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<s>[INST][context]:Halkieria, or scale worms, are an example of a fossil life from the Cambrian.[/INST] [question]:What is another term for scale worms? [answer]:halkieria</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The star constellation “Orion, The Hunter”. Orion is one of the most beautiful of all constellations, and one of the easiest to find. It looks like a large (slightly twisted) rectangle high in winter's south-southeastern sky. Two of the brightest stars in the evening sky lie at opposite corners of the rectangle: bright orange-red Betelgeuse at the northeastern corner (upper left in the photo) and even brighter Rigel at the southwest (lower right in the photo). Betelgeuse is at least 300 times the Sun's diameter, and perhaps much more. It puts out about 100,000 times more energy than the Sun does. When Betelgeuse dies, it will create a fireball that will briefly outshine billions of normal stars. Betelgeuse is a red giant and Rigel is a blue giant.[/INST] [question]:Which constellation looks like a rectangle high in winter's south-southeastern sky? [answer]:orion</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Pollination by Bats In the tropics and deserts, bats are often the pollinators of nocturnal flowers such as agave, guava, and morning glory. The flowers are usually large and white or pale-colored; thus, they can be distinguished from the dark surroundings at night. The flowers have a strong, fruity, or musky fragrance and produce large amounts of nectar. They are naturally large and wide-mouthed to accommodate the head of the bat. As the bats seek the nectar, their faces and heads become covered with pollen, which is then transferred to the next flower.[/INST] [question]:What mammal is often a pollinator of nocturnal flowers? [answer]:bat</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:A virus cannot reproduce on its own. However, a virus can reproduce by infecting the cell of a living host. Inside the host cell, the virus uses the cell’s structures, materials, and energy to make copies of itself.[/INST] [question]:What can reproduce by infecting the cell of a living host? [answer]:virus</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Frost is solid water that forms when water vapor undergoes deposition.[/INST] [question]:What is solid water that forms when water vapor undergoes deposition? [answer]:frost</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Characteristics of Blood When you think about blood, the first characteristic that probably comes to mind is its color. Blood that has just taken up oxygen in the lungs is bright red, and blood that has released oxygen in the tissues is a more dusky red. This is because hemoglobin is a pigment that changes color, depending upon the degree of oxygen saturation. Blood is viscous and somewhat sticky to the touch. It has a viscosity approximately five times greater than water. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s thickness or resistance to flow, and is influenced by the presence of the plasma proteins and formed elements within the blood. The viscosity of blood has a dramatic impact on blood pressure and flow. Consider the difference in flow between water and honey. The more viscous honey would demonstrate a greater resistance to flow than the less viscous water. The same principle applies to blood. The normal temperature of blood is slightly higher than normal body temperature—about 38 °C (or 100.4 °F), compared to 37 °C (or 98.6 °F) for an internal body temperature reading, although daily variations of 0.5 °C are normal. Although.[/INST] [question]:What is the term for the measure of a fluid's thickness? [answer]:viscosity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Plant cells have structures that animal cells lack. What important process takes place in plant cells but not in animal cells that might explain their differences?.[/INST] [question]:Plant cells have structures that animal cells? [answer]:lack</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Harmless fungi can be used to control pathogenic bacteria and insect pasts on crops. Fungi compete with bacteria for nutrients and space, and they parasitize insects that eat plants. Fungi reduce the need for pesticides and other toxic chemicals.[/INST] [question]:What reduces the need for pesticides and other toxic chemicals? [answer]:fungi</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Types of neurons include sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.[/INST] [question]:Types of neurons include sensory neurons, motor neurons, and? [answer]:interneurons</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Active versus Passive Immunity Immunity to pathogens, and the ability to control pathogen growth so that damage to the tissues of the body is limited, can be acquired by (1) the active development of an immune response in the infected individual or (2) the passive transfer of immune components from an immune individual to a nonimmune one. Both active and passive immunity have examples in the natural world and as part of medicine. Active immunity is the resistance to pathogens acquired during an adaptive immune response within an individual (Table 21.6). Naturally acquired active immunity, the response to a pathogen, is the focus of this chapter. Artificially acquired active immunity involves the use of vaccines. A vaccine is a killed or weakened pathogen or its components that, when administered to a healthy individual, leads to the development of immunological memory (a weakened primary immune response) without causing much in the way of symptoms. Thus, with the use of vaccines, one can avoid the damage from disease that results from the first exposure to the pathogen, yet reap the benefits of protection from immunological memory. The advent of vaccines was one of the major medical advances of the twentieth century and led to the eradication of smallpox and the control of many infectious diseases, including polio, measles, and whooping cough.[/INST] [question]:Active and passive forms of what enable the body to resist damage from pathogens? [answer]:immunity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Hearing is the ability to sense sound energy and perceive sound. The ear is the organ that senses sound and allows us to hear. Damage to structures of the ear may cause hearing loss. Total hearing loss is called deafness.[/INST] [question]:What do you call the ability to sense sound energy and perceive sound? [answer]:hearing</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:A transverse wave can be characterized by the high and low points reached by particles of the medium as the wave passes through. This is illustrated in Figure below . The high points are called crests, and the low points are called troughs.[/INST] [question]:What are the high points of a transverse wave called? [answer]:crests</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Convection is the transfer of heat by a current. Convection happens in a liquid or a gas. Air near the ground is warmed by heat radiating from Earth's surface. The warm air is less dense, so it rises. As it rises, it cools. The cool air is dense, so it sinks to the surface. This creates a convection current, like the one in Figure below . Convection is the most important way that heat travels in the atmosphere.