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Acting

acting is the work of an actor or actress, which is a person in theatre, television, film, or any other storytelling medium who tells the story by portraying a character and, usually, speaking or singing the written text or play. most early sources in the west that examine the art of acting (, hypokrisis) discuss it as part of rhetoric.csapo and slater (1994, 257); hypokrisis, which literally means "acting," was the word used in discussions of rhetorical delivery. ==definition and history== one of the first actors is believed to be an ancient greek called thespis of icaria. an apocryphal story says that thespis stepped out of the dithyrambic chorus and spoke to them as a separate character. before thespis, the chorus narrated (for example, "dionysus did this, dionysus said that"). when thespis stepped out from the chorus (year 12 bc), he spoke as if he was the character (for example, "i am dionysus. i did this"). from thespis' name derives the word thespian. acting requires a wide range of skills, including vocal projection, clarity of speech, physical expressivity, emotional facility, a well-developed imagination, and the ability to interpret drama. acting also often demands an ability to employ dialects, accents and body language, improvisation, observation and emulation, mime, and stage combat. many actors train at length in special programs or colleges to develop these skills, and today the vast majority of professional actors have undergone extensive training. even though one actor may have years of training, they always strive for more lessons; the cinematic and theatrical world is always changing and because of this, the actor must stay as up to date as possible. actors and actresses will often have many instructors and teachers for a full range of training involving, but not limited to, singing, scene-work, monologue techniques, audition techniques, and partner work. ==professional actors== not all people working as actors in film, television or theatre are professionally trained. conservatories typically offer two- to four-year training on all aspects of acting. universities will offer three- to four-year programs, where a student is often able to choose to focus

Alcoholics_Anonymous

thumb|250px|right|aa meeting sign alcoholics anonymous (aa) is an international mutual aid fellowship founded in 1935 by bill wilson and dr. bob smith in akron, ohio. aa states that its primary purpose is "to stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety".aa.orgmäkelä 1996, p. 3 with other early members wilson and smith developed aa's twelve step program of spiritual and character development. aa's twelve traditions were introduced in 1946 to help the fellowship be stable and unified while disengaged from "outside issues" and influences. the traditions recommend that members and groups remain anonymous in public media, altruistically helping other alcoholics and avoiding affiliations with any other organization. the traditions also recommend that those representing aa avoid dogma and coercive hierarchies. subsequent fellowships such as narcotics anonymous have adopted and adapted the twelve steps and the twelve traditions to their respective primary purposes. aa is credited with helping many alcoholics achieve and maintain sobriety. the american psychiatric association has recommended sustained treatment in conjunction with aa's program, or similar community resources, for chronic alcoholics unresponsive to brief treatment.{{cite journal |title=substance abuse: position statement |date=december 1980 |publisher=american psychiatric association |last1=connelly |first1=john c. |last2=foster |first2=douglas l. |last3=miller |first3=derek |last4=riordan |first4=charles |last5=weisman |first5=maxwell n. |url=http://www.psych.org/departments/edu/library/apaofficialdocumentsandrelated/positio

Ann_Arbor,_Michigan

ann arbor is a city in the us state of michigan and the [[

A_Fire_Upon_the_Deep

a fire upon the deep is a science fiction novel by american writer vernor vinge, a space opera involving superhuman intelligences, aliens, variable physics, space battles, love, betrayal, genocide, and a conversation medium resembling usenet. a fire upon the deep won the hugo award in 1993 (tied with doomsday book by connie willis). besides the normal print book editions, the novel was also included on a cd-rom sold by clarinet communications along with the other nominees for the 1993 hugo awards. the cd-rom edition included numerous annotations by vinge on his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book.review of the annotated ebook edition of a fire upon the deep at slashdot ==setting== the novel is set in various locations in the milky way. the galaxy is divided into four concentric volumes called the "zones of thought"; it is not clear to the novel's characters if this is a natural phenomenon or an artificially-produced one, but it seems to roughly correspond with galactic-scale stellar density and a beyond region is mentioned in the sculptor galaxy as well. the zones reflect fundamental differences in basic physical laws, and one of the main consequences is their effect on intelligence, both biological and artificial. artificial intelligence and automation is most directly affected, in that advanced hardware and software from the beyond or the transcend will work less and less well as a ship "descends" towards the unthinking depths. but even biological intelligence is affected to a lesser degree. the four zones are spoken of in terms of "low" to "high" as follows: * the unthinking depths are the innermost zone, surrounding the galactic core. in it, no forms of intelligence, biological or otherwise, are possible. this means that any ship straying into the depths will be s

Abimelech

abimelech (also spelled abimelek or avimelech; ) was the name of multiple philistine kings mentioned in the hebrew bible. ==etymology== abimelech's name is thought to mean my father is king, and could be simply a generic title given to a crown prince. this is supported in the haggada when "benmelech" ("son of the king"), son of abimelech, changes his own name to abimelech when he becomes king. alternatively, it has been suggested to mean my father is moloch. at the time of the amarna tablets (mid-14th century bc), there was an egyptian governor of tyre similarly named abimilki, who is sometimes speculated to be connected with one or more of the biblical abimelechs. ==abimelech of gerar== abimelech was most prominently the name of a polytheistic king of gerar who is mentioned in two of the three wife-sister narratives in genesis, in connection with both abraham (chap. 20) and isaac (chap. 26). the haggada identifies them as references to separate people, the second being the first abimelech's son, and that his original name was benmelech ("son of the king") but changed his name to his father's. king abimelech of gerar also appears in an extra-biblical tradition recounted in texts such as the kitab al-magall, the cave of treasures and the conflict of adam and eve with satan, as one of 12 regional kings in abraham's time said to have built the city of jerusalem for melchizedek. ==other people with this name== apart from the king (or kings) of gerar, the bible also records this name for: *abimelech (judges), proclaimed king after the death of his father gideon (). *the son of abiathar, and high priest in the time of david ({{bible

Adalbert_of_Prague

adalbert of prague (czech: , , c. 956 – april 23, 997), was a czech roman catholic saint, a bishop of prague and a missionary who was martyred in his efforts to convert the baltic prussians. he evangelized poles and hungarians. adalbert was later made the patron saint of bohemia, poland, hungary and prussia. ==life== ===early years=== adalbert (named vojtěch at birth) was born into a noble czech family of prince slavník and his wife střezislava in libice nad cidlinou, bohemia. his father was a rich and independent ruler of the zličan princedom that rivaled prague (see slavník's dynasty). adalbert had five full brothers: soběslav (slavnik's heir), spytimír, pobraslav, pořej, Čáslav and a half-brother radim (gaudentius) from his father's liaison with another woman. radim chose a clerical career as did adalbert, and took the name gaudentius. when, as a child, he survived a serious illness, his parents decided to dedicate their son to god."st. adalbert of prague", catholic news agency adalbert was a well-educated man, having studied for about ten years (970-80) in magdeburg under saint adalbert of magdeburg. foley o..f.m., leonard. "st. adalbert of prague", saint of the day, lives, lessons and feast, (revised by pat mccloskey o.f.m.), franciscan media the boy took his name at confirmation. ===bishop of prague=== in 981 adalbert of magdeburg died, and young adalbert returned to bohemia. two years later bishop deitmar of prague ordained him priest. only months later, bishop deitmar died, and adalbert, at the age of twenty-seven, was chosen to succeed him asbishop of prague. although adalbert was from a wealthy family, he avoided comfort and luxury, and was noted for his charity, and austerity. after six years of prayer and preaching, he made little headway against the bohemians' deeply embedded pagan beliefs. adalbert opposed the participation of

AVL_tree

thumb|right|251px|example avl tree in computer science, an avl tree (georgy adelson-velsky and landis' tree, named after the inventors) is a self-balancing binary search tree. it was the first such data structure to be invented.robert sedgewick, algorithms, addison-wesley, 1983, isbn 0-201-06672-6, page 199, chapter 15: balanced trees. in an avl tree, the heights of the two child subtrees of any node differ by at most one; if at any time they differ by more than one, rebalancing is done to restore this property. lookup, insertion, and deletion all take o(log n) time in both the average and worst cases, where n is the number of nodes in the tree prior to the operation. insertions and deletions may require the tree to be rebalanced by one or more tree rotations. the avl tree is named after its two soviet inventors, georgy adelson-velsky and e. m. landis, who published it in their 1962 paper "an algorithm for the organization of information". english translation by myron j. ricci in soviet math. doklady, 3:1259–1263, 1962. avl trees are often compared with red-black trees because both support the same set of operations and take o(log n) time for the basic operations. for lookup-intensive applications, avl trees are faster than red-black trees because they are more rigidly balanced. similar to red-black trees, avl trees are height-balanced. both are in general not weight-balanced nor μ-balanced for any \scriptstyle \mu\leq\tfrac12;avl trees are not weight-balanced? (meaning: avl trees are not μ-balanced?) thereby: a binary tree is called \mu-balanced, with 0 \le\mu\leq\tfrac12, if for every node n, the inequality : \tfrac12-\mu\le\tfrac{|n_l|}{|n|+1}\le \tfrac12+\mu holds and \mu is minimal with this property. |n| is the number of nodes below the tree with n as root (including the root) and n_l is the left child node of n. that is, sibling node

Angles

the angles (latin anglii) were one of the main germanic peoples who settled in britain in the post-roman period. they founded several of the kingdoms of anglo-saxon england, and their name is the root of the name england. the name comes from the district of angeln, an area located on the baltic shore of what is now schleswig-holstein, the most northern state of germany. ==name== the name of the angles was first recorded in latinised form, as anglii, in the germania of tacitus. it is thought to derive from the name of the area they originally inhabited: angeln in modern german, angel in danish. this name has been hypothesised to originate from the germanic root for "narrow" (compare german eng = "narrow"), meaning "the narrow [water]", i.e. the schlei estuary; the root would be angh, "tight". another theory is that the name meant "hook", as in angling for fish; julius pokorny, a major indo-european linguist, derives it from *ang-, "bend" (see ankle). gregory the great in an epistle simplified the latinised name anglii to angli, the latter form developing into the preferred form of the word. the country remained anglia in latin. king alfred's (alfred the great) translation of orosius' history of the world uses angelcynn (-kin) to describe england and the english people; bede used angelfolc (-folk); there are also such forms as engel, englan (the people), englaland, and englisc, all showing i-mutation. ==greco-roman historiography== ===tacitus=== thumb|right|200px|the map shows both the angeln and the schwansen peninsulas thumb|possible locations of the angles, saxons and jutes before their migration to britain. the earliest recorded mention of the angles may be in tacitus' germania, chapter 40. tacitus describes the "anglii" as one of the more remote suebic tribes compared to the semnones and langobardi, who lived on the elbe and were better known to the romans. he grouped the angles with several other tribes in that region, the reudigni, aviones, varini, eudoses, suarini and nuitones.tacitus, germania, 40, medieva

Armour

armour or armor (see spelling differences) is a protective covering that is used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an object, individual, or vehicle by direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat, or from damage caused by a potentially dangerous environment or action (e.g., cycling, construction sites, etc.). personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals such as war horses (the application for the latter is called barding). vehicle armour is used on warships and armoured fighting vehicles. ==etymology== the word "armour" was introduced into use in the middle ages as a borrowing from the french. it is dated from 1297, as a "mail, defensive covering worn in combat" from old french armoire, itself derived from the latin armatura "arms and/or equipment" with the root arma "arms or gear". ==personal== armour has been used throughout recorded history. it has been made from a variety of materials; from rudimentary leather protection, personal armour evolved to mail and full plated suits of armour. for much of military history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology and employment of armour. armour drove the development of many important technologies of the ancient world, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture, leather processing, and later decorative metal working. its production was influential in the industrial revolution, and influenced commercial development of metallurgy and engineering. armour was the single most influential factor in the development of firearms, which in turn revolutionised warfare. ===history=== significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. for instance, plate armour first appeared in medieval europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. also, modern militaries usually do not equip their forces with the best armour available because it would be prohibitively expensive. at times the development of armour has paralleled the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility. well-known armour types in european history include the lorica hamata, lorica squamata, and the [[lorica

Alford_plea

an alford plea (also called a kennedy plea in west virginia, an alford guilty plea, and the alford doctrine) in united states law is a guilty plea in criminal court, whereby a defendant in a criminal case does not admit the criminal act and asserts innocence. in entering an alford plea, the defendant ad

Arabs

{{infobox ethnic group |group = arabs al-Ê¿arab |image = |population = c. 420–450 millionmargaret kleffner nydell understanding arabs: a guide for modern times, intercultural press, 2005, isbn 1931930252, page xxiii, 14 |region1 = |pop1 = 400 milliontotal population 450 million, cia factbook estimates an arab population of 450 million, see article text. |region2 = |pop2 = 10,000,000http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200505/the.arabs.of.brazil.htm |region3 = |pop3 = 5,000,000 (arab ancestry)hadramaut dan para kapiten arab |region4 = |pop4 = 3,500,000 |region8 = |pop8 = 1,658,000{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/hodaot2013n/11_13_097e.pdf |title=65th independence day – more than 8 million residents in the state of israel |publisher=[[is

April_19

==events== * 65 – the freedman milichus betrayed piso's plot to kill the emperor nero and all the conspirators are arrested. * 531 – battle of callinicum: a byzantine army under belisarius is defeated by the persian at ar-raqqah (northern syria). *1012 – martyrdom of Ælfheah in greenwich, london. *1529 – beginning of the protestant reformation: after the second diet of speyer bans lutheranism, a group of rulers (german: fürst) and independent cities (german: reichsstadt) protests the reinstatement of the edict of worms. *1539 – charles v and protestants signs treaty of frankfurt. *1677 – the french army captures the town of cambrai held by spanish troops. *1713 – with no living male heirs, charles vi, holy roman emperor, issues the pragmatic sanction of 1713 to ensure that habsburg lands and the austrian throne would be inherited by his daughter, maria theresa of austria (not actually born until 1717). *1770 – captain james cook sights the eastern coast of what is now australia. * 1770 – marie antoinette marries louis xvi in a proxy wedding. *1775 – american revolutionary war: the war begins with an american victory in concord during the battles of lexington and concord. *1782 – john adams secures the dutch republic's recognition of the united states as an independent government. the house which he had purchased in the hague, netherlands becomes the first american embassy. *1809 – an austrian corps is defeated by the forces of the duchy of warsaw in the battle of raszyn, part of the struggles of the fifth coalition. on the same day the austrian main army is defeated by a first french empire corps led by louis-nicolas davout at the battle of teugen-hausen in bavaria, part of a four-day campaign that ended in a french victory. *1810 – venezuela achieves home rule: vicente emparan, governor of the captaincy general is removed by the people of caracas and a junta is installed. *1839 – the treaty of london establishes belgium as a kingdom and guaranteeing its neutrality. *1855 – visit

