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The word derives from the Latin verb narrare , "to tell", which is derived from the adjective gnarus , "knowing" or "skilled". Narrative can be organized in a number of thematic or formal categories: Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech , literature , theatre , music and song , comics , journalism , film , television and video , video games , radio , gameplay , unstructured recreation , and performance in general, as well as some painting , sculpture , drawing , photography , and other visual arts , as long as a sequence of events is presented. Several art movements, such as modern art , refuse the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual. Oral storytelling is the earliest method for sharing narratives. Narratives may also be nested within other narratives, such as narratives told by an unreliable narrator a character typically found in noir fiction genre. An important part of narration is the narrative mode , the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process narration see also "Narrative Aesthetics" below. Along with exposition , argumentation , and description , narration, broadly defined, is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode in which the narrator communicates directly to the reader. A narrative is a telling of some true or fictitious event or connected sequence of events, recounted by a narrator to a narratee although there may be more than one of each. Narratives are to be distinguished from descriptions of qualities, states, or situations, and also from dramatic enactments of events although a dramatic work may also include narrative speeches. A narrative consists of a set of events the story recounted in a process of narration or discourse , in which the events are selected and arranged in a particular order the plot. The category of narratives includes both the shortest accounts of events for example, the cat sat on the mat , or a brief news item and the longest historical or biographical works, diaries, travelogues, and so forth, as well as novels, ballads, epics, short stories, and other fictional forms. In the study of fiction, it is usual to divide novels and shorter stories into first-person narratives and third-person narratives. As an adjective, "narrative" means "characterized by or relating to storytelling": Some theorists of narratology have attempted to isolate the quality or set of properties that distinguishes narrative from non-narrative writings: Owen Flanagan of Duke University, a leading consciousness researcher, writes, "Evidence strongly suggests that humans in all cultures come to cast their own identity in some sort of narrative form. We are inveterate storytellers. Many works of art and most works of literature tell stories; indeed, most of the humanities involve stories. Stories are also a ubiquitous component of human communication, used as parables and examples to illustrate points. Storytelling was probably one of the earliest forms of entertainment. As noted by Owen Flanagan, narrative may also refer to psychological processes in self-identity, memory and meaning-making. Semiotics begins with the individual building blocks of meaning called signs ; and semantics , the way in which signs are combined into codes to transmit messages. This is part of a general communication system using both verbal and non-verbal elements, and creating a discourse with different modalities and forms. He and many other semioticians prefer the view that all texts, whether spoken or written, are the same, except that some authors encode their texts with distinctive literary qualities that distinguish them from other forms of discourse. Nevertheless, there is a clear trend to address literary narrative forms as separable from other forms. This is first seen in Russian Formalism through Victor Shklovsky 's analysis of the relationship between composition and style, and in the work of Vladimir Propp , who analysed the plots used in traditional folk-tales and identified 31 distinct functional components. It leads to a structural analysis of narrative and an increasingly influential body of modern work that raises important theoretical questions:. In literary theoretic approach, narrative is being narrowly defined as fiction-writing mode in which the narrator is communicating directly to the reader. Until the late 19th century, literary criticism as an academic exercise dealt solely with poetry including epic poems like the Iliad and Paradise Lost , and poetic drama like Shakespeare. Most poems did not have a narrator distinct from the author. But novels , lending a number of voices to several characters in addition to narrator's, created a possibility of narrator's views differing significantly from the author's views. With the rise of the novel in the 18th century , the concept of the narrator as opposed to "author" made the question of narrator a prominent one for literary theory. It has been proposed that perspective and interpretive knowledge are the essential characteristics, while focalization and structure are lateral characteristics of the narrator. A writer's choice in the narrator is crucial for the way a work of fiction is perceived by the reader. Intradiagetic narrators are of two types: Such a narrator cannot know more about other characters than what their actions reveal. A heterodiegetic narrator, in contrast, describes the experiences of the characters that appear in the story in which he or she does not participate. Most narrators present their story from one of the following perspectives called narrative modes: Generally, a first-person narrator brings greater focus on the feelings, opinions, and perceptions of a particular character in a story, and on how the character views the world and the views of other characters. If the writer's intention is to get inside the world of a character, then it is a good choice, although a third-person limited narrator is an alternative that does not require the writer to reveal all that a first-person character would know. By contrast, a third-person omniscient narrator gives a panoramic view of the world of the story, looking into many characters and into the broader background of a story. A third-person omniscient narrator can be an animal or an object, or it can be a more abstract instance that does not refer to itself. For stories in which the context and the views of many characters are important, a third-person narrator is a better choice. However, a third-person narrator does not need to be an omnipresent guide, but instead may merely be the protagonist referring to himself in the third person also known as third person limited narrator. A writer may choose to let several narrators tell the story from different points of view. Then it is up to the reader to decide which narrator seems most reliable for each part of the story. See for instance the works of Louise Erdrich. Faulkner employs stream of consciousness to narrate the story from various perspectives. In Indigenous American communities, narratives and storytelling are often told by a number of elders in the community. In this way, the stories are never static because they are shaped by the relationship between narrator and audience. Thus, each individual story may have countless variations. Narrators often incorporate minor changes in the story in order to tailor the story to different audiences. Narrative is a highly aesthetic art. Thoughtfully composed stories have a number of aesthetic elements. Within philosophy of mind , the social sciences and various clinical fields including medicine, narrative can refer to aspects of human psychology. Illness narratives are a way for a person affected by an illness to make sense of his or her experiences. In the restitution narrative, the person sees the illness as a temporary detour. The primary goal is to return permanently to normal life and normal health. Some were too shy to grant permission to post them, which makes sense if you think that, in its heyday, WritingFix was receiving over 20, hits a day from teachers across the globe looking for good writing lessons. That kind of traffic can be intimidating. Being Director allowed me to seek out new grant monies, and it was so helpful to already have a tried-and-tested "make and take" model of inservice ready to share with the potential grantors I met with. Our NNWP was pursuing some pretty innovative ideas for new, research-driven inservice courses back then. With a promise to the grantors that a brand new webpage of teacher-built lessons and resources would be one of the outcomes of the class if they helped us pay for it, we impressed a lot of people, and we did some pretty great stuff with the grants we then earned. In a very short period of time, we doubled and then tripled the number of lessons and resources posted at WritingFix, and we kept being discovered more and more teacher followers who eventually saw us as one of the best places to go if you wanted an innovative idea for teaching writing. One of my favorite grants we earned bought all class participants a classroom iPod; in exchange for this small piece of technology, participants simply had to design and implement a writing lesson based on the lyrics of a song. We hired some of our best K NNWP teacher-presenters to write "model lessons" that used songs as their "mentor texts," we paid those presenters stipends to come share their lessons with our classes' participants, we selected the very best lessons written by those same class participants, and--with permission--we posted those lessons alongside our presenters' lessons at our " iPods and Song Lyrics Lesson Page " at WritingFix. It was a pretty creative way to enhance an already-established website, and our writing project's reputation as a professional development provider soared to new heights both locally and nationally. At the local level, we had never been asked to provide so many courses and workshops as we were during these years; at the national level, we were admired as writing project site that had used the Internet to create a well-respected national presence. In , the National Writing Project--despite its amazing reputation as an effective provider of professional development that changes teachers' practices--had its budget horribly slashed. With just barely enough money to keep its basic functions going, our local Northern Nevada Writing Project had to stop providing sponsorship to WritingFix. It was too bad too. We had some great new directions planned for the website, but there was no money available to implement those plans. With our NNWP's economic "crash," all planned growth for WritingFix went directly to the back-burner, and it has now remained there for so long that I am convinced the WritingFix website is a "completed" project. WritingFix, however, should NOT go away; Dena and I decided that we would take over paying the bill for all annual fees that keep the website online and free-to-use. The lessons that were created and posted between and were very good and deserve to be housed on the Internet for all teachers to find and use; we know there are brand new teachers out there just discovering WritingFix for the first time, and they deserve to have access to these resources. Perhaps some day, a grantor will read this page and send Dena and me a sizeable check so that we can organize and give WritingFix another chance at another heyday, but we doubt that will happen. We are ultimately happy with what the website became during the ten years that we had support and funding to keep it alive and strong. While in its heyday, WritingFix was truly one of the most exciting projects I've ever been involved with. I ultimately watched hundreds and hundreds of our local K teachers collaborate and implement research-based strategies in new lessons we asked them to create in exchange for recertification credit. Face to face in class, they inspired each other while sharing these lessons, and then the lessons we chose to post at the website went on to be used by tens of thousands of WritingFix's national and international followers. Dena and I are both still creating new lessons and posting them online at our own websites. You can find our newest, Common Core-friendly resources for writing instruction at Corbett's Always Write website and Dena's Write in the Middle website. Both of us are still WritingFix users. Corbett, who is currently teaching gifted and talented 6thth graders, shares his four favorite WritingFix resources below; Dena, who is a K-8 Writing Specialist, shares her four favorite resources below. We hope you find time to explore them! Back to the top of page. We happily celebrate our teachers' post-WritingFix work here in this space. The National Writing Project is all about empowering teachers and inspiring them to become teacher leaders and innovators of positive change. If you are an active Teacher Consultant for the National Writing Project, write me and let me know what website or teaching resources you have created. The odd stolen hour of peace and tranquillity there, rejuvenated me more than I would have thought possible. Then one night I actually slept there! I told Kevin I had a night shift at the hospital. I felt like a rat for my deception, but once I closed the apartment door behind me it was like being on holiday! I sat out on the balcony sipping the wine, savouring the food and the evening. Wrapping myself in a blanket, I sat there until the sun went down and the street lights went on, watching the river flow and feeling the tensions of the recent past release and flow away into the night. I fell into bed and slept for ten hours straight. The next morning I felt so guilty that when I got back to the house, I launched into a cooking marathon. For afters I made a boozy Tiramisu, with