canoe type boats have a long history and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation, fishing or sport. fishing boats vary widely in style partly to match local conditions. pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats. house boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. small boats can provide transport or convey cargo (lightering) to and from large ships. lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. == history == dugouts are the oldest type of boats that archaeologists have found, and boats have served as transportation since the earliest times. circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of australia over 40,000 years ago, findings in crete dated 130,000 years ago, and findings in flores dated to 900,000 years ago,[http://archive.archaeology.org/9805/newsbriefs/

BASIC

basic (an acronym for beginner's all-purpose symbolic instruction code) is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use. in 1964, john g. kemeny and thomas e. kurtz designed the original basic language at dartmouth college in new hampshire. they wanted to enable students in fields other than science and mathematics to use computers. at the time, nearly all use of computers required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to learn. versions of basic became widespread on microcomputers in the mid-1970s and 1980s. microcomputers usually shipped with basic, often in the machine's firmware. having an easy-to-learn language on these early personal computers allowed small business owners, professionals, hobbyists, and consultants to develop custom software on computers they could afford. basic remains popular in many dialects and in new languages influenced by basic, such as microsoft's visual basic. in 2006, 59% of developers for the .net framework used visual basic .net as their only programming language. ==history== before the mid-1960s, computers were extremely expensive mainframe machines, usually requiring a dedicated computer room and air-conditioning, used by large organizations for scientific and commercial tasks. users submitted jobs, on punched cards or similar media, to computer operators, and usually collected the output later. a simple batch processing arrangement ran only a single "job" at a time, one after another. during the 1

Bill_Watterson

william boyd "bill" watterson ii (born july 5, 1958) is an american cartoonist and the author of the comic strip calvin and hobbes, which was syndicated from 1985 to 1995. watterson stopped drawing calvin and hobbes at the end of 1995 with a short statement to newspaper editors and his readers that he felt he had achieved all he could in the medium. watterson is known for his views on licensing and comic syndication and his move back into private life after drawing calvin and hobbes came to a close. ==early life== bill watterson was born in washington, d.c., united states, where his father, james g. watterson (born 1932) worked as a patent attorney. the family relocated to chagrin falls, ohio in 1965 when watterson was six years old because his mother, kathryn, wanted to be closer to her family and felt the small town was a good place to raise her children, william and thomas. watterson, who drew his first cartoon at age eight, spent much time in childhood alone, drawing and cartooning. this continued through his school years, during which time he discovered comic strips like pogo, krazy kat, and charles schulz' peanuts which subsequently inspired and influenced his desire to become a professional cartoonist.watterson, bill (1995). the calvin & hobbes tenth anniversary book, p. 17. andrews mcmeel, kansas city, missouri. isbn 0-7407-7794-7. on one occasion, when he was in fourth grade, he wrote a letter to charles schulz, who—to watterson's surprise—responded, making a big impression on him at the time. his parents encouraged him in his artistic pursuits. later they would recall him as a "conservative child"—imaginative, but "not in a fantasy way", and certainly nothing like the character of calvin he would later create.gene williams (august 30, 1987), "calvin's other alter ego", cleveland plain dealer. watterson found avenues for his cartooning talents throughout primary and secondary school, creating high school-themed super hero comics with his friends and contributing cartoons and art to the school newspaper and yearbook.nevin martell (2009), looking for calvin and hobbes

Brian_Kernighan

brian wilson kernighan (; born january 1, 1942) is a canadian computer scientist who worked at bell labs alongside unix creators ken thompson and dennis ritchie and contributed to the development of unix. he is also coauthor of the awk and ampl programming languages. the "k" of k&r c and the "k" in awk both stand for "kernighan". since 2000 brian kernighan has been a professor at the computer science department of princeton university, where he is also the undergraduate department representative. kernighan's name became widely known through co-authorship of the first book on the c programming language with dennis ritchie. kernighan affirmed that he had no part in the design of the c language ("it's entirely dennis ritchie's work"). he authored many unix programs, including ditroff, and cron for version 7 unix. in collaboration with shen lin he devised well-known heuristics for two np-complete optimization problems: graph partitioning and the travelling salesman problem. (in a display of authorial equity, the former is usually called the kernighan–lin algorithm, while the latter is styled lin–kernighan.) kernighan was the software editor for prentice hall international. his "software tools" series spread the essence of "c/unix thinking" with makeovers for basic, fortran, and pascal, and most notably his "ratfor" (rational

Bob_Hawke

robert james lee "bob" hawke (born 9 december 1929) is an australian politician who was the 23rd prime minister of australia and the leader of the labor party from 1983 to 1991. after a decade as president of the australian council of trade unions, he was elected to the [[parliament of australia|ho

National_Baseball_Hall_of_Fame_and_Museum

the national baseball hall of fame and museum is an american history museum and hall of fame, located at 25 main street in cooperstown, new york, and operated by private interests. it serves as the central point for the study of the history of baseball in the united states and beyond, displays baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, and honors those who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. the hall's motto is "preserving history, honoring excellence, connecting generations." the word cooperstown is often used as shorthand (or a metonym) for the national baseball hall of fame and museum. ==history== thumb|right|325px|the entrance to the baseball hall of fame (2012) thumb|right|267px|the hall of fame library thumb|right|325px|examples of the national baseball hall of fame coins (gold, silver and clad) created by the united states mint. the hall of fame was founded in 1939 by stephen carlton clark, the owner of a local hotel. clark sought to bring tourists to a city hurt by the great depression, which reduced the local tourist trade, and prohibition, which devastated the local hops industry. the hall of fame was dedicated on june 12, 1939. (clark's granddaughter, jane forbes clark, is the current chairman of the board of directors.) the erroneous claim that u.s. civil war hero abner doubleday invented baseball in cooperstown, a claim made by former national league president abraham g. mills and his 1905 mills commission, was instrumental in the early marketing of the hall. an expanded library and research facility opened in 1994. dale petroskey became the organization's president in 1999. in 2002, the hall launched baseball as america, a traveling exhibit that toured ten american museums over six years. the hall of fame has also sponsored

Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem

brouwer's fixed-point theorem is a fixed-point theorem in topology, named after luitzen brouwer. it states that for any continuous function f mapping a compact convex set into itself there is a point x0 such that f(x0) = x0. the simplest forms of brouwer's theorem are for continuous functions f from a closed interval i in the real numbers to itself or from a closed disk d to itself. a more general form than the latter is for continuous functions from a convex compact subset k of euclidean space to itself. among hundreds of fixed-point theorems,e.g. f & v bayart théorèmes du point fixe on bibm@th.net brouwer's is particularly well known, due in part to its use across numerous fields of mathematics. in its original field, this result is one of the key theorems characterizing the topology of euclidean spaces, along with the jordan curve theorem, the hairy ball theorem and the borsuk–ulam theorem.see page 15 of: d. leborgne calcul différentiel et géométrie puf (1982) isbn 2-13-037495-6 this gives it a place among the fundamental theorems of topology.more exactly, according to encyclopédie universalis: il en a démontré l'un des plus beaux théorèmes, le théorème du point fixe, dont les applications et généralisations, de la théorie des jeux aux équations différentielles, se sont révélées fondamentales. luizen brouwer by g. sabbagh the theorem is also used for proving deep results about differential equations and is covered in most introductory courses on differential geometry. it appears in unlikely fields such as game theory. in economics, brouwer's fixed-point theorem and its extension, the kakutani fixed-point theorem, play a central role in the proof of existence of general equilibrium in market economies as developed in the 1950s by economics nobel prize winners gérard debreu and kenneth arrow. the theorem was first studied in view of work on differential equations by the french mathematicians around poincaré and picard. proving results such as the poincaré–bendixson theorem requires the use of topological methods. this work at the end of the 19th century opened into several successive versions of the theorem. the general case was first proved in 1910 by jacques hadamardjacques hadamard: '

Boiling_point

thumb|300px|boiling waterthe boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid section 17.43, p. 321 section 27, page 15 and the liquid changes into a vapor. a liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. in other words, the boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. for a given pressure, different liquids boil at different temperatures. the normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere.general chemistry glossary purdue university website page section 71, p. 224 at that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. the standard boiling point has been defined by iupac since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar.notation for states and processes, significance of the word standard in chemical thermodynamics, and remarks on commonly tabulated forms of thermodynamic functions. iupac. 1982. p. 1274 the heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure). liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. on the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid. ==saturation temperature and pressure== a [[saturation (chemis

Bulgarian_language

bulgarian (български език, ) is an indo-european language, a member of the southern branch of the slavic language family. bulgarian, along with the closely related macedonian language (collectively forming the east south slavic languages), has several characteristics that set it apart from all other slavic languages: changes include the elimination of case declension, the development of a suffixed definite article (see balkan language area), and the lack of a verb infinitive, but it retains and has further developed the proto-slavic verb system. various evidential verb forms exist to express unwitnessed, retold, and doubtful action. based on the 2011 census, ethnologue estimates that bulgarian is spoken as a native language by 6.8 million. in 1999, the world almanac had estimated 9 million.ucla center for world languages – ucla international institute, bulgarian. with the accession of bulgaria to the european union on 1 january 2007, bulgarian became one of the official languages of the european union. {{cite web|title=languages in europe – official eu languages|publisher=europa web portal|url=http://ec.europa.eu/educa

Bill_Walsh_(American_football_coach)

william ernest "bill" walsh (november 30, 1931 – july 30, 2007) was the head coach of the san francisco 49ers and the stanford cardinal football team, during which time he popularized the west coast offense. after retiring from the 49ers, walsh worked as sports broadcaster for several years and then returned as head coach at stanford for three seasons. walsh went 102–63–1 with the 49ers, winning ten of his 14 postseason games along with six division titles, three nfc championship t

Babe_Ruth

george herman "babe" ruth, jr. (february 6, 1895 â€“ august 16, 1948) was an american baseball outfielder and pitcher who played 22 seasons in major league baseball (mlb) from 1914 to 1935. nicknamed "the bambino" and "the sultan of swat", he began his career as a stellar left-handed pitcher for the boston red sox, but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the new york yankees. ruth established many mlb batting (and some pitching) records, including career home runs (714), slugging percentage (.690), runs batted in (rbis) (2,213), bases on balls (2,062), and on-base plus slugging (ops) (1.164), some of which have been broken. he was one of the first five inductees into the national baseball hall of fame in 1936. at age

BCG_vaccine

bacillus calmette–guérin (historically vaccin bilié de calmette et guérin commonly referred to as bacille de calmette et guérin or bcg) is a vaccine against tuberculosis that is prepared from a strain of the attenuated (virulence-reduced) live bovine tuberculosis bacillus, mycobacterium bovis, that has lost its virulence in humans by being specially subcultured in a culture medium, usually middlebrook 7h9. because the living bacilli evolve to make the best use of available nutrients, they become less well-adapted to human blood and can no longer induce disease when introduced into a human host. still, they are similar enough to their wild ancestors to provide some degree of immunity against human tuberculosis. the bcg vaccine can be anywhere from 0 to 80% effective in preventing tuberculosis for a duration of 15 years; however, its protective effect appears to vary according to geography and the lab in which the vaccine strain was grown. it is on the world health organization's list of essential medicines, a list of the most important medication needed in a basic health system. ==medical uses== the main use of bcg is for vaccination against tuberculosis. bcg vaccine can be implemented after the birth intradermally. bcg vaccination is recommended to be given intradermally by a nurse skilled in the technique. a previous bcg vaccination can cause a [

Baltic_languages

the baltic languages are part of the balto-slavic branch of the indo-european language family spoken by the balts. baltic languages are spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the baltic sea in northern europe. they are usually considered a single family divided into two groups: western baltic, containing only extinct languages, and eastern baltic, containing two living languages, lithuanian and latvian. the range of the eastern balts once reached to the ural mountains.marija gimbutas 1963. the balts. london : thames and hudson, ancient peoples and places 33.j. p. mallory, "fatyanovo-balanovo culture", encyclopedia of indo-european culture, fitzroy dearborn, 1997david w. anthony, "the horse, the wheel, and language: how bronze-age riders from the eurasian steppes shaped the modern world", princeton university press, 2007 although related, the lithuanian, the latvian, and particularly the old prussian vocabularies differ substantially from one another and are not mutually intelligible. the now-extinct old prussian language is considered the most archaic of the baltic languages.ringe, d., warnow, t., taylor, a., 2002. indo-european and computational cladistics. trans. philos. soc. 100, 59–129. ==branches== the baltic languages are generally thought to form a single family with two branches, eastern and western. however, these are sometimes classified as independent branches of balto-slavic. thumb|right|300px|balto-slavic languages. ===western baltic languages †=== * (western) galindian † * old prussian † * sudovian (yotvingian) † * ? skalvian † ===eastern baltic languages=== * latvian (~2–2.5 million speakers, whereof ~1.39 million native speakers, 0.5–1 million ethnic russian speakers, 0.15 million others) ** latgalian (165 thousand speakers; usually considered a dialect of latvian) ** new curonian (nearly extinct; often considered a separate language, but mutually intelligible to latvian) * lithuanian (~3.9 million speakers) ** samogitian (~0.5 million speakers; usually considered a dialect of lithuanian) * selonian † * semigallian † * old curonian (sometim

Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer_(film)

buffy the vampire slayer is a 1992 american action/comedy horror film about a valley girl cheerleader named buffy who learns that it is her fate to hunt vampires. the film starred kristy swanson, donald sutherland, paul reubens, rutger hauer, luke perry and hilary swank. it was a moderate success at the box office, but received mixed reception from critics. the film was taken in a different direction from the one that its writer, joss whedon, intended, but several years later he was able to create the darker and acclaimed buffy the vampire slayer tv series. ==plot== high school senior buffy summers (kristy swanson) is introduced as a stereotypical, shallow cheerleader at hemery high school in los angeles. she is a carefree popular girl whose main concerns are shopping and spending time with her airhead friends and her boyfriend, jeffrey. while at school one day, she is approached by a man named merrick jamison-smythe (donald sutherland). he informs her that she is the slayer, or chosen one, and he is a watcher whose duty it is to guide and train her. she initially rebukes his claims, but finally becomes convinced that he is right when he is able to describe a recurring dream of hers in detail. in addition, buffy is exhibiting uncanny abilities not known to her, including heightened agility, senses, and endurance, yet s

Bayezid_II

bayezid ii or sultân bayezid-î velî (december 3, 1447 â€“ may 26, 1512) (ottoman turkish: بايزيد ثانى bāyezÄ«d-i sānÄ«, turkish:ii. bayezid or ii. beyazıt) was the eldest son and successor of mehmed ii, ruling as sultan of the ottoman empire from 1481 to 1512. during his reign, bayezid ii consolidated the ottoman empire and thwarted a safavid rebellion soon before abdicating his throne to his son, selim i. he is most notable for evacuating jews from spain after the proclamation of the alhambra decree and resettling them throughout the ottoman empire. ==early life== bayezid ii was the son of mehmed ii (1432–81). his mother's identity is undetermined; there are two main theories, that she was emine gülbahar hatun or sitti mükrime hatun. bayezid ii married gülbahar hatun, who was the mother of his eldest son Şehzade ahmet, as well as bayezid ii's heir and successor, selim i and nephew of sitti mükrime hatun. ==fight for the throne== bayezid ii's overriding concern was the quarrel with his brother cem, who claimed the throne and sought military backing from the mamluks in egypt. having been defeated by his brother's armies, cem sought protection from the knights of st. john in rhodes. eventually, t

Battle_of_Stalingrad

{{infobox military conflict | conflict = battle of stalingrad | partof = the eastern front of world war ii | image = 300px | caption = soviet soldier waving the red banner over the central plaza of stalingrad in 1943. | date = 23 august 1942 – 2 february 1943a() | place = stalingrad, russian sfsr, soviet union | coordinates = | result = decisivebellamy, (2007) soviet victory * destruction of the german 6th army * axis forces began to decline on the eastern front *the battle of stalingrad is considered by many historians to have been the turning point of world war ii in the european theatre. | combatant1= | combatant2 = | commander1 = adolf hitler erich von manstein friedrich paulus w.f. von richthofen petre dumitrescu c. constantinescu italo gariboldi gusztáv jány viktor pavičić | commander2 = joseph stalin georgy zhukov nikolay voronov a.m. vasilevsky andrey yeryomenko nikita khrushchev hazi aslanov k.k. rokossovsky nikolai vatutin vasily chuikov <!--- *** following were army commanders, if we list one, we should list all!*** semyon timoshenko ***stalingrad front commander before the battle*** rodion malinovsky ***early commander of 66th army - later 2nd guards army*** ---> | units1 = [[army gr

British_National_Party

{{infobox political party |country = the united kingdom |name_english = british national party |name_native = |colorcode = #0000a0 |logo = 200px |chairman = adam walker |secretary_general = |foundation = 1982 |dissolution = |membership_year = dec 2013 |membership = 4,220british national party statement of accounts year ended 31st december 2013, page 11. filed with the electoral commission (ref no. st0009748) on 7 july 2014. (accessed 3 october 2014) |headquarters = welshpool, wales |newspaper = voice of freedom |youth_wing = resistance (ybnp) |ideology = fascismright-wing populism{{nowrap|white nationalism{{cite journal|last1=back|first1=les|last2=keith|first2=michael|last3=khan|first3=azra|last4=shukra|first4=kalbir|last5=solomos|first5=john|title=new labour's white heart: poli

Beltane

beltane () is the gaelic may day festival. most commonly it is held on 30 april, but sometimes on 1 may, or about halfway between the spring equinox and the summer solstice. historically, it was widely observed throughout ireland, scotland and the isle of man. in irish it is bealtaine (), in scottish gaelic bealltainn () and in manx gaelic boaltinn or boaldyn. it is one of the four gaelic seasonal festivals—along with samhain, imbolc and lughnasadh—and is similar to the welsh calan mai. beltane is mentioned in some of the earliest irish literature and it is associated with important events in irish mythology. it marked the beginning of summer and was when cattle were driven out to the summer pastures. rituals were performed to protect the cattle, crops and people, and to encourage growth. special bonfires were kindled, and their flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to have protective powers. the people and their cattle would walk around the bonfire, or between two bonfires, and sometimes leap over flames or embers. all household fires would be doused and then re-lit from the beltane bonfire. doors, windows, byres and the cattle themselves would be decorated with yellow may flowers, perhaps because they evoked fire. in parts of ireland, people would make a may bush; a thorn bush decorated with flowers, ribbons and bright shells. [[holy wel

Binary_tree

right|192px|thumb|a labeled binary tree of size 9 and height 3, with a root node whose value is 2. the above tree is unbalanced and not sorted. in computer science, a binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. a recursive definition using just set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a triple (l, s, r), where l and r are binary trees or the empty set and s is a singleton set. some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well. from a graph theory perspective, binary (and k-ary) trees as defined here are actually arborescences. a binary tree may thus be also called a bifurcating arborescence—a term which actually appears in some very old programming books, before the modern computer science terminology prevailed. it is also possible to interpret a binary tree as an undirected, rather than a directed graph, in which case a binary tree is an ordered, rooted tree. some authors use rooted binary tree instead of binary tree to emphasize the fact that the tree is rooted, but as defined above, a binary tree is always rooted. a binary tree is a special case of an ordered k-ary tree, where k is 2. there is however a subtle difference between the binary tree data structure as defined here and the notions from graph theory or as k-ary tree is usually defined. as defined here, a binary tree node having a left child but no right child is not the same as a node having a right child but no left child, whereas an ordered/plane tree (or arbores

Baltimore_Orioles

the baltimore orioles are an american professional baseball team based in baltimore, maryland, that competes in major league baseball (mlb). they are a member of the east division of the american league (al). one of the al's eight charter franchises when the league was established in 1901 with president ban johnson; this particular franchise spent its first year as a major league club in milwaukee, wisconsin as the "milwaukee brewers" before moving to st. louis, missouri to become the "st. louis browns". after 52 often-beleaguered years in st. louis, the franchise was purchased in november 1953 by baltimore business interests led by clarence miles. the franchise officially moved to baltimore for the [[1954 major league baseball season|1954 seas

Biological_warfare

biological warfare (bw)—also known as germ warfare—is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with the intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons", "biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are living organisms or replicating entities (viruses, which are not universally considered "alive") that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. entomological (insect) warfare is also considered a type of biological weapon. this type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and chemical warfare, which together make up nbc, the military initialism for nuclear, biological, and chemical (warfare or weapons), all of which are considered "weapons of mass destruction" (wmds). none of these fall under the term conventional weapons which are primarily effective due to their destructive potential. biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. like some of the chemical weapons, biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons. these agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire population. they may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. in the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism. there is an overlap between biological warfare and chemical warfare, as the use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the biological weapons convention and the chemical weapons convention. toxins and psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents. unlike bioweapons, these midspectrum agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods.gray, colin. (2007). another bloody century: future warfare. page 265 to 266. phoenix. isbn 0-304-36734-6. == overview == offensive biological warfare, including mass production, stoc

Blind_Blake

arthur "blind" blake (1896 – december 1, 1934) was an american blues and ragtime singer and guitarist. he is known for his series of recordings for paramount records between 1926 and 1932 and the mystery surrounding his life. ==biography== little is known of blind blake's life. paramount records promotional materials indicate he was born blind and give his birthplace as jacksonville, florida, and he appears to have lived there during various periods. he seems to have had relatives across the state line in patterson, georgia. some authors have written that in one recording he slipped into a geechee or gullah dialect, suggesting a connection in the sea islands. blind willie mctell indicated that his real name was arthur phelps, but later research has shown this is unlikely to be correct.balfour, alan. cd liner notes. blind blake, complete recorded works in chronological order, volume 4, august 1929 to june 1932. docd–5027. document records, 1991. in 2011 a group of researchers led by alex van der tuuk published various documents regarding blake's life and death in blues & rhythm. one of these documents is his 1934 death certificate, which indicates he was born in 1896 in newport news, virginia, to winter and alice blake, though his mother's name is followed by a question mark. nothing else is known of blake until the 1920s, when he emerged as a recording musician. blind blake recorded about 80 tracks for paramount records from 1926 to 1932. he was one of the most accomplished guitarists of his genre with a diverse range of material. he is best known for his distinct guitar sound that was comparable in sound and style to a ragtime pia

Books_of_Kings

the two books of kings ( sepher m'lakhim – the two books were originally one)fretheim, p.1 present the biblical view of history of ancient israel and judah from the death of david to the release of his successor jehoiachin from imprisonment in babylon, a period of some 400 years (c. 960– c. 560&nbsp;bce).sweeney, p.1 it concludes a series of books running from joshua through judges and samuel, which make up the section of the hebrew bible called the former prophets; this series is also often referred to as the deuteronomistic history, a body of writing which scholars believe was written to provide a theological explanation for the destruction of the jewish kingdom by babylon in 586&nbsp;bce and a foundation for a return from exile. == contents == david dies and solomon comes to the throne. at the beginning of his reign he assumes god's promises to david and brings splendour to israel and peace and prosperity to his people.fretheim, p.19 the centrepiece of solomon's reign is the building of the first temple: the claim that this took place 480 years after the exodus from egypt marks it as a key event in israel's history.fretheim, p.40 at the end, however, he follows other gods and oppresses israel.fretheim, p.20 as a consequence of solomon's failure to stamp out the worship of gods other than yahweh, the kingdom of david is split in two in the reign of his own son rehoboam, who becomes the first to reign over the kingdom of judah.sweeney, p.161 the kings who follow rehoboam in jerusalem continue the royal line of david (i.e., they inherit the promise to david); in the north, however, dynasties follow each other in rapid succession, and the kings are uniformly bad (meaning that they fail to follow yahweh alone). at length god brings the assyrians to destroy the northern kingdom, leaving judah as the sole custodian of the promise. hezekiah, the 14th king of judah, "did what was right in the eyes of the lord" and institutes a far reaching religious reform, centralising sacrifice at the temple at jerusalem and destroying the images of other gods. yahweh saves jerusalem and the kingdom from an invasion by assyria. but manasseh, the next king, reverses the reforms, and god announces that he will destroy jerusalem because of this apostasy by the king. mannasah's righteous grandson josiah reinstitutes the reforms of hezekiah, but it is too late: god, speaking through the prophetess huldah, affirms tha