Sid_Meier\'s_Alpha_Centauri

sid meier's alpha centauri is a science fiction 4x turn-based strategy video game, the sequel to the civilization series. sid meier, designer of civilization, and brian reynolds, designer of civilization ii, developed alpha centauri after they left microprose to join the newly created developer firaxis games. electronic arts released both alpha centauri and its expansion, sid meier's alien crossfire, in 1999. in the following year, aspyr media and loki software ported both titles over to mac os and linux. set in the 22nd century, the game begins as seven competing ideological factions land on the planet chiron ("planet") in the alpha centauri star system. as the game progresses, planet's growing sentience becomes a formidable obstacle to the human colonists. alpha centauri features improvements on civilization iis game engine, including simultaneous multiplay, social engineering, climate, customizable units, alien native life, additional diplomatic and spy options, additional ways to win, and greater mod-ability. alien crossfire introduces five new human and two non-human factions, as well as additional technol

Argentine_cuisine

argentine cuisine may be described as a cultural blending of indigenous, mediterranean influences (such as those created by italian and spanish populations) within the wide scope of livestock and agricultural products that are abundant in the country., 'argentine gastronomy', june 6, 2008 argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged 100 kg (220 lbs) per capita,national geographic magazine. march 1958. approaching 180 kg (396 lbs) per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged 67.7 kg (149 lbs) in 2007.http://www.comex.infobaeprofesional.com/notas/62697.html beyond asado (the argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. nevertheless, the country's vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes."cuisine of argentina and chile" - about.com the great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the argentine cuisine, after all argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the united states with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as canada, brazil, australia, etc. argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating. social gatherings are commonly centered on sharing a meal. invitations to have dinner at home is generally viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth, and integration. sunday family dinner is considered the most significant meal of the week, whose highlights often include asado or pasta. another feature of argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as french fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honor someone. the tradition of locally preparing food is passed down from generation to generation, and homemade food is also seen as a way to show affection. argentine restaurants include a great variety of cuisines, prices, and flavours. large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine, to bodegones (inexpensive traditional hidden taverns), less stylish restaurants, and bars and canteens offering a range of dishes at affordable prices. == history == [[indigenous

Acadia_University

acadia university is a predominantly undergraduate university located in wolfville, nova scotia, canada with some graduate programs at the master's level and one at the doctoral level. the enabling legislation consists of: acadia university act and the amended acadia university act 2000.{{cite web |url=ht

Abiotic_stress

abiotic stress is defined as the negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment. the non-living variable must influence the environment beyond its normal range of variation to adversely affect the population performance or individual physiology of the organism in a significant way.vinebrooke, rolf d. et al. “impacts of multiple stressors on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: the role of species co-tolerance.” oikos 104: 451– 457, 2004. whereas a biotic stress would include such living disturbances as fungi or harmful insects, abiotic stress factors, or stressors, are naturally occurring, often intangible, factors such as intense sunlight or wind that may cause harm to the plants and animals in the area affected. abiotic stress is essentially unavoidable. abiotic stress affects animals, but plants are especially dependent on environmental factors, so it is particularly constraining. abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth and productivity of crops worldwide.gao, ji-ping, et al. “understanding abiotic stress tolerance mechanisms: recent studies on stress response in rice.” journal of integrative plant biology 49 (6): 742−750, 2007. research has also shown that abiotic stressors are at their most harmful when they occur together, in combinations of abiotic stress factors.mittler, ron. “abiotic stress, the field environment and stress combination.” trends in plant science 11(1): 15–19, 2006. ==examples== abiotic stress comes in many forms. the most common of the stressors are the easiest for people to identify, but there are many other, less recognizable abiotic stress factors which affect environments constantly.palta, jiwan p. and farag, karim. “methohasds for enhancing plant health, protecting plants from biotic and abiotic stress related injuries and enhancing the recovery of plants injured as a result of such stresses.” united states patent 7101828, september 2006. the most basic stressors include: * high winds * extreme temperatures * drought * flood * other natural disasters, such as tornadoes and wildfires. lesser-known stressors generally occur on a smaller scale. they include: poor edaphic conditions like rock content and ph levels, high radiation, compaction, contamination, and other, highly specific conditions like rapid rehydration during seed germination. ==effects== abiotic stress, as a natural part of every ecosystem, will affect organisms in a variety of ways. although these effects may be either beneficial or detrimental, the location of the area is crucial in determ

April_3

==events== *503 bc – according to the fasti triumphales, roman consul publius postumius tubertus celebrated an ovation for a military victory over the sabines. * 686 – maya king yuknoom yich'aak k'ahk' assumes the crown of calakmul. *1043 – edward the confessor is crowned king of england. *1077 – the first parliament of friuli is created. *1559 – the peace of cateau-cambrésis treaty is signed, ending the italian wars. *1834 – the generals in the greek war of independence stand trial for treason. *1860 – the first successful united states pony express run from saint joseph, missouri, to sacramento, california, begins. *1865 – american civil war: union forces capture richmond, virginia, the capital of the confederate states of america. *1882 – american old west: jesse james is killed by robert ford. *1885 – gottlieb daimler is granted a german patent for his engine design. *1888 – the first of eleven unsolved brutal murders of women committed in or near the impoverished whitechapel district in the east end of london, occurs. *1895 – the trial in the libel case brought by oscar wilde begins, eventually resulting in his imprisonment on charges of homosexuality. *1922 – joseph stalin becomes the first general secretary of the communist party of the soviet union. *1929 – is ordered from john brown & company shipbuilding and engineering by cunard line. *1933 – first flight over mount everest, a british expedition, led by the marquis of clydesdale, and funded by lucy, lady houston. *1936 – bruno richard hauptmann is executed for the kidnapping and death of charles augustus lindbergh, jr., the baby son of pilot charles lindbergh. *1942 – world war ii: japanese forces begin an assault on the united states and filipino troops on the bataan peninsula. *1946 – japanese lt. general masaharu homma is executed in the philippines for leading the bataan death march. *1948 – president harry s. truman signs the marshall plan, authorizing $5 billion in aid for 16 countries. * 1948 – in jeju, south korea, a civil-war-like period of violence and human rights abuses begins, known as the jeju massacre.

American_Media_(publisher)

american media, inc. is an american publisher of magazines, supermarket tabloids, and books. ==company background== the modern american media came into being after generoso pope, jr., longtime owner of the national enquirer, died in 1988, and his tabloids came under new ownership. american tabloids began consolidating in 1990, when american media bought star from rupert murdoch. the purchase of globe communications (owner of the globe and the national examiner) followed nine years later. american media is not to be confused with american media distribution the international news coverage firm. american media's corporate headquarters in boca raton, florida, figured prominently in news headlines in late 2001, after an anthrax attack was perpetrated on the company. since then the corporate headquarters have moved to new york city at 1 park avenue in manhattan, before moving to the financial district to the former jp morgan chase headquarters at 4 new york plaza. that building was severely damaged by hurricane sandy but reopened in february 2013. the ceo, david j. pecker, travels between the boca raton and new york offices while managing the company. ami continued to expand after it bought joe weider's weider publications in 2002. joe weider continues to manage control of his magazines under ami's weider publications subsidiary. american media also owns distribution services, an in-store magazine merchandising company. in fall 2002, it launched the book-publishing imprint, ami books. roger altman, through evercore partners, bought a controlling stake in american media in 1999.the clintonite who owns national enquirer ben smith, politico, october 11, 2007 in 2009, american media was taken over by its bondholders to keep it out of bankruptcy. in november 2010, american media filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protect

Audio_file_format

an audio file format is a file format for storing digital audio data on a computer system. the bit layout of the audio data (excluding metadata) is called the audio coding format and can be uncompressed, or compressed to reduce the file size, often using lossy compression. the data can be a raw bitstream in an audio coding format, but it is usually embedded in a container format or an audio data format with defined storage layer. ==format types== it is important to distinguish between the audio coding format, the container containing the raw audio data, and an audio codec. a codec performs the encoding and decoding of the raw audio data while this encoded data is (usually) stored in a container file. although most audio file formats support only one type of audio coding data (created with an audio coder), a multimedia container format (as matroska or avi) may support multiple types of audio and video data. there are three major groups of audio file formats: * uncompressed audio formats, such as wav, aiff, au or raw header-less pcm; * formats with lossless compression, such as flac, monkey's audio (filename extension .ape), wavpack (filename extension .wv), tta, atrac advanced lossless, apple lossless (filename extension .m4a), mpeg-4 sls, mpeg-4 als, mpeg-4 dst, windows media audio lossless (wma lossless), and shorten (shn). * formats with lossy compression, such as mp3, vorbis, musepack, aac, atrac and windows media audio lossy (wma lossy). ===uncompressed audio format=== there is one major uncompressed audio format, lpcm, which is the same variety of pcm as used in compact disc digital audio. although lpcm can be stored on a computer as a raw audio format, it is usually stored in a .wav file on windows or in a .aiff file on mac os. the aiff format is based on the interchange file format (iff), and the wav format is based on the similar resource interchange file format (riff). wav and aiff are not inherently lossless; they're designed to store a wide variety of audio formats, lossless and lossy; they just add a small, metadata-containing header before the audio data to declare the format of the audio data, such as lpcm with a particular sample rate, bit depth, endianness and number of channels. since wav and

Abbe_number

right|thumb|380px|an abbe diagram plots the abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). glasses are classified using the schott glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram. in physics and optics, the abbe number, also known as the v-number or constringence of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's dispersion (variation of refractive index with wavelength) in relation to the refractive index, with high values of v indicating low dispersion (low chromatic aberration). it is named after ernst abbe (1840–1905), the german physicist who defined it. the abbe number, vd, of a material is defined as :v_d = \frac{ n_d - 1 }{ n_f - n_c }, where nd, nf and nc are the refractive indices of the material at the wavelengths of the fraunhofer d-, f- and c- spectral lines (589.3 nm, 486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). abbe numbers are used to classify glass and other optically transparent materials. for example, flint glass has v  50. typical values of v range from around 20 for very dense flint glass, around 30 for polycarbonate plastics, and up to 65 for very light crown glass, and up to 85 for fluor-crown glass. abbe numbers are only a useful measure of dispersion for visible light, and for other wavelengths, or for higher precision work, the group velocity dispersion (the full dispersion relation) is used. due to the difficulty and inconvenience in producing sodium and hydrogen lines, alternate definitions of the abbe number are used in some contexts (iso 7944). the value vd is given by : v_d = \frac{n_d-1}{ n_f - n_c } which defines the abbe number with respect to the yellow fraunhofer d (or d3) helium line at 587.5618 nm wavelength. it can also be defined using the green mercury e-line at 546.073 nm: : v_e = \frac{n_e-1}{ n_{f'} - n_{c'}} where f' and c' are the blue and red [[ca

Alkaloid

alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds (natural products) that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. this group also includes some related compounds with neutraliupac. compendium of chemical terminology, 2nd ed. (the "gold book"). compiled by a. d. mcnaught and a. wilkinson. blackwell scientific publications, oxford (1997) isbn 0-9678550-9-8 and even weakly acidic properties.r. h. f. manske. the alkaloids. chemistry and physiology. volume viii. – new york: academic press, 1965, p. 673 some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also termed alkaloids.robert alan lewis. lewis' dictionary of toxicology. crc press, 1998, p. 51 isbn 1-56670-223-2 in addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.chemical encyclopedia: alkaloids. xumuk.ru alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. they can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction. many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. they often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals. examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine, the psychedelic psilocin, the stimulant caffeine, nicotine, the analgesic morphine, the antibacterial berberine, the anticancer compound vincristine, the antihypertension agent reserpine, the cholinomimetic galantamine, the anticholinergic agent atropine, the vasodilator vincamine, the antiarrhythmia compound quinidine, the antiasthma therapeutic ephedrine, and the antimalarial drug quinine. although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly invoke a [[bitter (taste)#bi

A.S._Roma

associazione sportiva roma (, ), commonly referred to as simply roma, is a professional italian football club based in rome. founded by a merger arranged by the fascist regime in 1927, roma have participated in the top-tier of italian football for all of their existence except for 1951–52. for their 63rd season in a row (82nd overall), roma are competing in serie a for the 2014–15 season. roma have won serie a three times, first in 1941–42 then in 1982–83 and again in 2000–01, as well as winning nine coppa italia titles and two supercoppa italiana titles. on the european stage roma won an inter-cities fairs cup in 1960–61, coming close to european cup victory in 1983–84 (lost the one-legged final played at home against liverpool after a penalty shootout), and finishing as runners-up in the uefa cup for 1990–91 (two-legged aggregate defeat against internazionale). home games are currently played at the stadio olimpico, a venue they share with city rivals lazio. with a capacity of over 72,000, it is the second largest of its kind in italy, with only the san siro able to seat more. in september 2009 the club unveiled plans to b

Accelerated_Graphics_Port

the accelerated graphics port (often shortened to agp) is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video card to a computer's motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3d computer graphics. originally it was designed as a successor to pci type connections. since 2004, agp has been progressively phased out in favor of pci express (pcie). by mid-2008, pcie cards dominated the market and only a few agp models were available. == advantages over pci == as computers increasingly became graphically oriented, successive generations of graphics adapters began to push the limits of pci, a bus with shared bandwidth. this led to the development of agp, a "bus" dedicated to graphics adapters. the primary advantage of agp over pci is that it provides a dedicated pathway between the slot and the processor rather than sharing the pci bus. in addition to a lack of contention for the bus, the direct connection allows for higher clock speeds. agp also uses sideband addressing, meaning that the address and data buses are separated so the entire packet does not need to be read to get addressing information. this is done by adding an extra 8-bit "sideband address" bus that allows the graphics controller to issue new agp requests and commands at the same time other agp data is flowing through the main 32 address/data (ad) lines. this results in improved overall agp data throughput. in addition, to load a texture, a pci graphics card must copy it from the system's ram into the card's video memory, whereas an agp card is capable of reading textures directly from system ram using the graphics address remapping table (gart), which reapportions main memory as needed for texture storage, allowing the graphics card to access them directly. the maximum amount of system memory available to agp is defined as the agp aperture. ==history== [[image:agp-video-card.jp

Auger_effect

thumb|280px| two views of the auger process. (a) illustrates sequentially the steps involved in auger deexcitation. an incident electron (or photon) creates a core hole in the 1s level. an electron from the 2s level fills in the 1s hole and the transition energy is imparted to a 2p electron which is emitted. the final atomic state thus has two holes, one in the 2s orbital and the other in the 2p orbital. (b) illustrates the same process using spectroscopic notation, kl_1l_{2,3}.the auger effect is a physical phenomenon in which the filling of an inner-shell vacancy of an atom is accompanied by the emission of an electron from the same atom. when a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. although most of the time this energy is released in the form of an emitted photon, the energy can also be transferred to another electron, which is ejected from the atom. this second ejected electron is called an auger electron, after one of its discoverers, pierre victor auger. upon ejection the kinetic energy of the auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the auger electron was ejected. these energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either x-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of auger electrons as a function of the auger electron energy. the resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment. auger recombination is a similar auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. an electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. the reverse effect is known as impact ionization. ==discovery== the auger emission process was discovered in 1922 by lise meitner, an austrian-swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the british physicist charles drummond ellis. the french physicist pierre victor auger also discovered it in 1923p. auger: [http://gallic