Irish cream liquor mixed with the espresso and blended into the mascarpone. Jason, who has the most bazaar taste-buds of anyone I know, would get his favourite, a corned-beef and blackberry jam doorstopper sandwich and a banana milkshake! I decorated the table with colourful napkins made into animal shapes and big bunches of flowers from the garden. I had some Salsa music playing loudly when they arrived home. The apartment was my sanctuary. I believe Dad bought it sometime in the Noughties as a financial investment, when property prices were relatively low and the banks not trustworthy. Mam needed to have plenty of life around her, so the house was always full of people visiting or staying for dinner whereas Dad loved a quiet space to read and listen to music. So I think he created a little haven for himself in Wakefield Street. No doubt someday it will all come to light. As Mam said, Dad and I are so alike. My actions echo his … the apple has not fallen far from the tree! There are times when, above the crunch of the pebbles beneath her feet and the crash of waves breaking along the shoreline, she thinks she can hear the roar and thunder of the guns. There are times when the raucous mewing of the gulls turns into a cry for help from a million soldiers trapped in a war of attrition in the trenches of Belgium and Northern France. There are times when the horrifying noises of war seem to echo off the cliffs lining the beach and reverberate through her head until she wants to scream and scream and scream. She, and the women around her, are not supposed to know about these things; about the pain and suffering of the soldiers in the war, about the slaughter, the terror, the relentless noise. By common consent the boys hide the horrors when they are home on leave; they joke and laugh and talk of finishing off the Hun in short order. But she has read their letters and learned about their lives. She knows enough to see the numbness behind their smiles. Like countless other sweethearts, sisters, wives and mothers across the country she plays the game as she is meant to play it. Today, the first day of July , there are no crashing waves and there is no noise; the sea is flat calm and the air still. It is not often like this and indeed she prefers it when the wind blows fiercely from the west, sending spray spiralling into the moist air. She likes to feel the power of the sea and she likes the way that, on some days, the thrill of battling against the wind and rain as she makes her way along the beach, can drive all other thoughts from her mind. Today there is no chance of such respite. Today the echoes are silent; ever-present but silent. Today, as she sits on the pebbles and stares out at the horizon, her mind is full of Harry and their future together. And then, because those thoughts make her fearful, she pushes them away and determinedly pulls out instead the memories of how it all began. It began here on this very beach. A fitting place; for the beach has always been her refuge, the place she escapes to when everyday life becomes too dull or too frustrating. The village had done him proud, had turned out in its entirety, but the sadness had been unbearable and she had crept away as soon as she could to seek refuge under the lee of the cliff. And there she had been struck by an overwhelming desire to play a bigger part in this terrible war, to do something to assuage the suffering of the soldiers, to provide some comfort for those who, like her brothers and childhood friends, had given up the lives they had always known, to face untold horrors on the battlefields of France and Belgium and Mesopotamia. Like so many other women throughout the land, she already knitted socks, rolled bandages, worked hard to grow extra vegetables in her garden. And she contributed eggs from her hens to the National Egg Collection. She liked to think of her wonderful fresh eggs providing nourishment for wounded soldiers in the hospitals in France. It was a good scheme to be part of. But what she did was not special enough. She needed to do more. But more than that. I want to be doing something useful, something to help us through this horrible war. Not just staying at home waiting for it to finish. Mother needs me here. And so does he, now that all three boys have gone to fight. We just need to work it out. Make them a bit special. What do you think? Madge smiled to herself, knowing that she would need to say no more. Chrissie was normally a very positive person, only very rarely resorting to the sort of grumbling she had given way to today. Once she had decided on something, she would move heaven and earth to make it happen. So the idea took hold and within a week a batch of eggs had been sent off with her name and address on each one. And that was just the beginning. On some of the eggs, she painted intricate little pictures — flags, sprigs of heather, black cats. Anything she could think of which represented good luck or patriotism. Sometimes she added encouraging messages, sending her best wishes, urging the soldiers to take care, to look after themselves. As she got better at writing clearly and squeezing more words on to the egg shells, she even wrote short poems. Little by little, her life began to have purpose. She worked hard at the daily chores on the farm and in the house, supported her parents as well as she could, wrote long letters to her three brothers who were all serving overseas, did everything else the villagers asked of her to aid the war effort. But all of it was done with the ultimate aim of finding some time every day to concentrate on the eggs. And find it she did. The first thank you letters from wounded soldiers who had been lucky enough to receive her eggs arrived in the post within a matter of weeks. And they just kept coming. Some of the sentences stuck in her mind, replaying themselves again and again until she felt she would never forget them as long as she lived. Am doing very well now and they expect to save my leg. I hope they do too. I have seen them come back. Many of the soldiers asked if she would reply to them. They were lonely, they said, and far from home. Some of them indeed came from Canada or Australia and rarely received letters, or so they told her. Many asked for a photograph. Some hoped for more. She wrote back to him and told him that she was just a year younger. She tried to write back to as many of them as she could and certainly to all those who said they were lonely or who told her that no-one else wrote to them. She kept her letters as cheerful as possible, telling the soldiers about her life in Dorset, her work on the farm, humdrum little details which she hoped would amuse them. And she tried not to dwell on the hardships they were facing, for surely, she thought to herself, they knew far more about that than she did and she could not presume to understand what they were going through. But she did at last feel she was doing something useful, that bringing comfort to even a few of the wounded men was better than doing nothing at all. Above all, it made her feel closer to her three brothers. She told herself that perhaps someone was showing them kindness as she was trying to do to others. And it filled her days in a way that working on the farm, or helping her mother, was never able to do. It was fun — though perhaps saying so or even thinking it, was a bit disrespectful to those poor wounded men. But then the day came when it stopped being fun and became a much more serious matter. That was the day — towards the end of — when she received her first letter from Harry. He had been given one of her eggs, he told her, and he had adored the little painting of a black cat on one side of the egg, the good wishes for a speedy recovery on the other. He was not seriously wounded, just a bad bout of dysentery and he felt himself to be rather a fraud when there were so many more worthy candidates than him for one of her lovely eggs. But he had been the lucky one and he wanted her to know how much her kindness meant to him. Intrigued, and touched by his words, she wrote back straightaway and then he did too, and before she knew it they were corresponding regularly, exchanging thoughts and worries and longings for the future, and feeling as if they had known each other for ever. They arranged to meet on his next leave and he planned to make his way down to her Dorset village by the sea, assuring her that he had no family or friends who had a greater claim on him than she did. She persuaded her parents to allow him to stay in their house as a guest and she talked endlessly to a patient Madge about where she was going to take him, what she would say to him. Scholastic's Story Starters kids' writing activity generates creative writing prompts, from general fiction to adventure, fantasy, and science fiction. An extensive list of short story competitions, including global & UK short story writing contests. Details on entry fees, deadlines, prize money & more. Enter Christopher Fielden's short story competition 'To Hull & Back'. A humorous UK writing contest, awarding the greatest writing prize known to man. A comprehensive, coeducational Catholic High school Diocese of Wollongong - Albion Park Act Justly, love tenderly and walk humbly with your God Micah The Purdue University Online Writing Lab serves writers from around the world and the Purdue University Writing Lab helps writers on Purdue's campus. Affordablepapers is a reliable writing service with a great reputation. This company has assisted college student for more than 10 years, delivering essays and term papers of the highest quality. We respect our clients and make sure our papers help students from America, Europe, and the UK achieve their academic goals.

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Part 1: THINK HABITAT (about 1 hour) is conducted outdoors. Activities include walking, storytelling, noticing eco-regions, and looking under logs and coverboards. Announcement prior to gathering: Insect repellent may be used but participants must wash their hands prior to departing. Repellent could harm the animals. Once the group gathers, introductions are made and the program is described prior to departure. Participants are invited to carry the snake bags or snake hooks. Let participants know the expectations before embarking on the walk: the group will stay together while walking, everyone will tell a snake story, and everyone should have access to a field guide. Our participants are required to wear name tags and leaders are encouraged to call participants by name. Participants sharing stories of snake experiences. - snake bags - hand wipes - field guides to local reptiles and amphibians - a snake hook (rarely used) - hoes or sturdy rakes to turn coverboards Everyone has a snake story they want to tell, so we begin our program taking turns telling stories as we walk the grounds checking coverboards. If a participant can’t think of a snake story, suggest they tell about their favorite snake or most-feared snake or a snake fact they find fascinating. Although most of the stories end badly for the snake, the Project Leader listens carefully, shows interest in the individual student, and is nonjudgmental. Storytelling provides a chance for the students to talk, to be heard, and to reveal a little about themselves. Most participants enjoy talking about themselves and learning about others in this way and thus this activity is a great ice-breaker. Questions you might ask along the way: Why are coverboards attractive for animals? Do you think coverboards in sunshine or shade would be most attractive for snakes? Do you think two different kinds of snakes will use the same coverboard at the same time? What are snakes eating in this area? Do any snakes eat plants? What do you think the ancestors of snakes looked like? What would you call this type of habitat? This can be done solo, but having a group means we can designate two people as “catchers” and two people as “lifters.” Catchers are agreeable to catching reptiles or amphibians found under the boards. It is not unusual in our areas for all of the coverboards to be checked during summer, when our programs are held, and no snakes found (spring and fall are much better times for finding snakes under these types of cover). Lifters lift the coverboards, preferably using a tool such as a hoe, (reaching across the board to lift the side farthest away so that the animal underneath will not see the lifters. The catchers are ready to spring into action, but stand perfectly still as the board is being lifted. If a lizard or snake is uncovered, the catchers quickly gather it. Even if surprised, the lifters DO NOT drop the coverboard as it could harm the creature below. Scrape around under the coverboard if leaves and other debris are present. Several animals of different or the same species may be present. Don’t forget to look for animals of all types, especially invertebrates. Try to decide if the invertebrates are herbivores or carnivores. Invertebrates can serve as food for various reptiles. When done looking, gently place the coverboard back on the ground. Although our programs do not include snake watching outdoors (unless a special opportunity presents itself), you should let participants know that observing snakes from a comfortable distance is a worthwhile and enjoyable activity. One can learn a lot about snakes such as their behaviors, fears, and needs if you watch them long enough, though some stay perfectly still for hours. Observing snakes in nature or in captivity will allow you to begin thinking like a snake and to understand the motivations driving their behaviors. Not frightening the snake is important for both watching and catching. Of course, in order to watch snakes, one needs a suitable place where they are likely to find snakes moving