Book_of_Ezekiel

the book of ezekiel is the third of the major prophets in the tanakh and one of the major prophetic books in the old testament, following isaiah and jeremiah. according to the book itself, it records seven visions of the prophet ezekiel, exiled in babylon, during the 22 years from 593 to 571&nbsp;bce. the visions, and the book, are structured around three themes: (1) judgment on israel (chapters 1–24); (2) judgment on the nations (chapters 25–32); (3) and future blessings for israel (chapters 33–48). == structure == ezekiel has the broad three-fold structure found in a number of the prophetic books: oracles of woe against the prophet's own people, followed by oracles against israel's neighbours, ending in prophecies of hope and salvation: * prophecies against judah and jerusalem, chapters 1–24 * prophecies against the foreign nations, chapters 25–32 * prophecies of hope and salvation, chapters 33–48 == summary == the book opens with a vision of yhwh (יהוה), one of the names of god; moves on to anticipate the destruction of jerusalem and the temple, explains this as god's punishment, and closes with the promise of a new beginning and a new temple.redditt 2008, p. 148 #inaugural vision (): god approaches ezekiel as the divine warrior, riding in his battle chariot. the chariot is drawn by four living creatures each having four faces (of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle), and four wings. beside each "living creature" is a "wheel within a wheel," with "tall and awesome" rims full of eyes all around. yhwh commissions ezekiel to be a prophet and a "watchman" in israel: "son of man, i am sending you to the israelites." (2:3) #judgment on jerusalem and judah () and on the nations (): god warns of the certain destruction of jerusalem and the devastation of the nations that have troubled his people, the ammonites, moabites, edomites and philistines, the phoenician cities of tyre and sidon, and egypt. #building a new city (): the jewish exile will come to an end, a new city and new temple will be built, and the israelites will be gathered and blessed as never before. some of the highlights include:blenkinsopp (199

Bear

bears are mammals of the family ursidae. bears are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans, with the pinnipeds being their closest living relatives. although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the northern hemisphere and partially in the southern hemisphere. bears are found on the continents of north america, south america, europe, and asia. common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails. while the polar bear is mostly carnivorous, and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, the remaining six species are omnivorous with varied diets. with the exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically solitary animals. they are generally diurnal, but may be active during the night (nocturnal) or twilight (crepuscular), particularly around humans. bears possess an excellent sense of smell and, despite their heavy build and awkward gait, are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. in autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of fermented fruits, which affects their behaviour. bears use shelters, such as caves and burrows, as their dens; most species occupy their de

Brooklyn_Historic_Railway_Association

thumb|cars under wire on red hook the brooklyn historic railway association's (bhra) shop, trolley barn and offices are located in red hook, brooklyn, new york, on the historic beard street piers (circa 1870). bhra had a fleet of 16 trolleys (15 pcc trolleys and a leased 1897 trolley car from oslo, norway). the bhra's origin began with the rediscovery of the cobble hill tunnel by bob diamond in 1980. bhra was formed in 1982 to restore the historic tunnel. the atlantic avenue tunnel (constructed in 1844) is the world's oldest subway tunnel. bhra successfully filed and received designation for the tunnel on the national register of historic places. restoration of one of brooklyn's trolley/light rail routes, in red hook, was hampered due to the new york city department of transportation (dot) withdrawing its support from the project. construction was stopped on a 7-block extension to the line due to the removal and scrapping of rails, ties, and other items of railroad equipment by the dot, which were stored on land that was slated for the fairway supermarket project. , bhra was ordered to remove and fill in all trolley tracks on public streets by the dot. the dot revoked consent for the project to proceed or exist on city streets. shortly thereafter, bhra completely ceased operation. all the pcc trolleys except for no. 3303 were removed from brooklyn. the bhra ran organized tours of the cobble hill tunnel from time to time, but all tours are currently suspended. ==see also== *cobble hill tunnel ==references== ==external links== *forgotten new york *brooklyn historic railway association

Barcelona

{{infobox settlement | official_name = barcelona | native_name = | other_name = | settlement_type = city (municipality) | image_skyline = barcelona collage.jpg | image_alt = | image_caption = central business district, sagrada família, camp nou stadium, the castle of the three dragons, palau nacional, w barcelona hotel and beach | image_flag = flag of barcelona.svg | flag_alt = | image_shield = coat of arms of barcelona.svg | shield_alt = | nickname = "city of counts" abbreviation(s): barna, bcn | motto = | pushpin_map1 = spain catalonia | pushpin_label_position1 = | pushpin_map_alt1 = | pushpin_map_caption1 = location of barcelona within catalonia | pushpin_map = spain | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = location of barcelona within spain | latd = 41 | latm = 23 | lats = | latns = n | longd = 2 | longm = 11 | longs = | longew = e | coordinates_type = type:city(1,582,738)_region:es | coordinates_display = inline, title | coordinates_footnotes = | coordinates_region = es | subdivision_type = country | subdivision_name = spain | subdivision_name2 = barcelona | subdivision_type3 = comarca | subdivision_type1 = autonomous community | subdivision_name1 = catalonia | subdivision_type2 = province | subdivision_name3 = barcelonès | established_title = | established_date = | seat_type = | seat = barcelona city hall | parts_type = districts | parts_style = coll | parts = | p1 = ciutat vella | p2 = eixample | p3 = gràcia | p4 = horta-guinardó | p5 = les corts | p6 = nou barris | p7 = sant andreu | p8 = sants–montjuïc | p9 = sarrià-sant gervasi | p10 = sant martí | government_type = mayor–council | governing_body = | leader_party = ciu | leader_title = mayor | leader_name = xavier trias | total_type = | unit_pref = | area_footnotes = | total_type = city | area_total_km2 = 101.9 | area_urban_km2 = 803 | elevation_footnotes = &nbsp;(amsl) | elevation_m = 12 | population_footnotes = | population_rank = 2nd (spain) | population_total = 1620943 | population_urban = 4604000 | population_metro = 5375774 | population_as_of = 2011 | population_density_km2 = 15991 | population_demonym = barcelonan,&nbsp;barcelonian barcelonés,&am

Book_of_Haggai

the book of haggai is a book of the hebrew bible or tanakh, and has its place as the antepenultimate of the minor prophets. it is a short book, consisting of only two chapters. the historical setting dates around 520&nbsp;bce before the temple has been rebuilt.coogan, michael d. "a brief introduction to the old testament." oxford university press, 2009. o. 346. 520&nbsp;bce falls between the start of the persian empire in 539&nbsp;bce and 520&nbsp;bce a period that saw major kings such as zerubbabel help lead the jews in their return to the land. == authorship == the book of haggai is named after its presumed author, the prophet haggai. there is no biographical information given about the prophet in the book of haggai, so we know no personal information about him. haggai's name is derived from the hebrew verbal root hgg, which means "to make a pilgrimage." w. sibley towner suggests that haggai's name might come "from his single-minded effort to bring about the reconstruction of that destination of ancient judean pilgrims, the temple in jerusalem." towner, w. sibley. the harper collins study bible. harpercollins publishers. 2006. p. 1265. == date == the book of haggai was written in 520&nbsp;bce some 18 years after cyrus had conquered babylon and issued a decree in 538&nbsp;bce allowing the captive jews to return to judea. cyrus saw the restoration of the temple as necessary for the restoration of the religious practices and a sense of peoplehood after a long exile. == synopsis == haggai's message is filled with an urgency for the people to proceed with the rebuilding of the second jerusalem temple. haggai attributes a recent drought to the people's refusal to rebuild the temple, which he sees as key to jerusalem’s glory. the book ends with the prediction of the downfall of kingdoms, with one zerubbabel, governor of judah, as the lord’s chosen leader. the language here is not as finely wrought as in some other books of the minor prophets, yet the intent seems straightforward. the first chapter contains the first address (2–11) and its effects (12–15). the second chapter contains: #the second prophecy (1–9), which was delivered a month after the first #the third prophecy (10–19), delivered two months and three days after the second; and #the fourth prophecy (20–23), delivered on the same day as the third these discourses are referred to in ezra 5:1 and 6:14. (compare haggai 2:7, 8 and 22) haggai reports that three weeks after his first prophecy, the rebuilding of the temple began on september 7 521&nbsp;bce. "they came and began to work on the house of the lord almighty, their god, on the twenty-fourth day of the sixt

Bacterial_conjugation

bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material (plasmid) between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. discovered in 1946 by joshua lederberg and edward tatum, conjugation is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact. bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating since it involves the exchange of genetic material. during conjugation the donor cell provides a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element that is most often a plasmid or transposon. most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the recipient cell does not already contain a similar element. the genetic information transferred is often beneficial to the recipient. benefits may include antibiotic resistance, xenobiotic tolerance or the ability to use new metabolites. such beneficial plasmids may be considered bacterial endosymbionts. other elements, however, may be viewed as bacterial parasites and conjugation as a mechanism evolved by them t

The_Big_O

is a japanese animated television series created by designer keiichi sato and director kazuyoshi katayama, and written by chiaki j. konaka for sunrise. the writing staff was assembled by the series' head writer, chiaki j. konaka who is known for his work in the digimon season, digimon tamers. the story takes place forty years after a mysterious occurrence causes the residents of paradigm city to lose their memories. the series follows roger smith, paradigm city's top negotiator. he provides this much needed service with the help of a robot named r. dorothy wayneright and his butler norman burg. when the need arises, roger calls upon big o, a giant relic from the city's past. the television series is designed as

Beatrix_Potter

helen beatrix potter (28 july 186622 december 1943) was an english author, illustrator, natural scientist and conservationist best known for her imaginative children's books, featuring animals such as those in the tale of peter rabbit, which celebrated the british landscape and country life. born into a wealthy unitarian family, potter, along with her younger brother walter bertram (1872–1918), grew up with few friends outside her large extended family. her parents were artistic, interested in nature and enjoyed the countryside. as children, beatrix and bertram had numerous small animals as pets which they observed closely and drew endlessly. summer holidays were spent away from london, in scotland and in the english lake district where beatrix developed a love of the natural world which was the subject of her painting from an early age. she was educated by private governesses until she was 18. her study of languages, literature, science and history was broad and she was an eager student. her artistic talents were recognized early. she enjoyed private art lessons, and developed her own style, favouring watercolour. along with her drawings of her animals, real and imagined, she illustrated insects, fossils, archaeological artifacts, and fungi. in the 1890s her mycological illustrations and research into the reproduction of fungus spores generated interest from the scientific establishment. following some success illustrating cards and booklets, potter wrote and illustrated the tale of peter rabbit, publishing it first privately in 1901, and a year later as a small, three-colour illustrated book with frederick warne & co. she became unofficially engaged to her editor norman warne in 1905 despite the disapproval of her parents, but he died suddenly a month later of leukemia. with the proceeds from the books and a legacy from an aunt, potter bought hill top farm in near sawrey, a tiny village, then in lancashire, the english lake district near windermere, in 1905. over the following decades, she purchased additional farms to preserve the

British_thermal_unit

the british thermal unit (btu or btu) is a traditional unit of energy equal to about 1055 joules. it is the amount of energy needed to cool or heat one pound of water by one degree fahrenheit (physical analogue; one four inch, wooden kitchen match consumed completely generates 1 btu). in science, the joule, the si unit of energy, has largely replaced the btu. the btu is most often used as a measure of power (as btu/h) in the power, steam generation, heating, and air conditioning industries, and also as a measure of agricultural energy production (btu/kg). it is still used in metric english-speaking countries (such as canada), and remains the standard unit of classification for air conditioning units manufactured and sold in many non-english-speaking metric countries. in north america, the heat value (energy content) of fuels is expressed in btus. ==definitions== a btu is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 avoirdupois pound of liquid water by 1 degree fahrenheit at a constant pressure of one atmosphere. as with the calorie, several definitions of the btu exist, because the temperature response of water to heat energy is non-linear. this means that the change in temperature of a water mass caused by adding a certain amount of heat to it will be a function of the water's initial temperature. definitions of the btu based on different water temperatures can therefore vary by up to 0.5%. a btu can be approximated as the heat produced by burning a single wooden matchenergy and the environment. ristinen, robert a. c. 2006, pg 13 or as the amount of energy it takes to lift a one-pound weight .energy and the environment. ristinen, robert a. c. 2006, pg 14 {| class=wikitable |- ! style="width:100px;"| nominal temperature!! style="width:140px;"| btu equivalent in joules !! notes |- | || ≈ 1059.67 || uses the calorie value of water at its maximum density () |- | mean || ≈ 1055.87 || uses a calorie averaged over water temperatures |- | it || ≡ 1055.05585262 || the most widespread btu uses the internat