Adhesive

an adhesive is any substance applied to the surfaces of materials that binds them together and resists separation. the term "adhesive" may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste. adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word “adhesive” to describe properties based on the substance's physical or chemical form, the type of materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied. the use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. these include the ability to bind different materials together, to distribute stress more efficiently across the joint, the cost effectiveness of an easily mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic design, and increased design flexibility. disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing. adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. these are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to if the adhesive chemically reacts to harden. alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural, or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase. adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. the earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was approximately 200,000 years ago. the first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2,000 bc. the greeks and romans made great contributions to the

Aon_(company)

aon plc is a british multinational corporation headquartered in london, england, that provides risk management, insurance and reinsurance brokerage, human resource solutions and outsourcing services. aon has approximately 500 offices worldwide, serving 120 countries with 65,000 employees. in 2011, aon was ranked as the largest insurance broker in the world based on revenue.{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsurance.com/article/20110720/news04/110729992 |title=business insurance ranks world's largest insurance brokers |work

August_4

==events== * 70 – the destruction of the second temple in jerusalem by the romans. * 367 – gratian, son of roman emperor valentinian i, is named co-augustus by his father and associated to the throne aged eight. * 598 – goguryeo-sui war: emperor wéndi of sui orders his youngest son, yang liang (assisted by the co-prime minister gao jiong), to conquer goguryeo (korea) during the manchurian rainy season, with a chinese army and navy. *1265 – second barons' war: battle of evesham – the army of prince edward (the future king edward i of england) defeats the forces of rebellious barons led by simon de montfort, 6th earl of leicester, killing de montfort and many of his allies. *1327 – first war of scottish independence: james douglas leads a raid into weardale and almost kills edward iii of england. *1532 – the duchy of brittany is united to the kingdom of france. *1578 – battle of al kasr al kebir: the moroccans defeat the portuguese. king sebastian of portugal is killed in the battle, leaving his elderly uncle, cardinal henry, as his heir. this initiates a succession crisis in portugal. *1693 – date traditionally ascribed to dom perignon's invention of champagne, although he actually did not have anything to do with sparkling wine. *1704 – war of the spanish succession: gibraltar is captured by an english and dutch fleet, commanded by admiral sir george rooke and allied with archduke charles. *1783 – mount asama erupts in japan, killing about 1,400 people. the eruption causes a famine, which results in an additional 20,000 deaths. *1789 – in france members of the national constituent assembly take an oath to end feudalism and abandon their privileges. *1790 – a newly passed tariff act creates the revenue cutter service (the forerunner of the united states coast guard). *1791 – the treaty of sistova is signed, ending the ottoman–habsburg wars. *1796 – french revolutionary wars: napoleon leads the french army of italy to victory in the battle of lonato. *1821 &n

Anthem

the term anthem means either a specific form of anglican church music (in music theory and religious contexts), or more generally, a song (or composition) of celebration, usually acting as a symbol for a distinct group of people, as in the term "national anthem". ==etymology== the word is derived from the greek (antiphōna) via old english , a word which originally had the same meaning as antiphon. ==anthems and the church== an anthem is a form of church music, particularly in the service of the church of england, in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning and evening prayer. several anthems are included in the british coronation service. the words are selected from holy scripture or in some cases from the liturgy, and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. though the anthem of the church of england is analogous to the motet of the roman catholic and lutheran churches, both being written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as a musical form essentially english in its origin and development. the anthem developed as a replacement for the catholic "votive antiphon" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the blessed virgin mary or other saints. although anthems were written in the elizabethan period by tallis (1505–1585), byrd (1539–1623), and others, they are not mentioned in the book of common prayer until 1662, when the famous rubric "in quires and places where they sing here followeth the anthem" first appears. in common usage among many protestant churches, an "anthem" often refers to any short sacred choral work presented during the course of a worship service. in the context of an anglican service, an "anthem" is a composition to an english religious text. from this widening usage has come the more modern sense of the word. ==history== early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. late in the sixteenth century the "verse anthem", in which passages for solo voices alternated with passages for full choir, developed. this became the dominant form in the restoration, when composers such as henry purcell (1659–1695) and john blow (1649–1708) wrote elaborate examples for the chapel royal with orchestral accompaniment. in the nineteenth century samuel sebastian wesley (1810–1876) wrote anthems influenced by contemporary [[orat

Action_Against_Hunger

action against hunger (known internationally as action contre la faim, or acf international) is an international humanitarian organization that intends to end world hunger. action against hunger's primary aim is to respond to emergency situations of wars, conflicts, and natural disasters. the services of the organization includes nutrition and health, water and sanitation, and food security. the group services more than 5 million people in more than 40 countries. ==history== action against hunger (acf) was established in 1979 by a group of french doctors, scientists, and writers. nobel prize-winning physicist alfred kastler served as the organization’s first chairman. acf initially provided assistance to afghan refugees in pakistan, famine-stricken ugandan communities, and cambodian refugees in thailand. it expanded to address additional humanitarian concerns in africa, the middle east, southeast asia, the balkans and elsewhere during the 1980s and 1990s. action against hunger’s scientific committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (f100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. as a result, the global mortality rate of severely malnourished children under the age of five has been reduced from 25% to 5%. action against hunger – usa was established in 1985 and became the first member of

Abaddon

the hebrew term abaddon (, ), and its greek equivalent apollyon (, apollyon), appear in the bible as both a place of destruction and an angel. in the hebrew bible, abaddon is used with reference to a bottomless pit, often appearing alongside the place שאול (sheol), meaning the realm of the dead. in the new testament book of revelation, an angel called abaddon is written as the king of an army of locusts; his name is first transcribed in greek (revelation 9:11 – "whose name in hebrew abaddon" (Ἀβαδδὼν)), and then translated ("which in greek means the destroyer" (Ἀπολλύων, apollyon)). the latin vulgate, as well as the douay rheims bible, has an additional note (not present in the greek text), "in latin exterminans", exterminans being the latin word for "destroyer". ==judaism== ===etymology=== according to the brown driver briggs lexicon, the hebrew abaddon (hebrew: אבדון; avadon) is an intensive form of the semitic root and verb stem abad (אָבַד) "perish" (transitive "destroy"), which occurs 184 times in the hebrew bible. the septuagint, an early greek translation of the hebrew bible, renders "abaddon" as "ἀπώλεια," while the greek apollyon comes from 'apollumi (ἀπόλλυμι) "to destroy." ===hebrew bible=== the term abaddon appears six times in the masoretic text of the hebrew bible; abaddon means destruction or "place of destruction", or the realm of the dead, and is accompanied by sheol. * job 26:6: the grave (sheol) is naked before him, and destruction (abaddon) has no covering. * job 28:22: destruction (abaddon) and death say... * job 31:12: it is a fire that consumes to destruction (abaddon)... * psalm 88:11: shall thy loving kindness be declared in the grave (sheol) or thy faithfulness in destruction (abaddon)? * proverbs 15:11: hell (sheol) and destruction (abaddon) are before the lord, how much more than the hearts of the children of men? * proverbs 27:20: hell (sheol) and destruction (abaddon) are never full; so the eyes of man are never satisfied. (kjv, 1611) ===second temple era texts=== the text of the thanksgiving hymns – which was

April_21

==events== *753 bc – romulus founds rome (traditional date). *43 bc – battle of mutina: mark antony is again defeated in battle by aulus hirtius, who is killed. antony fails to capture mutina and decimus brutus is murdered shortly after. *900 – the laguna copperplate inscription, the earliest known written document found in the philippines: the honourable namwaran and his children, lady angkatan and bukah, are granted pardon from all their debts by the commander in chief of tundun, as represented by the honourable jayadewa, lord minister of pailah. luzon, philippines. *1092 – the diocese of pisa is elevated to the rank of metropolitan archdiocese by pope urban ii *1506 – the three-day lisbon massacre comes to an end with the slaughter of over 1,900 suspected jews by portuguese catholics. *1509 – henry viii ascends the throne of england on the death of his father, henry vii. *1526 – the last ruler of the lodi dynasty, ibrahim lodi is defeated and killed by babur in the first battle of panipat. *1615 – the wignacourt aqueduct is inaugurated in malta. *1782 – the city of rattanakosin, now known internationally as bangkok, is founded on the eastern bank of the chao phraya river by king buddha yodfa chulaloke. *1792 – tiradentes, a revolutionary leading a movement for brazil's independence, is hanged, drawn and quartered. *1806 – action of 21 april 1806: a french frigate escapes british forces off the coast of south africa. *1809 – two austrian army corps are driven from landshut by a first french empire army led by napoleon i of france as two french corps to the north hold off the main austrian army on the first day of the battle of eckmühl. *1821 – benderli ali pasha arrives in constantinople as the new grand vizier of the ottoman empire; he remains in power for only nine days before being sent into exile.Ä°smail hâmi danişmend, osmanlı devlet erkânı, türkiye yayınevi, Ä°stanbul, 1971, p. 72. *1836 – texas revolution: the battle of san jacinto: republic of texas forces under sam houston defeat troops under mexican general antonio lópez de santa anna. *1856 – australian labour movement: stonemasons and building workers on building sites around melbourne march from the university of melbourne to parliame

Anus

the anus (, which is from the proto-indo-european ano–, meaning "ring" ) is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. its function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may include: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as bones; summary at food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate. the development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. it appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in [[protostome

Asian_Development_Bank

right|thumb|300px|asian development bank member states the asian development bank (adb) is a regional development bank established on 22 august 1966 which is headquartered in metro manila, philippines to facilitate economic development of countries in asia. the bank admits the members of the united nations economic and social commission for asia and the pacific (unescap, formerly known as the united nations economic commission for asia and the far east) and non-regional developed countries. from 31 members at its establishment, adb now has 67 members - of which 48 are from within asia and the pacific and 19 outside. adb was modeled closely on the world bank, and has a similar weighted voting system where votes are distributed in proportion with member's capital subscriptions. by the end of 2013, japan holds the largest proportions of shares at 15.67%. the united states holds 15.56%, china holds 6.47%, india holds 6.36%, and australia holds 5.81%.asian development bank annual report (december 2013) ==organization== the highest policy-making body of the bank is the board of governors composed of one representative from each member state. the board of governors, in turn, elect among themselves the 12 members of the board of directors and their deputy. eight of the 12 members come from regional

Adenylate_cyclase

adenylate cyclase (, also commonly known as adenylyl cyclase) is an enzyme with key regulatory roles in essentially all cells. it is the most polyphyletic known enzyme: six distinct classes have been described, all catalyzing the same reaction but representing unrelated gene families with no known sequence or structural homology. the best known ac class is class iii or ac-iii (roman numerals are used for classes). ac-iii occurs widely in eukaryotes and has important roles in many human tissues. all classes of ac catalyze the conversion of atp to 3',5'-cyclic amp (camp) and pyrophosphate. divalent cations (usually mg) are generally required and appear to be closely involved in the enzymatic mechanism. the camp produced by ac then serves as a regulatory signal via specific camp-binding proteins, either transcription factors or other enzymes (e.g., camp-dependent kinases). ==class i ac== class i ac's occur in many bacteria including e. coli. this was the first class of ac to be characterized. it was observed that e. coli deprived of glucose produce camp that serves as an internal signal to activate expression of genes for importing and metabolizing other sugars. camp exerts this effect by binding the transcription factor crp, also known as cap. class i ac's are large cytosolic enzymes (~100 kda) with a large regulatory domain (~50 kda) that indirectly senses glucose levels. , no crystal structure is available for class i ac. ==class ii ac== these ac's are toxins secreted by pathogenic bacteria such as bacillus anthracis and bordetella pertussis during infection. these bacteria also secrete proteins that enable the ac-ii to enter host cells, where the exogenous ac activity undermines normal cellular processes. the genes for class ii ac's are known as cyaa. several crystal structures are known for ac-ii enzymes. ==class iii ac== these ac's are the most familiar based on extensive study due to their important roles in human health. they are also found in some bacteria, notably mycobacterium tuberculosis where they appear to have a key role in pathogenesis. most ac-iii's are integral membrane proteins invo

Adam_of_Bremen

adam of bremen (also: adamus bremensis) was a german medieval chronicler. he lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. he is most famous for his chronicle gesta hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (deeds of bishops of the hamburg church). ==background== little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. he is believed to have come from meissen (latin misnia) in saxony. the dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 october of an unknown year (possibly 1081, latest 1085). from his chronicles it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors. the honorary name of magister adam shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. it is probable that he was taught at the magdeburger domschule. in 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop adalbert of hamburg to join the church of bremen.remy, arthur f.j. "adam of bremen." the catholic encyclopedia. vol. 1. new york: robert appleton company, 1907. 20 sept. 2012 adam was accepted among the capitulars of bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the cathedral's school. soon thereafter he began to write the history of bremen/hamburg and of the northern lands in his gesta. his position and the missionary activity of the church of bremen allowed him to gather information on the history and the geography of northern germany. a stay at the court of svend estridson gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of denmark, and the scandinavian countries. bremen was a major trading town, and ships, traders and missionaries went from there to many different locations. the earlier archbishopric seat in hamburg had been attacked and destroyed several times, and thereafter the sees of hamburg and bremen were combined for protection. for three hundred years, beginning with bishop ansgar, the hamburg-bremen archbishopric had been designated as the "mission of the north" and had jurisdiction over all missions in scandinavia, north-western russia, iceland and greenland. then the archbishop of hamburg-bremen had a falling-out with the pope and in 1105 a separate archbishopric for the north was established in lund. ==gesta== adam of bremen's best-known work is the gesta hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (deeds of bishops of the hamburg church), which he began only after the death of the archbishop ad

Adrastea_(moon)

not to be confused with the asteroid called 5 astraea adrastea ( ; ), also known as , is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of jupiter. it was discovered in voyager 2 probe photographs taken in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope. it was officially named after the mythological adrasteia, foster mother of the greek god zeus—the equivalent of the roman god jupiter. adrastea is one of the few moons in the solar system known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day. it orbits at the edge of jupiter's main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of jupiter. despite observations made in the 1990s by the galileo spacecraft, very little is known about the moon's physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to jupiter. == discovery and observations == [[file:adrastée f

Adversarial_system

the adversarial system (or adversary system) is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties' positions before an impartial person or group of people, usually a jury or judge, who attempt to determine the truth of the case. it is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from roman law or the napoleonic code) where a judge, or group of judges investigates the case. the adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate that pits the prosecution against the defense. justice is done when the most effective adversary is able to convince the judge or jury that his or her perspective on the case is the correct one. ==history of the adversarial process== some writers trace the process to the medieval mode of trial by combat,anne strick, injustice for all (new york: g. p. putnam's sons, 1977): 21. in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. the use of the jury in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system and provides the opportunity for both sides to argue their point of view. ==basic features== as an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a criminal adversarial proceeding, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to do so. however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. as the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents

Abbas_Mirza

thumb|right|350px|reviewing in battle thumb|right|250px|abbas mirza crown prince abbas mirza (عباس میرزا in persian) born in nava village of mazandaran (september of 1789 – october 25, 1833), was a qajar crown prince of persia. he developed a reputation as a military commander during wars with russia and the ottoman empire,chambers biographical dictionary, isbn 0-550-18022-2, page 1 as an early modernizer of persia's armed forces and institutions, and for his death before his father, fath ali shah. abbas was an intelligent prince, possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of the comparative simplicity of his life. ==biography== he was a younger son of fath ali shah, but on account of his mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed him. entrusted with the government of the azerbaijan region of persia, he sought to rule it in european fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. he was soon at war with russia (russo-persian war (1804–13)), and his aid was eagerly solicited by both england and napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another in the east. preferring the friendship of france, abbas mirza continued the war against russia's general kotlyarevsky, but his new ally could give him very little assistance. kotlyarevsky defeated the numerically superior (30,000) persian army in the [[battle of a