about, basking, feeding, or swimming. Ask your local park ranger about good spots to find wildlife. Roads and platforms overlooking swamps are particularly suitable for this type of activity. Using binoculars can be a great help, and you can let your birding friends know that binoculars are for more than watching birds! Insects, frogs, turtles, and other herps are exciting subjects too. Part 2. THINKING LIKE A SNAKE is our indoor activity. This section includes Materials, Preparations, Empathy for Snakes, Snake Biology, Snake Senses, Snake Identification, Handling Guidelines, Shed Skin Study, and Measuring Snakes. Feel free to experiment with the order of these activities. - 5-7 snakes (non-venomous, local, wild-caught and a few captive bred snakes) - Cages with covers and DO NOT REMOVE COVER signs on each (where the snakes are kept) - Snake identification books - 5-20 shed snake skins, some from venomous species if available - Hand-made squeeze box, string, and measuring tape or wooden meter stick - Snake and mammal skulls (if available) - Models of local venomous snakes (a good source is Morgan Reptile Replicas) This section includes background material related to the numbers and types of snakes used in our program. We house 18-20 native wild-caught snakes so that 5-7 of them will be available each day for our 5-day program with 5-7 participants per group. Our snakes are caught specifically for this purpose and are released exactly where captured when the sessions are completed. This seems to be a successful strategy since we have caught some of the same snakes in successive years in the same locations. Please note that caring for wild-caught snakes takes more experience than caring for captive bred snakes. Consult your state zoo or herpetological society for advice and use the considerable online resources that are now available. Sometimes local nature centers do not have someone on staff with the requisite expertise to advise you so seek experienced help. Why so many snakes? We house about three times as many snakes as we will use in any one day. The reasons are: - Our programs are offered every day for five days. Programs offered less often would not need as many snakes. - As a rule, we don’t handle individual snakes two days in a row. Snakes tire easily and the teaching sessions are more stressful for some species than others. Fatigued snakes are irritable and may strike at cage walls more readily. - We don’t handle snakes that are in-shed (preparing to shed skin as evidenced by opaque eye coverings), but we use them to show students how to recognize snakes in-shed, sometimes called “in the blue.” So in our program, it takes about 19-20 snakes to be able to have 6-7 ready for a daily session when programs are held daily. We also use 1-2 captive bred snakes for level-one snakes (see Levels of Engagement). Programs utilizing more captive bred snakes (pet snakes) may be able to house fewer captured snakes. What kinds of snakes are used? We want students to become familiar with local snakes so we use small, medium, and large species of non-venomous snakes that are common in our area. For example we use Eastern garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis), black racers (Coluber constrictor), black rat snakes (Elpahe [Pantherophis] obsoleta), worm snakes (Carphophis amoenus), brown snakes (Storeria dekayi), mole kingsnakes (Lamporpeltis calligaster), and the like. A high-quality model of the venomous copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) is used for identification and comparison with other blotched snakes. Captive snakes can also be used along with local snakes, but using primarily local wildlife supports our goals of engaging participants with the local fauna, ecology and ecosystems. We use a few long-term captive snakes (captive bred) temporarily loaned by friends of the project or staff members. Empathy for Snakes Biology is very important, but to truly understand and appreciate snakes it is important to learn what is important to them, how they manage living successfully, and why it is important for humans to understand them. It is also important to know what scares snakes. Observing snake body language while they are in the cages is an important first step to empathizing with them. Actively engage participants in every way possible. This student was recording responses to How do snakes respond when they are afraid? Begin by asking participants what they think the word empathy means and describe what it means to you. Use the sample questions below or come up with others. Ask the question, then give time for responses. Be affirming and positive when students respond (even with wrong answers) and don’t give the correct answers right away. How can you tell when a snake is afraid? or How do snakes respond to threats? These questions are particularly important so make time to discuss this subject in some depth. Have a student write the responses of the participants on board. Let the students call out ideas. Note that no one type of snake will exhibit all the responses mentioned. Discuss and elaborate as this is one of the best exercises to help students develop empathy for snakes. Answers should include at least all the following: flight, increased respiration, kinking body (muscle contractions), jerking movements, striking, biting, musking, twisting if you are holding them, flattening head, some species hiss and spread neck (e.g. hognose snake), thrashing, dropping from limbs in an attempt to escape, playing dead, coiling, shaking tail, increased alertness, etc. Additional questions related to the same concept are: Nails on either side of vent in pythons and boas are vestigial structures, which provide support for lots of other evidence that snake ancestors once had legs. Photo by M. Baumeister. What does it mean when the muscles of the snake tense up? When a snake strikes at a person, what is it trying to accomplish? Describe some of the other body language of snakes not related to fear. Tongue flicking, ambush position, coiled in hiding, actively moving about. What is important to a snake? Food, mates, water, privacy, safety, dens or rookeries for some species, ability to control temperature, etc. Why are snakes important? Are snakes predators or prey? Snakes are important as both prey and as predators. Discuss the food chain and the importance of predators to the health of the ecosystem and to the species that they prey on (population control). Why are they important to humans? Snakes consume animals that we consider pests and protect our food stores by consuming rodents. Snake venom is very important in the production and development of many medicines. Since snakes are important to their ecosystems they are also important to us – stress that humans are a part of the surrounding ecosystems. Why is it important for people to understand snakes? Snakes are important elements in the landscape and the biological communities in which they are found. Many, many times snakes are brutally killed because people needlessly fear them or their intentions – mostly out of ignorance or instilled fears. Most children do not naturally fear snakes; it is normally a taught attitude. It can be said that the level of environmental awareness, education and compassion is revealed by one’s attitudes towards snakes. What is the difference between vertebrates and invertebrates? Which kind of animal is a snake? Vertebrate, reptile. Which kind of animal are we? Vertebrate, mammal. What do you think a snake ancestor looked like and behaved like? Just so you know, dinosaurs are not ancestors to snakes. Hint: This type of animal is still around today. Evidence suggests that snake ancestors were a type of burrowing lizard of the early Cretaceous. Snakes lost their legs by growing them more slowly or for a shorter period of time, resulting in shorter and shorter legs, until the legs eventually disappeared. Not having legs gave pre-snakes an advantage in life underground. Those with slower growing legs or shorter legs lived longer and had more offspring (babies) thereby increasing the numbers of leg-less individuals in the population until its legs were lost altogether. However, a few snakes still have remnants of leg bones and nails, like boas and pythons. Tongue. What do snakes use their tongues for and why are they forked? Have students observe snakes tongue flicking. Show the students the books in the room that have diagrams of the head of the snake. The tongue is a sensory organ used to sample the air for important information. Air is full of molecules that are invisible to the eye. Tips of tongues grab samples of air. The two tips of the tongue insert air into two openings in the roof of the mouth where an organ is located. Anyone know the name of that organ? It is Jacobson’s organ, which reads scent and sends messages to the brain. The scent molecules in the air may reveal there is food available nearby or water or mates. Neonate rattlesnakes read scent trails to find their way to the wintering den. The tongue is forked to increase the amount of molecules that are received and also to provide a directional component, comparable to our two ears. If the right fork of the tongue grabs air that has a more powerful signal than the left fork, this tells the snake that the source of the scent is to the right and vice versa. Thus the snake may follow a scent without opening its mouth. This allows a stealthy way for snakes to know what is going on in the world without drawing attention to themselves. Ears. Do snakes have ears? They don’t have external ear openings but are very sensitive to vibration. Serpents evolved from a type of ancestral lizard and lizards have ear openings, but external ear openings may have been a disadvantage for them. Perhaps they were prone to infection from debris entering the openings, so the ancestor burrowing lizards with small ear openings or no ear openings may have lived longer. Living longer allowed them more years to lay clutches of eggs and they produced more offspring, thereby increasing the number of individuals in the population with small ear openings. Over time, snakes lost ear openings altogether. When they emerged from a sub-terrestrial existence and began living above ground, they came up without external ears. The snake (left) has no ear opening is compared with lizard (right) with ear opening. Photos by Wayne VanDevender Touch. Snakes are very sensitive to touch. Along with their sense of smell, touch plays a very important role in their ability to survive and respond to threats. Snakes depend heavily on information that comes through their skins and are, at times, able to detect the size of prey and predators based on their vibrations. They are able to feel the slightest changes in their environments and are able to quickly respond to these changes. Teeth. Preparation: Randomly place skulls on the table. Without explanation ask two students to separate the skulls into those with heterodont dentition and those with homodont dentition. Students can often figure this out themselves and then you can ask them what the words heterodont and homodont mean. What do snakes eat? All snakes eat meat. Why are their teeth curved? How would you describe the teeth? Show a snake skull. Mammals, like us, have different kinds of teeth, some sharp, like our incisors, to bite into food, and some flat, like our molars, to grind food. Our teeth are not all the same, and this is called heterodont dentition. Snakes’ teeth are all similar so we would describe snakes as having homodont dentition. Which animals eat snakes? Who are their predators? Why is predation so important to life? Are you a predator? How do you tell where the tail of the snake starts? At the vent. How do you tell if a snake is male or female? It is hard to tell without one of each sex. Look at the first part of the tail, just posterior to the vent; in males the first part of the tail will be thicker and does not taper immediately. In a female the tail will start to taper immediately posterior to the vent. This characteristic is highly variable and the best way to tell is to see snakes mating, because they certainly know which are males and which are females! Another way to tell is by using specialized probes to insert into the cloaca, but we don’t use them and don’t recommend their use as it is very easy to harm a snake unintentionally using probes. How do snakes reproduce? Do all snakes lay eggs? Many of our local snakes do not lay eggs but are actually livebearers. Live little snakes called neonates emerge from the female’s vent. What is unusual about a snake’s penis? There are two of them, called hemipenes! Snakes can be identified to species from the morphology of the hemipenes. When mating, male snakes will insert only one into the cloaca of the female. Also see: http://www.sjonhauser.nl/hemipenes-amazing-copulatory-organs-of-snakes.html How would you describe a snake to someone who had never seen one? Let the students call out ideas. Have a student write responses on the board. Prior to having students identify snakes, have them look at characteristics of the skin using shed skins. Distribute shed skins among the participants and talk about the shedding process and why snakes shed their skin. Do we shed our skin? Yes, but not all at once, we are continually shedding skin cells. If an opaque snake (about to shed) is available, it can be shown to the participants but should not be handled much. Ask students to find a shed skin with strongly keeled scales, one with weakly keeled scales, and one with smooth scales. Keeled scales have ridges, weakly keeled scales have small ridges and smooth scales have no ridges at all. Are the ventral tail scales divided or not divided? Can this tell you anything about what kind of snake shed this skin? Is the vent scale divided or not divided? How