[/INST] [question]:What is the transfer of heat by a current? [answer]:convection</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:When acellular slime molds swarm, they fuse together to form a single cell with many nuclei.[/INST] [question]:When acellular slime molds swarm, they fuse together to form a single cell with many what? [answer]:nuclei</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Potential energy is not only associated with the location of matter, but also with the structure of matter. Even a spring on the ground has potential energy if it is compressed; so does a rubber band that is pulled taut. On a molecular level, the bonds that hold the atoms of molecules together exist in a particular structure that has potential energy. Remember that anabolic cellular pathways require energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones and catabolic pathways release energy when complex molecules are broken down. The fact that energy can be released by the breakdown of certain chemical bonds implies that those bonds have potential energy. In fact, there is potential energy stored within the bonds of all the food molecules we eat, which is eventually harnessed for use. This is because these bonds can release energy when broken. The type of potential energy that exists within chemical bonds, and is released when those bonds are broken, is called chemical energy. Chemical energy is responsible for providing living cells with energy from food. The release of energy occurs when the molecular bonds within food molecules are broken.[/INST] [question]:Potential energy is not only associated with the location of matter, but also with the structure of matter. even a spring on the ground has potential energy if it is what? [answer]:compressed</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Polyester molecules make excellent fibers and are used in many fabrics. A knitted polyester tube, which is biologically inert, can be used in surgery to repair or replace diseased sections of blood vessels. PET is used to make bottles for soda pop and other beverages. It is also formed into films called Mylar. When magnetically coated, Mylar tape is used in audio- and videocassettes. Synthetic arteries can be made from PET, polytetrafluoroethylene, and other polymers.[/INST] [question]:What is the name of film that polyester fibers form? [answer]:mylar</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Habitats Although fungi are primarily associated with humid and cool environments that provide a supply of organic matter, they colonize a surprising diversity of habitats, from seawater to human skin and mucous membranes. Chytrids are found primarily in aquatic environments. Other fungi, such as Coccidioides immitis, which causes pneumonia when its spores are inhaled, thrive in the dry and sandy soil of the southwestern United States. Fungi that parasitize coral reefs live in the ocean. However, most members of the Kingdom Fungi grow on the forest floor, where the dark and damp environment is rich.[/INST] [question]:Most members of what kingdom of spore-making organisms grow on the forest floor, where the dark and damp environment is rich? [answer]:fungi</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones . Examples include conifers such as pine and spruce trees. The gymnosperm life cycle has a dominant sporophyte generation. Both gametophytes and the next generation’s new sporophytes develop on the sporophyte parent plant. Figure below is a diagram of a gymnosperm life cycle.[/INST] [question]:What type of vascular plants produce seeds in cones? [answer]:gymnosperms</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Mycologist Mycologists are biologists who study fungi. Mycology is a branch of microbiology, and many mycologists start their careers with a degree in microbiology. To become a mycologist, a bachelor's degree in a biological science (preferably majoring in microbiology) and a master's degree in mycology are minimally necessary. Mycologists can specialize in taxonomy and fungal genomics, molecular and cellular biology, plant pathology, biotechnology, or biochemistry. Some medical microbiologists concentrate on the study of infectious diseases caused by fungi (mycoses). Mycologists collaborate with zoologists and plant pathologists to identify and control difficult fungal infections, such as the devastating chestnut blight, the mysterious decline in frog populations in many areas of the world, or the deadly epidemic called white nose syndrome, which is decimating bats in the Eastern United States. Government agencies hire mycologists as research scientists and technicians to monitor the health of crops, national parks, and national forests. Mycologists are also employed in the private sector by companies that develop chemical and biological control products or new agricultural products, and by companies that provide disease control services. Because of the key role played by fungi in the fermentation of alcohol and the preparation of many important foods, scientists with a good understanding of fungal physiology routinely work in the food technology industry. Oenology, the science of wine making, relies not only on the knowledge of grape varietals and soil composition, but also on a solid understanding of the characteristics of the wild yeasts that thrive in different wine-making regions. It is possible to purchase yeast strains isolated from specific grape-growing regions. The great French chemist and microbiologist, Louis Pasteur, made many of his essential discoveries working on the humble brewer’s yeast, thus discovering the process of fermentation.[/INST] [question]:What is the name for a biologist who studies fungi? [answer]:mycologists</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The sodium chloride dissociates into two ions, while the glucose does not dissociate. Therefore, equal concentrations of each solution will result in twice as many dissolved particles in the case of the sodium chloride. The vapor pressure of the sodium chloride solution will be lowered twice the amount as the glucose solution.[/INST] [question]:How many different kinds of ions are produced when sodium chloride dissociates ? [answer]:two</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:5. Quartz is made of one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms. If you find a mineral and find that it is made of one silicon atom and one oxygen atom is it quartz?.[/INST] [question]:What mineral is made of one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms? [answer]:quartz</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:This diagram represents the cell cycle in eukaryotes. The cell cycle depicts the life of an eukaryotic cell. The cell cycle has four phases: the first growth or gap (G 1 ) phase, the synthesis (S) phase, the second growth or gap (G 2 ) phase and the mitotic (M) phase. The M phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell spends the majority of the cycle in the first three phases (G 1 , S, G 2 ) of the cycle, collectively known as interphase. After cytokinesis, two genetically identical daughter cells are formed.[/INST] [question]:How many cycles do cells have? [answer]:four</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Lightning is the discharge of static electricity that has built up on clouds. Every year, the earth experiences an average of 25 million lightning strikes. Lightning bolts travel at speeds up to 60,000 miles per second, and can reach temperatures of 50,000°F, which is five times the temperature of the surface of the sun. The energy contained in a single lightning strike could light a 100 Watt light bulb 24 hours per day for 90 days.