Aedui

aedui, haedui or hedui (), were a gallic people of gallia lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the arar (saône) and liger (loire), in today's france. their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of saône-et-loire, côte-d'or and nièvre. ==geography== the country of the aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. the upper loire formed their western border,. separating them from the bituriges. the saône formed their eastern border, separating them from the sequani.. the sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the doubs into the saône and of the latter into the rhône, as caesar says that the helvetii, following the pass between the jura mountains and the rhône southwards, which belonged to the sequani, plundered the territory of the aedui.. these circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in strabo, who in one sentence says that the aedui lived between the saône and the doubs, and in the next, that the sequani lived across the saône (eastward).. both statements are true, the first in the south, and the second to the north. ==history== according to livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of bellovesus into italy in the 6th century bc. before caesar's time they had attached themselves to the romans, and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the roman people.. when the sequani, their hereditary rivals, with the assistance of a germanic chieftain named ariovistus defeated and massacred the aedui at the battle of magetobriga, the aedui sent diviciacus, the druid, to rome to appeal to the senate for help. but his mission was unsuccessful. on his arrival in gaul (58 bc), caesar restored their independence. in spite of this, the aedui joined the gallic coalition against caesar (b. g. vii. 42), but after the surrender of vercingetorix at alesia were glad to return to their allegiance. augustus dismantled their native capital bibracte on mont beuvray, and substituted a new town with a half-roman, half-gaulish name, augustodunum (modern autun). in 21, during the reign of tiberius, they revolted under julius sacrovir, and seized [[

Aegisthus

in greek mythology, aegisthus (; ; also transliterated as aigisthos) was the son of thyestes and of thyestes' daughter, pelopia. thyestes felt he had been deprived of the mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, atreus. the two battled back and forth several times. in addition, thyestes had an affair with atreus' wife, aerope. in revenge, atreus killed thyestes' sons and served them to him unknowingly. after eating his own sons' corpses, thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. the advice was to father a son with his own daughter, pelopia, and that son would kill atreus. thyestes raped pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. when aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name aegisthus (from , buck).hyginus, fabulae 87, 88;aelian, varia historia xii. 42 atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took aegisthus in and raised him as his own son. in the night in which pelopia had shared the bed of her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to aegisthus. this sword became the means by which the incestuous intercourse between her and her father was discovered, whereupon she put an end to her own life. atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by atreus.hyginus, l.c. and 252. aegisthus and thyestes thereafter ruled over mycenae jointly, exiling atreus' sons, agamemnon and menelaus to sparta, where king tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, clytemnestra and helen, to take as wives. homer appears to know nothing of all these tragic occurrences, and we learn from him only that, after the death of thyestes, aegisthus ruled as king at mycenae and took no part in the trojan expedition.homer, odyssey iv. 518, &c. while agamemnon, the son of atreus, was absent on his expedition against troy, aegisthus seduced clytemnestra, the wife of agamemnon, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned.[[

Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy

thumb|300px|flame atomic absorption spectroscopy instrument atomic absorption spectroscopy (aas) is a spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements using the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state. in analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. aas can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution or directly in solid samples used in pharmacology, biophysics and toxicology research. atomic absorption spectroscopy was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles were established in the second half of the 19th century by robert wilhelm bunsen and gustav robert kirchhoff, both professors at the university of heidelberg, germany. the modern form of aas was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of australian chemists. they were led by sir alan walsh at the commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation (csiro), division of chemical physics, in melbourne, australia. atomic absorption spectrometry has many uses in different areas of chemistry such as: * clinical analysis: analyzing metals in biological fluids and tissues such as whole blood, plasma, urine, saliva, brain tissue, liver, muscle tissue, semen * pharmaceuticals: in some pharmaceutical manufacturing processes, minute quantities of a catalyst that remain in the final drug product * water analysis: analyzing water for its metal content. == principles == the technique makes use of absorption spectrometry to assess the concentration of an analyte in a sample. it requires standards with known analyte content to establish the relation between the measured absorbance and the analyte concentration and relies therefore on the beer-lambert law. in short, the electrons of the atoms in the atomizer can be promoted to higher orbitals (excited state) for a short period of time (nanoseconds) by absorbing a defined quantity of energy (radiation of a given wavelength). this amount of energy, i.e., wavelength, is specific to a particular electron transition in a particular element. in general, eac

Ajmer

ajmer () is the 5th largest city in rajasthan and is the centre of the eponymous ajmer district. ajmer has a population of around 551,360 in its urban agglomeration and 542,580 for the city (2011 census), and is located west of jaipur, the state capital, 190 km from kota, 274 km from udaipur, 439 km from jaisalmer, and 391 km from delhi. ajmer is surrounded by the aravalli mountains. it is a pilgrimage centre for the shrine of the sufi saint khwaja moinuddin chishti and is also the base for visiting pushkar (11 km), an ancient hindu pilgrimage city, famous for the temple of brahma. == history == thumb|150px|left|jahangir receives prince khurram at ajmer on his return from the mewar campaign according to rajputana gazettee

Afghan_Turkestan

afghan turkestan is a region in northern afghanistan, on the border with the former soviet republics of turkmenistan, uzbekistan and tajikistan. in the 19th century there was a province in afghanistan named turkestan province until abolished by abdur rahman,angus hamilton. afghanistan. w. heinemann, 1906. pg 247 and was centred on mazari sharif and included territory in the modern provinces of balkh, jowzjan, faryab and sar-e pol. the whole territory, from the junction of the kokcha river with the amu darya on the north-east to the province of herat on the south-west, was some in length, with an average width from the russian frontier to the hindu kush of 114 miles (183 km). it thus comprised about or roughly two-ninths of the former kingdom of afghanistan. ==geography== the area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the karakum desert. ==population== the bulk of the people are uzbek and turkmen with large concentrations of tajik, hazara and pashtuns.usa today - pashtuns say they're being brutalized, may 12, 2002. ==history== ancient balkh or bactria was an integral part of bactria–margiana archaeological complex, and was occupied by indo-iranians. in the 5th century bce, it became a province of the achaemenian empire and later became part of the seleucid empire. about 250 bc diodotus (theodotus), governor of bactria under the seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the greco-bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to parthian and nomadic movements about 126 bc. after this came a buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at bamian and the rock-cut topes of haibak. the district was devastated by genghis khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. for about a century it belonged to the delhi empire, and then fell into uzbek hands. in the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of ahmad khan durrani, and so remained under his son timur. but

Abd_ar-Rahman_II

abd ar-rahman ii () (788–852) was umayyad emir of córdoba in the al-andalus (moorish iberia) from 822 until his death. ==biography== abd ar-rahman ii was born in toledo, the son of emir al-hakam i. in his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch", when from 700 to 5,000 people come to pay homage to the princes who were killed by order of al-hakam. he succeeded his father as emir of córdoba in 822 and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against alfonso ii of asturias, whose southward advance he halted (822–842). in 837, he suppressed a revolt of christians and jews in toledo. he issued a decree by which the christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a christian synod held to forbid martyrdom. in 844, abd ar-rahman repulsed an assault by vikings who had disembarked in cadiz, conquered seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked córdoba itself. thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at seville to repel future raids. he responded to william of septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against charles the bald's nominations. abd ar-rahman was famous for his public building program in córdoba where he died in 852. he made additions to the mosque–cathedral of córdoba. a vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. he was also involved in the execution of the "martyrs of córdoba". ==references== {

Antidiarrhoeal

an anti-diarrhoeal drug (or anti-diarrheal drug in american english) is any medication which provides symptomatic relief for diarrhoea. ==types== * electrolyte solutions are used to replace lost fluids and salts in acute cases. * bulking agents like methylcellulose, guar gum or plant fibre (bran, sterculia, isabgol, etc.) are used for diarrhoea in functional bowel disease and to control ileostomy output. * absorbents absorb toxic substances that cause infective diarrhoea, methylcellulose is an absorbent. * anti-inflammatory solutions like bismuth subsalicylate. * opioids' classical use besides pain relief is as an anti-diarrhoeal drug. opioids have agonist actions on the intestinal opioid receptors, which when activated cause constipation. drugs such as morphine or codeine can be used to relieve diarrhoea this way. a notable opioid for the purpose of relief of diarrhoea is loperamide which is only an agonist of the μ opioid receptors in the large intestine and does not have opioid affects in the central nervous system as it doesn't cross the blood–brain barrier in significant amounts. this enables loperamide hydrochloride to be used to the same benefit as other opioid drugs but without the cns side effects or potential for abuse. ==see also== * atc code a07 antidiarrheals, intestinal anti-inflammatory/anti-infective agents ==references== *

Aberdare

aberdare ( ; ) is a town in the cynon valley area of rhondda cynon taf, wales, at the confluence of the rivers dare (dâr) and cynon. the population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in wales). aberdare is south-west of merthyr tydfil, north-west of cardiff and east-north-east of swansea. during the nineteenth century it became a thriving industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life and as an important publishing centre. ==history== aberdare dates from the middle ages. it was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the church of st john the baptist, said to date from 1189. by the middle of the fifteenth century, aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains., pp.9–11 at the beginning of the 19th centur

Aberdour

aberdour (; ,list of railway station names in english, scots and gaelic - newsnetscotland ) is a scenic and historic village on the south coast of fife, scotland. it is on the north shore of the firth of forth, looking south to the island of inchcolm and its abbey, and to leith and edinburgh beyond. according to the 2006 population estimate, the village has a population of 1,680. the village's winding high street lies a little inland from the coast. narrow lanes run off it, providing access to the more hidden parts of the village and the shoreline itself. the village nestles between the bigger coastal towns of burntisland to the east and dalgety bay to the west. == history == the origins of the village lie with its harbour, where the dour burn enters the river forth. the place-name itself is pictish, implying an origin in the dark ages: aber 'confluence'. the -dour element, referring to the burn, means simply 'water' (archaic dobur), and is unconnected to the scots/english 'dour'. for much of its history aberdour was two villages, wester aberdour and easter aberdour, on either side of the dour burn. although this distinction was blurred by the 19th century arrival of the railway. in the 18th century abe

Autocorrelation

autocorrelation, also known as serial correlation, is the cross-correlation of a signal with itself. informally, it is the similarity between observations as a function of the time lag between them. it is a mathematical tool for finding repeating patterns, such as the presence of a periodic signal obscured by noise, or identifying the missing fundamental frequency in a signal implied by its harmonic frequencies. it is often used in signal processing for analyzing functions or series of values, such as time domain signals. ==definitions== different fields of study define autocorrelation differently, and not all of these definitions are equivalent. in some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance. ===statistics=== in statistics, the autocorrelation of a random process describes the correlation between values of the process at different times, as a function of the two times or of the time lag. let x be some repeatable process, and i be some point in time after the start of that process. (i may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process.) then x'i is the value (or realization) produced by a given run of the process at time i. suppose that the process is further known to have defined values for mean μi and variance σi2 for all times i. then the definition of the autocorrelation between times s and t is : r(s,t) = \frac{\operatorname{e}[(x_t - \mu_t)(x_s - \mu_s)]}{\sigma_t\sigma_s}\, , where "e" is the expected value operator. note that this expression is not well-defined for all time series or processes, because the variance may be zero (for a constant process) or infinite. if the function r is well-defined, its value must lie in the range [−1, 1], with 1 indicating perfect correlation and −1 indicating perfect anti-correlation. if x't is a second-order stationary process then the mean μ and the variance σ2 are time-independent, and further the autocorrelation depends only on the lag between t and s: the correlation depends only on the time-distance between the pair of values but not on their position in time. this further implies that the autocorrelation can be expressed as a function of the time-lag, and that this would be an even function of the lag τ = s âˆ’&

Abiathar

abiathar (אביתר, ebyathar, evyatar, the [divine] father is pre-eminent or father of plenty), in the hebrew bible, son of ahimelech or ahijah, high priest at nob, the fourth in descent from eli (1 sam. 23:6) and the last of eli's house. the only one of the priests to escape from saul's massacre, he fled to david at keilah, taking with him the ephod and other priestly regalies (1 sam. 22:20 f., 23:6, 9). he was of great service to david, especially at the time of the rebellion of absalom (2 sam. 15:24, 29, 35, 20:25). in 1 kings 4:4 zadok and abiathar are found acting together as priests under solomon. in 1 kings 1:7, 19, 25, however, abiathar appears as a supporter of adonijah, and in 2:22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by solomon and banished to anathoth. in 2 sam. 8:17 abiathar, the son of achimelech should be read, with the syriac, for achimelech, the son of abiathar. a similar confusion occurs in gospel of mark 2:26: in reporting jesus' words, the evangelist used the name abiathar when we might expect to see jesus mention his father ahimelech. suggestions made to resolve the difficulty — e.g. that father and son each bore the same double name, or that abiathar officiated during his father's lifetime and in his father's stead—have been supported by great names, but have not been fully accepted."abiathar", encyclopedia biblica when his father and the priests of nob were slain on the command of saul, abiathar escaped, bearing with him the ephod. rabbinical literature that linked the later extermination of the male descendants of david with the priests of nob, also link the survival of david's descendant joash with that of abiathar. (sanh. 95b)jewish encyclopedia p.56 abiathar joined david, who was then in the cave of adullam (1 sam. 22:20-23; 23:6). he remained with david, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader (1 sam. 30:7). when david ascended the throne of judah, abiathar was appointed high priest (1 chr. 15:11; 1 kings 2:26) and the "king's counselor" (1 chr. 27:33-34). meanwhile zadok, of the house of eleazar, had been made high priest. according to the jewish encyclopedia abiathar was deposed from office when he was deserted by the holy spirit without which the urim and thummin could not be consulted.jewish encyclopedia p.56 another version says he was co-pontiff with zadok during king david. he supported prince adonijah over prince solomon, and was deposed by hi

Alkene

in organic chemistry, an alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon double bond. the simplest acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups, known as mono-enes, form a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula n2n. they have two hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkane (with the same number of carbon atoms). the simplest alkene is ethylene (c2h4), which has the international union of pure and applied chemistry (iupac) name ethene. in the petrochemical industry alkenes are often called olefins. for bridged alkenes, bredt's rule states that a double bond cannot be placed at the bridgehead of a bridged ring system, unless the rings are large enough (8 or more atoms). aromatic compounds are often drawn as cyclic alkenes, but their structure and properties are different and they are not considered to be alkenes. == structure == ===bonding=== 200px|thumb|ethylene (ethene), showing the pi bond in green. like a single covalent bond, double bonds can be described in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals, except that, unlike a single bond (which consists of a single sigma bond), a carbon–carbon double bond consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond. this double bond is stronger than a single covalent bond (611 kj/mol for c=c vs. 347 kj/mol for c–c) and also shorter with an average bond length of 1.33 angstroms (133 pm). each carbon of the double bond uses its three sp² hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms. the unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendi

Antianginal

an antianginal is any drug used in the treatment of angina pectoris, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease. ==types== ===stable angina=== pain due to atherosclerosis causing incomplete coronary artery occlusion. pain onset with strenuous activity or emotional strain due to increased myocardial oxygen demand. ===unstable angina=== pain due to atherosclerotic plaque rupture and subsequent embolization causing complete coronary arterial occlusion. ===variant (prinzmetal's) angina=== pain due to transient vasospasm causing coronary artery vasoconstriction. ==examples== drugs used are nitrates, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers. ===nitrates=== nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by stimulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (edrf). used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in the heart. short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition. agents include nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate) or pentaerythritol tetranitrate, isosorbide dinitrate and isosorbide mononitrate. ===beta blockers=== beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the myocardial oxygen demand below the level that would provoke an angina attack. they are contraindicated in variant angina and can precipitate heart failure. they are also contraindicated in severe asthmatics due to bronchoconstriction, and should be used cautiously in diabetics as they can cause hypoglycemia agents include either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol. ===calcium channel blockers=== calcium ion (ca++) antagonists (calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of chronic stable angina, and most effectively in the treatment of variant angina (directly preventing coronary artery vasospasm). they are not used in the treatment of unstable angina . in vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing [

Atari_Lynx

the atari lynx is a 16-bit handheld game console that was released by atari corporation in september 1989. the lynx holds the distinction of being the world's first handheld electronic game with a color lcd. the system is also notable for its forward-looking features, advanced graphics, and ambidextrous layout. as part of the fourth generation of gaming, the lynx competed with nintendo's game boy (released just a month earlier), the sega game gear and nec's turboexpress, both released the following year. as with many classic consoles, there has been a modern retrogaming community, creating and selling games for the system. ==features== the atari lynx has several innovative features including it being the first color handheld, with a backlit display, a switchable right-handed/left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with up to 17 other units via its "comlynx" system (though most games would network eight or fewer players). comlynx was originally developed to run over infrared links (and was codenamed redeye). this was changed to a cable-based networking system before the final release. the lynx was cited as the "first gaming console with hardware support for zooming and distortion of sprites". featuring a 4096 color palette and integrated math and graphics co-processors (including a blitter unit), its pseudo-3d color graphics display was said to be the key defining feature in the system's competition aga

Active_Directory

active directory (ad) is a directory service that microsoft developed for windows domain networks and is included in most windows server operating systems as a set of processes and services. an ad domain controller authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a windows domain type network—assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software. for example, when a user logs into a computer that is part of a windows domain, active directory checks the submitted password and determines whether the user is a system administrator or normal user. active directory makes use of lightweight directory access protocol (ldap) versions 2 and 3, microsoft's version of kerberos, and dns. ==history== active directory, like many information-technology efforts, originated out of a democratization of design using request for comments or rfcs. the internet engineering task force (ietf), which oversees the rfc process, has accepted numerous rfcs initiated by widespread participants. active directory incorporates decades of communication technologies into the overarching active directory concept then makes improvements upon them. for example, lightweight directory access protocol (ldap), a long-standing directory technology, underpins active directory. also x.500 directories and the organizational unit preceded the active directory concept that makes use of those methods. the ldap concept began to emerge even before the founding of microsoft in april 1975, with rfcs as early as 1971. rfcs contributing to ldap include rfc 1823 (on the ldap api, august 1995), rfc 2307, rfc 3062, and rfc 4533. microsoft previewed active directory in 1999, released it first with windows 2000 server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in windows server 2003. additional improvements came with windows server 2003 r2, windows server 2008, and windows server 2008 r2. with the release of the last, microsoft renamed the domain controller role (see below) as active directory domain services (ad ds). it is also included in windows server

Antiderivative

in calculus, an antiderivative, primitive integral or indefinite integral antiderivatives are also called general integrals, and sometimes integrals. the latter term is generic, and refers not only to indefinite integrals (antiderivatives), but also to definite integrals. when the word integral is used without additional specification, the reader is supposed to deduce from the context whether it is referred to a definite or indefinite integral. some authors define the indefinite integral of a function as the set of its infinitely many possible antiderivatives. others define it as an arbitrarily selected element of that set. wikipedia adopts the latter approach. of a function f is a differentiable function f whose derivative is equal to f, i.e., f ′ = f. the process of solving for antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration) and its opposite operation is called differentiation, which is the process of finding a derivative. antiderivatives are related to definite integrals through the fundamental theorem of calculus: the definite integral of a function over an interval is equal to the difference between the values of an antiderivative evaluated at the endpoints of the interval. the discrete equivalent of the notion of antiderivative is antidifference. ==example== the function f(x) = x3/3 is an antiderivative of f(x) = x2. as the derivative of a constant is zero, x2 will have an infinite number of antiderivatives; such as (x3/3) + 0, (x3/3) + 7, (x3/3) âˆ’ 42, (x3/3) + 293 etc. thus, all the antiderivatives of x2 can be obtained by changing the value of c in f(x) = (x3/3) + c; where c is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration. essentially, the graphs of antiderivatives of a given function are vertical translations of each other; each graph's vertical location depending upon the [[value (mathematics)|v

Azawakh

the azawakh is a sighthound dog breed from africa. ==description== thumb|left|| ===appearance=== morphology is very similar to that of the middle eastern and south indian sight hounds, all swift, high-bred coursing hounds, although there are several obvious differences. for example, a short, flat back combined with long legs place the hips higher than the withers. the azawakh is almond eyed and thin. it moves with a distinctly feline gait and can be found in a variety of colors as well as varying degrees of refinement, though format is basically constant. ===height and weight=== the standards call for a hound from ; its height is . the coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. its muscles are "dry", meaning that they lie quite flat, unlike the greyhound and whippet. in this respect it is similar in type to the saluki. ===colors=== thumb|| in africa, azawakh are found in a variety of colors such as red, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and, rarely, blue and black. the azawakh in its native land also comes with various white markings including irish marked (white collar) and particolour (mostly white).tombouktous-azawakhs.de because of this wide color

Latin_American_Integration_Association

the latin american integration association / asociación latinoamericana de integración / associação latino-americana de integração (laia / aladi) is an international and regional scope organization. it was created on 12 august 1980 by the 1980 montevideo treaty,1980 montevideo treaty 1980 montevideo treaty replacing the latin american free trade association (lafta / alalc). currently, it has 13 member countries, and any of the latin american states may apply for accession. == objectives == the development of the integration process developed within the framework of the aladi aims at promoting the harmonious and balanced socio-economic development of the region, and its long-term objective is the gradual and progressive establishment of a latin-american common market. == basic functions == * promotion and regulation of reciprocal trade * economic complementation * development of economic cooperation actions contributing to the markets extension. == general principles == * pluralism in political and economic matters; * progressive convergence of partial actions for the establishment of a latin-american common market; * flexibility; * differential treatments based on the development level of t

Amanda_Hesser

thumb|amanda hesser in the offices of food52 amanda hesser (born 1971) is an american food writer, editor, cookbook author and entrepreneur. most notably, she was the food editor of the new york times magazine, the editor of t living, a quarterly publication of the new york times, author of the essential new york times cookbook which was a new york times bestseller, and co-founder and ceo of food52. after finishing her first book, in 1997, hesser was hired as a food reporter for the new york times where she wrote more than 750 stories. while at the times hesser wrote about the influence of costco on the wine industry, uncovered the politics behind the new york city greenmarket and was among the first to write about ferran adria of el bulli in a major american publication. hesser was involved in two cases of conflict of interest while working at the times. in 2004, she awarded the restaurant spice market a three-star rating without disclosing that the year before, the restaurant’s owner, jean-georges vongerichten, had provided a complimentary jacket blurb for her book cooking for mr. latte. in 2007, hesser published a favorable review of vegetable harvest by patricia wells, without noting that in 1999, wells had provided a jacket blurb for hesser’s book the cook and the gardener. in both cases, the times subsequently pointed out the conflicts of interest with editors’ notes. while hesser left the times in march 2008 to focus on the development of food52 she continued to write the "recipe redux" feature for the times magazine until february 27, 2011. as co-founder and ceo of food52 she has raised two rounds of investment from parties including lerer ventures and bertelsmann digital media investments. food52 has won nume

Active_Server_Pages

active server pages (asp), also known as classic asp or asp classic, was microsoft's first server-side script engine for dynamically generated web pages. initially released as an add-on to internet information services (iis) via the windows nt 4.0 option pack (ca. 1996), it was subsequently included as a free component of windows server (since the initial release of windows 2000 server). asp.net, first released in january 2002, has superseded asp. asp 2.0 provided six built-in objects: application, asperror, request, response, server, and session. session, for example, represents a session that maintains the state of variables from page to page.the session data is kept server-side, the id is saved as a http cookie. source: asp and web session management, microsoft the active scripting engine's support of the component object model (com) enables asp websites to access functionality in compiled libraries such as dlls. asp 3.0 does not differ greatly from asp 2.0 but it does offer some additional enhancements such as: server.transfer method, server.execute method, and an enhanced asperror object. asp 3.0 also enabled buffering by default and optimized the engine for better performance. the use of asp pages with internet information services (iis) is currently supported on all supported versions of iis. the use of asp pages will be supported on windows 8 for a minimum of 10 years from the windows 8 release date. ==summary== web pages with the .asp file extension use asp, although some web sites disguise their choice of scripting language for security purposes (e.g. still using the more common .htm or .html extension). pages with the .aspx extension use compiled asp.net (based on microsoft's .net framework), which makes them faster and more robust tha

Axayacatl

axayacatl ( (the name means "water-mask" or "water-face") was the sixth aztec emperor, a ruler (tlatoani) of the postclassic mesoamerican aztec empire and city of tenochtitlan, who reigned from 1469 to 1481. he is chiefly remembered for subjugating tlatelolco, tenochtitlan's sister city, in 1473. ==biography== axayacatl was a son of the princess atotoztli ii and her cousin, prince tezozomoc. he was a grandson of the emperors moctezuma i and itzcoatl. he was a descendant of the king cuauhtototzin. he was a successor of moctezuma and his brothers were emperors tizoc and ahuitzotl and his sister was the queen chalchiuhnenetzin. he was an uncle of the emperor cuauhtémoc and father of emperors moctezuma ii and cuitláhuac. using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few tlatelolcan citizens, axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. the tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming aztec policy. it is also important that the great sun stone, also known as the aztec calendar, was carved under his leadership. in the year 1475 there was a major earthquake that destroyed many homes in temochtitlán. he was followed on the throne by his brother tizoc in 1481. thumb|left|300px|map showing territorial expansions of the aztec empire under each of the aztec rulers. expansions during the reign of axayacatl are indicated in blue.map based on hassig (1988) ==notes== ==references== * * * * *{{cite book |last = weaver |first = muriel porter | year = 1993

Antarctic

thumb|right|the antarctic the antarctic ( or )the word was originally pronounced without /k/, but the spelling pronunciation has become the more common one. the "c" was originally added for etymological reasons and was then misunderstood as not being silent. is a polar region, specifically the region around the earth's south pole, opposite the arctic region around the north pole. the antarctic comprises the continent of antarctica and the ice shelves, waters, and island territories in the southern ocean situated south of the antarctic convergence.scientific committee on antarctic research (scar) the region covers some 20% of the southern hemisphere, of which 5.5% (14 million km2) is the surface area of the continent itself. == geography == the maritime part of the region constitutes the area of application of the international convention for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources (ccamlr), where for technical reasons the convention uses an approximation of the convergence line by means of a line joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.convention for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources the implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in hobart, australia, by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillance. most of the antarctic region is situated south of 60°s latitude parallel, and is governed in accordance with the international legal regime of the antarctic treaty system.antarctic treaty the treaty area covers the continent itself and its immediately adjacent islands, as well as the archipelagos of the south orkney islands, south shetland islands, peter i island, scott island and balleny islands. the islands situated between 60°s latitude parallel to the south and the antarctic convergence to the north, and their respective exclusive economic zones fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: south georgia and the south sandwich islands (united kingdom; also an

Dual_wield

thumb|250px|mongolian soldiers dual wielding knives during skills display dual wielding is using two weapons, one in each hand, during combat. it is not a common combat practice, since it does not offer much advantage. although historical records of dual wielding in war is limited, there are numerous weapon-based martial arts that involve the use of a pair of weapons. the use of two weapons simultaneously confers no notable advantage to the user as compared to more conventional means such as using a two-handed weapon or a one-handed weapon and a shield. the use of a companion weapon is sometimes employed in european martial arts and fencing. miyamoto musashi, a japanese swordsman and ronin, was said to have conceived of the idea of a particular style of swordsmanship involving the use of two swords. in terms of firearms and handguns, this style has been popularized by television and shooting enthusiasts. though there is a distinct advantage to using two hand guns at a time, it is rarely done due to practicality. dual wielding is present in many films and video games, which have the freedom of ignoring the impracticality of the style. the term itself is often invoked in the context of games. ==history== dual wielding has not been used or mentioned much in military history, though it appears in weapon based martial arts and fencing practices. this style of combat requires special training, since the user is unable to swing both weapons at the same time. due the positioning of the body and the need to maintain balance, the use of two weapons requires the practitioner to use one weapon offensively and the other defensively. to perform an attack by the defensive weapon after the first, the user needs to perform a separate and distinct action. the main advantage of using two weapons is the user can use one as a holding weapon after contact is made and use the other to attack the open area of the opponent. otherwise, there is not much advantage compared to a user who wields a single weapon with both hands in terms of power and control. the latter has more maneuverability due to a more controlled center of gravity; a person using a single weapon can use their legs for kicking or tripping. though the dual wielder has more options for attacking or defending, they will still be weaker. a single-handed grip on each weapon also means it can be knocked away with a sufficiently powerful blow. the use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat i

Alkali

in chemistry, an alkali (; from arabic: al-qaly القلي, القالي , “ashes of the saltwort”) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal chemical element. some authors also define an alkali as a base that dissolves in water. a solution of a soluble base has a ph greater than 7.0. the adjective alkaline is commonly, and alkalescent less often, used in english as a synonym for basic, especially for soluble bases. this broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases. ==etymology== the word "alkali" is derived from arabic al qalīy (or alkali), meaning the calcined ashes (see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. a water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. after heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), a far more strongly basic substance known as caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was produced. caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol k (from the german name kalium), which ultimately derived from alkali. ==common properties== alkalis are all arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (oh-) when dissolved in water. common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include: * moderately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 m) have a ph of 7.1 or greater. this means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink. * concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns). * alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin. * alkalis are normally water soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution. ==difference between alkali and base== the terms "base" and "alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside of the context of chemistry and [[chemical e