do the dorsal scales differ from the ventral scales? How often do snakes shed their skins? It depends on how much they are eating and growing. Some fast growing snakes with a good food supply, especially young snakes, may shed several times a year. Giving each student a shedded snake skin will help them see the difference between the types of scales. Looking carefully at live snakes. Snake cages are covered when participants enter the room so they won’t become alarmed. Snakes should always be in cages by themselves. Lightweight display cages with clear bottoms (such as deli containers) will enable participants to see the ventral colors and patterns. Once the participants settle down, the covers are removed and students may move quietly around the room. Participants work alone or in pairs to identify the snakes. Announcement to participants: Working with a partner or by yourself, use a field guide to determine the species of the snake. Focus on the coloration of dorsal (back) and ventral (belly) sides, anterior and posterior, shape of head, rough/keeled or smooth scales, typical species behaviors and the range of occurrence as indicated by the range map in the identification book. It is recommended to have at least three identifying characteristics before confidently stating which species you have. Using the copperhead model, students are asked to give an elevator speech (a very short and to the point speech given in the amount of time it would take to ascend in an elevator) describing the difference between a copperhead and another blotched snake such as the mole kingsnake. At least three characteristics are needed to support a species identification in our program. In this case, the participant used the ring around the neck, the ventral coloration, and dorsal coloration to support the identification as a ringneck snake. Handling Snakes. The absolute best part of the program for all of us and the most fun is getting to handle the snakes. We have developed a system that motivates students to rapidly overcome fears and to try to engage with the various serpents in challenging ways. At the beginning of our program students are asked to use Levels of Engaging with Snakes poster (see below) to identify the level of engagement they are presently comfortable with in regards to snakes. They are then given the opportunity to see others handling snakes and to touch them if they wish, and, without exception, they all touch a snake before the program is over. It is useful here to emphasize that this experience is much unlike a visit to a nature center where visitors may use two fingers to touch a captive-reared docile snake or possibly even hold one. Our program allows participants to engage with nonvenomous serpents in the way that herpetologists do. They may, if they wish, pick up a snake from the cage or the floor or catch one outdoors. Video Picking Up a Snake for the First Time: Video Picking Up a Snake from a Box: Video Picking Up an Adult Snake from an Aquarium: They may engage with challenging snakes, ones that are nervous, ones that react suddenly, or ones that may strike or bite. Each person decides if he or she wants to climb the ladder of engagement and has calm, professional support from the Project Leader and/or Assistant Leader. As the session progresses, students tend to become more and more engaged and seek to climb the ladder of engagement. Each day we have a new group in the snakes unit, but word gets out about the snakes and the engagement levels. By the end of the week-long program, new participants are primed for advancement by the gossip as well as the other programs they have experienced in the HRE where they have become accustomed to handling reptiles and amphibians. On the last 2 days, most of the students reach the highest level of engagement and joyfully proclaim such during lunchtime reports. None of our snakes has ever been harmed in this program, nor has any participant been hurt. Only rarely does a student get bitten, but when they do they are quite proud of the marks left on their skin, if they are lucky enough to have something to show off. Before you engage participants in this way, please review the information on catching and handling snakes at the beginning of this material. Ask students to think of three different ways one might measure the length of a snake. (Have a student write these on board) Some possible responses include “stretch the snake”, “let it crawl along a wall”, “put it into a tube”… A person could try to stretch a snake but, if you do, you could damage the vertebrae because the muscles will tense in response to your stretching. Snakes will squeeze up and loosen up, shortening and lengthening the spinal column, making it impossible to get an accurate reading. Dead snakes measure considerably longer than live snakes because there are no muscle contractions to compress the spaces between the vertebrae. Snakes have over 200 synovial joints (moveable joints like our knees and backbones) on their skulls and backbones, which is why live snakes can stretch and shrink depending on muscle contractions and dead snakes with no muscle contractions are so much longer than live ones. My 9-year-old neighbor was fascinated by this news and was inspired to say “That must be why snakes are so bendy!” Indeed it is Jack, indeed it is. Since there really are no good ways to get a single accurate measurement of live snakes, we use a squeeze box because it is the least stressful method we know. A squeeze box is a home-made unit that consists of a piece of foam, a clear piece of Plexiglass the same size as the foam, and a piece of plastic or vinyl that is also the same size. Above left : Gentle pressure on the plexiglass covering the snake allows the animal to remain calm, safe, and unharmed. Once under the glass, the spine is traced with a dry erase marker then the snake is released. Above right: The line is measured with a string, and the string is then measured with a meter stick. The video shows how it is assembled and used and why the snakes remain calm, safe, and unharmed. Video Snake Measuring: A snake may be in the squeezebox for a minute or less. Simply place the snake between the Plexiglass and the covered foam and gently press down. The snake becomes immobilized without being harmed. Quickly use an erasable pen to draw a line on the Plexiglas from the head of the snake down the vertebral column to the tip of the tail. Then release the snake and return it to the cage. Take yarn or string and trace the line you just created, then measure the length of the yarn or string to get the measurement of the snake. In order to compare snake lengths, one must measure all of the snakes being compared using the same technique. Venomous and Non-venomous How can you tell if a snake is venomous by looking at it? (Ask a participant to write all the answers on the board). Some snakes have facial pits near the nostrils. These are the pit vipers. Other snakes, like the coral snake, have heads that look a lot like non-venomous snakes. (Dispelling myths about venomous snake “characteristics”?) Venomous Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix and the non-venomous Northern Watersnake, Nerodia sipedon (right) are often confused. Anyone know about what percentage of NC snakes are venomous? Of the 37 species of snakes in NC there are only 6 venomous snakes, which is about 16% meaning that 84% of our NC snake species are non-venomous. The six venomous snakes in NC include the Copperhead, Eastern Rattlesnake, Pygmy Rattlesnake, Timber Rattlesnake, Cottonmouth, and the Coral snake. Do you die if you are bitten by a venomous snake in NC? Venomous snakes may inject some, all, or none of their venom when biting. When no venom is injected it is called a dry bite. It takes a large investment of energy to produce venom so when a snake strikes defensively rather than to acquire food, the venom is sometimes conserved. Most NC venomous snake bites are not fatal but all should be considered serious if any venom at all is injected. A bite from an Eastern Diamondback is an emergency, though the likelihood of encountering one of these snakes is extremely low. Most cottonmouth and copperhead bites are not fatal for humans. Mole kingsnakes, corn snakes, and juvenile rat snakes are often mistaken for copperheads and killed. Look at coloration, shape of body, and shape of head to identify snakes. A good policy is to just leave them alone and admire and observe them from a distance.

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Considered Poland’s best composer, Frédéric Chopin focused his efforts on the piano composition and had the high influence on the composers who followed him. Frédéric Chopin was born on March 1, 1810. He was a virtuoso pianist and Polish composer of the Romantic era who wrote mostly for the solo piano. Chopin gained and had maintained famous worldwide as the greatest musician of his time. Frédéric’s “poetic genius depended on a professional technique which was without equal in his own generation.” This great composer was born in what was then known as Duchy of Warsaw and grew up in the Warsaw that in 1815 became part of the Congress Poland. As child prodigy, he finished his musical education and did compose his earlier works in the Warsaw before he left Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before an outbreak of the Nov. 1830 Uprising. It’s clear that Chopin’s love for music started at an extremely young age since his father was a musician of various instruments and his mother a piano teacher and player. Nonetheless, his decision to become a musician was on account of his sister Ludwika who taught him basic tunes and how to play the piano. Many scholars give thanks, Ludwika as a first piano teacher of Chopin. All of the Frédéric’s compositions include the piano. Many are for solo piano, even though he also wrote a few chamber pieces, two piano concertos, and a number of songs to Polish lyrics. Chopin’s Musical Styles The music of Frederic Chopin is world-famous for its captivating moods and delicate gracefulness. He wrote music which was to be understood in musical terms only and didn’t depend on evoking pictorial or literary elements from the past. Pretty much all of the songs Chopin wrote is for solo piano. His most popular works, on which his reputation is established, are his Preludes and Nocturnes. His Mazurkas and Polonaises are also famous. Each of these special styles had a tradition before Frédéric, but his experimental talent and nature transcended what had been carried out with each form of the music. Frédéric endowed his Nocturnes, short-lyrical pieces whereby a simple melody expresses a broad range of emotions, into what’s possibly his most seminal works. The Preludes, written while he lived in the Majorca with George Sand, are at once melancholic and ecstatic. 1. Raindrop Prelude in D-flat Major, Opus 28. No. 15 2. Nocturne in E-flat Major, Op. 9 No. 2 The mazurkas and the polonaises are Polish dance forms which Frédéric used to express his love and the longing for his home country. 1. Mazurka Op. 17 No. 4 2. Fantasie Impromptu in C-sharp Minor Op. 66 The unique sound of the Chopin’s music is because of a number of things. First of all, his style of playing was light, delicate, and had flexibility to it which developed lots of different emotion layers. These qualities are all shared by the songs he wrote. Frédéric was (apparently) much more suited to playing in a drawing room or any other intimate settings rather than a concert hall. Perhaps, it makes sense because most of his pieces have a lot more power when they are performed in a cozy setting. The melodies in his pieces are either exciting and grand, or reflective and touching. The harmonies develop subtle shades of color and provide the music a fragile feeling. In fact, there are very many ways to describe Chopin’s music, here is a short list of words: Frédéric music is also important since it benefits a lot from a rhythmic technique known as rubato (that he mainly used when he played). This is basically speeding down or slowing up the melody based on the flow of the piece. The nocturnes particularly sound excellent with the rubato! He also used characteristic chromaticism (Greek word for “colored,” means using notes not part of the existing scale) to develop inky and thoughtful moods. Chopin always puts these little chromatic runs throughout the place. They are tricky to play but very funny! A great big thank you to our sponsor, Appliance Repair Huntington NY, for helping us not only with our blog but also at home. For the best freezer repair Huntington NY has, give them a call today! Johannes Brahms was one of the most important composers at the end of the 19th century, writer of four symphonies. He was known for his keeping with the classical traditions of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, in contrast with Wagner, and the Romantic school of his time. Brahms was born in Hamburg, Germany, on May 7, 1833, the son of an innkeeper/musician named Johann Jakob. He started composing music at a tender age, and when he was a teenager, he gave lessons and played in the bars and dance halls to help out his family. His first more professional work was conducting a small male choir, for which he wrote some of his first vocal music. In 1850, he met, Eduard Remeny, a Jewish Hungarian violist, who introduced to Brahms the world of gypsy music, which would later inspire his Hungarian dances. In 1853, Brahms’ career took a positive turn when he met Joseph Joachim, a young violin virtuoso, who noticed his talent, introducing him to Franz Liszt, and Robert Schumann, who helped Brahms become recognized in the musical world. Later on, he would become great friends with Schumann, and when Schumann became ill, he helped to take care of his large family. In 