[/INST] [question]:Where do lightnings build up? [answer]:clouds</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Lymphocytes ( Figure below ), a type of white blood cell, are the key cells of an immune response. There are trillions of lymphocytes in the human body. They make up about one quarter of all white blood cells. Usually, fewer than half of the body’s lymphocytes are in the blood. The rest are in the lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph organs.[/INST] [question]:What type of cells make up about one quarter of all white blood cells? [answer]:lymphocytes</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:All objects in the universe have a gravitational attraction to each other ( Figure below ). The strength of the force of gravity depends on two things. They are the mass of the objects and the distance between them. The greater the objects’ mass, the greater the force of attraction. As the distance between the objects increases, the force of attraction decreases.[/INST] [question]:The mass of the objects and the distance between them affect the strength of what universal force? [answer]:gravity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Learn to balanced simple redox reactions by inspection. Learn to balance complex redox reactions by the half reaction method. Use the solvent, or parts of it, as a reactant or a product in balancing a redox reaction. Balancing simple redox reactions can be a straightforward matter of going back and forth between products and reactants. For example, in the redox reaction of Na and Cl2:.[/INST] [question]:Redox reactions, like other chemical reactions, begin with a product and end with what? [answer]:reactant</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The red liquid in this thermometer is alcohol. Alcohol expands uniformly over a wide range of temperatures. This makes it ideal for use in thermometers.[/INST] [question]:How does alcohol expand over a wide range of temperatures? [answer]:uniformly</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Partly movable joints allow only very limited movement. Bones at these joints are held in place by cartilage. The ribs and sternum are connected by partly movable joints.[/INST] [question]:What are the bones in partly movable joints held in place by? [answer]:cartilage</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Water is an amazing molecule. It has a very simple chemical formula, H 2 O. It is made of just two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. Water is remarkable in terms of all the things it can do. Lots of things dissolve easily in water. Some types of rock can even completely dissolve in water! Other minerals change by adding water into their structure.[/INST] [question]:What is the common term for the chemical formula h 2 0? [answer]:water</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The frequency , , is the number of cycles an object goes through in 1 second. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 cycle per sec.[/INST] [question]:What is the base unit that frequency is typically measured in? [answer]:hertz</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Average velocity is displacement divided by time.[/INST] [question]:Displacement divided by time is equal to the average what? [answer]:velocity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Both amylopectin and glycogen contain branch points that are linked through α-1,6linkages. These branch points occur more often in glycogen. Dextrins are glucose polysaccharides of intermediate size. The shine and stiffness imparted to clothing by starch are due to the presence of dextrins formed when clothing is ironed. Because of their characteristic stickiness with wetting, dextrins are used as adhesives on stamps, envelopes, and labels; as binders to hold pills and tablets together; and as pastes. Dextrins are more easily digested than starch and are therefore used extensively in the commercial preparation of infant foods. The complete hydrolysis of starch yields, in successive stages, glucose:.[/INST] [question]:The complete hydrolysis of starch yields what? [answer]:glucose</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Mammalian teeth are also important for digestion. The four types of teeth are specialized for different feeding functions, as shown in Figure below . Together, the four types of teeth can cut, tear, and grind food. This makes food easier and quicker to digest.[/INST] [question]:In mammals, four specialized types of what serve to cut, tear, and grind food? [answer]:teeth</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Like other bryophytes, moss plants spend most of their life cycle as gametophytes. Find the sporophyte in the diagram. Do you see how it is growing on the gametophyte plant?.[/INST] [question]:Like other bryophytes, moss plants spend most of their life cycle as? [answer]:gametophytes</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Note that in Table 14.3, the best thermal conductors—silver, copper, gold, and aluminum—are also the best electrical conductors, again related to the density of free electrons in them. Cooking utensils are typically made from good conductors.[/INST] [question]:The best thermal conductors are also the best conductors of what, which is also related to the density of free electrons in them? [answer]:electricity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The average human body contains 5,830 g of blood. What mass of arsenic is present in the body if the amount in blood is 0.55 ppm?.[/INST] [question]:The average human body contains 5,830 g of what? [answer]:blood</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Allopatric speciation occurs when groups from the same species are geographically isolated for long periods. Imagine all the ways that plants or animals could be isolated from each other:.[/INST] [question]:What type of speciation occurs when groups from the same species are geographically isolated for long periods? [answer]:allopatric</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Types of mutagens include radiation, chemicals, and infectious agents.[/INST] [question]:Radiation, chemicals, and infectious agents are types of what? [answer]:mutagens</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Transparent matter is matter that transmits light without scattering it. Examples of transparent matter include air, pure water, and clear glass. You can see clearly through a transparent object, such as the revolving glass doors in the figure, because all the light passes straight through it.[/INST] [question]:What type of matter transmits light without scattering it? [answer]:transparent</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Steam actually consists of tiny droplets of liquid water. What you can’t see in the picture is the water vapor that is also present in the air above the spring. Water vapor is water in the gaseous state. It constantly rises up from the surface of boiling hot water. Why? At high temperatures, particles of a liquid gain enough energy to completely overcome the force of attraction between them, so they change to a gas. The gas forms bubbles that rise to the surface of the liquid because gas is less dense than liquid. The bubbling up of the liquid is called boiling. When the bubbles reach the surface, the gas escapes into the air. The entire process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas that escapes into the air is called vaporization . You can watch an animation of the process at this URL: http://www. visionlearning. com/img/app/library/objects/Flash/VLObject-321-030317040343. swf.