Abracadabra

abracadabra is an incantation used as a magic word in stage magic tricks, and historically was believed to have healing powers when inscribed on an amulet. == etymology == the word may have its origin in the aramaic language, but numerous conflicting folk etymologies are associated with it. the word abracadabra may derive from an aramaic phrase meaning "i create as i speak." this etymology is dubious, however, as אברא כדברא in aramaic is more reasonably translated "i create like the word..jesus called himself "the word". "in the beginning was the word, and the word was with god, and the word was god. he was with god in the beginning. through him all things were made"{{john1:1 thus, "i create like the word" the second lexeme in this supposedly aramaic phrase might be a noun given the presence of the definite article on the end of the word (it cannot be an infinitive construct, as the infinitive cannot take the definite article). regardless, this phrase would actually be pronounced ebra kidbara, which is clearly different from abracadabra. in the hebrew language, the phrase translates more accurately as "it came to pass as it was spoken." "[a]bracadabra may comprise the abbreviated forms of the hebrew words ab (father), ben (son) and ruach a cadsch (holy spirit), though an alternative derivation relates the word to abraxas, a god with snakes for feet who was worshipped in alexandria in pre-christian times."dictionary of superstitions, david pickering, cassell wellington house, 1995, 1 david pickering's description of the word as an abbreviation from hebrew is also a false etymology—as he apparently here means aramaic (בר is aramaic for "son", it is בן in hebrew, although בר is an honorific form), nor does he account for the final five letters (i.e., -dabra) in the lexeme. the word may have originated as a way to remember the alphabet by pronouncing the first letters abcd... it becomes more pronounceable and easier to remember by adding repetitive vowel "a" or "ra" sounds where there are none and adding an alliteration "bra&quo

Arthur_Laurents

arthur laurents (july 14, 1917 â€“ may 5, 2011) was an american playwright, stage director and screenwriter."obituaries: arthur laurents". the daily telegraph. may 6, 2011. after writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the u.s. army during world war ii, laurents turned to writing for broadway, producing a body of work that includes west side story (1957), gypsy (1959), hallelujah, baby! (1967), and la cage aux folles (1983), and directing some of his own shows and other broadway productions. his early film scripts include rope (1948) for alfred hitchcock, followed by anastasia (1956), bonjour tristesse (1958), the way we were (1973), and the turning point (1977). ==early life== born arthur levine, laurents was the son of middle-class jewish parents, a lawyer and a schoolteacher who gave up her career when she married."when you’re a shark you’re a shark all the way". new york.{{cite news|last=hawtree|first=christopher|title=arthur laurents obituary: playwright and screenwriter who wrote the book for west side st

Alexey_Pajitnov

alexey leonidovich pajitnov (, ; born 14 march 1956) is a russian video game designer and computer engineer, who developed the popular game tetris while working for the dorodnitsyn computing centre of the soviet academy of sciences, a soviet government-founded r&d center. he only started to get royalties from his creation in 1996 when he and henk rogers formed the tetris company. ==biography== alexey pajitnov created tetris with the help of dmitry pavlovsky and vadim gerasimov in 1984. the game, first available in the soviet union, appeared in the west in 1986. pajitnov also created the lesser known sequel to tetris, entitled welltris, which has the same principle but in a three dimensional environment where the player sees the playing area from above. tetris was licensed and managed by soviet company elorg which had been founded specially for this purpose, and advertised with the slogan "from russia with love" (on nes: "from russia with fun!"). because he was employed by the soviet government, pajitnov did not receive royalties. pajitnov, together with vladimir pokhilko, moved to the united states in 1991 and later, in 1996, founded the tetris company with henk rogers. he helped design the puzzles in the super nes versions of yoshi's cookie and designed the game pandora's box, which incorporates more traditional jigsaw-style puzzles. he was employed by microsoft from october 1996 until 2005. while there he worked on the microsoft entertainment pack: the puzzle collection, msn mind aerobics and msn games

Adoptionism

adoptionism, sometimes called dynamic monarchianism, is a minority christian belief that jesus was adopted as god's son either at his baptism, his resurrection, or his ascension. according to epiphanius's account of the ebionites, the group believed that jesus was chosen because of his sinless devotion to the will of god.epiphanius of salamis (403 ce). pp. 30:3 & 30:13. adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 2nd century and was rejected by the synods of antioch and the first council of nicaea, which defined the orthodox doctrine of the trinity and identified the man jesus with the eternally begotten son or word of god. some scholars see adoptionist concepts in the gospel of mark and in the writings of the apostle paul. according to this view, though mark has jesus as the son of god, references occurring at the strategic points in 1:1 ("the beginning of the gospel about jesus christ, the son of god", but not in all versions, see mark 1), 5:7 ("what do you want with me, jesus, son of the most high god?") and 15:39 ("surely this man was the son of god!"), the concept of the virgin birth of jesus had not been developed or elucidated at the time of the writing of this early christian text. by the time the gospels of luke and matthew were written, jesus is identified as being the son of god from the time of birth. finally, the gospel of john portrays him as the pre-existent word () as existing "in the beginning". == history == === early primary writings === in the orthodox corruption of scripture, popular author and text cr

Autumn

autumn, interchangeably known as fall in north america, is one of the four temperate seasons. autumn marks the transition from summer into winter, in september (northern hemisphere) or march (southern hemisphere), when the arrival of night becomes noticeably earlier and the temperature cools considerably. one of its main features is the shedding of leaves from deciduous trees. some cultures regard the autumnal equinox as "mid-autumn", while others with a longer temperature lag treat it as the start of autumn. meteorologists (and most of the temperate countries in the southern hemisphere) use a definition based on months, with autumn being september, october and november in the northern hemisphere, and march, april and may in the southern hemisphere. in north america, autumn is usually considered to start with the september equinox and end with the winter solstice (21 or 22 december). http://www.almanac.com/content/first-day-winter-winter-solstice in traditional east asian solar term, autumn starts on or around 8 august and ends on or about 7 november. in ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, met Éireann, are september, october and november.{{cit

Amu_Darya

the amu darya (, Āmūdaryā; ; ; uzbek: amudaryo; ; , da Āmú sínd; , oxos; {{

Altair

altair (alpha aquilae, alpha aql, α aquilae, α aql, atair) is the brightest star in the constellation aquila and the twelfth brightest star in the night sky. it is currently in the g-cloud.http://interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov/interstellar/probe/introduction/neighborhood.html, our local galactic neighborhood, nasahttp://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=14203, into the interstellar void, centauri dreams altair is an a-type main sequence star with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.77 and is one of the vertices of the summer triangle (the other two vertices are marked by deneb and vega).summer triangle, entry, the internet encyclopedia of science, david darling. accessed on line november 26, 2008. it is 16.7 light-years (5.13 parsecs) from earth and is one of the [[list

Akira_Toriyama

is a japanese manga artist and game artist. he is best known for his manga series dr. slump (1980–1984) and dragon ball (1984–1995), as well as for being the character designer for the dragon quest series of video games. toriyama is regarded as one of the artists that changed the history of manga, as his works are highly influential and popular, particularly dragon ball, which many manga artists cite as a source of inspiration. he earned the 1981 shogakukan manga award for best shōnen or shōjo manga with dr. slump, and it went on to sell over 35 million copies in japan. it was adapted into a successful anime series, with a second anime created in 1997, 13 years after the manga ended. his next series, dragon ball, would become one of the most popular and successful manga in the world. having sold more than 230 million copies worldwide, it is the second best-selling manga of all time and is considered to be one of the main reasons for the "golden age of jump," the period between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s when manga circulation was at its highest. overseas, dragon ball's anime adaptations have been more successful than the manga and are credited with boosting japanese animation's popularity in the western world. == early life== akira toriyama recalls that when he was in elementary school all of his classmates drew, imitating anime and manga, as a result of not having many forms of entertainment.{{cite book |title=dragon　ball　大全集　6: movies

Accumulator_(computing)

in a computer's central processing unit (cpu), an accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored. without a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to main memory, perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation. access to main memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register. early electronic computer systems were often split into two groups, those with accumulators and those without. modern computer systems often have multiple general purpose registers that operate as accumulators, and the term is no longer as common as it once was. however, a number of special-purpose processors still use a single accumulator for their work, in order to simplify their design. ==basic concept== mathematical operations often take place in a stepwise fashion, using the results from one operation as the input to the next. for instance, a manual calculation of a worker's weekly payroll might look something like: look up the number of hours worked from the employee's time card look up the pay rate for that employee from a table multiply the hours by the pay rate to get their basic weekly pay multiply their basic pay by a fixed percentage to account for income tax subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after tax multiply that result by another fixed percentage to account for retirement plans subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after all deductions a computer program carrying out the same task would follow the same basic sequence of operations, although the values being looked up would all be stored in computer memory. in early computers the number of hours would likely be held on a punch card and the pay rate in some other form of memory, perhaps a magnetic drum. once the multiplication is complete, the result needs to be placed somewhere. on a "drum machine" this would likely be back to the drum, an operation that takes considerable time. and then the very next operation has to read that value back in, which introduces another considerable delay. accumulators dramatically improve performance in systems like these by providing a scratchpad area where the results of one operation can be fed to the next one for little or no performance penalty. in the example above, the basic weekly pay would be calculated and placed in the accumulator, which could then immediately be used by the income tax calculation. this removes one save and one read operation from

Axiology

axiology (from greek , axiā, "value, worth"; and , -logos) is the philosophical study of value. it is either the collective term for ethics and aestheticsrandom house unabridged dictionary entry on axiology.—philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value—or the foundation for these fields, and thus similar to value theory and meta-ethics. the term was first used by paul lapie, in 1902, and eduard von hartmann, in 1908.samuel l. hart. axiology—theory of values. philosophy and phenomenological research. axiology studies mainly two kinds of values: ethics and aesthetics. ethics investigates the concepts of "right" and "good" in individual and social conduct. aesthetics studies the concepts of "beauty" and "harmony." formal axiology, the attempt to lay out principles regarding value with mathematical rigor, is exemplified by robert s. hartman's science of value. studies of both kinds are found in cultura: international journal of philosophy of culture and axiology. ==history== between the 5th and 6th century b.c., it was important in greece to be knowledgeable if you were to be successful. philosophers began to recognize that differences existed between the laws and morality of society. socrates held the belief that knowledge had a vital connection to virtue, making morality and democracy closely intertwined. socrates' student, plato furthered the belief by establishing virtues which should be followed by all. with the fall of the government, values became individual, causing skeptic schools of thought to flourish, ultimately shaping a pagan philosophy that is thought to have influenced and shaped christianity. during these medieval times, aquinas argued for a separation between natural and religious virtues. this concept led philosophers to distinguish between judgments based on fact and judgments based on values, creating division between science and philosophy.arneson, p. (2009). axiology. in s. littlejohn, & k. foss (eds.), encyclopedia of communication theory. (pp. 70-74). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. == axiological issues in communication studies == communication theorists seek to contribute to mutual intelligence about the anatomy and operation of human communication. the axiological issues that are significant for the evolution of communication theory are whether re

AIM-54_Phoenix

the aim-54 phoenix is a radar-guided, long-range air-to-air missile (aam), carried in clusters of up to six missiles on the grumman f-14 tomcat, its only launch platform. the phoenix was the united states' only long-range air-to-air missile. the combination of phoenix missile and the an/awg-9 guidance radar was the first aerial weapons system that could simultaneously engage multiple targets. both the missile and the aircraft were used by the united states navy and are now retired, the aim-54 phoenix in 2004 and the f-14 in 2006. they were replaced by the shorter-range aim-120 amraam, employed on the f/a-18 hornet and f/a-18e/f super hornet. following the retirement of the f-14 by the u.s. navy, the weapon's only current operator is the islamic republic of iran air force. brevity code "fox three" was used when firing the aim-54. ==development== ===background=== since 1951, the navy faced the initial threat from the tupolev tu-4k 'bull' carrying anti-ship missiles. eventually, during the height of the cold war, the threat would have actually expanded into regimental-size raids of tu-16 badger and tu-22m backfire bombers equipped with low-flying, long-range, high-speed, nuclear-armed cruise missiles and considerable electronic counter measures (ecm) of various type

Alien_and_Sedition_Acts

thumb|250px|upright|text of the aliens act thumb|250px|upright|text of the sedition act the alien and sedition acts were four bills that were passed by the federalists in the 5th united states congress and signed into law by president john adams in 1798, the result of the french revolution and during an undeclared naval war with france, later known as the quasi-war. authored by the federalists, the laws were purported to strengthen national security, but critics argued that they were primarily an attempt to suppress voters who disagreed with the federalist party. the naturalization act increased the residency requirement for american citizenship from 5 to 14 years. the alien friends act allowed the president to imprison or deport aliens considered "dangerous to the peace and safety of the united states" at any time, while the alien enemies act authorized the president to do the same to any male citizen of a hostile nation, above the age of 14, during times of war. (at the time, the majority of immigrants supported thomas jefferson and the democratic-republicans, the political opponents of the federalists.) lastly, the controversial sedition act restricted speech which was critical of the federal government. the acts were denounced by democratic-republicans and ultimately helped them to victory in the 1800 election, when thomas jefferson defeated the incumbent president adams. the sedition act and the alien friends act were allowed to expire in 1800 and 1801, respectively. the alien enemies act, however, remains in effect as 50 usc sections 21–24. during world war ii, it was used to detain, deport and confiscate the property of japanese, german, italian, and other axis nation citizens residing in the united states.nakamura, kelli y. "alien enemies act of 1798" densho encyclopedia. retrieved july 8, 2014. ==history== opposition to federalists, spurred on by democratic-republicans, reached new heights at this time with the democratic-republicans supporting france still in the midst of the french revolution. some appeared to desire an event similar to the french revolution to come to the united states to overthrow the government.letter to william smith, november 13, 1787 when democr

Adaptive_expectations

in economics, adaptive expectations is a hypothesized process by which people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. for example, if inflation has been higher than expected in the past, people would revise expectations for the future. one simple version of adaptive expectations is stated in the following equation, where p^e is the next year's rate of inflation that is currently expected; p^e_{-1}is this year's rate of inflation that was expected last year; and p is this year's actual rate of inflation: ::p^e = p^{e}_{-1} + \lambda (p - p^{e}_{-1}) where \lambda is between 0 and 1. this says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an "error-adjustment" term, in which current expectations are raised (or lowered) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations. this error-adjustment is also called "partial adjustment." the theory of adaptive expectations can be applied to all previous periods so that current inflationary expectations equal: ::p^e = \lambda \sum_{j = 0}^{\infty} ((1-\lambda)^j p_j) where p_j equals actual inflation j years in the past. thus, current expected inflation reflects a weighted average of all past inflation, where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in the past. once a forecasting error is made by agents, due to a stochastic shock, they will be unable to correctly forecast the price level again even if the price level experiences no further shocks since they only ever incorporate part of their errors. the backward nature of expectation formulation and the resultant systematic errors made by agents (see cobweb model) was unsatisfactory to economists such as john muth, who was pivotal in the development of an alternative model of how expectations are formed, called rational expectations. this has largely replaced adaptive expectations in macroeconomic theory since its assumption of optimality of expectations is consistent with economic theory. ==see also== *rational expectations *policy ineffectiveness proposition *self-fulfilling prophecy *problem of induction ==references== *george w. evans and seppo honkapohja (2001), learning and expectations in macroeconomics. princeton university press, isbn 978-0-691-04921-2.