1859, Brahms was appointed conductor of a women’s choir in Hamburg, where he gained valuable experience, at the same time continuing composing two Serenades for orchestra, and his first String Sextet, as well as his first Piano Concerto, which at the time was only well received in Hamburg. In 1863, after giving concerts in Vienna, Brahms became the conductor of the Singakademie there. He became more and more famous, able to earn an income through his composition. When his mother died in 1865, he began to work on the German Requiem, one of his most famous works, with texts from the German Luther Bible. At this time he also wrote two volumes of Hungarian Dances, which were a great success. He also wrote his Waltzes for vocal quartet and four-hand piano. In this time he also wrote some of his greatest songs. In the 1870’s, Brahms wrote more and more chamber music and felt ready to begin his first symphony. Because he had been compared with Beethoven, he felt compelled to make this symphony perfect, so it was a very tedious process. He soon after published the second symphony. Later one, he would write two more symphonies. In 1879, by which time, his popularity had spread into Switzerland, the Netherlands, and to Poland, Brahms was given an honorary degree from the University of Breslau. In thanks, Brahms composed the Academic Festival Overture, which is based on some German student songs. In this period he also wrote his Violin Concerto in D major, and his second Piano Concerto in B-flat major. He remained in Vienna for the rest of his life, continuing to compose many great works. In his final years, he continued dedicating himself to composition, particularly to music for the clarinet. After this, he felt his creativity had come to an end, although he was able to write Four Serious Songs, which came about as his dear friend, Clara Schumann’s, health was declining. They are about the vanity of life and welcoming death. She died in 1896, and it would not be long before Brahms too would pass on. He appeared in concert for the last time in March 1897, and the next month, on April 3, the great composer died of liver cancer. Upon his death, he was greatly honored by the musical world. Max Kalbeck published a multiple volume biographies about him in 1906, and about 20 years later, a collection of all of his work took up 26 volumes. In contrast to the music of Wagner and Liszt, who were extremely progressive, Brahms stayed somewhat conservative, hoping to create music which would endure. Although he was greatly criticized for going against the tide, the generations to come would greatly appreciate his music, identifying the unique intensity and compositional mastery that characterizes so much of his work. Some of his notable quotes: Without craftsmanship, inspiration is a mere reed shaken in the wind. „I would prefer to be inspired by a beautiful melody than to receive the order of Leopold.” This was an Austrian award given by the emperor in the early 19th century. Today’s post was brought to you by our friends at Douglas Carroll Salon in Raleigh NC. When you need to look and feel your best, their services are the best you’ll find anywhere. Why not book your appointment today! Born on 27th of January, 1756, Salzburg , Austria, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart commonly referred to as Mozart shaped the growth and future of classical music by his wonderful talents as a song composer, pianist and a player of many other instruments. He had learned playing piano when he was just three years of age and by the time he was 6 he began to play in public. The iconic artist and Austrian music composer was able to create a string of operas, sonatas, symphonies, concertos and many others that played a huge role in shaping what would later be called Classical music. He composed 600 classical works and up to date he is esteemed as one of the greatest composers of all time. His versatility and diversity in all musical creations and platforms associated with Classical music has brought him great honor even unto this day. Classical music is an artistic kind of a music that is produced or created from the traditions of Western music, whether religious or secular. Mozart’s steps towards growing in classical music dated back in the 1760s and that is why he is seen to be one of the main artists who developed classical music because classical music saw foundation and growth from the 1750s to 1820s. Classical music has been recognized for its ability to appreciate highly sophisticated instrumental music such as the concerto, symphonies, sonata and a mixture of vocals and instrumental styles such as opera of which when these kind of music is written down can reach very high complexity levels. Classical music is written using musical language of notations and leads to creation of a musical part that informs about the rhythm, pitch, and the coordination acceptable where many singers are performing together. It’s one of the most orderly music genres ever. His music was marked with vivid emotions and complicated and sophisticated textures after aligning himself with various European venues and patrons. Mozart took to the steps of his parents who were also musical and greatly gifted in the art of music. Mozart being the only surviving child to his parents, Leopold and Maria, he learned music from his father. Leopold was a great music composer, violinist and assistant concert master at the Salzburg court. Mozart showcased his excellency in the understanding of music as he was able to compose as early as five years old. Wolfgang was taken for a long journey to Italy by Leopold his father who had accepted and was proud of his wonderful artistic abilities and aimed to showcase his son’s amazingly excellent performances to as many people as he could arrange for. He continued to grow in music and at 21, he had been appointed as assistant concert master in the church they were worshiping which gave him an avenue to interact with some instrumentals that he was not familiar with. Up to date, Mozart’s compositions and instrumentals are termed as one of the best classical music ever. Though Wolfgang died an early death, at 35, he and his father had touched the world with music that would build a legacy for them to be remembered and honored many years, many decades and several centuries after their departure from the face of the world. A thank you is owed to our sponsor and one of the most reliable tow truck service that we have had the pleasure of dealing with, Escondido Tow Company. Born in December 1770 in Bonn, Germany, Beethoven was a great composer and pianist. Considered to be one of the most influential composers in Western Classical Music, he wrote nine symphonies, nine concerti and a variety of orchestral work, overtures and incidental music and other occasional work. Beethoven started learning music at a very young age from renowned musicians of those times. With his extraordinary talent, he captured the attention of several famous musicians and made his first public appearance at Vienna in 1795 where he was to play his own work. This was followed by a tour to Prague, Dresden, Leipzig and Berlin. He had debuted with a piano concerto in the same year in Budapest. Till then he had established himself as a piano virtuoso. Beethoven Piano Concertos Beethoven Piano Concertos were admired throughout the world and are still known as masterwork. He wrote several concertos out of which seven are very famous. These include Piano Concerto No. 1 in 1796-97, Piano Concerto No. 2 in 1795, Piano Concerto No. 3 in 1800-01, Triple Concerto for violin, cello and piano in 1805, Piano Concerto No.4 in 1805-06, Piano Concerto No. 5 in 1809-10 and an unpublished Piano Concerto in 1815. The last one was performing version and was incomplete. It was later on completed by Nicholas Cook. Along with this, he had also written Violin Concerto in 1806 and Romance in E minor for three soloists and orchestra. Beethoven Sonatas constitute a great treasure that have been researched and studied by numerous pianists and musicologists. He had written thirty-two piano sonatas creating a new and impressive form of art. He played an important role in transforming and evolving of the sonata form. He had imposed his personality and joys and sorrows of his own life on the sonatas. Beethoven had also composed nine symphonies including Symphony No. 1 in 1799-1800, Symphony No. 2 in 1801-02, Symphony No. 3 in 1803-04, Symphony No. 4 in 1806, Symphony No. 5 in 1804-08, Symphony No. 6 in 1804-08, Symphony No. 7 in 1811-12, Symphony No. 8 in 1812 and Symphony No.9 in 1817-24. He also intended to write the tenth symphony but because of his ill health, he could not do so. His other works include five orchestral works, around ten overtures and incidental music composition, chamber music including string trios, piano trios, sonatas for violin, works with wind instruments and cello with piano. String quarters, string quintets and trio for piano, flute and Bassoon, and so on are some other noticeable works of Beethoven. In 1801, Beethoven confessed to his worry of becoming deaf but he carried on with his music compositions and explored many other musical domains. His handicap was getting worse day by day and in later years he stopped talking to people. It was during this time that he wrote exceptional sonatas and symphonies for piano music, his greatest work. He also wrote one opera, Fidelio. In conclusion, Even though we tune in to music and enjoy it in various ways under distinct conditions and circumstances, there’s no single definition for music. To some, music might be a voice or sound which makes them feel soothing and harmonious while for others it might be something to encourage, excite and relieve the moods through high bass. The history of music expands between prehistoric to recent times. It’s enriched with big names of excellent musicians. Beethoven was bedridden during last of months of his life and died on March 26, 1827 during a thunderstorm. Finding people you can trust to put the best floors in your home can be a struggle. Atlanta Hardwood Flooring takes away that struggle by having the best materials and the best installers. If you are looking into hardwood floor installation atlanta give them a call, you won’t regret it! Bach Music Style (Baroque) Johann Sebastian Bach contributions to the baroque music era are patently amongst the most significant contributions in the music history. He is considered as a genius of baroque music. This music genre is undoubtedly dramatic and very complex style of music that peaked in the early 1700’s. Baroque is a style of the classical music and its divided into three. The early baroque which lasted until the mid-17th century, the middle baroque that lasted until the late 17th century and the late baroque which ended with the deaths of G.F Handel and J.S Bach in 1759. Baroque music is easily recognizable; it is the fantastic and expressive music incorporated in many historical films. The high projection of emotion and a sense of underlying spirituality are the particular characteristics which underpin baroque music performance. In other words, it is a unique style that makes the deliberate use of strong contrast to heighten dramatic effect. For instance putting different sections of a piece against each other. It has been accepted that three composers symbolize the main achievements of the Baroque. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), George Fredrick Handel (1685-1759) and Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) and Johann Sebastian Bach Biography Born on 21st March 1685, in Eisenach, Bach was the youngest child of Elizabeth Lammerhirt Bach and Johan Ambrosius Bach. His father was a church organist, and many of his family members were also musicians. The members of his family were talented and skilled at playing many musical instruments such as organ, clavichord, harpsichord, and violin. Bach was capable of training in all these areas during his early years of music training. His parents passed on when he was only nine years, and at the age of 10yrs, Bach moved on to live with his elder brother Johan Christoph who became his music teacher. In 1700, he was awarded a singing scholarship through an opening at St Michael School in Luneburg. He tremendously improved on his singing skills and started playing the violin. Later in 1702, Bach graduated. In 1703 he was hired as a church organist in Armstead Germany. This opportunity provided him with the chance to practice his favorite instrument. In 1707, he became a church organist for a church in Muehlhauser, Germany. He later married his Cousin Maria Barbara Bach later the same year. Also Cantata no. 71 God is My King was composed the same year. Bach later moved to Weimar where he became a court musician to Duke Wilhelm Ernst. He was able to write many original organ musics during 1708 to 1710. His wife died in 1720 and remarried again in 1721 to Anna Magdalena Wulken. In 1723 he was named the choir leader of Leipzig where he provided choral music to the churches St. Nicholas and St. Thomas. During this period he also gave private singing lessons and taught music classes. The majority of his choral music was composed during this time. Sadly, he lost his eyesight during his final years and went blind during his last year of his life and on 28th July 1759 Bach died due to complications from high fever and stroke. Our first sponsor happens to be the best at what they do, the Christian Drug rehab at Zion Recovery Center! Hi everyone, welcome! I’ll be posting a lot about classical music, musicians, and all things in the wonderful world of classical music. While I’m getting everything set up, please enjoy this compilation of Bach melodies. It’s the best collection I’ve found to date. Check back soon as I’ll be adding lots more!