[/INST] [question]:Steam actually consists of tiny droplets of liquid what? [answer]:water</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:In many ways, humans are unique among mammals. For example, we have bigger brains and a greater ability to learn than any other species in the mammalian class. In many ways, however, we are typical of the mammalian order to which we belong. That order is the Primate Order. To fully understand what it means to be human, you need to know more about this fascinating order of mammals.[/INST] [question]:What mammalian class has the greatest ability to learn? [answer]:humans</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Cells in blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.[/INST] [question]:Cells in blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, and what? [answer]:platelets</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The ostrich egg - unfertilized, of course. Yes, this egg, just like a human ovum, is just one cell. It is a gamete with a haploid number of chromosomes, formed through meiosis. The egg shell membrane encloses the nucleus containing the genetic material and the cytoplasm.[/INST] [question]:The egg shell membrane encloses the nucleus containing the genetic material and what? [answer]:cytoplasm</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases: Dalton’s Law Unless they chemically react with each other, the individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other’s pressure. Each individual gas in a mixture exerts the same pressure that it would exert if it present alone in the container (Figure 9.20). The pressure exerted by each individual gas in a mixture is called its partial pressure. This observation is summarized by Dalton’s law of partial pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases: P Total = P A + P B + P C + . = Σ i P i In the equation PTotal is the total pressure of a mixture of gases, PA is the partial pressure of gas A; PB is the partial pressure of gas B; PC is the partial pressure of gas C; and so on.[/INST] [question]:According to dalton's law, unless they chemically react with each other, individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other’s what? [answer]:pressure</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The electronegativity of an atom determines how strongly it attracts electrons to itself.[/INST] [question]:What determines how strongly an atom attracts electrons to itself? [answer]:electronegativity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The Sun has many incredible surface features. Don't try to look at them, though! Looking directly at the Sun can cause blindness. Find the appropriate filters for a pair of binoculars or a telescope and enjoy!.[/INST] [question]:Looking directly at what celestial object can cause blindness? [answer]:sun</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:20.3 Capillary Exchange Small molecules can cross into and out of capillaries via simple or facilitated diffusion. Some large molecules can cross in vesicles or through clefts, fenestrations, or gaps between cells in capillary walls. However, the bulk flow of capillary and tissue fluid occurs via filtration and reabsorption. Filtration, the movement of fluid out of the capillaries, is driven by the CHP. Reabsorption, the influx of tissue fluid into the capillaries, is driven by the BCOP. Filtration predominates in the arterial end of the capillary; in the middle section, the opposing pressures are virtually identical so there is no net exchange,.[/INST] [question]:What is the movement of fluid out of the capillaries called? [answer]:filtration</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Compared to other liquids, water has a relatively high surface tension and heat capacity. Both of these properties are partially a result of the strong hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together.[/INST] [question]:Compared to others, what type of liquid has a relatively high surface tension and heat capacity? [answer]:water</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Polyisoprene is a polymer of isoprene and is better known as rubber. It is produced naturally by rubber trees, but several variants have been developed which demonstrate improvements on the properties of natural rubber.[/INST] [question]:What is polyisoprene better known as? [answer]:rubber</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Every chemical reaction occurs with a concurrent change in energy.[/INST] [question]:Every chemical reaction occurs with a concurrent change in what? [answer]:energy</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Lipids are a diverse class of relatively nonpolar biomolecules that generally do not dissolve well in water. Common types of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.[/INST] [question]:Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids are examples of what? [answer]:lipids</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of the plant cell.[/INST] [question]:Where in the cell does photosynthesis occur? [answer]:chloroplast</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:pressure and maintaining blood flow. Ultimately, however, blood volume will need to be restored, either through physiological processes or through medical intervention. In response to blood loss, stimuli from the baroreceptors trigger the cardiovascular centers to stimulate sympathetic responses to increase cardiac output and vasoconstriction. This typically prompts the heart rate to increase to about 180–200 contractions per minute, restoring cardiac output to normal levels. Vasoconstriction of the arterioles increases vascular resistance, whereas constriction of the veins increases venous return to the heart. Both of these steps will help increase blood pressure. Sympathetic stimulation also triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which enhance both cardiac output and vasoconstriction. If blood loss were less than 20 percent of total blood volume, these responses together would usually return blood pressure to normal and redirect the remaining blood to the tissues. Additional endocrine involvement is necessary, however, to restore the lost blood volume. The angiotensin-reninaldosterone mechanism stimulates the thirst center in the hypothalamus, which increases fluid consumption to help restore the lost blood. More importantly, it increases renal reabsorption of sodium and water, reducing water loss in urine output. The kidneys also increase the production of EPO, stimulating the formation of erythrocytes that not only deliver oxygen to the tissues but also increase overall blood volume. Figure 20.21 summarizes the responses to loss of blood volume.[/INST] [question]:Sympathetic stimulation also triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which enhance both cardiac output and what else? [answer]:vasoconstriction</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Centipedes and millipedes belong to the subphylum Myriapoda, which contains 13,000 species. They all live on land, which makes sense as all those legs are more adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle, as opposed to an aquatic lifestyle.