Body_substance_isolation

body substance isolation is a practice of isolating all body substances (blood, urine, feces, tears, etc.) of individuals undergoing medical treatment, particularly emergency medical treatment of those who might be infected with illnesses such as hiv, or hepatitis so as to reduce as much as possible the chances of transmitting these illnesses.lynch p, jackson mm, cummings mj, stamm we. rethinking the role of isolation practices in the prevention of nosocomial infections. ann intern med 1987;107(2):243-6. bsi is similar in nature to universal precautions, but goes further in isolating workers from pathogens, including substances now known to carry hiv. ==place of body substance isolation practice in history== practice of universal precautions was introduced in 1985–88.cdc. update: universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis b virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. mmwr morb mortal wkly rep 1988;37(24):377-82, 87-8.cdc. recommendations for preventing transmission of infection with human t- lymphotropic virus type iii/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in the workplace. mmwr morb mortal wkly rep 1985;34(450):681-6, 91-5. in 1987, the practice of universal precautions was adjusted by a set of rules known as body substance isolation. in 1996, both practices were replaced by the latest approach known as standard precautions (health care). nowadays and in isolation, practice of body substance isolation has just historical significance. body substance isolation went further than universal precautions in isolating workers from pathogens, including substances now currently known to carry hiv. these pathogens fall into two broad categories, bloodborne (carried in the body fluids) and airborne. the practice of bsi was common in pre-hospital care and emergency medical services due to the often unknown nature of the patient and his/her disease or medical conditions. it was a part of the national standards curriculum for prehospital providers and firefighters. types of body substance isolation included: * hospital gowns * medical gloves * shoe covers * surgical mask or n95 respirator * safety glasses it was postulated that bsi precautions should be practiced in environment where treaters were exposed to bodily fluids, such as: * blood, semen, preseminal fluid, vaginal secretions, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, marrow, pericardial fluid, feces, nasal secretions, urine, vomitus, sputum, mucus, cervical mucus, phlegm, saliva, breastmilk, colostrum, and secretions and blood from the umbilical cordlynch p, jackson mm, cummings mj, stamm we. rethinking the role of isolation practices in the prevention of nosocomial infections. ann intern med

Bill_Haley

william john clifton haley (; july 6, 1925 – february 9, 1981), known as bill haley, was an american rock and roll musician. he is credited by many with first popularizing this form of music in the early 1950s with his group bill haley & his comets (inspired by halley's comet) and million selling hits such as "rock around the clock", "see you later, alligator", "shake, rattle and roll", "rocket 88", "skinny minnie", and "razzle dazzle". he has sold over 25 million records worldwide. ==biography== ===early life and career=== thumb|sunday, august 7, 1955 rehearsal publicity photograph on the ed sullivan show or toast of the town, cbs, hartford, connecticut bill haley was born july 6, 1925 in highland park, michigan as william john clifton haley. because of the effects of the great depression on the detroit area, his father moved the family to boothwyn, near chester, pennsylvania, when bill was seven years old. haley's father wil

Blue

blue is the colour of the clear sky and the deep sea. see oxford english dictionary: "of a colour intermediate between green and violet, as of the sky or sea on a sunny day" see webster's new world dictionary of the american language, college edition, 1962: "having the color of the clear sky or the deep sea". see also le petit larousse, 1997: "de la couleur du ciel sans nuages, de l'azur". it is located between violet and green on the optical spectrum.merriam-webster.com online dictionary, "blue". surveys in the u.s. and europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness.eva heller (2009), psychologie de la couleur, pg. 13. in u.s. and european public opinion polls it is overwhelmingly the most popular colour, chosen by almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour.eva heller (2009), psychologie de la couleur, pg. 13. ==shades and variations== center|400px|blue is between violet and green in the spectrum of visible light blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; cyan, which is midway on the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens turquoise, teal, and aquamarine. blues also vary in shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and egyptian blue. (for a more complete list see the list of colours). blue pigments were originally made from minerals such as lapis lazuli, cobalt and azurite, and blue dyes were made from plants; usually woad in europe, and indigofera tinctoria, or true indigo, in asia and africa. today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process. file:earth_eastern_hemisphere.jpg|earth is sometimes called the blue planet. a photomontage of the earth seen from space (nasa image). file:toulon harbour.jpg|blue is the colour of the deep sea and the clear sky. the harbour of toulon, france, on the mediterranean sea. file:solid blue.s

Battle_of_Jutland

the battle of jutland () was a naval battle fought by the royal navy's grand fleet (which also included ships and individual personnel from the royal australian navy and royal canadian navy) against the imperial german navy's high seas fleet during the first world war. the battle was fought on 31 may and 1 june 1916 in the north sea near jutland, denmark. it was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war. it was only the third-ever fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the yellow sea (1904) and tsushima (1905) during the russo-japanese war. the grand fleet was commanded by british admiral sir john jellicoe, and the high seas fleet by german vice-admiral [[rei

Bugzilla

bugzilla is a web-based general-purpose bugtracker and testing tool originally developed and used by the mozilla project, and licensed under the mozilla public license. released as open source software by netscape communications in 1998, it has been adopted by a variety of organizations for use as a bug tracking system for both free and open source software and proprietary projects and products. bugzilla is used, among others, by the mozilla foundation, the wikimedia foundation, webkit, the linux kernel, gnome, kde, apache, red hat, eclipse and libreoffice.bugzilla installation list == history == bugzilla was originally written by terry weissman in 1998 for the nascent mozilla.org project, as an open source application to replace the in-house system then in use at netscape communications for tracking defects in the netscape communicator suite. originally written in tcl, terry decided to port bugzilla to perl before its release as part of netscape's early open source code drops, with the hopes that more people would be able to contribute to it as perl seemed to be a more popular language at the time. bugzilla 2.0 was the result of that port to pe

Bud_Selig

allan huber "bud" selig (; born july 30, 1934) is the ninth commissioner of baseball, having served in that capacity since 1992 as the acting commissioner, and as the official commissioner since 1998. selig oversaw baseball through the 1994 strike, the introduction of the wild card, interleague play, and the merging of the national and american leagues under the office of the commissioner. he was instrumental in organizing the world baseball classic in 2006. selig also introduced revenue sharing. he is

Booch_method

thumb|250px|class diagram the booch method is a technique used in software engineering. it is an object modeling language and methodology that was widely used in object-oriented analysis and design. it was developed by grady booch, while at rational software (now part of ibm). the notation aspect of the booch method has now been superseded by the unified modeling language (uml), which features graphical elements from the booch method along with elements from the object-modeling technique (omt) and object-oriented software engineering (oose). methodological aspects of the booch method have been incorporated into several methodologies and processes, the primary such methodology being the rational unified process (rup). the booch design methodology, like omt, is extensively used and has ample documentation and support tools. ==references== * * ==external links== *class diagrams, object diagrams, state event diagrams and module diagrams. de:grady booch#booch-notation

Boeing_747

{| |} the boeing 747 is a wide-body commercial airliner and cargo transport aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, jumbo jet, or queen of the skies. its iconic "hump" upper deck along the forward part of the aircraft make it among the world's most recognizable aircraft and was the first wide-body produced. manufactured by boeing's commercial airplane unit in the united states, the original version of the 747 had two and a half times greater capacity than the boeing 707,branson, richard. "pilot of the jet age." time, december&nbsp;7, 1998. retrieved: december 13, 2007. one of the common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s. first flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 years."a380 superjumbo lands in sydney." bbc, october 25, 2007. retrieved: august 3, 2010. quote: "the superjumbo's advent ends a reign of nearly four decades by the boeing 747 as the world's biggest airliner." the four-engine 747 uses a double deck configuration for part of its length. it is available in passenger, freighter and other versions. boeing designed the 747's hump-like upper deck to serve as a first class lounge or extra seating,

Brian_Boitano

brian anthony boitano (born october 22, 1963) is an american figure skater from sunnyvale, california. he is the 1988 olympic champion, the 1986 and 1988 world champion, and the 1985–1988 u.s. national champion. he turned professional following the 1988 season. he returned to competition in 1993 and competed at the 1994 winter olympics, where he placed sixth. ==early life== brian boitano was born in mountain view, california, and as an adult has lived in san francisco. boitano is a graduate of marian a. peterson high school in sunnyvale, california.who's who in santa clara unified?, accessed september 6, 2006. ==figure skating car

Balmoral_Castle

balmoral castle is a large estate house in royal deeside, aberdeenshire, scotland. it is located near the village of crathie, west of ballater and east of braemar. balmoral has been one of the residences for members of the british royal family since 1852, when the estate and its original castle were purchased privately by prince albert, consort to queen victoria. they remain as the private property of the royal family and are not the property of the crown. soon after the estate was purchased by the royal family, the existing house was found to be too small and the current balmoral castle was commissioned. the architect was william smith of aberdeen, although his designs were amended by prince albert. the castle is an example of scots baronial architecture, and is classified by historic scotland as a category a listed building. the new castle was completed in 1856 and the old castle demolished shortly thereafter. the balmoral estate has been added to by successive members of the royal family, and now covers an area of approximately . it is a working estate, including grouse moors, forestry, and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, highland cattle, and ponies. ==history== thumb|after 1830, sir robert gordon made major alterations to the original castle - lithograph by josef kriehuber, 1846 king robert ii of scotland (1316–1390) had a hunting lodge in the area. historical records also indicate that a house at balmoral was built by sir william drummond in 1390. the estate is recorded in 1451 as "bouchmorale", and later was

Bookkeeping

bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business. transactions include purchases, sales, receipts and payments by an individual or organization. the accountant creates reports from the recorded financial transactions recorded by the bookkeeper and files forms with government agencies. there are some common methods of bookkeeping such as the single-entry bookkeeping system and the double-entry bookkeeping system. but while these systems may be seen as "real" bookkeeping, any process that involves the recording of financial transactions is a bookkeeping process. bookkeeping is usually performed by a bookkeeper. a bookkeeper (or book-keeper), is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of an organization. a bookkeeper is usually responsible for writing the "daybooks". the daybooks consist of purchases, sales, receipts, and payments. the bookkeeper is responsible for ensuring all transactions are recorded in the correct day book, suppliers ledger, customer ledger and general ledger. the bookkeeper brings the books to the trial balance stage. an accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance and ledgers prepared by the bookkeeper. == process == the bookkeeping process primarily records the financial effects of transactions only. the variation between manual and any electronic accounting system stems from the latency between the recording of the financial transaction and its posting in the relevant account. this delay, although absent in electronic accounting systems due to instantaneous posting into relevant accounts, is a basic characteristic of manual systems, thus giving rise to primary books of accounts such as cash book, bank book, purchase book, and sales book for manually recording the immediate effect of the financial transaction. in the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs. sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. deposit slips are produced when lodgements (deposits) are made to a bank account. checks are written to pay money out of the account. bookkeeping involves, first of all, recording the details of all of these source documents into multi-column journals (also known as a books of first entry or daybooks). for example, all credit sales are recorded in the sales journal, all cash payments are recorded in the cash payments journal. each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account. in the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. most in

Baron_Aberdare

baron aberdare, of duffryn in the county of glamorgan, is a title in the peerage of the united kingdom. it was created on 23 august 1873 for the liberal politician henry bruce. he served as home secretary from 1868 to 1873. his grandson, the third baron, was a soldier, cricketer and tennis player and a member of the international olympic committee. his son, the fourth baron, held office in the conservative administration of edward heath and was later a deputy speaker of the house of lords. lord aberdare was one of the ninety-two elected hereditary peers that were allowed to remain in the house of lords after the passing of the house of lords act 1999. the title is held by his son, the fifth baron, who succeeded in 2005 and was elected to the house of lords in 2009. ==coat of arms== the heraldic blazon for the coat of arms of the barony is: or, a saltire gules, on a chief of the last a martlet of the field. ==barons aberdare (1873)== *henry austin bruce, 1st baron aberdare (1815&ndash;1895) *henry campbell bruce, 2nd baron aberdare (1851&ndash;1914) *clarence napier bruce, 3rd baron aberdare (1885&ndash;1957) *morys george lyndhurst bruce, 4th baron aberdare (1919&ndash;2005) *alastair john lyndhurst bruce, 5th baron aberdare (b. 1947) the heir apparent is the present holder's son the hon hector morys napier bruce (b. 1974) ==references== *kidd, charles, williamson, david (editors). debrett's peerage and baronetage (1990 edition). new york: st martin's press, 1990. *

Binomial_theorem

in elementary algebra, the binomial theorem describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial, hence it is referred to as binomial expansion. according to the theorem, it is possible to expand the power (x&nbsp;+&nbsp;y)n into a sum involving terms of the form ax'b'y'c, where the exponents b and c are nonnegative integers with , and the coefficient a of each term is a specific positive integer depending on n and b. when an exponent is zero, the corresponding power is usually omitted from the term. for example, :(x+y)^4 \;=\; x^4 \,+\, 4 x^3y \,+\, 6 x^2 y^2 \,+\, 4 x y^3 \,+\, y^4. the coefficient a in the term of ax'b'y'c is known as the binomial coefficient \tbinom nb or \tbinom nc (the two have the same value). these coefficients for varying n and b can be arranged to form pascal's triangle. these numbers also arise in combinatorics, where \tbinom nb gives the number of different combinations of b elements that can be chosen from an n-element set. ==history== this formula and the triangular arrangement of the binomial coefficients are often attributed to blaise pascal, who described them in the 17th century, but they were known to many mathematicians who preceded him. for instance the 4th century b.c. greek mathematician euclid mentioned the special case of the binomial theorem for exponent&nbsp;2binomial theoremthe story of the binomial theorem by j. l. coolidge, the american mathematical monthly 56:3 (1949), pp. 147–157 as did the 3rd century b.c. indian mathematician pingala to higher orders. a more general binomial theorem and the so-called "pascal's triangle" were known in the 10th century a.d. to indian mathematician halayudha. arabian mathematician al-karaji, in the 11th century was aware of a more general binomial theorem, along with persian poet and mathematician omar khayyam, and in the 13th century to chinese mathematician yang hui, who all derived similar results.{{cite web | last = landau | first = james a | title = historia matematica mailing list archive: re: [hm] pascal's triangle | work = archives of historia ma