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First of all, what exactly is a CD-ROM? Short for'Compact Disc Read-Only Memory', a CD-ROM looks exactly like an audio CD but contains multimedia files that are programmed to use text, images, audio and video to provide interactivity. CD-ROMs are often included free or at little extra cost with coursebooks and workbooks. CD-ROMs accompanying courses typically have content related to each course unit, providing learners with extra reading and listening materials, recording functionality to practise pronunciation and speaking, and with grammar and vocabulary activities like matching vocabulary to definitions, drag and drop exercises, gap-fills, crosswords, and so on. These CD-ROMs are primarily designed for learners to work on alone as follow-up to a lesson, either in a school self-access centre or at home. They can include features such as allowing learners to choose their own path through the CD-ROM materials by making their own 'lesson plans' - choosing which activities to do and in what order to do them. Many coursebook CD-ROMs also have testing materials incorporated, so that learners can check their own progress, as well as a grammar reference section and mini-dictionary. As well as the CD-ROMs accompanying language coursebooks, there are standalone CD-ROMs aimed at different groups of learners which cover different language areas and skills, such as examination preparation and practice, grammar and vocabulary andpronunciation. And of course there are dictionary CD-ROMs. Pronunciation practice usually involves a learner listening to a word or short sentence, and then recording themselves while repeating the word or sentence. The learner's output is then compared to a 'model' of correct pronunciation and the results displayed to the learner, often in the form of a graph. What is known as voice recognition software is used for this type of pronunciation activity. Note that voice recognition software is not always reliable, and even native speakers can be given negative feedback if their accents do not match the model provided! CD-ROMs are particularly strong on providing grammar practice activities, and listening and reading materials for learners. CD-ROMs are less effective for speaking practice, as it is difficult to move beyond a 'listen and repeat' model, given the technology currently available and the lack of 'real' interaction inherent in a CD-ROM. Writing, too, will tend to be limited to 'fill in the blanks' activities, or reordering sentences into paragraphs or comparing paragraphs to a model. Any longer texts or creative writing produced by the learner will need to be corrected by the teacher, which makes practice of the writing skill less suited to this kind of self-study. Starting to make an appearance along with CD-ROMs in the language teaching world are DVDs - short for 'Digital Versatile Disc' - which were developed in the 1990s. These are similar to CD-ROMs in that a variety of data can be stored on them, but they have much greater storage capacity than CD-ROMs. DVDs are usually used as an alternative to video cassettes, which are becoming increasingly outdated. DVDs allow the viewer to choose from various language options. On an EFL coursebook DVD you will generally find more video, which takes up a lot of disc space, than you would find on a CD-ROM. The video content on a DVD can be viewed on a computer with DVD viewing software installed, or on a DVD player. Note, though, that DVDs featuring interactive exercises need a computer. Some people believe that DVDs will eventually replace CD-ROMs in the EFL world, given their superior storage capacity and the high quality of video and audio. One particularly useful feature of DVDs is that there is often an option to view subtitles along with a video dialogue. In ELT courseware DVDs these subtitles are generally only in English, but in authentic DVDs, such as feature films, they can be in a choice of several languages. There are several ways the subtitles in DVDs can be used with learners in an English class. Here are a few ideas: • The subtitles for a dialogue are hidden during a first (and even second) viewing. How much the learners understood can then be checked with comprehension questions, and the dialogue played a final time with the subtitles displayed. • Learners listen to short sections of a DVD dialogue several times, transcribe them and then check their version of the transcript with the subtitles. • Learners watch a short DVD dialogue between two characters with the audio switched off, reading the subtitles several times. Pairs are then invited to each take a character role, and to read the subtitles for their character at the same time the dialogue is played again, still with the audio switched off. This can be repeated several times. Can the learners keep up with the lip movements of their characters? Finally, the dialogue is played with the audio switched on. While the use of DVDs of feature films is not a feature of using technology-based courseware, it is worth pointing out that you can exploit the use of native language subtitles for English language films, if you teach in a monolingual context. Play a short dialogue from an English language film, with the sound switched off, and only the native language subtitles displayed. Allow learners time to translate their native language into what they think the characters are saying in English. Replay the sequence several times with the sound still off, so that learners can check their translations with the lip movements of the characters on the DVD. Finally, play the sequence again with the sound on. Compare and discuss any differences in the translations. Using CD-ROMs with learners in the classroom Given that CD-ROMS are readily available and easy for learners to use, one of the first issues to resolve is whether to encourage your learners to use them entirely alone at home or in the self-access centre, or whether to integrate them into the classroom in some way. Self-study use of CD-ROMs at home is only possible, of course, if learners each have their own copy of a CD-ROM (or if the self-access centre in a school allows learners to take CD-ROMs home) and access to a computer. There are several types of activities that can be done to integrate a CD-ROM into your lessons: • In the single computer classroom or school, pairs of learners can take turns to do a few CD-ROM activities, for example a couple of grammar drag-and-drop activities, while the rest of the class are busy with paper-based activities on the same grammar point. This introduces variety into the classroom. • If you have access to a data projector (or 'beamer') and one computer, CD-ROM or DVD content can be projected onto a screen for the whole class to view and work on together, with learners taking turns to take control of the computer mouse. This is especially useful with video content, which in itself adds variety to the lesson. Using a data projector is also an excellent way to train your learners about what is on the course CD-ROM and how they should use it at home or in the self-study centre. • If the school has a computer room or self-access centre, the teacher can programme in regular short sessions, for example once a week or fortnight, in which learners work alone or in pairs on CD-ROM materials during class time. Note that these sessions should be kept short so that learners don't get bored or lose focus. CD-ROMs are often cited as being particularly motivating for learners, as they use 'new' technology, provide a multi-sensory alternative to paper-based classroom work, encourage self-study and autonomous learning, and can expose learners to authentic language via audio and video. The truth of the matter is that, like any tool, overuse can undermine the 'novelty' effect for students. Also, CD-ROMS have now been around since the late 1980s, and are being increasingly superseded by newer technologies such as blogs, podcasts, instant messaging, and so on, which we have already discussed in earlier chapters. The one big advantage that CD-ROMs have over these newer Internet-based technologies is that learners can work with CD-ROMs offline, and are thus not reliant on an Internet connection, which in some contexts may be unreliable, expensive or simply not an option. Given the wealth of CD-ROMs available for learners of English, where do you, the teacher, start in terms of evaluating whether one CD-ROM or another will be 'better' for your learners? In reality, teachers usually make the pragmatic decision of encouraging their learners to work with the coursebook CD-ROM (if there is one) in their own time, or refer them to the self-access centre. However, for those teachers who need to either recommend CD-ROMs to their learners, or are asked to choose CD-ROMs for their resource centres, where do you start? The first issue to consider is whether a specific CD-ROM is meant to be a standalone resource, for example a CD-ROM for exam practice, or if it is an additional resource for a course. We will now consider how to evaluate a freestanding or standalone CD-ROM. Asking the following questions, and matching them to the needs and interests of your learners, will help in this process. • What age group is the CD-ROM aimed at? Is the content suitable for adults, adolescents or younger learners? Is the content suitable for the cultural context in which you teach? • What linguistic level is the content aimed at - beginners, elementary, intermediate or advanced? • What kind of English is being focused on, for example business English, general English, English for academic purposes, and so on? • How 'interesting' are the materials, and how well are they presented? Is the CD-ROM easy to navigate around? Is there a range of activity types and is enough variety provided? • What skills and language areas are focused on - reading, writing, listening, pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar? • Is it clear to the learners what the aim of individual activities is? • How much multimedia content, especially video and audio, is there? What is the quality like? How much authentic audio/video is there, and how suitable is this for your learners? • How is feedback on activities given to learners? Does feedback, although automated, help students really learn from their mistakes, and if so, how? • How is testing integrated into the CD-ROM, and how do learners measure their own progress through the materials? • What additional resources are provided, for example a dictionary or glossary, grammar paradigms and explanations? • Are non-linguistic areas, such as intercultural communication skills, learner training or differences in learning styles, addressed in some way? If so, how? • Does the CD-ROM meet any accessibility laws you may face? Finally, you might want to consider what using a CD-ROM really adds to your learners' language learning experience, and how motivated they will be to use CD-ROMs, before you invest in CD-ROM resources. One way to do this is to discuss their value with your learners directly. It is also important to provide both teachers and learners with hands-ontraining in the use of CD-ROMs, and to link classroom work as far as possible with self-study CD-ROM work. Encouraging learners to keep a learning log of their self-access work and achievements, and even integrating this activity into your method of assessment, are ways of ensuring a sense of continuity between classroom work and self-study CD-ROM work. Computer-based testing, online testing, e-assessment ... all of these terms refer to a phenomenon which has become increasingly visible in English language teaching in the last few years, that of taking tests via a computer rather than on paper. EFL learners can now take a range of different tests and examinations via a computer. Here are some examples: • Learners can be given a diagnostic test on a computer before they start a course. This assesses their language levels in the skills of reading, writing, listening and even in discrete-item pronunciation, as well as in grammar and vocabulary. This information can then be used to assign the learner to a certain class or language programme, although for more thorough diagnostic testing, most institutions will also include a spoken interview and ask for a sample of the learner's writing. What is important to note is that both of these tests are examples of adaptive tests. The computer offers a question, and depending on the learner's answer, it mathematically estimates the level of ability and then finds a second question that matches that level of ability. It does the same with the next question, the second time revising its estimation of the learner's ability based on the two answers it now has. The same process continues with each question, and each time the computer has more information on which to base its estimate of ability, which becomes increasingly accurate as more questions are asked. Note that the free language school adaptive diagnostic test above is based purely on the recognition of grammar items. More sophisticated commercially available diagnostic tests (either online or via CD-ROM) will take into account a range of skills, and will recommend learning strategies for individuals based on their test performance, as well as point learners to their equivalent test scores in recognised examinations or tests like TOEFL or TOEIC. Learners can take simple progress tests on CD-ROM. These tests will be based on the work that the learners have been doing in their coursebooks. Tests are often included in the learner's coursebook CD-ROM, or 'Test Master' CD-ROMs are made available for teachers as editable Word files. Teachers can then use ready-made tests, or make new tests for their learners, based on coursebook material. Some publishers are starting to produce programs, or banks of online materials (often linked to courses), that enable teachers to create their own digital tests at the touch of a button. • Learners can take internationally recognised examinations on a computer, for example the Internet-based TOEFL Test from ETS. Advantages and disadvantages of computer-based testing For the large international examination boards there are obviously several important advantages in being able to offer examinations online. By offering increased flexibility in location (learners can take an exam in many more centres geographically online) and in timing (an exam can be offered more frequently online), their market is considerably expanded and convenience to the customer improved. With computer-based testing, the mechanics of marking and feedback can