[/INST] [question]:Not surprisingly, centipedes, millipedes and other members of the subphylum myriapoda are adapted to living on what? [answer]:land</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Myriapoda are usually found in moist forests, where they break down decaying plant material.[/INST] [question]:What are found in moist forests that break down decaying plant material? [answer]:myriapoda</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Most prokaryotes get both energy and carbon from other living things. Many of them are decomposers. They break down wastes and remains of dead organisms. In this way, they help to recycle carbon and nitrogen through ecosystems.[/INST] [question]:By breaking down wastes and remains of dead organisms, decomposers perform what function in an ecosystem? [answer]:recycling</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Sugars are small, simple carbohydrates. They are found in foods such as milk and fruit. Sugars in foods such as these are broken down by your digestive system to glucose, the simplest of all sugars. Glucose is taken up by cells for energy.[/INST] [question]:What are sugars broken down into in your digestive system? [answer]:glucose</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The plasma membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which consist of fatty acids and alcohol. The phospholipids in the plasma membrane are arranged in two layers, called a phospholipid bilayer . As shown in Figure below , each phospholipid molecule has a head and two tails. The head “loves” water (hydrophilic) and the tails “hate” water (hydrophobic). The water-hating tails are on the interior of the membrane, whereas the water-loving heads point outwards, toward either the cytoplasm or the fluid that surrounds the cell.[/INST] [question]:What is the plasma membrane mainly composed of? [answer]:phospholipids</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:We know that the Universe is expanding. Astronomers have wondered if it is expanding fast enough to escape the pull of gravity. Would the Universe just expand forever? If it could not escape the pull of gravity, would it someday start to contract? This means it would eventually get squeezed together in a big crunch. This is the opposite of the Big Bang.[/INST] [question]:Astronomers have wondered if the universe is expanding fast enough to escape the pull of what? [answer]:gravity</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:and Z, the atomic number, is the number of protons. The protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom are callednucleons, and an atom with a particular number of protons and neutrons is called anuclide. Nuclides with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes can also be represented by an alternative notation that uses the name of the element followed by the mass number, such as carbon-12. The stable isotopes of oxygen, for example, can be represented in any of the following ways:.[/INST] [question]:What are protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom called? [answer]:nucleons</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Check Your Understanding Define nodes and antinodes. Solution Nodes are areas of wave interference where there is no motion. Antinodes are areas of wave interference where the motion is at its maximum point.[/INST] [question]:Solution nodes and antinodes are both areas of wave interference, but they differ in the presence of what condition? [answer]:motion</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Arachnids do not have antennae or wings.[/INST] [question]:While similar to insects, what eight-legged invertebrates lack antennae or wings? [answer]:arachnids</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Permafrost is land with permanently frozen soil.[/INST] [question]:What is the term for land that has permanently frozen soil? [answer]:permafrost</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Most STIs are caused by bacteria or viruses. Bacterial STIs can be cured with antibiotics. Viral STIs cannot be cured. Once you are infected with a viral STI, you are likely to be infected for life.[/INST] [question]:Bacterial stis can be cured with what? [answer]:antibiotics</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Placenta of a Placental Mammal (Human). The placenta allows the exchange of gases, nutrients, and other substances between the fetus and mother.[/INST] [question]:What mammalian structure allows the exchange of gases, nutrients, and other substances between the fetus and mother? [answer]:placenta</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Flatworms The relationships among flatworms, or phylum Platyhelminthes, is being revised and the description here will follow the traditional groupings. Most flatworms are parasitic, including important parasites of humans. Flatworms have three embryonic germ layers that give rise to surfaces covering tissues, internal tissues, and the lining of the digestive system. The epidermal tissue is a single layer of cells or a layer of fused cells covering a layer of circular muscle above a layer of longitudinal muscle. The mesodermal tissues include support cells and secretory cells that secrete mucus and other materials to the surface. The flatworms are acoelomate, so their bodies contain no cavities or spaces between the outer surface and the inner digestive tract. Physiological Processes of Flatworms Free-living species of flatworms are predators or scavengers, whereas parasitic forms feed from the tissues of their hosts. Most flatworms have an incomplete digestive system with an opening, the “mouth,” that is also used to expel digestive.[/INST] [question]:Unlike free-living species of flatworms that are predators or scavengers, what forms feed from the tissues of their hosts? [answer]:parasitic</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:When heat flows into an object, its thermal energy increases and so does its temperature.[/INST] [question]:When heat flows into an object, its thermal energy increases and so does its what? [answer]:temperature</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:In rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system attacks joints. This causes joint damage and pain.[/INST] [question]:Which type of arthritis causes the immune system to attack joints? [answer]:rheumatoid</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The organ systems of the body work together to carry out life processes and maintain homeostasis. The body is in homeostasis when its internal environment is kept more-or-less constant. For example, levels of sugar, carbon dioxide, and water in the blood must be kept within narrow ranges. This requires continuous adjustments. For example:.[/INST] [question]:What state is achieved when the body's internal environment is kept more-or-less constant? [answer]:homeostasis</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Energy is the ability to do work. When work is done, energy is transferred from one object to another. Energy can exist in different forms, such as electrical and chemical energy. Most forms of energy can also be classified as kinetic or potential energy.[/INST] [question]:Kinetic and potential are two forms of what? [answer]:energy</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:The area of a surface is how much space it covers. It’s easy to calculate the area of a surface if it has a regular shape, such as the blue rectangle in the sketch below. You simply substitute measurements of the surface into the correct formula. To find the area of a rectangular surface, use this formula:.