Bankruptcy

bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. in most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor. bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person or other entity may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. in some countries, including the united kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, and other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies. in the united states, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. ==etymology== the word bankruptcy is derived from italian banca rotta, meaning "broken bench", which may stem from a custom of breaking a moneychanger's bench or counter to signify his insolvency, or which may be only a figure of speech. ==history== in ancient greece, bankruptcy did not exist. if a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into "debt slavery", until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. many city-states in ancient greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. however, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions. an exception to this rule was athens, which by the [[

Boolean_satisfiability_problem

in computer science, the boolean satisfiability problem (sometimes called propositional satisfiability problem and abbreviated as satisfiability or sat) is the problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given boolean formula. in other words, it asks whether the variables of a given boolean formula can be consistently replaced by the values true or false in such a way that the formula evaluates to true. if this is the case, the formula is called satisfiable. on the other hand, if no such assignment exists, the function expressed by the formula is identically false for all possible variable assignments and the formula is unsatisfiable. for example, the formula "a and not b" is satisfiable because one can find the values a&nbsp;=&nbsp;true and b&nbsp;=&nbsp;false, which make (a and not b)&nbsp;=&nbsp;true. in contrast, "a and not a" is unsatisfiable. sat is one of the first problems that were proven to be np-complete. this means that all problems in the complexity class np, which includes a wide range of natural decision and optimization problems, are in a technical sense equally difficult to solve as sat. there is no known algorithm that efficiently solves sat, and it is generally believed that no such algorithm exists; yet this belief has not been proven mathematically, and resolving the question whether sat has an efficient algorithm is equivalent to the p versus np problem, which is the most famous open problem in the theory of computing. despite the fact that no algorithms are known that solve sat efficiently, correctly, and for all possible input instances, many instances of sat that occur in practice, such as in artificial intelligence, circuit design and automatic theorem proving, can actually be solved rather efficiently using heuristical sat-solvers. such algorithms are not believed to be efficient on all sat instances, but experimentally these algorithms tend to work well for many practical applications. ==basic definitions and terminology== a propositional logic formula, also called boolean expression, is built from variables, operators and (conjunction, also denoted by ∧), or (disjunction, ∨), not (negation, ¬), and parentheses. a formula is said to be satisfiable if it can be made true by assigning appropriate logical values (i.e. true, false) to its variables. the boolean satisfiability problem (sat) is, given a formula, to check whether it is satisfiable. this decision problem is of central importance in various a

Batman_Forever

batman forever is a 1995 american superhero film directed by joel schumacher and produced by tim burton, based on the dc comics character batman. it is the third installment of the initial batman film series, with val kilmer replacing michael keaton as bruce wayne/batman. the film stars tommy lee jones, jim carrey, nicole kidman and chris o'donnell. the plot focuses on batman trying to stop two-face (jones) and the riddler (carrey) in their villainous scheme to extract confidential information from all the minds in gotham city and use it to learn batman's identity and bring the city under their control. he gains allegiance from a love interest—psychiatrist dr. chase meridian (kidman) and a young, orphaned circus acrobat named dick grayson (o'donnell), who becomes his sidekick robin. batman forever's tone is significantly different from the previous installments, becoming more family-friendly since warner bros. considered that the previous film, batman returns (1992), failed to outgross its predecessor due to parent complaints about the film's violence and dark overtones. schumacher eschewed the dark, dystopian atmosphere of burton's films by drawing inspiration from the batman comic book of the dick sprang era, as well as the 1960s television series. keaton chose not to reprise the role due to burton stepping down as director and william baldwin and ethan hawke became the leading contenders before kilmer signed on. the film was released on june 16, 1995, receiving mixed reviews, but was a financial success. batman forever grossed over $336 million worldwide and became the sixth-highest grossing film worldwide of 1995. ==plot== in gotham city, batman

Black_people

the term black people is an everyday english-language phrase, often used in socially-based systems of racial classification or of ethnicity to describe persons who are defined as belonging to a "black" ethnicity in their particular country, typically having a degree of sub-saharan african ancestry, or who are perceived to be dark-skinned relative to other "racial groups". different societies, such as australia, brazil, the united kingdom, the united states and south africa apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as "black", and these criteria have also varied over time. in some countries, social variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. for example, in north america the term black people is not necessarily an indicator of skin color or ethnic origin but is more of a socially-based racial classification related to being african american, with a family history related to institutionalized slavery. in south africa, mixed-race people are not considered to be "black", and in other regions, such as australia and melanesia, the term "black" has been applied to, and used by, populations with a very different history. ==africa== ===south africa=== in south africa during the apartheid era, beginning in the first half of the twentieth century, the population was classified into four main racial groups: black, white, asian (mostly indian), and coloured. the coloured group included people of mixed bantu, khoisan, and european descent (with some malay ancestry, especially in the western cape). the coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the black and white definitions in south africa. the apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the population registration act of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. when it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether a person was to be considered coloured or black, the "pencil test" was employed. this involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck. if so, the person was classified as black.{{cite news | last = nullis| first = clare | title = township tourism booming in south africa| publisher = the associated press| year= 2007

Bakassi

200px|right bakassi is a peninsula on the african atlantic gulf of guinea. it lies between the cross river estuary, near the city of calabar in the west, and the rio del ray estuary on the east. it is governed by cameroon, following the transfer of sovereignty from neighbouring nigeria as a result of a judgment by the international court of justice.the land and maritime boundary between cameroon and nigeria (cameroon v. nigeria: equatorial guinea intervening), judgment, icj reports 2002, p.303 on 22 november 2007, the nigerian senate rejected the transfer, since the greentree agreement ceding the area to cameroon was contrary to section 12(1) of the 1999 constitution. regardless, the territory was transferred to cameroon on 14 august 2008. ==geography and economy== the peninsula lies between latitudes 4°25' and 5°10'n and longitudes 8°20' and 9°08'e . it consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665&nbsp;km² (257&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi). the population of bakassi is the subject of some dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000 and 300,000 people. bakassi is situated at the extreme eastern end of the gulf of guinea, where the warm east-flowing guinea current (called aya efiat in efik) meets the cold north-flowing benguela current (called aya ubenekang in efik). these two ocean currents interact creating huge foamy breakers which constantly advance towards the shore, and building submarine shoals rich in fish, shrimps, and a wide variety of other marine life forms. this makes the bakassi area a very fertile fishing ground, comparable only to newfoundland in north america and scandinavia in western europe. most of the population make their living through fishing. the peninsula is commonly described as "oil-rich", though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have been discovered. however, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil co

Basenji

the basenji is a breed of hunting dog that was bred from stock originating in central africa. most of the major kennel clubs in the english-speaking world place the breed in the hound group; more specifically, it may be classified as belonging to the sighthound type. the fédération cynologique internationale places the breed in group 5, spitz and primitive types, and the united kennel club (us) places the breed in the sighthound & pariah group. the basenji produces an unusual yodel-like sound commonly called a "barroo", due to its unusually shaped larynx.adapted from the book why pandas do handstands, 2006, by augustus brown. this trait also gives the basenji the nickname "barkless dog".bcoa african stock project – 1945 letter from africa basenjis share many unique traits with pariah dog types. basenjis, like dingoes and some other breeds of dog, come into estrus only once annually, as compared to other dog breeds which may have two or more breeding seasons every year. both dingoes and basenji lack a distinctive odor,http://akc.org/breeds/basenji/ akc meet the breeds: basenji. akc. retrieved 2009-09-14right pet: dingo and are prone to howls, yodels, and other vocalizations over the characteristic bark of modern dog breeds. one theory holds that the latter trait is the result of the selection against 'barkier' dogs in the traditional central african context because barking could

Branch_Davidians

the branch davidians (also known as "the branch") are a religious group that originated in 1955 from a schism in the davidian seventh-day adventists ("davidians"), a reform movement that began as an offshoot from the seventh-day adventist church ("adventists") around 1930. the majority of those who accepted the reform message had been disfellowshipped (removed from membership) from the seventh-day adventist church because of aberrant teachings. from its inception in 1930, the reform movement believed themselves to be living in a time when bible prophecies of a final divine judgment were coming to pass as a prelude to christ's second coming. the name "branch davidian" is most widely known for the waco siege of 1993 on their property (known as the mount carmel center) near waco, texas. the 51-day siege, by the atf, fbi, and texas national guard, resulted in the deaths of the branch davidians' leader, david koresh, as well as 82 other branch davidian men, women, and children, and four atf agents. ==early history == in 1929 victor houteff, a bulgarian immigrant and a seventh-day adventist sabbath school teacher in a local church in southern california, claimed that he had a new message for the entire church. he presented this message in a book, [[shepherd's rod|the shepherd's

Biological_membrane

thumb|200px|right|cross-section view of the structures that can be formed by phospholipids in aqueous a biological membrane or biomembrane is an enclosing or separating membrane that acts as a selectively permeable barrier within living things. biological membranes, in the form of cell membranes, often consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded, integral and peripheral proteins used in communication and transportation of chemicals and ions. bulk lipid in membrane provides a fluid matrix for proteins to rotate and laterally diffuse for physiological functioning. proteins are adapted to high membrane fluidity environment of lipid bilayer with the presence of an annular lipid shell, consisting of lipid molecules bound tightly to surface of integral membrane proteins. the cellular membranes should not be confused with isolating tissues formed by layers of cells, such as mucous membranes and basement membranes. ==function== the phospholipid bilayer contains a charged hydrophilic head, which interacts with polar water. it also contains a hydrophobic tail, which meets with the hydrophobic tail of the complementary layer. this maintains the fluidity of the cell. membranes in cells typically define enclosed spaces or compartments in which cells may maintain a chemical or biochemical environment that differs from the outside. for example, the membrane around peroxisomes shields the rest of the cell from peroxides, chemicals that can be toxic to the cell, and the cell membrane separates a cell from its surrounding medium. peroxisomes are one form of vacuole found in the cell that contain by-products of chemical reactions within the cell. most organelles are defined by such membranes, and are called "membrane-bound" organelles. ===selective permeability=== probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a selectively permeable structure. this means that the size, charge, and other chemical properties of the atoms and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed in doing so. selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings. biological membranes also have certain mechanical or elastic properties that allow them to change shape and move as required. generally, small hydrophobic molecules can readily cross phospholipid bilayers by simple diffusion.brown particles that are required for cellular function but are unable to diffuse freely across a membrane enter through a membrane transport protein or are taken in by means of endocytosis, where the membrane allows for a vacuole to join onto it and push

Biomedical_engineering

biomedical engineering (bme) is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). this field seeks to close the gap between engineering and medicine: it combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical and biological sciences to advance health care treatment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own study, compared to many other engineering fields. such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself. much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as mris and eegs, regenerative tissue growth, pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic biologicals. ==tissue engineering== tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of biotechnology - which overlaps significantly with bme. one of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. researchers have grown solid jawbones and tracheas from human stem cells towards this end. several artificial urinary bladders have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. bioartificial organs, which use bo

Blitz_BASIC

blitz basic refers to the programming language dialect that was interpreted by the first blitz compilers, devised by new zealand-based developer mark sibly. being derived from basic, blitz syntax was designed to be easy to pick up for beginners first learning to program. the languages are game-programming oriented but are often found general-purpose enough to be used for most types of application. the blitz language evolved as new products were released, with recent incarnations offering support for more advanced programming techniques such as object-orientation and multi-threading. this led to the languages losing their basic moniker in later years. http://www.blitzbasic.com == history == the first iteration of the blitz language was created for the amiga platform and published by the australian firm memory and storage technology. returning to new zealand, blitz2 was published several years later by acid software (a local amiga game publisher). since then, blitz compilers have been released on several platforms. === blitzbasic === idigicon published blitzbasic for microsoft windows in october 2000. the language included a built-in api for performing basic 2d graphics and audio operations. following the release of blitz3d, blitzbasic is often synonymously referred to as blitz2d. recognition of blitzbasic increased when a limited range of "free" versions were distributed in popular uk computer magazines such as pc format. this resulted in a legal dispute between the developer and publisher which was eventually resolved amicably. == versions == === blitz3d === blitz3d was released for microsoft windows in september 2001, competing with other similar pc game-development languages of the time (such as dark basic). blitz3d extended blitzbasic's command-set with the inclusion of an api for a directx 7-based 3d engine. although originally blitz3d's distribution rights were owned by idigicon, blitz research ltd. later signed a deal with the firm so as to allow blitz research ltd. to distribute blitz3d themselves. in return