be automated to a much greater extent, and results provided to candidates more quickly than with a paper-based exam. Marking of certain items is also much more reliable by computer than by hand, although examining speaking and writing skills still requires human intervention. The long-term costs of developing and running online exams are also considerably lower than those for face-to-face examining. The main disadvantage of computer-based testing in our field continues to be that of ensuring reliability in the marking of extended pieces of writing and in assessing speaking. In this sense, nothing has changed from paper-based testing, as examiners are still needed and inter-rater reliability is difficult to guarantee. One other disadvantage is that initial investment costs in computer-based testing tend to be high, as software especially designed for specific computer-based tests is developed and an item bank of'questions' and resources is built up. A further important issue is that of authentication with distance testing: how does the examiner know that the person taking the test online is indeed who they claim to be? With the advent of optical and fingerprint recognition technology, we may start to see more official examinations and tests delivered online, with students taking them from home, but at the time of writing this is still an area in development. Security is an ongoing issue for anyone involved in setting examinations. For the language teacher, the main experience of computer-based testing is likely to be that of using computer-based progress tests or in preparing learners to take one of the internationally recognised exams online - and again, there are several CD-ROMs on the market that provide learners with exam practice that mimics the real thing (see page 120). Related to the area of online and computer-based assessment, are electronic portfolios, also called ePortfolios or digital portfolios. A traditional paper-based portfolio is a collection of a learner's work, and an ePortfolio simply means that this work is presented in electronic format, and can thus include various electronic media such as video, audio, blogs or websites, as well as documents. An ePortfolio can showcase a range of the owner's skills, and display achievements not just from formal learning situations, but also from extra-curricular activities or work experience. The portfolio may also include reflections on the learning experience itself. A portfolio is considered to be a richer way of assessing students, as it provides a much clearer idea of learner achievements and products than test scores or grades. ePortfolios are becomingly increasingly common in education, especially in secondary schools and further education institutions, reflecting the growing importance of, and access to, technology in our lives, as well as the rise of the electronic job market. A learner applying for a job with a company can send an ePortfolio of work to a prospective employer easily and quickly, and so display a range of skills not reflected in a test score. Portfolio building is generally an ongoing process, and may include materials from courses already taken by learners, as well as current projects and works in progress. Opposite (top) is a diagram of areas that might be included in an ePortfolio. This is a comprehensive overview of what could be included in an ePortfolio. Learners and teachers can choose from all of these elements and include what seems most relevant to the learner's needs and interests, and to the aims of the portfolio. The content of an ePortfolio belonging to an adult learner of business English working for a multinational company will obviously be considerably different from that of a secondary school learner whose ePortfolio is part of their overall English class annual assessment. Opposite (bottom) you can see an example of the opening page of an Italian student's ePortfolio. Susana has put links to her work in the right- and left-hand columns of the ePortfolio main page. There are several open source (free) software packages which learners can use to create an ePortfolio. One of these is Elgg (http://elgg.org/). An interactive whiteboard (IWB) is made 'interactive' by being linked to a computer which uses special IWB software. The three essential components needed to use an IWB are the whiteboard itself, a computer which has IWB software installed and a data projector (or 'beamer') which projects the image from the computer screen onto the whiteboard. What makes tVie interactive whiteboard different from a normal whiteboard is that the teacher uses a special pen (or their finger with some makes of board) to manipulate content on the whiteboard itself, rather then using the mouse to manipulate images on the computer screen, which the teacher can also do. The latest IWBs can also be used with a wireless tablet PC (a smaller, hand-held computer) instead of a larger desktop or laptop computer. This has the added advantage that it can be passed around so that learners can manipulate the IWB from the tablet PC. The interactive whiteboard itself comes in different sizes, measured diagonally across. The most common size is 190 cms (75 inches) across, and teachers tend to agree that the bigger the board the more effective it is, as images are more clearly displayed on a larger board. A whiteboard can be mobile (that is, moved from room to room) or fixed, but a mobile board needs to be set up again each time it is moved, which can take time. There are also backlit interactive whiteboards which do away with the need for a projector, but these are the most expensive kind of board. They are particularly useful in rooms with low ceilings. The main advantage of an IWB used with a computer and data projector over a computer and data projector used on their own is that you can write on the IWB with your pen or finger and interact with what is on the screen from the front of the class rather than having to look down to your computer and using the mouse to control the screen. IWBs in education The British Council has been influential in bringing IWBs to language classrooms outside the UK, introducing them into Southeast Asia in 2003, and expanding their use of IWBs since then. In the UK itself, huge government investment from the early 1990s has seen IWBs appearing in primary and secondary schools, and further education, on a large scale. Both are examples of a top-down implementation of technology, with large organisations (in this case, the British Council and the British government) providing the impetus for the introduction of new tools in the classroom. Excellent classroom work is being done using IWBs at primary, secondary and university level, as well as in the language classroom. ]ust Google 'IWB projects in schools', and you'll see a range of current and recent IWB projects in all sorts of school subjects. However, at the time of writing IWBs are being used mainly in large organisations like the British Council, or are part of government-led education initiatives, especially within the European Union. This is down to the high costs associated with IWBs. The hardware outlined above is expensive, and usually well beyond the budgets of individual language schools or educationin less wealthy countries. Although the costs of the hardware involved in using IWBs are expected to decrease over time, they are likely to remain beyond the reach of most EFL teachers worldwide for some time to come. Using IWBs with learners If you are lucky enough to have access to an IWB, you will know that the 'wow' effect is extremely high. In other words, IWBs look and sound impressive. Imagine a full-size colour screen in your classroom, with video, CD audio, pictures, interactive exercises like those found on a CD-ROM, access to the Internet, and more, all instantly accessible at the touch of your IWB pen. You can also use an IWB pen to write over the images on the screen, highlighting things in different colours, using a variety of fonts and styles to write in, or you can use the pen to hide and reveal images on the screen. Items can be moved around the screen using the pen, and previous lessons and content can easily be kept and retrieved, as everything is saved on the computer. This means that a huge bank of resources is always available at the touch of a pen.

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Three chapters in PME – by Martin, Barrett, and Burnard – focus primarily on the nature and teaching of musical creativity. These authors provide exceedingly valuable insights and perspectives, both theoretical and practical. Although I disagree with them on some points, we share a great deal in common, and I’ve learned from studying their views. To begin with, we all answer the following questions affirmatively: Is it possible to teach musical creativity? Yes! We can, and we must do so. Can children be creative? Yes, by all means! The big question, of course, is how do we develop our students’ creativity? The praxial view proposes that teaching musical creativity overlaps with and extends the strategies we use to develop our students’ musicianship-and-listenership in all situations – performing, improvising, arranging, composing, conducting – all of which involve and depend on listening. As Barrett says, “For Elliott, the key to creativity lies in developing musicianship and creative strategies concurrently (not consecutively), beginning at the earliest stages of instruction” (PME, p. 181). In addition, however, we help our students learn strategies that will enable them to apply and extend their musicianship-and-listenership toward producing creative outcomes, by which I mean original and significant performances, improvisations, compositions, and so forth. These strategies include what I and others call generating-and-selecting, instilling a creative disposition, planning, producing multiple drafts, risk-taking, opportunity finding, and so forth (see MM, pp. 225-227; 228-230; 234; PME, p. 181). So, a basic tenet of the praxial approach to musical creativity is that “creativity” is not something we restrict to teaching composing and improvising. Everything we do as music teachers should integrate the development of students’ musical understanding and students’ creative know-how. For example, if we are teaching our students to sing a simple song by Schubert, or Ella Fitzgerald, then we should simultaneously teach them to sing expressively in relation to the way music is sung in these styles and, also, develop their “creative mindsets” by inviting them to make suggestions (reflect) about and experiment with different interpretations of these songs, answer questions and give reasons for their choices, and so forth. In these ways, students learn that music making is not a simple matter of sound-producing; rather, musical music making involves reflecting on, generating, and selecting musical options toward creative outcomes. For example, if we are teaching our students to improvise the blues, we develop all ten forms of their thinking-and-knowing that make up their musicianship-and-listenership (see MM, chapters 3, 4 and 9-11), and we do this in the context of the blues-jazz practice being taught. Taking a contextual approach to developing creativity is a basic tenet of the praxial philosophy. Why? If a person is a creative blues improviser, this doesn’t mean that s/he will automatically be a creative rap improviser, or Broadway musical theater composer. Clearly, different criteria and histories of achievement apply in each musical style domain. Put another way, composers don’t “just compose,” improvisers don’t “just improvise,” and so forth. Composers (improvisers, performers, arrangers) work within specific musical style contexts which, in turn, favor different kinds of musical forms, expectations, and values. Of course, musical style characteristics can always be modified, appropriated, or combined. Indeed, “fusions” or ‘cross-overs” among and between styles are exceedingly common. What I’m saying, then, is that the musical style-practice we are working in provides us (teachers and students) with the guidance we need to teach and learn how to be musically creative in each musical practice. By “guidance” I do not mean “strict rules.” I mean that “placing” and planning the development of students’ creativity in particular musical-style contexts informs us (teachers and students) about many things we need to know to be creative in that style. For example, each style-practice will “point us” to everything from compositional techniques, to model works, to evaluative criteria, to recordings that students need to listen to for the stylistic features they need to learn, adapt, and/or surpass in creating their own music. Martin offers his perspective on these views: “This praxial perspective enables all music students to engage profitably in composing and improvising. It should also encourage teachers to become composers and improvisers and learn how to teach their students to do the same in some selected musical styles.” Also, Elliott’s premise that composing and improvising are “situated,” meaning that they should be taught in context, underscores the need for effective alternatives to abstract (acontextual, aesthetic) notions of “creativity,” which many teachers accept uncritically. Today, “creativity” is more often considered to be the outcome of doing, learning, and making in particular contexts of effort (e.g., musical styles), as Margaret Barrett also explains in the next chapter of this book (see PME, chapter 10). Thus, there is no substitute for engaging in style-related projects of composing and improvising. (PME, p. 174). These points bring us to a larger question: What is musical “creativity”? I spend a long time answering this question in MM (chapter 9). Here I’ll simply say that teachers hold a wide variety of views and, therefore, musical creativity is taught in a variety of ways. At one end of the continuum, many teachers believe that anything anyone does is “creative” and any kind of “doing” is automatically an instance of “creating.” In other words, judgments of creative achievement are purely subjective and personal. At the other end of the spectrum, some teachers believe that creativity is something that only geniuses can accomplish. Praxialism takes a contextual view: all people can develop their musical creativity because “creativity” is something that employs and extends musicianship and listenership, and because many kinds of “daily thinking-and-feeling” are always involved. This does not mean that everyone can become a Mozart. It means that people of all ages can learn