[/INST] [question]:How much space a surface covers is known as what? [answer]:area</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Aquatic arthropods use gills to exchange gases. These gills have a large surface area in contact with the water, so they can absorb more oxygen.[/INST] [question]:What do aquatic arthropods use to exchange gases? [answer]:gills</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:CHAPTER SUMMARY 38.1 Types of Skeletal Systems The three types of skeleton designs are hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons. A hydrostatic skeleton is formed by a fluid-filled compartment held under hydrostatic pressure; movement is created by the muscles producing pressure on the fluid. An exoskeleton is a hard external skeleton that protects the outer surface of an organism and enables movement through muscles attached on the inside. An endoskeleton is an internal skeleton composed of hard, mineralized tissue that also enables movement by attachment to muscles. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that is composed of the axial and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is composed of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull consists of eight cranial bones and 14 facial bones. Six bones make up the ossicles of the middle ear, while the hyoid bone is located in the neck under the mandible. The vertebral column contains 26 bones, and it surrounds and protects the spinal cord. The thoracic cage consists of the sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages. The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs of the upper and lower limbs. The pectoral girdle is composed of the clavicles and the scapulae. The upper limb contains 30 bones in the arm, the forearm, and the hand. The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. The lower limb includes the bones of the thigh, the leg, and the foot.[/INST] [question]:Of the three types of skeleton designs - hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons - which do humans possess? [answer]:endoskeleton</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Galaxies are divided into three types, according to shape. There are spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies, and irregular galaxies. Spiral galaxies are a rotating disk of stars and dust. In the center is a dense bulge of material. Several arms spiral out from the center. Spiral galaxies have lots of gas and dust and many young stars. Figure below shows a spiral galaxy from the side. You can see the disk and central bulge.[/INST] [question]:How many types of galaxies are there? [answer]:three</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Genes play an important role in determining an organism's traits. However, for many traits, phenotype is influenced by the environment as well. For example, skin color is controlled by genes but also influenced by exposure to sunlight. You can see the effect of sunlight on skin in Figure below .[/INST] [question]:Skin color is controlled by genes but also influenced by exposure to what? [answer]:sunlight</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Raising the temperature of a chemical reaction usually results in a higher rate of reaction. When the reactant particles are heated, they move faster and faster. This results in a greater frequency of collisions. A more important effect of the temperature increase is that the collisions occur with a greater force and are thus more likely to surmount the activation energy barrier and go on to form products. Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the number of effective collisions between reacting particles, so the reaction rate increases.[/INST] [question]:Higher temperatures increase the rate of reaction in a lot of chemical reactions because they increase the frequency of what interaction between reactant particles? [answer]:collisions</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:As you age, you might start noticing pain in your knees or elbows. These are examples of joints. Joints are the part of the skeletal system that connect your bones. Joint pain is a common problem as people age.[/INST] [question]:Knees and elbows are examples of what part of the skeletal system? [answer]:joints</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Einstein’s equation helps scientists understand what happens in nuclear reactions and why they produce so much energy. When the nucleus of a radioisotope undergoes fission or fusion in a nuclear reaction, it loses a tiny amount of mass. What happens to the lost mass? It isn’t really lost at all. It is converted to energy. How much energy? E = mc 2 . The change in mass is tiny, but it results in a great deal of energy.[/INST] [question]:Einstein’s equation helps scientists understand what happens in nuclear reactions and why they produce so much what? [answer]:energy</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovary, occurs at about the midpoint of the cycle. This would be around day 14 of a 28 day cycle. The egg is swept into the fallopian tube. If sperm is present, fertilization may occur. As sperm can only survive in the fallopian tube for up to a few days, fertilization can only occur within those few days post-ovulation.[/INST] [question]:Ovulation is the release of an egg from the what? [answer]:ovary</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus divides before the cell itself divides. The process in which the nucleus divides is called mitosis. Before mitosis occurs, a cell’s DNA is replicated. This is necessary so that each daughter cell will have a complete copy of the genetic material from the parent cell. How is the replicated DNA sorted and separated so that each daughter cell gets a complete set of the genetic material? To understand how this happens, you need to know more chromosomes.[/INST] [question]:The process in which the nucleus divides is called what? [answer]:mitosis</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Opening Essay On July 11, 2003, the Food and Drug Administration amended its food labeling regulations to require that manufacturers list the amount of trans fatty acids on Nutrition Facts labels of foods and dietary supplements, effective January 1, 2006. This amendment was a response to published studies demonstrating a link between the consumption of trans fatty acids and an increased risk of heart disease. Trans fatty acids are produced in the conversion of liquid oils to solid fats, as in the creation of many commercial margarines and shortenings. They have been shown to increase the levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)—complexes that are often referred to as bad cholesterol—in the blood. In this chapter, you will learn about fatty acids and what is meant by a trans fatty acid, as well as the difference between fats and oils. You will also learn what cholesterol is and why it is an important molecule in the human body. Fats and oils, found in many of the foods we eat, belong to a class of biomolecules known as lipids. Gram for gram, they pack more than twice the caloric content of carbohydrates: the oxidation of fats and oils supplies about 9 kcal of energy for every gram oxidized, whereas the oxidation of carbohydrates supplies only 4 kcal/g. Although the high caloric content of fats may be bad news for the dieter, it says something about the efficiency of nature’s designs. Our bodies use carbohydrates, primarily in the form of glucose, for our immediate energy needs. Our capacity for storing carbohydrates for later use is limited to tucking away a bit of glycogen in the liver or in muscle tissue. We store our reserve energy in lipid form, which requires far less space than the same amount of energy stored in carbohydrate form. Lipids have other biological functions besides energy storage. They are a major component of the membranes of the 10 trillion cells in our bodies. They serve as.