Bermuda_Triangle

the bermuda triangle, also known as the devil's triangle, is a loosely defined region in the western part of the north atlantic ocean, where a number of aircraft and ships are said to have disappeared under mysterious circumstances. according to the us navy, the triangle does not exist, and the name is not recognized by the us board on geographic names. popular culture has attributed various disappearances to the paranormal or activity by extraterrestrial beings. documented evidence indicates that a significant percentage of the incidents were spurious, inaccurately reported, or embellished by later authors. in a 2013 study, the world wide fund for nature identified the world’s 10 most dangerous waters for shipping, but the bermuda triangle was not among them. ==triangle area== the first written boundaries date from an article by vincent gaddis in a 1964 issue of the pulp magazine argosy, where the triangle's three vertices are in miami, florida peninsula; in san juan, puerto rico; and in the mid-atlantic island of bermuda. but subsequent writers did not follow this definition. some writers give different boundaries and vertices to the triangle, with the total area varying from . consequently, the determination of which accidents have occurred inside the triangle depends on which writer repor

B._F._Skinner

burrhus frederic (b. f.) skinner (march 20, 1904 – august 18, 1990) was an american psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. the science of human behavior is used to eliminate poverty, sexual oppression, government as we know it, create a lifestyle without that such as war.https://behavioranalysishistory.pbworks.com/w/page/2039033/skinner%2c%20burrhus%20frederic he was the edgar pierce professor of psychology at harvard university from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.muskingum.edu skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, also known as the skinner box.schacter d, l., gilbert d, t., & wegner d, m. (2011). psychology. (2 ed.). new york: worth publishers. he was a firm believer of the idea that human free will was actually an illusion and any human action was the result of the consequences of that same action. if the consequences were bad, there was a high chance that the action would not be repeated; however if the consequences were good, the actions that led to it would be reinforced.schacter, daniel l., and gilbert daniel. (2011). psychology. (2 ed.). new york, 2011. web. 22 mar. 2013. he called this the principle of reinforcement. he innovated his own philosophy of science called [[radical

British_Army

the british army is the united kingdom's principal land warfare force. the force was initially administered by the war office from london, which in 1964 was subsumed into the ministry of defence. the professional head of the british army is the chief of the general staff. the full-time element of the british army is referred to as the regular army and has been since the creation of the reservist territorial force in 1908. all members of the army swear (or affirm) allegiance to the monarch as commander-in-chief. however, the bill of rights of 1689 requires parliamentary consent for the crown to maintain a standing army in peacetime. parliament approves the continued existence of the army by passing an armed forces act at least once every five years. in contrast to the royal navy, royal marines and royal air force, the british army does not include royal in its title because, after a historic struggle between parliament and monarchy, the british army has always been answerable to parliament rather than the monarch.{{cite web|url=http://www.nam.ac.uk/about-us |title=national army museum: about us |publisher=nam.ac.uk |date=8 septem

Bill_Mumy

charles william "bill" mumy, jr. (; born february 1, 1954), is an american actor, musician, pitchman, instrumentalist, voice-over artist, and a figure in the science-fiction community. he is most famous for his many appearances on tv as a child actor in the 1960s. the red-headed mumy came to prominence in the 1960s as a child actor, when he was credited as billy mumy. his most notable role was in the 1960s cbs sci-fi television series lost in space, where he played will robinson, the youngest of three children in the robinson family. he later appeared as lonely teenager sterling north in the 1969 disney film rascal with steve forrest. he was cast as teft in the 1971 film bless the beasts and children. in the 1990s, he had the role of lennier in the syndicated sci-fi tv series babylon 5, and also served as narrator of a&e network's emmy award-winning series biography. he is also notable for his musical career, as a solo artist and as half of the duo barnes & barnes. ==early life and career== mumy was born in san gabriel, the son of the former muriel gertrude gould and charles william mumy, sr., a cattle rancher. he began his professional career at age six, and has worked on more than four hundred television episodes, eighteen films, various commercials, and scores of voice-over work, as well as a musician, songwriter, recording artist and writer. ==television and film career== among mumy's earliest television roles was as 6-year-old willy in the 1960 episode "donald's friend" of the nbc family drama television series, national velvet, starring lori martin as an aspiring thoroughbred rider. mumy appeared in cbs's original twilight zone (1959 to 1964). in the episode "it's a good life" (november 1961), he played a child who terrorizes his town with psychic powers—a role he later reprised along with his daughter liliana mumy in the it's still a good life episode of [[the twilight zone (2002 tv series)|the secon

Bundaberg_Rum

bundaberg rum is a dark rum produced in bundaberg, australia. it is often referred to as "bundy". the bundaberg distilling company owns its own cola-producing facility, which supplies the cola for its ready-to-drink bundaberg rum and cola products. ==history== bundaberg rum originated because the local sugar mills had a problem with what to do with the waste molasses after the sugar was extracted (it was heavy, difficult to transport and the costs of converting it to stock feed were rarely worth the effort). sugar men first began to think of the profits that could be made from distilling. the vital meeting was held at the royal hotel on 1 august 1885, w m c hickson served as the chairman, and other notables in attendance included all the big sugar mill owners of that time, w g farquhar, f l nott,s mcdougall, t penny, s h bravo and a h young, all to become the first directors of the company. they started with a capital of ₤5,000.information from 'bundy a centenary history' by keith dunstan. the bundaberg distilling company began its operations in 1888. bundaberg rum was first produced in 1889, production ceased from 1907 to 1914 and from 1936 to 1939 after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby burnett river.julia robinson. voices of queensland: words from the sunshine state. oxford university press, 2001. h t christsen pty ltd operated their own bundaberg rum bottling plant in bourbong street, bundaberg at the rear of their large grocery and hardware business in the centre of town. the spirit was sold at up and op strength from their business. spokesperson for the original family, mr rod patch, recalls the origins of the shape of the current "bundy bottle". it originated from the bushells coffee chicory bottle that bundaberg folks sold to his grandfather at the firm for one penny a bottle, after which they were washed and filled with the famous spirit. the shape remains the same but the capacity has been increased to the current 700ml. patch's great grandfather, hans truval christsen, a danish immigrant from copenhagen and his son frederick christsen had an employment policy of employing staff from the salvation army faith in the rum bottling process as they were less likely to be tempted to sample the spirit. the christsen family supported settlement farming families through hard times and these good deeds were acknowledged with the naming of christsen park at bargara beach. in 1961, the company introduce

Blue_whale

the blue whale (balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal belonging to the baleen whales (mysticeti). at in length and or more in weight, it is the largest existing animal and the heaviest that ever existed. long and slender, the blue whale's body can be various shades of bluish-grey dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath.{{cite web | title = species fact sheets: balaenoptera musculus (linnaeus, 1758) | publisher = fisheries and aquaculture department, food and agriculture organization, united nations | date = | url = http://www.

Breathy_voice

breathy voice (also called murmured voice, soughing, or susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal cords vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are held further apart, so that a larger volume of air escapes between them. this produces an audible noise. a breathy-voiced phonation (not actually a fricative, as a literal reading of the ipa chart would suggest) can sometimes be heard as an allophone of english between vowels, e.g. in the word behind, for some speakers. a stop with breathy-voiced release (symbolized either as etc. or as etc.) is similar to aspiration in that it delays the onset of full voicing. breathy-voiced vowels are written etc. in the context of the indo-aryan languages (e.g. sanskrit and hindi) and comparative indo-european studies, breathy-voiced consonants are often called voiced aspirated, as in e.g. the hindi and sanskrit stops normally denoted bh, dh, ḍh, jh, and gh and the reconstructed proto-indo-european phoneme gʷh. from an articulatory perspective this terminology is incorrect, as breathy voice is a different type of phonation from aspiration. however, breathy-voiced and aspirated stops are acoustically similar in that in both cases there is an audible period of breathiness following the stop, and in the history of various languages (e.g. ancient greek, chinese languages), breathy-voiced stops have subsequently developed into voiceless aspirated stops. ==methods of production== there are several ways to produce breathy-voiced sounds such as . one is to hold the vocal cords apart, so that they are lax as they are for , but to increase the volume of airflow so that they vibrate loosely. a second is to bring the vocal cords closer together along their entire length than in voiceless , but not as close as in modally voiced sounds such as vowels. this results in an airflow intermediate between and vowels, and is the case with english intervocalic /h/. a third is to constrict the glottis, but separate the arytenoid cartilages that control one end. this results in the vocal cords being drawn together for voicing in the back, but separated to allow the passage of large volumes of air in the front. this is the situation with hindi. the distinction between the latter two of these reali

Birmingham_Small_Arms_Company

this article is not about gamo subsidiary bsa guns (uk) limited or bsa company or its successors. the birmingham small arms company limited (bsa) was a major industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal c

Boer

boer (, , or ; ) is the dutch and afrikaans word for farmer, which came to denote the descendants of the dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern cape frontier in southern africa during the 18th century, as well as those who left the cape colony during the 19th century to settle in the orange free state, transvaal (which are together known as the boer republics), and to a lesser extent natal. their primary motivations for leaving the cape were to escape british rule and extract themselves from the constant border wars between the british imperial government and the tribes on the eastern frontier. == history == === origin === the dutch east india company had been formed in the dutch republic, in 1602, and the dutch had entered keenly into the competition for the glittering prizes of eastern commerce. in 1648 one of their ships was stranded in table bay, and the shipwrecked crew were left to forage for themselves on shore for several months. they were so pleased with the resources of the country that on their return to the republic they represented to the directors of the company the great advantages that would accrue to the dutch eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station of call at the cape. the result was that in 1652 a fort and

Barbagia

barbagia ( or ) is a mountain area of inner sardinia. it is a natural region mostly contained in the province of nuoro and located alongside the gennargentu massif. the name comes from cicero, who described it as a land of barbarians. this word derives from the greek Βάρβαρος-ου, which means stuttering. the inhabitants were also known, by the ancient romans, with the pejorative term latrones mastrucati, which means "thieves with a rough garment in wool". roman domination in this area of sardinia was never more than nominal. the area is usually divided into four barbagias: the barbagia di ollolai, the barbagia di seulo, the barbagia di belvì and the mandrolisai. the latter is named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages. thumbnail|left|the barbaria (in blue) and the roman controlled regions of sardinia (in yellow) the area is full of hard hills, and there is little human presence. barbagia is one of the least populated areas in europe, which has allowed barbagia to preserve its cultural and natural treasures. the language spoken is sardinian, including its internal varieties (both nuorese and campidanese dialects). one of the most important towns is gavoi. orgosolo was famous for its bandits and kidnappers and typical murals. oliena is well known for its wines (especially the nepente, a wine made with cannonau grapes). another well known town is fonni, being the highest town in sardinia, more than 1,000 meters above sea level. fonni is also the gateway to the gennargentu mountain system. the economy consists of agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry. ==see also== *tenores

Zebrafish

the zebrafish (danio rerio) is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the minnow family (cyprinidae) of the order cypriniformes. native to the himalayan region, it is a popular aquarium fish, frequently sold under the trade name zebra danio. the zebrafish is also an important vertebrate model organism in scientific research. it is particularly notable for its regenerative abilities, and has been modified by researchers to produce several transgenic strains. == taxonomy == the zebrafish is a derived member of the genus danio, of the family cyprinidae. it has a sister-group relationship with danio kyathit. zebrafish are also closely related to the genus devario, as demonstrated by a phylogenetic tree of close species. the zebrafish was referred to in scientific literature as brachydanio rerio for many years until its reassignment to the genus danio.{{cite we

Bo_Diddley

ellas otha bates (december 30, 1928 – june 2, 2008), known by his stage name bo diddley, was an american r&b vocalist, guitarist and songwriter (usually as ellas mcdaniel). he was also known as the originator because of his key role in the transition from the blues to rock and roll, and rock, influencing a host of acts, including the animals, buddy holly, jimi hendrix, the rolling stones, pink floyd, parliament funkadelic, the velvet underground, the who, the yardbirds, the jesus and mary chain, eric clapton, elvis presley, and the beatles,{{cite news|last=brown|first=jonathan|title=bo diddley, guitarist who inspired the beatles and the stones, dies aged 79|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainmen

Inedia

inedia (latin for "fasting") or breatharianism is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food. breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by prana, the vital life force in hinduism. according to ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of prana, and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. the terms breatharianism or inedia may also refer to this philosophy practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet. breatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration. ==scientific assessment== nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. in the absence of calorie intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting. some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of indian mystic prahlad jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days,{{cite news | work=wusa 9 | url=http://www.wusa9.com/news/watercooler/story.aspx?storyid=100671&catid=148 | date=2010-0

Big_Audio_Dynamite

big audio dynamite (later known as big audio dynamite ii and big audio, and often abbreviated bad) is a british musical group formed in 1984 by the ex-guitarist and singer of the clash, mick jones. the group is noted for its effective mixture of varied musical styles, incorporating elements of punk rock, dance music, hip hop, reggae, and funk. bad's one constant throughout frequent shifts in membership and musical direction is the vocals provided by mick jones. after releasing a number of well-received albums and touring extensively throughout the 1980s and 1990s, big audio dynamite disbanded in 1997. in 2011, the band embarked on a reunion tour. ==history== ===t.r.a.c. (1984)=== after being ousted from the clash in 1983 and following a brief stint with the band general public, mick jones formed a new band called top risk action company (t.r.a.c.). he recruited bassist leo "e-zee kill" williams, saxophone player john "boy" lennard (from theatre of hate), and ex-clash drummer nicky "topper" headon. headon was quickly sacked for his heroin addiction and lennard either left or was fired and the band folded. although the band released no material (only demos were recorded which have yet to be officially released), t.r.a.c. can be seen as a forerunner to big audio dynamite in much the same way london ss can be seen as an early incarnation of the clash. ===big audio dynamite (1984–1990)=== jones then formed big audio dynamite with film director don letts (maker of [[the punk rock

Communication

by and large, communication (from latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is a purposeful activity of exchanging information and meaning across space and time using various technical or natural means, whichever is available or preferred. communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a recipient, although the receiver does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. the communication process is complete once the receiver understands the sender's message. discursive communication three primary steps: *thought: first, information exists in the mind of the sender. this can be a concept, idea, information, or feeling. *encoding: next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols. *decoding: finally, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or information that a person can understand. there are a range of verbal and non-verbal forms of communication. these include body language, eye contact, sign language, haptic communication, and chronemics. other examples are media content such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writing. the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities also defines the communication to include the display of text, braille, tactile communication, large print, accessible multimedia, as well as written and plain language, human-reader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication, including accessible information and communication technology.convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, article 2, definition feedback is a critical component of effective communication. ==theory of communication== some definitions of communication include: * sharing meaning through the use of signs. * a prescribed collective performance that is symbolically meaningful to the participants. * expression, interaction, and influence: how people interact causes and effects communication, and it is mediated by psychological variables that cause behaviour such as emotions, attitudes, beliefs, personality. * information processing. * participation in a common culture and society: shared patterns of action

Demographics_of_Canada

this article is about the demographic features of the population of canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the people of canada. == population == the canada 2011 census had a total population count of 33,476,688 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population. estimates have the population around 35 million as of december 2012. === provinces and territories === {| class="wikita

Casino

in modern english, a casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. the industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry. casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. there is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated."should internet gambling be legalized?" (july 29, 2010). [new york times], retrieved 7/20/2011. in the united states, many states are grappling with high unemployment and budget deficits and are now turning to legalizing casinos, often in places that are not tourist destinations. some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events. == etymology and usage == the term "casino" is of italian origin, the root word being "casa" (house) and originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse or pavilion. the word changed to refer to a building built for pleasure, usually on the grounds of a larger italian villa or palazzo. such buildings were used to host civic town functions – including dancing, music listening, and gambling. there are examples of such casinos at villa giulia and villa farnese. in modern day italian, this term designates a bordello (also called "casa chiusa", literally "closed house"), while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. during the 19th century, the term "casino" came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities, including gambling, and sports took place. an example of this type of building is the newport casino in newport, rhode island. not all casinos were used for gaming. the copenhagen casino was a theatre, known for the use made of its hall for mass public meetings during the 1848 revolution which made denmark a constitutional monarchy. until 1937 it was a well-known danish theatre. the hanko casino located in hanko, finland - one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks - was never used for gambling. rather, it was a banquet hall for the russian nobility wh

Code

right|thumb|290px|morse code, a famous type of code in communications and information processing, code is system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another, sometimes shortened or secret, form or representation for communication through a channel or storage in a medium. an early example is the invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what he or she saw, heard, felt, or thought to others. but speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. the invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time. the process of encoding converts information from a source into symbols for communication or storage. decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient understands. one reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language, spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. for example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters and numbers. another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. == theory == in information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an algorithm which uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet. an extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings. before giving a mathematically precise definition, we give a brief example. the mapping :c = \{\, a\mapsto 0, b\mapsto 01, c\mapsto 011\,\} is a code, whose source alphabet is the set \{a,b,c\} and whose target alphabet is the set \{0,1\}. using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001011 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01 011, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols acabc. using terms from formal language theory, the precise mathematical definition of this concept is as follows: let s and t be two finite sets, called the source and target alphabets, respectivel

Carl_Linnaeus

carl linnaeus (;"linnaeus" entry in collins english dictionary, harpercollins publishers, 1998. 23 may 1707 – 10 january 1778), also known after his ennoblement as carl von linné (),blunt (2004), p. 171. was a swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern biological naming scheme of binomial nomenclature. he is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. many of his writings were in latin, and his name is rendered in latin as (after 1761 carolus a linné). linnaeus was born in the countryside of småland, in southern sweden. he received most of his higher education at uppsala university, and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. he lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his in the netherlands. he then returned to sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at uppsala. in the 174

Constitution

a constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed.the new oxford american dictionary, second edn., erin mckean (editor), 2051 pages, may 2005, oxford university press, isbn 0-19-517077-6. these rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is. when these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are written down in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign states to companies and unincorporated associations. a treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights. an example is the constitution of the united states of america. the constitution of india is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 444 articles in 22 parts, 12 schedules and 118 amendments, with 117,369 words in its english-language translation, while the united states constitution is the shortest written constitution, at 7 articles and 27 amendments. ==etymology== the term constitution comes through french from the [[latin languag

STS-51-F

sts-51-f (also known as spacelab 2) was the nineteenth flight of nasa's space shuttle program, and the eighth flight of space shuttle challenger. it launched from kennedy space center, florida, on july 29, 1985, and landed just under eight days later on august 6. while sts-51-f's primary payload was the spacelab 2 laboratory module, the payload which received the most publicity was the carbonated beverage dispenser evaluation, which was an experiment in which both coca-cola and pepsi tried to make their carbonated drinks available to astronauts.9 weird things that flew on nasa's space shuttles | final shuttle missions & nasa's space shuttle souvenirs | nasa shuttle program | space.com during launch the challenger experienced multiple sensor failings in its ssmes and had to perform an "abort to orbit" (ato) emergency procedure. it is the only mission to have carried out an abort of any kind. as a result of the ato, the mission was carried out at a slightly lower orbital altitude. ==c

Combination

in mathematics, a combination is a way of selecting members from a grouping, such that (unlike permutations) the order of selection does not matter. in smaller cases it is possible to count the number of combinations. for example given three fruits, say an apple, an orange and a pear, there are three combinations of two that can be drawn from this set: an apple and a pear; an apple and an orange; or a pear and an orange. more formally, a k-combination of a set s is a subset of k distinct elements of s. if the set has n elements, the number of k-combinations is equal to the binomial coefficient : \binom nk = \frac{n(n-1)\ldots(n-k+1)}{k(k-1)\dots1}, which can be written using factorials as \frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!} whenever k\leq n, and which is zero when k>n. the set of all k-combinations of a set s is sometimes denoted by \binom sk\,. combinations refer to the combination of n things taken k at a time without repetition. to refer to combinations in which repetition is allowed, the terms k-selection, also referred to as an unordered selection. k-multiset, or k-combination with repetition are often used.when the term combination is used to refer to either situation (as in ) care must be taken to clarify whether sets or multisets are being discussed. if, in the above example, it was possible to have two of any one kind of fruit there would be 3 more 2-selections: one with two apples, one with two oranges, and one with two pears. although the set of three fruits was small enough to write a complete list of combinations, with large sets this becomes impractical. for example, a poker hand can be described as a 5-combination (k&nbsp;=&nbsp;5) of cards from a 52 card deck (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;52). the 5 cards of the hand are all distinct, and the order of cards in the hand does not matter. there are 2,598,960 such combinations, and the chance of drawing any one hand at random is&nbsp;1&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,598,960. == number of k-combinations == thumb|3-element subsets of a 5-element set the number of k-combinations from a given set s of n elements is often denoted in elementary combinatorics texts by c(n,&nbsp;k), or by a variation such as c^n_k, {}_nc_k, {}^nc_k or even c_n^k (the latter form was standard in french, russian, chinese{{cite book |title = high school textbook for full-time student (required) mathematics book ii b| edition=2nd | location = china|language = chinese |date=june 2006| publisher = people's education press| pages = 107–116

Charlemagne

charlemagne (; 2 april 742/747/748karl ferdinand werner: das geburtsdatum karls des großen, in: francia 1, 1973, pp. 115–157 (online);matthias becher: neue Überlegungen zum geburtsdatum karls des großen, in: francia 19/1, 1992, pp. 37-60 (online);r. mckitterick: charlemagne. cambridge 2008, p. 72.28 january 814), also known as charles the great (, , , ) or charles i, was the king of the franks from 768, the king of italy from 774, and from 800 the first emperor in western europe since th

Creationism

creationism is the belief that the universe and living organisms originate "from specific acts of divine creation."gunn 2004, p. 9, "the concise oxford dictionary says that creationism is 'the belief that the universe and living organisms originated from specific acts of divine creation.'" for young earth creationists, this includes a literalistic reading of the book of genesis and the rejection of evolution.haarsma 2010, p. 168, "some christians, often called 'young earth creationists,' reject evolution in order to maintain a semi-literal interpretation of certain biblical passages. other christians, called 'progressive creationists,' accept the scientific evidence for some evolution over a long history of the earth, but also insist that god must have performed some miracles during that history to create new life-forms. the theory of intelligent design, as it is promoted in north america is a form of progressive creation. still other christians, called 'theistic evolutionists' or 'evolutionary creationists,' assert that the scientific theory of evolution and the religious beliefs of christianity can both be true." as science developed during the 18th century and forward, various views aimed at reconciling the abrahamic and genesis creation narratives with science developed in western societies. those holding that species had been created separately (such as philip gosse in 1857) were generally called "advocates of creation" but were also called &

Telecommunications_in_Chad

telecommunications in chad include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the internet. ==radio and television== radio stations: * state-owned radio network, radiodiffusion nationale tchadienne (rnt), operates national and regional stations; about 10 private radio stations; some stations rebroadcast programs from international broadcasters (2007);"communications: chad", world factbook, u.s. central intelligence agency, 28 january 2014. retrieved 9 february 2014. * 2 am, 4 fm, and 5 shortwave stations (2001)."communications: chad", world factbook, u.s. central intelligence agency, 19 june 2007. retrieved 9 february 2014 via the internet archive. radios: 1.7 million (1997). television stations: * 1 state-owned tv station, tele tchad (2007); * 1 station (2001). television sets: 10,000 (1997). radio is the most important medium of mass communication. state-run radiodiffusion nationale tchadienne operates national and regional radio stations. around a dozen private radio stations are on the air, despite high licensing fees, some run by religious or other non-profit groups. the bbc world service (fm 90.6) and radio france internationale (rfi) broadcast in the capital, n'djamena. the only television station, tele tchad, is state-owned."chad profile: media", bbc news, 14 august 2012. retrieved 9 february 2014. state control of many broadcasting outlets allows few dissenting views. journalists are harassed and attacked. on rare occasions journalists are warned in writing by the high council for communication to produce more "responsible" journalism or face fines. some journalists and publishers practice self-censorship. on 10 october 2012, the high council on communications issued a formal warning to la voix du paysan, claiming that the station’s live broadcast on 30 september incited the public to "insurrection against the government." the station had broadcast a sermon by a bishop who criticized the government for allegedly failing to use oil wealth to benefit the region. ==telephones== calling code: +235 international call prefix: 00dialing procedures (international prefix, national (trunk) prefix and national (significant) number) (in accordance with ity-t recommendation e.164 (11/2010)), annex to itu operational bulletin no. 994-15.xii.2011, international telecommunication union (itu, geneva), 15 december 2011. retrieved 2 janua