RUR-5_ASROC

:"asroc" redirects to this page. for the vertical-launch variant, see rum-139 vl-asroc. thumb|asroc launch from , in 1978. the rur-5 asroc (for anti-submarine rocket) is an all-weather, all sea-conditions anti-submarine missile system. developed by the united states navy in the 1950s, it was deployed in the 1960s, updated in the 1990s, and eventually installed on over 200 usn surface ships, specifically cruisers, destroyers, and frigates. the asroc has been deployed on scores of warships of many other navies, including canada, germany, italy, japan, the republic of china, greece, pakistan and others.{{cite book | last = friedman | first = norman | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = the naval institute guide to world naval weapons systems, 1997-1998 | publisher = united states naval institute press | date = may 1997 | location = annapolis, maryland usa | pages = 668 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=l-dzknmtgduc&pg=pa668 | isbn = 1-55750-268-4

Acceptance_testing

in engineering and its various subdisciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. it may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests. in systems engineering it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery. software developers often distinguish acceptance testing by the system provider from acceptance testing by the customer (the user or client) prior to accepting transfer of ownership. in the case of software, acceptance testing performed by the customer is known as user acceptance testing (uat), end-user testing, site (acceptance) testing, or field (acceptance) testing. a smoke test is used as an acceptance test prior to introducing a build to the main testing process. ==overview== testing generally involves running a suite of tests on the completed system. each individual test, known as a case, exercises a particular operating condition of the user's environment or feature of the system, and will result in a pass or fail outcome. there is generally no degree of success or failure. the test environment is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated user's environment, including extremes of such. these test cases must each be accompanied by test case input data and/or a formal description of the operational activities to be performed. the intentions are to thoroughly elucidate the specific test case and description of the expected results. acceptance tests/criteria (in agile software development) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a business domain language. these are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a user story or stories 'played' during any sprint/iteration. these tests are created ideally through collaboration between business customers, business analysts, testers, and developers. it's essential that these tests include both business log

Arno

the arno is a river in the tuscany region of italy. it is the most important river of central italy after the tiber. == source and route == thumb|250px|left|"ponte vecchio" (the old bridge) the river originates on mount falterona in the casentino area of the apennines, and initially takes a southward curve. the river turns to the west near arezzo passing through florence, empoli and pisa, flowing into the tyrrhenian sea at marina di pisa. with a length of , it is the largest river in the region. it has many tributaries: sieve at long, bisenzio at , and the era, elsa, pesa and pescia. the drainage basin amounts to more than and drains the waters of the following sub-basins: *the casentino, in the province of arezzo, formed by the upper course of the river until the confluence with the maestro della chiana channel. *the val di chiana, a plain dried in the 18th century, which, until then, was a marshy area tributary of the tiber. *the upper valdarno, a long valley bordered from east by the pratomagno massif and from west by the hills around siena. *the sieve's basin, which flows in the arno immediately before florence. *the middle valdarno, with the plain including florence, sesto fiorentino, prato and pistoia. *the lower valdarno, with the valley of important tributaries such as the pesa, elsa and era and in which, after pontedera, the arno flows into the ligurian sea. the river has a very variable discharge, ranging from about to more than . the mouth of the river was once near pisa, but is now several kilometres westwards. it crosses florence, where it passes below the ponte vecchio and the santa trìnita bridge (built by bartolomeo ammanati, but inspired by michelangelo). the river flooded this city regularly in historical times, the last occasion being the flood of 1966, with after rainfall of in badia agnano and in florence, in only 24 hours. the flow rate of the arno is irregular. it is sometim

Amygdalin

amygdalin (from ancient greek: "almond"), c20h27no11, is a glycoside initially isolated from the seeds of the tree prunus dulcis, also known as bitter almonds, by pierre-jean robiquet and antoine boutron-charlard, in 1830 and subsequently investigated by liebig and wöhler in 1830. several other related species in the genus of prunus, including apricot (prunus armeniaca) and black cherry (

Anthony_of_Saxony

anthony (dresden, 27 december 1755 – dresden, 6 june 1836), also known by his german name anton (full name: anton clemens theodor maria joseph johann evangelista johann nepomuk franz xavier aloys januar),holborn, p. 24 was a king of saxony (1827–1836) from the house of wettin. he became known as anton der gütige,quinger p. 35 (en: "anthony the kind")."the kings of saxony". accessed 27 january 2007. he was the fifth but third surviving son of frederick christian, elector of saxony, and maria antonia of bavaria. ==early life== with few chances to take part in the politics of the electorate of saxony or receive any land from his older brother frederick augustus iii, anton lived under the shadows. no elector of saxony after johann georg i gave appananges to his younger sons. during the first years of the reign of his older brother as elector, anton was the third in line, preceded only by his older brother karl. the death of karl (8 september 1781) make him the next in line to the electorate as crown prince (de: kronprinz); this was because all the pregnancies of the electress amalie, except for one daughter, ended in a stillbirth. his aunt, the dauphine of france, had wanted to engage her daughter marie zéphyrine of france to anthony; marie zéphyrine died in 1755 abandoning plans. another french candidate was marie zéphyrine's sister marie clothilde (later queen of sardinia) but again nothing happened. in turin on 29 september 1781 (by proxy) and again in dresden on 24 october 1781 (in person), anton married firstly with the princess caroline of savoy (maria carolina antonietta adelaid

The_Birth_of_a_Nation

thumb|the birth of a nation the birth of a nation (originally called the clansman) is a 1915 american silent drama film directed by d. w. griffith and based on the novel and play the clansman, both by thomas dixon, jr. griffith co-wrote the screenplay (with frank e. woods), and co-produced the film (with harry aitken). it was released on february 8, 1915. the film was originally presented in two parts, separated by an intermission. it was the first 12-reel film in america. the film chronicles the relationship of two families in civil war and reconstruction-us era: the pro-union northern stonemans and the pro-confederacy southern camerons over the course of several years. the assassination of president abraham lincoln by john wilkes booth is dramatized. the film was a commercial success, but was highly controversial owing to its portrayal of black men (played by white actors in blackface) as unintelligent and sexually aggressive towards white women, and the portrayal of the ku klux klan (whose original founding is dramatized) as a heroic force.[http://www.moviejustice.com/vault/index.php?p=getitem&db_id=4&item_id=27 m

Bill_Clinton

william jefferson "bill" clinton (born william jefferson blythe iii, august 19, 1946) is an american politician who served from 1993 to 2001 as the 42nd president of the united states. inaugurated at age 46, he was the third-youngest president. he took office at the end of the cold war, and was the first president from the baby boomer generation. clinton has been described as a new democrat. many

The_Beverly_Hillbillies

thumb|beverly hillbillies episode 18: jed saves the drysdales marriage the beverly hillbillies is an american sitcom originally broadcast for nine seasons on cbs from september 26, 1962 to march 23, 1971, starring buddy ebsen, irene ryan, donna douglas, and max baer, jr. the series is about a poor backwoods family transplanted to beverly hills, california, after striking oil on their land. a filmways production created by writer paul henning, it is the first in a genre of "fish out of water" themed television shows, and was followed by other henning-inspired country-cousin series on cbs. in 1963, henning introduced petticoat junction, and in 1965 he reversed the rags to riches model for green acres. the show paved the way for later culture-conflict programs such as the jeffersons, mccloud, the nanny, the fresh prince of bel-air, and doc. panned by many entertainment critics of its time, it quickly became a huge ratings success for most of its nine-year run on cbs. the beverly hillbillies ranked among the top twenty most watched programs on television for eight of its nine seasons, twice ranking as the number one series of the year, with a number of episodes that remain among the most watched television episodes of all time.{{cite news| url = http://w

Gautama_Buddha

gautama buddha, also known as siddhārtha gautama, shakyamuni, or simply the buddha, was a sage on whose teachings buddhism was founded. he is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern india sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries bce. the word buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. in most buddhist traditions, siddhartha gautama is regarded as the supreme buddha (pali sammāsambuddha, sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.{{refn|group=note|hypothetical root budh "perceive" 1. pali buddha – "understood, enlightened", masculine "the buddha"; aśokan (the language of the inscriptions of aśoka) budhe nominative singular; prakrit buddha – ‘ known, awakened ’; waigalī būdāī, "truth"; bashkarīk budh "he heard"; tōrwālī būdo preterite of bū, "to see, know" from bṓdhati; phalūṛa búddo preterite of buǰǰ , "to understand" from búdhyatē; shina gilgitī dialect

Baruch_Spinoza

baruch spinoza (; born benedito de espinosa; 24 november 1632 – 21 february 1677, later benedict de spinoza) was a dutch philosopher. the breadth and importance of spinoza's work was not fully realized until many years after his death. by laying the groundwork for the 18th-century enlightenment and modern biblical criticism,yovel, yirmiyahu, spinoza and other heretics: the adventures of immanence (princeton university press, 1992), p. 3 including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe,{{

Burgess_Shale

the burgess shale formation, located in the canadian rockies of british columbia, is one of the world's most celebrated fossil fields. it is famous for the exceptional preservation of the soft parts of its fossils. at (middle cambrian) old, it is one of the earliest fossil beds containing soft-part imprints. the rock unit is a black shale and crops out at a number of localities near the town of field in yoho national park and the kicking horse pass. another outcrop is in kootenay national park 42 km to the south. ==history and significance== the burgess shale was discovered by palaeontologist charles walcott on 30 august 1909, towards the end of the season's fieldwork. he returned in 1910 with his sons, daughter, and wife, establishing a quarry on the flanks of fossil ridge. the significance of soft-bodied preservation, and the range of organisms he recognised as new to science, led him to return to the quar

Piano_Trios,_Op._1_(Beethoven)

ludwig van beethoven's opus 1 is a set of three piano trios (written for piano, violin, and violoncello), first performed in 1793 in the house of prince lichnowsky, to whom they are dedicated.beethoven's trios for string instruments, wind instruments and for mixed ones. all about beethoven. retrieved 2011-12-10 the trios were published in 1795. despite the op. 1 designation these were not beethoven's first published compositions; this distinction belongs to his dressler variations for keyboard (woo 63). ==op. 1 no. 1 - piano trio no. 1 in e-flat major== * allegro (e flat major) * adagio cantabile (a flat major) * scherzo. allegro assai (e flat major, with a trio in a flat major) * finale. presto (e flat major) ==op. 1 no. 2 - piano trio no. 2 in g major== * adagio - allegro vivace (g major) * largo con espressione (e major) * scherzo. allegro (g major, with a trio in b minor) * finale. presto (g major) ==op. 1 no. 3 - piano trio no. 3 in c minor== * allegro con brio (c minor) * andante cantabile con variazioni (e flat major) * minuetto. quasi allegro (c minor, with a trio in c major) * finale. prestissimo (c minor) this 3rd piano trio was later reworked by beethoven into the c minor string quintet, op. 104.string quintet in c minor, op 104. hyperion records. retrieved 2011-12-10 ==references== ==external links== * *performance of piano trio no. 1 by the claremont trio from the isabella stewart gardner museum in mp3 format *performance of piano trio no. 3, i allegro con brio

Barbados

{{infobox country |conventional_long_name = barbados |common_name = barbados |image_flag = flag of barbados.svg |image_coat = barbados coat of arms.svg |image_map = brb orthographic.svg |national_motto="pride and industry" |national_anthem = in plenty and in time of needfile:in plenty and in time of need instrumental.ogg |royal_anthem = god save the queen |official_languages = english |regional_languages = bajan |ethnic_groups = |ethnic_groups_year = 2000 |religion = |capital = bridgetown |latd=13 |latm=06 |latns=n |longd=59 |longm=37 |longew=w |largest_city = capital |demonym = |government_type = unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy |leader_title1 = monarch |leader_name1 = elizabeth ii |leader_title2 = governor-general |leader_name2 = elliott belgrave |leader_title3 = prime minister |leader_name3 = freundel stuart |legislature = parliament |upper_house = senate |lower_house = house of assembly |area_km2 = 439 |area_sq_mi = 166 |area_rank = 200th |area_magnitude = 1 e8 |percent_water = negligible |population_census = 277,821|population_census_rank = 181st |population_census_year = 2010 |population_density_km2 = 660 |population_density_sq_mi = 1,704 |population_density_rank = 15th |gdp_ppp = $7.053 billion |gdp_ppp_rank = |gdp_ppp_year = 2013 |gdp_ppp_per_capita = $16,015http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2013&ey=2013&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=16&pr1.y=7&c=512%2c668%2c914%2c672%2c612%2c946%2c614%2c137%2c311%2c962%2c213%2c674%2c911%2c676%2c193%2c548%2c122%2c556%2c912%2c678%2c313%2c181%2c419%2c867%2c513%2c682%2c316%2c684%2c913%2c273%2c124%2c868%2c339%2c921%2c638%2c948%2c514%2c943%2c218%2c686%2c963%2c688%2c616%2c518%2c223%2c728%2c5

Bermuda

{{infobox country | conventional_long_name = bermuda | common_name = bermuda | image_flag = flag of bermuda.svg | image_coat = coat of arms of bermuda.svg | image_map = bermuda in united kingdom.svg | national_motto = |national_anthem = god save the queenhail to bermuda a | official_languages = english | ethnic_groups = | ethnic_groups_year = 2010 | demonym = bermudian | capital = hamilton | latd=32 |latm=18 |latns=n |longd=64 |longm=47 |longew=w | government_type = | leader_title1 = monarch | leader_name1 = elizabeth ii | leader_title2 = governor | leader_name2 = george fergusson | leader_title3 = premier | leader_name3 = michael dunkley | leader_title4 = responsible ministerb (uk) | leader_name4 = mark simmonds | area_rank = 230th | area_magnitude = 1 e7 | area_km2 = 53.2 | area_sq_mi = 20.6 | percent_water = 27 | population_census = 64,237 | population_census_year = 2010 | population_density_km2 = 1,275 | population_density_sq_mi = 3,293 | population_density_rank = 9th | gdp_ppp = $5.47 billiondepartment of statistics september 2013 | gdp_ppp_rank = 149th | gdp_ppp_year = 2009 | gdp_ppp_per_capita = $84,381 | gdp_ppp_per_capita_rank = 3rd | gini_year = | gini_change = | gini = | gini_ref = | gini_rank = | hdi_year = | hdi_change = | hdi = | hdi_ref = | hdi_rank = | currency = bermudian dollarc | currency_code = bmd | country_code = | time_zone = ast | utc_offset = –4 | time_zone_dst = adt | utc_offset_dst = –3 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy (ad) | drives_on = left | calling_code = +1-441 | cctld = .bm | footnote_a = this song is also used at international sporting