[/INST] [question]:Our bodies use what, primarily in the form of glucose, for our immediate energy needs - although they are not as energy dense or capable of long-term storage as lipids? [answer]:carbohydrates</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Some animals communicate with scent. They release chemicals that other animals of their species can smell or detect in some other way. Ants release many different chemicals. Other ants detect the chemicals with their antennae. This explains how ants are able to work together. The different chemicals that ants produce have different meanings. Some of the chemicals signal to all of the ants in a group to come together. Other chemicals warn of danger. Still other chemicals mark trails to food sources. When an ant finds food, it marks the trail back to the nest by leaving behind a chemical on the ground. Other ants follow the chemical trail to the food.[/INST] [question]:What part of the body do ants use to detect chemicals? [answer]:antennae</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Water has the properties of cohesion and adhesion. Define these two properties, and explain why they occur in water.[/INST] [question]:Water has the properties of cohesion and what else? [answer]:adhesion</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:All of these animal behaviors are important. They help the animals get food for energy, make sure their young survive, or ensure that they, themselves, survive. Behaviors that help animals or their young survive, increase the animals’ fitness. Animals with higher fitness have a better chance of passing their genes on to the next generation. If genes control behaviors that increase fitness, the behaviors become more common in the species. This occurs through the process of evolution by natural selection.[/INST] [question]:Fitness and natural selection are parts of what theory that might describe how organisms change over time? [answer]:evolution</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:It should be noted that just because a process is spontaneous does not mean that it occurs quickly. The rusting of iron is a spontaneous process that takes place over a long period of time. The combustion of gasoline in oxygen (also a spontaneous process) is extremely fast when provided with a spark, but gasoline can be stored in air for quite a while without spontaneously combusting. Thermodynamics predicts the direction in which a reaction will eventually proceed, but it does not tell us anything about the rate at which the reaction occurs. The rate of a reaction depends on many factors, including activation energy, temperature, concentration, and the presence or absence of a catalyst. Chemical kinetics focuses on the pathway between reactants and products, while thermodynamics considers only the difference between the initial and final states.[/INST] [question]:Thermodynamics do not give us any insight into what attribute of spontaneous processes? [answer]:rate</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Gastrulation The typical blastula is a ball of cells. The next stage in embryonic development is the formation of the body plan. The cells in the blastula rearrange themselves spatially to form three layers of cells. This process is called gastrulation. During gastrulation, the blastula folds upon itself to form the three layers of cells. Each of these layers is called a germ layer and each germ layer differentiates into different organ systems. The three germs layers, shown in Figure 43.26, are the endoderm, the ectoderm, and the mesoderm. The ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermis. The mesoderm gives rise to the muscle cells and connective tissue in the body. The endoderm gives rise to columnar cells found in the digestive system and many internal organs.[/INST] [question]:What is the process of the blastula forming 3 layers of cells called? [answer]:gastrulation</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Excavata Many of the protist species classified into the supergroup Excavata are asymmetrical, single-celled organisms with a feeding groove “excavated” from one side. This supergroup includes heterotrophic predators, photosynthetic species, and parasites. Its subgroups are the diplomonads, parabasalids, and euglenozoans. Diplomonads Among the Excavata are the diplomonads, which include the intestinal parasite, Giardia lamblia (Figure 23.10). Until recently, these protists were believed to lack mitochondria. Mitochondrial remnant organelles, called mitosomes, have since been identified in diplomonads, but these mitosomes are essentially nonfunctional. Diplomonads exist in anaerobic environments and use alternative pathways, such as glycolysis, to generate energy. Each diplomonad cell has two identical nuclei and uses several flagella for locomotion.[/INST] [question]:Many of the protist species classified into the supergroup excavata are asymmetrical, single-celled organisms with a feeding groove “excavated” from one side. this supergroup includes heterotrophic predators, photosynthetic species, and these? [answer]:parasites</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:View this animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ headblow) to see how a blow to the head may produce a contrecoup (counterblow) fracture of the basilar portion of the occipital bone on the base of the skull. Why may a basilar fracture be life threatening? 3. Osteoporosis is a common age-related bone disease in which bone density and strength is decreased. Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/osteoporosis) to get a better understanding of how thoracic vertebrae may become weakened and may fractured due to this disease. How may vertebral osteoporosis contribute to kyphosis? 4. Watch this animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ diskslip) to see what it means to “slip” a disk. Watch this second animation (http://openstaxcollege. org/l/ herndisc) to see one possible treatment for a herniated disc,.[/INST] [question]:What is a common age-related bone disease in which bone density and strength is decreased? [answer]:osteoporosis</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:What is physics ? Physics is the branch of science that studies the physical world, including objects as small as subatomic particles and as large as galaxies. It studies the nature of matter and energy and how they interact. Physicists are inquisitive people who want to know the causes of what they see. How does the moon move? Why does the moon move? Why do the stars shine? Why do your hands get warm when you rub them together? Physicists, like all scientists, hope to find explanations that describe more than one phenomenon and offer a better understanding of how the universe works.[/INST] [question]:What is the branch of science that studies the physical world? [answer]:physics</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Under the direction of osteocytes, osteoblasts continuously build up bone, while osteoclasts continuously break down bone to maintain mineral homeostasis. Bone tissues include compact bone, spongy bone, bone marrow, and periosteum.