Casino_game

games available in most casinos are commonly called casino games. in a casino game, the players gamble casino chips on various possible random outcomes or combinations of outcomes. casino games are available in online casinos, where permitted by law. casino games can also be played outside of casinos for entertainment purposes, some on machines that simulate gambling. ==categories== there are three general categories of casino games: table games, electronic gaming machines, and random number ticket games such as keno and simulated racing. gaming machines, such as slot machines and pachinko, are usually played by one player at a time and do not require the involvement of casino employees to play. random number games are based upon the selection of random numbers, either from a computerized random number generator or from other gaming equipment. random number games may be played at a table, such as roulette, or through the purchase of paper tickets or cards, such as keno or bingo. ==table games== ==common non-table games== ===gaming machines=== * pachinko * slot machine * video lottery terminal * video poker ===random numbers=== * bingo * keno ==house advantage == casino games generally provide a predictable long-term advantage to the casino, or "house", while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout. some casino games have a skill element, where the player makes decisions; such games are called "random with a tactical element". while it is possible through skillful play to minimize the house advantage, it is extremely rare that a player has sufficient skill to completely eliminate his inherent long-term disadvantage (the house edge (he) or house vigorish) in a casino game. such a skill set would involve years of training, an extraordinary memory and numeracy, and/or acute visual or even aural observation, as in the case of wheel clocking in roulette. the player's disadvantage is a result of the casino not paying winning wagers according to the game's "true odds", which are the payouts that would be expected considering the odds of a wager either winning or losing. for example, if a game is played by wagering on the number that would result from the roll of one die, true odds would be 5 times the amount wagered since there is a 1 in 6 chance of any single number appearing, assuming that you get the original amount wagered back. however, the casino may only pay 4 times the amount wagered for a winning wager. the house edge or vigorish is defined as the casino profit expressed as the percentage of the player's original bet. (in games such as blackjack or spanish 21,

Condom

a condom ( or ) is a barrier device commonly used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and spreading sexually transmitted infections (stis/stds) such as hiv/aids. it is put on an erect penis and physically blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner. condoms are also used for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment. in the modern age, condoms are most often made from latex, but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane, polyisoprene, or lamb intestine. a female condom is also available, often made of nitrile. as a method of birth control, male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive, easy to use, having few side effects, and offering protection against sexually transmitted diseases. with proper knowledge and application technique—and use at every act of intercourse—women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2% per-year pregnancy rate with perfect use and an 18% per-year pregnancy rate with typical use. condoms ha

Inflation_(cosmology)

in physical cosmology, cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just inflation is the exponential expansion of space in the early universe. the inflationary epoch lasted from 10−36 seconds after the big bang to sometime between 10−33 and 10−32 seconds. following the inflationary period, the universe continues to expand, but at a less accelerated rate. the inflationary hypothesis was developed in the 1980s by physicists alan guth and andrei linde.chapter 17 of peebles (1993). inflation explains the origin of the large-scale structure of the cosmos. quantum fluctuations in the microscopic inflationary region, magnified to cosmic size, become the seeds for the growth of structure in the universe (see galaxy formation and evolution and structure formation).tyson, neil degrasse and donald goldsmith (2004), origins: fourteen billion years of cosmic evolution, w. w. norton & co., pp. 84–5. many physicists also believe that inflation explains why the universe appears to be the same in all directions (isotropic), why the cosmic microwave background radiation is distributed evenly, why the universe is flat, and why no magnetic monopoles have been observed. while the detailed particle physics mechanism responsible for inflation is not known, the basic picture makes a number of predictions that have been confirmed by observation.steinhardt, paul j. (2011). "the inflation debate: is the theory at the heart of modern cosmology deeply flawed?" (scientific american, april; pp. 18-25). "...inflationary theory is powerfully predictive. for example, numerous observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation and the distribution of galaxies have confirmed that the spatial variations in energy in the early universe were nearly scale-invariant." the hypothetical field thought to be responsible for inflation is called the inflaton.{{cite book|author=guth, alan h.|authorlink=alan guth|title=the inflationary universe: the quest for a new theory of cosmic origins|d

City

a city is a relatively large and permanent human settlement.goodall, b. (1987) the penguin dictionary of human geography. london: penguin.kuper, a. and kuper, j., eds (1996) the social science encyclopedia. 2nd edition. london: routledge. although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general english language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law. cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, and transportation. the concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people and businesses, benefiting both parties in the process, but it also presents challenges to managing urban growth. a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. such cities are usually associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas, creating numerous business commuters traveling to urban centers for employment. once a city expands far enough to reach another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. in terms of population, the largest city proper is shanghai, while the fastest growing is dubai.the travel & tourism competitiveness report 2007, jennifer blanke, world economic forum ==origins== there is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities. some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions, and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. the conventional view holds that cities first formed after the neolithic revolution. the neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. the advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production. the increased population-density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities.

Columbia_River

the columbia river is the largest river in the pacific northwest region of north america.according to the united states geological survey fact sheet, "largest rivers in the united states", "rivers are considered large on the basis of one or more of three characteristics: total length from source to mouth, area of basin (watershed) drained by the stream, and average rate of flow (discharge) at the mouth." the columbia is the largest river of the pacific northwest in all three senses. the river rises in the rocky mountains of british columbia, canada. it flows northwest and then south into the us state of washington, then turns west to form most of the border between washington and the state of oregon before emptying into the pacific ocean. the river is long, and its largest tributary is the snake river. its drainage basin is roughly the size of france and extends into seven u.s.&nbsp;states and a canadian province. by volume, the columbia is the fourth-largest river in the united states; it has the greatest flow of any north american river draining into the pacific. the river's heavy flow and its relatively steep gradient gives it tremendous potential for the generation of electricity. the 14&nbsp;hydroelectric dams on the columbia's main stem and many more on its tributaries produce more hydroelectric power than those of any other north american river. the columbia and its tributaries have been central to the region's culture and economy for thousands of years. they have been used for transportation since ancient times, linking the many cultural groups of the region. the river system hosts many species of anadromous fish, which migrate between freshwater habitats and the saline pacific ocean. these fish—especially the salmon species—provided the core subsistence for natives; in past centuries, traders from across western north america traveled to the columbia to trade for fish. in the late 18th&nbsp;century, a private american ship became the first non-indigenous vessel to enter the river; it was followed by a british explorer, who navigated past the oregon coast range into the willamette valley. in the following decades, fur trading companies used the columbia as a key transportation route. overland explorers entered the willamette valley through the scenic but treacherous columbia river gorge, and pioneers began to settle the valley in increasing numbers, following both routes to enter it. steamships along the river linked communities and facilitated trade; the arrival of railroads in the late 19th&nbsp;century, many running along t

Cardiology

cardiology (from greek kardiā, "heart" and -logia, "study") is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart be it human or animal. the field includes medical diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease and electrophysiology. physicians who specialize in this field of medicine are called cardiologists. physicians who specialize in cardiac surgery are called cardiac surgeons. == specialization == cardiology is a specialty of internal medicine. to be a cardiologist in the united states, a three year residency in internal medicine is followed by a three year fellowship in cardiology. it is possible to specialize further in a sub-specialty. recognized sub-specialties in the united states by the acgme are: * cardiac electrophysiology: study of the electrical properties and conduction diseases of the heart. * echocardiography: the use of ultrasound to study the mechanical function/physics of the heart. * interventional cardiology: the use of catheters for the treatment of structural and ischemic diseases of the heart. * nuclear cardiology: the use of nuclear medicine to visualize the uptake of an isotope by the heart using radioactive sources. recognized subspecialties in the united states by the american osteopathic association bureau of osteopathic specialists (aoabos) include: * clinical cardiac electrophysiology * interventional cardiology == the heart == as the center focus of cardiology, the heart has numerous anat

Telecommunications_in_Cambodia

{| style="toc: 25em; font-size: 85%; lucida grande, sans-serif; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|telecommunications |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 200px |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | communications towers in kampong thom |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"| telephone land lines |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 530,000 (2011)"communications", cambodia, world factbook, u.s. central intelligence agency. retrieved 24 october 2013. |- !align="left" valign="top"|mobile lines |valign="top"| 13.8 million (2011) |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|telephone country code |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| +855 |- !align="left" valign="top"|internet hosts |valign="top"| 13,784 (2012) |- !style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|internet users |style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 738,641 (2012) |- !align="left" valign="top"|internet country code |valign="top"| .kh |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} telecommunications in cambodia include telephone, radio, television, and internet services, which are regulated by the ministry of posts and telecommunications. transport and posts were restored throughout most of the country in the early 1980s during the people's republic of kampuchea regime after being disrupted under the khmer rouge. in january 1987, the soviet-aided intersputnik space communications station began operation in phnom penh and established two-way telecommunication links between the cambodian capital and the cities of moscow, hanoi, vientiane and paris. the completion of the earth satellite station restored the telephone and telex links among phnom penh, hanoi, and other countries for the first time since 1975. although telecommunications services were initially limited to the government, these advances in communications helped break down the country's isolation, both internally and internationally. today, with the availability of mobile phones, communications are open to all, though the country's prime minister hun sen decreed that 3g mobile phones would not be allowed to support video calling. ==telephones== * fixed: 530,000 lines, 95th in the world, 4 per 100 persons (201

History_of_Cameroon

thumb|right|250px|german-built building at ambam, today used as a school this article documents the history of cameroon. ==early history== the earliest inhabitants of cameroon were probably the baka (pygmies). they still inhabit the forests of the south and east provinces. bantu speakers originating in the cameroonian highlands were among the first groups to move out before other invaders. the mandara kingdom in the mandara mountains was founded around 1500 and erected fortified structures, the purpose and exact history of which are still unresolved. the aro confederacy of nigeria may have had presence in western (later called british) cameroon due to migration in the 18th and 19th centuries. during the late 1770s and the early 19th century, the fulani, a pastoral islamic people of the western sahel, conquered most of what is now northern cameroon, subjugating or displacing its largely non-muslim inhabitants. although the portuguese arrived on cameroon's doorstep in the 16th century, malaria prevented significant european settlement and conquest of the interior until the late 1870s, when large supplies of the malaria suppressant, quinine, became available. the early european presence in cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of slaves. the northern part of cameroon was an important part of the muslim slave trade network. the slave trade was largely suppressed by the mid-19th century. christian missions established a presence in the late 19th century and continue to play a role in cameroonian life. ==colonization== thumb|220px|german settlers celebrating christmas in kamerun :further information: german kamerun, french cameroun, british cameroons beginning on july 5, 1884, all of present-day cameroon and parts of several of its neighbours became a german colony, kamerun, with a capital first at buea and later at yaoundé. the imperial german government made substantial investments in the infrastructure of cameroon, including the extensive railways, such as the 160-metre single-span railway bridge on the south [[

Cayman_Islands

{{infobox country | conventional_long_name = cayman islands | official_languages = english | demonym = caymanian | common_name = the cayman islands | image_flag = flag of the cayman islands.svg | image_coat = coat of arms of the cayman islands.svg | image_map = cayman islands in united kingdom.svg | image_map2 = locationcayman islands.svg | national_motto = "he hath founded it upon the seas" | national_anthem = | capital = george town | latd = 19 |latm=20 |latns=n |longd=81 |longm=24 |longew=w | largest_city = capital | ethnic_groups = | ethnic_groups_year = 2011 | largest_district = george town | government_type = | leader_title1 = monarch | leader_name1 = elizabeth ii | leader_title2 = governor | leader_name2 = helen kilpatrick | leader_title3 = premier | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = responsible ministerb (uk) | leader_name4 = | legislature = legislative assembly | area_km2 = 264 | area_sq_mi = 102 | area_rank = 210th | area_magnitude = 1 e8 | percent_water = 1.6 | population_census_estimate = 2012 | population_census = 56,732 | population_estimate_rank = 209th | population_density_km2 = 212 | population_density_sq_mi = 549 | population_density_rank = 59th | gdp_ppp_year = 2008 | gdp_ppp = $3.268 billion | gdp_ppp_rank = | gdp_ppp_per_capita = $43,800 | gdp_ppp_per_capita_rank = 11th | gdp_nominal_year = 2010 | gdp_nominal = $3.268 billion | gdp_nominal_rank = 159th | gdp_nominal_per_capita = $47,000 | gdp_nominal_per_capita_rank = | gini_year = |gini_change = |gini = |gini_ref = |gini_rank = | hdi_year = |hdi_change = |hdi = |hdi_ref = |hdi_rank = | sovereignty_type = establishment | established_event1 = | established_date1 = 1962 | established_event2 = current constitution | established_date2 = 6 november 2009 | currenc