Government_of_Barbados

the government of barbados (gob), is made up structurally of the monarch, queen elizabeth ii as head of state.constitution of barbados: executive power (chapter 6), section 63. section 63 of the constitution says that the executive authority of barbados shall be vested in her majesty the queen" she is represented by her representative the governor-general, sir elliott belgrave, g.c.m.g., k.a.,the queen's role in barbados, royal.gov.uk the country has a bicameral legislature and a mature social democratic party system, based on universal adult suffrage and total purity in elections. the senate has 21 members, all appointed by the governor-general on behalf of the monarch, 12 on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and seven in the governor-general’s sole discretion. the house of assembly has 30 members, all elected. both houses debate all legislation. however, the house of assembly may ultimately override senate's rejection of money bills and other bills except bills amending the constitution. officers of each house (president and deputy president of the senate and speaker, deputy speaker and chairman of committees of the assembly) are elected from the members of the respective houses. in keeping with the evolution of the westminster system of governance, barbados has evolved into a leading independent parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, meaning that all real power rests with the parliament, but the country maintains aspects of a historic monarchy/kingdom government also, which allows stability. executive authority is vested in the monarch who grants all functioning of the government to both the prime minister and cabinet who are collectively responsible to parliament.the queen and the commonwealth, royal.gov.uk barbadian law is rooted historically on english common law, and the constitution of barbados implemented in 1966, is supreme law of the land. fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual are set out in the constitution and are protected by a strict legal code. the cabinet is headed by the prime minister who must be an elected mp and other ministers are appointed from either chamber by the governor-general as advised by the prime minister. the governor-general appoints as leader of the opposition the member of house of assembly who commands the support of the largest number of members of that house in opposition to the ruling party's government. the maximum duration of a parliament is five years from t

Transport_in_Belgium

transport in belgium is facilitated with well-developed road, air, rail and water networks. the rail network has of electrified tracks.http://www.infrabel.be/portal/page/portal/pgr_inf2_e_internet/infrabel_short_desc/historique there are of roads, among which there are of motorways, of main roads and of other paved roads.http://statbel.fgov.be/fr/modules/publications/statistiques/circulation_et_transport/longueur_du_reseau_routier_revetu_en_km.jsp there is also a well-developed urban rail network in brussels, antwerp and charleroi. the ports of antwerp and bruges-zeebrugge are two of the biggest seaports in europe. brussels airport is belgium's biggest airport. ==railways== thumb|280px|a common belgian train. rail transport in belgium was historically managed by the national railway company of belgium, known as sncb in french and nmbs in dutch. in 2005, the public company was split into 2 companies: infrabel, which manages the rail network and sncb/nmbs itself, which manages the freight and passenger services. both companies are held by a third company, named sncb/nmbs holding. there is a total of , ( double track (as of 1998)), of which are electrified, mainly at 3,000 volts dc but with at 25 kv 50 hz ac (2004) and all on standard gauge of . in 2004 the national railway company of belgium, carried 178.4 million passengers a total of 8,676 million passenger-kilometres. due to the high population density, operations are relatively profitable, so tickets are cheap and the frequency of services is high. the sncb/nmbs is permanently updating its rolling stock. the network currently includes four high speed lines, three operating up to , and one up to . hsl 1 runs from just south of brussels to the french border, where it continues to lille, and from there to paris or london. hsl 2 runs from leuven to liège. hsl 3 continues this route from liège to the german border near aachen. hsl 4 runs from antwerp to rotterdam by meeting hsl-zuid at the border with netherlands. electrification is at [[list of current systems for electric rail traction|3 kv

Economy_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina

{{infobox economy |country = bosnia and herzegovina |image =zgrade momo i uzeir, sarajevo.jpg |width = 270 |caption = united investment and trading company, sarajevo |currency = bosnia and herzegovina convertible mark |currency_code = bam |year = calendar year |organs = cefta |gdp rank = 109th (nominal, 2013) /105th (ppp, 2013) |gdp = s37.966 (ppp, 2014 est.) $18,945 billion (2014 est.) |growth = 6,5% (jan-oct 2013 est.) |per capita = $9,980 (ppp 2012 est.) |sectors = agriculture: 8.1% industry: 26.4% services: 65.3% (2013 est.) |inflation = 2.2% (cpi, 2012 est.) |poverty = 18.6% (2007) |labor = 1.49 million (2012 est.) |edbr = 125th |occupations = |unemployment =44.3% (2013 est.)https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html |average gross salary = 828 bam / $700 (mar 2012) |average net salary = 790 bam/610 (mar 2012) |industries = steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicles, textiles, tobacco products, furniture, tanks, aircraft, domestic appliances, oil refining |exports = $3.95 billion (2013 est.) |export-goods = metals, clothing, wood products |export-partners = 15.6% 14.2% 12.1% 9.1% 8.2% 8.1% (2012 est.) |imports = $6.94 billion (2013 est.) |import-goods = machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs |import-partners = 12.8% 11.4% 9.9% 9.8% 9.7% 6.0% 5.0% (2012 est.) |debt = 43.8% of gdp (2012 est.) |revenue = $7.887 billion (2012 est.) |expenses = $8.521 billion (2012 est.) |credit = b+ (domestic)b+ (foreign)bb (t&c assessment)(standard & poor's){{cite web |title= sovereigns rating list |publisher=standard & poor's |url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en

Foreign_relations_of_Botswana

botswana has put a premium on economic and political integration in southern africa. it has sought to make sadc a working vehicle for economic development, and it has promoted efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. it has welcomed post-apartheid south africa as a partner in these efforts. botswana joins the african consensus on most major international matters and is a member of international organizations such as the united nations and the african union. botswana is also a member of the international criminal court with a bilateral immunity agreement of protection for the us-military (as covered under article 98). botswana has a small number of diplomatic missions abroad. ==bilateral relations== ===guinea-bissau=== botswana and guinea-bissau established diplomatic relations on 22 march 2010."botswana establishes relations with samoa, guinea bissau" 30 march 2010 link retrieved 1 april 2010 ===israel=== ===namibia=== botswana–namibia relations are friendly, with the two neighbouring countries cooperating on economic development. botswana gained independence from britain in september 1966. namibia gained independence from south africa in 1990 following the namibian war of independence. botswana has a high commission in windhoek. namibia has a high commission in gaborone. ===pakistan=== ===russia=== botswana and the soviet union initiated diplomatic relations on march 6, 1970. despite its pro-western orientation, botswana participated in the 1980 summer olympics. the present-day relations between the two countries are described as friendly and long standing. in march, the two countries also celebrated the 35th anniversary of establishing diplomatic relations. according to the minister of foreign affairs, russia was one of the first countries to establish full diplomatic relations with botswana.[http://www.botswana.mid.ru/articles_relations_e_09.html we must exploit russia’s pot

Foreign_relations_of_Brazil

the ministry of external relations is responsible for managing the foreign relations of brazil. brazil is a significant political and economic power in latin america and a key player on the world stage.country profile: brazil uk foreign and commonwealth office. retrieved on 2009-01-05. brazil's foreign policy reflects its role as a regional power and a potential world power and is designed to help protect the country's national interests, national security, ideological goals, and economic prosperity. between world war ii and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. brazilian foreign policy has recently aimed to strengthen ties with other south american countries, engage in multilateral diplomacy through the united nations and the organization of american states, and act at times as a countervailing force to u.s. political and economic influence in latin america. ==overview== brazil's international relations are based on article 4 of the federal constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.article 4 of the federal constitution of brazil v-brazil. retrieved on 2011-09-20. according to the constitution, the president has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to brazilian foreign policy.article 84 of the federal constitution of brazil v-brazil. retrieved on 2011-09-20. the ministry of foreign affairs, also known as itamaraty, is the government department responsible for advising the president and conducting brazil's foreign relations with other countries and international bodies. itamaraty's scope includes political, commercial, economic, financial, cultural and consular relations, areas in which it performs the classical tasks of diplomacy: represent, inform and negotiate. foreign policy priorities are established by the president. ==foreign policy== [[file:1st bric summit leaders.jpg|thumb|right|200px|bric (brazil, russia, india and china) leaders during the [[2009 bric summit|1st bric summit

Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria

telecommunications in bulgaria include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the internet. ==radio and television== * radio broadcast stations: am 31, fm 63, shortwave 2 (2001). * radio broadcast hours: 525,511 (2003). * television broadcast stations: 39 (2001). * television broadcast hours: 498,091 (2003). ==telephones== * main lines in use: 2.3 million (2007). * mobile cellular: 9.87 million lines, 110% penetration rate (2007). * telephone system: ** general assessment: an extensive but antiquated telecommunications network inherited from the soviet era; quality has improved; the bulgaria telecommunications company's fixed-line monopoly terminated in 2005 when alternative fixed-line operators were given access to its network; a drop in fixed-line connections in recent years has been more than offset by a sharp increase in mobile-cellular telephone use fostered by multiple service providers; the number of cellular telephone subscriptions now exceeds the population ** domestic: a fairly modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions; the others are connected by digital microwave radio relay ** international: country code – 359; submarine cable provides connectivity to ukraine and russia; a combination submarine cable and land fiber-optic system provides connectivity to italy, albania, and macedonia; satellite earth stations – 3 (1 intersputnik in the atlantic ocean region, 2 intelsat in the atlantic and indian ocean regions) (2007). ==internet== * top-level domains: .bg"communications: bulgaria", world factbook, u.s. central intelligence agency, 28 january 2014. retrieved 1 february 2014. and .бг (proposed, cyrillic). * internet users: ** 3.9 million users, 72nd in the world; 55.1% of the population, 74th in the world (2012);calculated using penetration rate and population data from "countries and areas ranked by population: 2012", population data, international programs, u.s. census bureau, retrieved 26 june 2013"percentage of individuals using the internet 2000-2012", international telecommunications union (geneva), june 2013, retrieved 22 june 2013 ** 3.4 million users, 63rd in the world (2009); ** 1.9 million users (2007). * fixed broadband: 1.2 million subscriptions, 52nd in the

Economy_of_Burkina_Faso

{{infobox economy |country = burkina faso |image = downtown ouaga2.png |width = 270 |caption = ouagadougou financial centre of burkina faso |currency = cfa franc (xof) |fixed exchange = |year = calendar year |organs = au, wto |rank = |gdp = $28 billion (ppp) ()$13 billion (nominal) () |growth = 7.0% () |per capita = $1,666 (ppp) ()$790 (nominal) () |components = |sectors = agriculture 34.4%, industry 23.4%, services 42.2% () |inflation = 4.5% (cpi, 2012 est.) |poverty = 46.7% (2009) |gini = 39.5 (2007) |edbr = 154th () |labor = 6.668 million (2007) note: a large part of the male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment |occupations = agriculture 90%, industry & services 10% (2000 est.) |unemployment = 77% (2004) |industries = cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold |exports = $2.734 billion (2012 est.) |export-goods = gold.cotton, livestock |export-partners = 26.0% 24.9% 5.2% (2012 est.) |imports = $2.868 billion (2012 est.) |import-goods = capital goods, foodstuffs, petroleum |import-partners = 17.8% 14.8% 5.1% 4.8% (2012 est.) |gross external debt = $2.442 billion (31 december 2012) |fdi = n/av |debt = n/av |revenue = $2.256

Bjarne_Stroustrup

bjarne stroustrup (; born 30 december 1950) is a danish computer scientist, most notable for the creation and development of the widely used c++ programming language. he is a distinguished research professor and holds the college of engineering chair in computer science at texas a&m university, a visiting professor at columbia university, and works at morgan stanley.bjarne stroustrup's homepage ==education== stroustrup has a [[master

Beacon

a beacon is an intentionally conspicuous device designed to attract attention to a specific location. beacons can also be combined with semaphoric or other indicators to provide important information, such as the status of an airport, by the colour and rotational pattern of its airport beacon, or of pending weather as indicated on a weather beacon mounted at the top of a tall building or similar site. when used in such fashion, beacons can be considered a form of optical telegraphy. ==for navigation== beacons help guide navigators to their destinations. types of navigational beacons include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sonic and visual signals. visual beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light stations and can be located on land or on water. lighted beacons are called lights; unlighted beacons are called daybeacons. ==for defensive communications== thumb|left|16th-century beacon hut in culmstock, devon, england classically, beacons were fires lit at well-known locations on hills or high places, used either as lighthouses for navigation at sea, or for signalling over land that enemy troops were approaching, in order to alert defenses. as signals, beacons are an ancient form of optical telegraphy, and were part of a relay league. systems of this kind have existed for centuries over much of the world. in scandinavia many hill forts were part of beacon networks to warn against invading pillagers. in wales, the brecon beacons were named for beacons used to warn of approaching english raiders. in england, the most famous examples are the beacons used in elizabethan england to warn of the approaching spanish armada. many hills in england were named beacon hill after such beacons. in the scottish borders country, a system of beacon fires was at one time established to warn of incursions by the english. hume and eggerstone castles and soltra edge were part of this network.ritchie, leitch (1835). scott and scotland. london : longman, rees, orme, brown, green, and longman, p. 53 the great wall of china is also a beacon network. in finland these beacons were called vainovalkeat, "persecution fires", or vartiotulet, "guard fires", and were used to warn finn settlements of imminent raids by the vikings. in spain, the border of granada in the territory of the crown of castile had a complex beacon network to warn against moorish raiders and military campaigns.els almogávers a la frontera amb el sarrains en el segle xiv.

Bluetooth_Special_Interest_Group

the bluetooth special interest group (sig) is the body that oversees the development of bluetooth standards and the licensing of the bluetooth technologies and trademarks to manufacturers. the sig is a not-for-profit, non-stock corporation founded in september 1998. the sig is headquartered in kirkland, washington. the sig has local offices in beijing, seoul, tokyo, and malmö. the sig does not make, manufacture or sell bluetooth enabled products. ==introduction== bluetooth technology provides a way to exchange information between wireless devices such as personal digital assistants (pdas), mobile phones, laptops, computers, printers and digital cameras via a secure, low-cost, globally available short-range radio frequency band. originally developed by ericsson, bluetooth technology is now used in many different products by many different manufacturers. these manufacturers must be either associate or promoter members of(see below) the bluetooth sig before they are granted early access to the bluetooth specifications, but published bluetooth specifications are available online via the bluetooth sig website . the sig owns the bluetooth word mark, figure mark and combination mark. these trademarks are licensed out for use to companies that are incorporating bluetooth wireless technology into their products. to become a licensee, a company must become a member of the bluetooth sig. the sig also manages the bluetooth sig qualification program, a certification process required for any product using bluetooth wireless technology and a pre-condition of the intellectual property license for bluetooth technology. the main tasks for the sig are to publish the bluetooth specifications, protect the bluetooth trademarks and evangelize bluetooth wireless technology. at its inception in 1998, the bluetooth sig was primarily run by a staff effectively seconded from its member companies. in 2001 tom siep served as the group's ma

Bornholm

bornholm (; old norse: burgundaholmr, "the island of the burgundians") is a danish island in the baltic sea, to the east of most of denmark, south of sweden, and north of poland. the main industries on the island include fishing, arts and crafts such as glass making and pottery using locally worked clay, and dairy farming. tourism is important during the summer. the topography of the island consists of dramatic rock formations in the north (unlike the rest of denmark which is mostly gentle rolling hills) sloping down towards pine and deciduous forests (greatly damaged by storms in the 1950s) and farmland in the middle and sandy beaches in the south. bornholm regional municipality covers the entire island. bornholm was one of the three last danish municipalities () not belonging to a county— the others were copenhagen and frederiksberg. on 1 january 2007, the municipality lost its short-lived (2003 until 2006) county status and became part of region hovedstaden (the copenhagen capital region). the ertholmene archipelago is located to the northeast of bornholm. these islands, which do not belong to a municipality or region, are administered by the ministry of defence. strategically located in the baltic sea, bornholm has been fought over for centuries. it has usually been ruled by denmark, but also by lübeck and sweden. the hammershus cas