[/INST] [question]:Osteoclasts break down bone to maintain mineral what? [answer]:homeostatis</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Simple carbohydrates can be classified in terms of chain length.[/INST] [question]:Which carbohydrates can be classified in terms of chain length? [answer]:simple</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Physical changes are changes in the physical properties of matter but not in the makeup of matter. An example of a physical change is glass breaking.[/INST] [question]:Glass breaking is an example of what type of change that doesn't affect the makeup of matter? [answer]:physical</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and ethers h ave oxygencontaining functional groups.[/INST] [question]:Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and ethers all have functional groups containing what element? [answer]:oxygen</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Anions form when an atom gains electrons. Nonmetallic atoms typically gain enough electrons to obtain the same electron configuration as the nearest noble gas. All the elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons, which are arranged into an outer configuration of n s 2 n p 5 . To achieve a noble gas configuration ( n s 2 n p 6 ), each of these elements needs to gain just one electron, resulting in an anion with a 1− charge. Similarly, Group 16 elements can obtain an n s 2 n p 6 valence configuration by forming ions with a 2− charge, and the Group 15 nonmetals will form ions with a 3− charge. Naming anions is slightly different than naming cations. The end of the element’s name is dropped and replaced with the – ide suffix. For example, when the chlorine atom (Cl) gains one electron, it becomes the chloride ion (Cl - ). This structure has the same electron configuration as the noble gas argon. Similarly, sulfur can gain two electrons to become the sulfide ion (S 2- ), which also has a noble gas configuration.[/INST] [question]:What forms when an atom gains electrons? [answer]:anions</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:High-density materials are much more effective protection against gamma emissions than low-density ones. Gamma rays are usually blocked effectively by lead shielding. The thickness of the shielding will determine the effectiveness of the protection offered by the lead.[/INST] [question]:What element is typically used to shield things from gamma rays? [answer]:lead</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:In trees, some of the epidermal tissue is replaced by bark. Bark is a combination of tissues that provides a tough, woody external covering on the stems of trees. The inner part of bark is alive and growing; the outer part is dead and provides strength, support, and protection.[/INST] [question]:What is the combination of tissues that provides a tough, woody external covering on the stems of trees called? [answer]:bark</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Microbial Genomics: Metagenomics Traditionally, microbiology has been taught with the view that microorganisms are best studied under pure culture conditions, which involves isolating a single type of cell and culturing it in the laboratory. Because microorganisms can go through several generations in a matter of hours, their gene expression profiles adapt to the new laboratory environment very quickly. In addition, the vast majority of bacterial species resist being cultured in isolation. Most microorganisms do not live as isolated entities, but in microbial communities known as biofilms. For all of these reasons, pure culture is not always the best way to study microorganisms. Metagenomics is the study of the collective genomes of multiple species.[/INST] [question]:Because microorganisms can go through several generations in a matter of hours, their gene expression profiles adapt to the new laboratory environment very quickly. in addition, the vast majority of bacterial species resist being cultured in this? [answer]:isolation</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Blood is a fluid connective tissue that contains a liquid component called plasma. It also contains dissolved substances and blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells defend the body, and platelets help blood clot.[/INST] [question]:What do red blood cells carry? [answer]:oxygen</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:Fight-or-Flight Response Interactions of the endocrine hormones have evolved to ensure the body’s internal environment remains stable. Stressors are stimuli that disrupt homeostasis. The sympathetic division of the vertebrate autonomic nervous system has evolved the fight-or-flight response to counter stress-induced disruptions of homeostasis. In the initial alarm phase, the sympathetic nervous system stimulates an increase in energy levels through increased blood glucose levels. This prepares the body for physical activity that may be required to respond to stress: to either fight for survival or to flee from danger. However, some stresses, such as illness or injury, can last for a long time. Glycogen reserves, which provide energy in the short-term response to stress, are exhausted after several hours and cannot meet long-term energy needs. If glycogen reserves were the only energy source available, neural functioning could not be maintained once the reserves became depleted due to the nervous system’s high requirement for glucose. In this situation, the body has evolved a response to counter long-term stress through the actions of the glucocorticoids, which ensure that long-term energy requirements can be met. The glucocorticoids mobilize lipid and protein reserves, stimulate gluconeogenesis, conserve glucose for use by neural tissue, and stimulate the conservation of salts and water. The mechanisms to maintain homeostasis that are described here are those observed in the human body. However, the fight-or-flight response exists in some form in all vertebrates. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the stress response via the hypothalamus. Stressful stimuli cause the hypothalamus to signal the adrenal medulla (which mediates short-term stress responses) via nerve impulses, and the adrenal cortex, which mediates long-term stress responses, via the hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which is produced by the anterior pituitary.[/INST] [question]:The sympathetic division of the vertebrate autonomic nervous system has evolved the fight-or-flight response to counter stress-induced disruptions of this? [answer]:homeostasis</s> |
<s>[INST][context]:A fluorescent light bulb produces visible light by fluorescence. Fluorescence occurs when a substance absorbs shorter-wavelength ultraviolet light and then gives off the energy as visible light. The compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL) in the Figure below contains mercury gas that gives off ultraviolet light when electricity passes through it. The inside of the bulb is coated with a substance called phosphor. Phosphor absorbs the ultraviolet light and then gives off most of the energy as visible light.[/INST] [question]:What light-producing process occurs when a substance absorbs shorter-wavelength ultraviolet light and then gives off the energy as visible light? [answer]:fluorescence</s> |