to generate creative musical results: compositions, improvisations, performances-interpretations, and so forth. As Martin says: “Elliott’s praxial view of composition and improvisation as reflective practices is consistent with the demonstrated reports of practitioners and with the views of psychologists like Perkins (1981) and Weisberg (1986) for whom creative processes comprise ordinary procedures, not special talents” (PME, p. 174). A key tenet of the praxial view is that, because creativity occurs in particular musical style contexts, teaching and assessing the development of people’s creativity depends centrally on teachers who understand the style in question. Indeed, ask yourself this: would it be reasonable for a teacher with no knowledge or ability in the language and literature of French culture to assess the creative writing of a French secondary-school student? No. Similarly, would it be reasonable, musical, and educationally appropriate for a teacher with no experience or ability as a jazz-blues improviser to tell a student that his blues improvisation was good, bad, “creative” or “not creative”? I do not think so. Teachers must know how to listen to and compose (arrange, or whatever) in a given style if they’re going to teach and assess their students’ composing (performing, improvising, or whatever) in that style. Viewed from this perspective, students who are beginning to learn how to compose, arrange, improvise (and so forth) in a particular style-practice can be described as being “on their path” as creative music makers. They are learning what to listen for in the music of a specific style (or styles) and developing the musicianship needed to produce music in that particular style (or styles). They are not “creative” just because they are taking their first steps as composers; they are “novice or beginning composers.” However, as they gain some competency and proficiency with the materials and means of composing (improvising, etc.,) in a style, they are likely to generate a work that is more than ordinary, or routine: they will construct something original and significant – something creative – in the context of that style. So, a person (child or adult) does not need to be a genius or possess expert musicianship to produce creative musical results, but s/he does need a reasonable level of style-related musicianship-listenership in order to produce creative results. The reason is that a “creative product” is something that goes beyond normal, everyday doing. It follows from this that students need informed guidance about how to (for example) compose melodies in a “Cool” jazz style, or how to compose “soundscape” pieces in the style of R. Murray Schafer, or how to compose a 12-tone piece. Learning to do these things begins with explorations of sounds, yes, but the learning process must progress through various levels of knowing-how and knowing-why composers do what they do in particular musical style-practice communities. I strongly suggest (based on my own teaching and learning experiences as a composer), too, that throughout the processes of teaching musical creativity, students must be given opportunities to produce multiple versions of their compositions, improvisations, and so forth. Suppose, for example, that I want my middle school students to learn and appreciate the qualities of different modes (e.g., dorian, phrygian) in Cool jazz (as in Miles Davis, Birth of the Cool). To do so, I guide them to compose three (or five, or eight) modal melodies (8 bars long). I do not limit them to one melody. This way, I’ll have lots of latitude in giving them constructive-formative assessments of their melodies. Also, my students won’t be “holding tightly” to their one-and-only melody, which could easily cause them to feel badly if I offer them constructive criticism, which is difficult for most people to hear at the best of times. Burnard’s essay (PME, chapter 14) offers excellent examples of what I mean by praxial music education and the teaching of creativity. Notice, first, that her student composers are engaged in listening, improvising, composing, performing, and reflecting – in combination. These actions are not separated or compartmentalized. Notice, also, that the compositional processes and products of these students draw upon musical materials and experiences they first encountered as performers-listeners. As Burnard puts it: “This music making illuminates Elliott’s notion (MM, p. 102) of ‘listenership and its component knowings’ as procedural knowledge that feels and sounds in bodily actions learned from inside the musical practice of one player who transfers it to the other” (PME, p. 273). Martin’s experiences as a composition teacher include a concern for reflecting-in-and-on-action, problem solving, generating and selecting musical ideas, “conversations” with musical materials, and so on. I discuss several of these same strategies (MM, chapter 9). Like the children in Burnard’s “Music Creators Club,” Martin’s students embody their performance abilities in their composing (PME, p. 167). In short, Burnard and Martin agree with me that “performing experience [I would add improvising, too] is arguably a more basic and practical starting point for composting . . . because performing gives students a first-hand, practical experience of the materials and the procedures of musical discourse in specific musical-cultural practices (PME, p. 167). “Still,” says Martin, “there are unique aspects of compositional thinking that need attention during instruction” (p. 167). Yes, I agree. Moreover, we don’t have to limit the starting point of students’ composing to performing alone, which brings us to one of Martin’s main concerns. Martin states that he cannot agree with my decision “to include composing, alongside performing and improvising, ‘only as time permits’” (PME, p. 168). Actually, I do not say “only as time permits.” Nevertheless. I should have been clearer. As I’ve been emphasizing, I believe we must teach all forms of musicing in a balanced program. In reality, however, I’m also aware that most teachers do not have the time they need to teach all forms of musicing all the time. So, we need to decide some priorities (at the same time, I understand why many colleagues may want to put composing at the center of the curriculum. More on this in a moment). Still, I’m persuaded about the importance of performing and improvising (and listening, of course) as foundations for composing, and the need to link performing to composing so students can hear what they compose. This is why I say that, in addition to performing and improvising (note that improvising is a form of composing), “composing, arranging, and conducting ought to be taken up [i.e., taught] with reasonable frequency” (MM, p. 274). So, I see a difference between how Martin interprets my words and what I say. In fact, Burnard interprets my view another way: “the praxial view of general music education affirms the complexity of children as reflective music makers and validates listening, performing, improvising, composing, arranging, and conducting as interdependent forms of creative doing” (PME, p. 267). That said, I want to confirm that I understand why and how some teachers (especially many colleagues in the UK) hold that student composing should be “first among equals” in music education. For example, if a teacher knows how to compose reasonably well in a reasonable range of styles, and if her students can learn to sing and play to some extent, and if students have ways of hearing their compositions performed expressively and regularly (e.g., by performing themselves, or in their class ensembles, and/or by other student performers in their school or community), then I agree that (a) a composing is an excellent “emphasis” in music education and (b) that a composing emphasis fits perfectly well with what I mean by “praxial music education.” And since composers frequently improvise in the processes of composing their works, improvising is an important process/strategy to learn in connection with learning to compose. Here is a case in point. When I was a secondary school music teacher in Toronto in the 1970s (our school had 2200 students), my responsibilities included teaching composing and improvising in several general music classes. (I also taught instrumental music classes: wind ensembles, brass and woodwind chamber groups, and large and small jazz groups). In collaboration with my two colleagues (a sting orchestra teacher and a choral specialist), I continuously linked our student composers to our vocal and instrumental students. These composer-performer collaborations allowed our student composers to hear (and conduct) their works on a regular basis in class, at school concerts, and at evening chamber music concerts, which my colleagues and I organized every few weeks to showcase our students’ compositions. In short, I am not a performance-only teacher, and the praxial philosophy is not limited to performing. It emphasizes the basic importance of performing and improvising (MM, p. 172), both of which involve listening, but it also advocates that students’ compositions and arrangements be given the time and consideration they deserve towards musical performances of these works. Martin makes two additional comments about my thoughts on improvisation (PME, pp. 168-170). On the topic of teaching improvising and composing, Martin makes a fair point in favor of teaching improvising in a “pure way,” without getting involved in composing: “I cannot see why student improvisers necessarily require ‘the more deliberate and forgiving tempo of compositional-notational time, as Elliott suggests’” (PME, p. 170). However, I do not say composing is “required” in the teaching of improvising. I only say that “student improvisers would benefit from opportunities” to engage in compositional processes and projects because composing and improvising are so similar in fundamental ways. Besides, from a pedagogical perspective, different students learn in different and/or multiple ways; so, linking composing to the teaching-learning of improvising would most likely assist some student improvisers in important ways. A second criticism (p. 171) is that I focus exclusively on the solo improviser. Martin gives excellent examples of how and why it’s necessary to examine and teach improvising as a group activity. Martin is right. I should have said much more about the collective nature of improvising as it occurs in different musical practices. I believe my emphasis on the collective and collaborative nature of the praxial curriculum-as-practicum implies that improvising must be taught with attention to the interactive nature of improvising, but I must make this point more explicit in future discussions. Barrett supports the praxial view for several reasons (PME, chapter 10). First, she observes that praxialism “moves our profession beyond the excesses of the progressive child-centered movement where an ‘anything goes’ kind of ‘self-expression’ was the guiding principle for teaching the arts (Abbs, 1987, pp. 38-46). For Elliott, creative musical achievements can only arise in a context in which issues of domain and field (e.g., knowledge in a field) are considered in conjunction with individual makers” (PME, p. 177). She adds that the praxial concept of creativity “goes far beyond traditional notions of creativity-as-composing to include all forms of music making: arranging, composing, conducting, improvising, and performing” (p. 177). Nevertheless, Barrett has some important concerns. First, she queries my view that that “composing is a ‘major’ but secondary means of developing musicianship” (PME, p. 178). I admit that this was not a good choice of words. I did not mean to say that composing is “secondary” in the sense of being lesser, unimportant, or inferior to performing and improvising. I meant to say that composing must be connected to performing and listening; otherwise, students will not learn to discern when their works are performed well or badly. I’ve already explained (in my discussion of Martin’s essay, above) that I support curricula where composing is central – as long as student composing is intimately connected with a serious concern for how well students’ works are interpreted, performed, and listened to by the student composers themselves and their peer (classroom) audiences. In fact, Barrett seems to acknowledge what I’m saying in this statement: “when he discusses composition as musical creativity ([MM] pp. 161-163), he does not see it as a “stand-alone” activity. Rather, he sees each kind of composing (defined by its context of traditions, standards, and style elements) as embedded in a web of social-historical-musical thinking-in-action” (PME, p. 177). Yes, and this is why I think Barrett’s use of the term “schism” (p. 178) might be too strong in comparing my view with educators like John Paynter. For example, I don’t think Professor Paynter would disagree with me that teachers need to be very concerned with how students’ compositions are “made audible” and how well students are learning to listen in the composing context. Surely “teaching and learning composing” means students do more than generate and “write down” their ideas (graphically and/or in standard notion)? Otherwise, there is no comprehensive music teaching-learning going on. Again, then, a very serious question is this: Are students’ hearing their compositions performed (by themselves, their classmates, and/or others) accurately, sensitively, expressively – musically! – in our music composition classes? Unfortunately, some music teachers “teach composition” with no attention to this vital issue. For them, it’s enough to “sound out” or “reproduce” students’ compositions. (I’ve seen this kind of non-musical “composition teaching” in many parts of the world). I oppose such unmusical teaching practices that split composing and performing. This is why I emphasize the need to be concerned with performing, improvising, and listening in relation to teaching composition. And this is partly what I mean when I say that students need to be involved in performing and improvising before and during their efforts as composers. Next, Barrett suggests that the praxial view of creativity is a significant departure from earlier views of creativity because of the following: it (a) recognizes the influences of historical and socio-cultural dimensions of creativity, (b) it emphasizes the development of individual skills and understandings from novice-to-competent and proficient levels of music listening and making (MM, pp. 70-71; p. 227), and it (c) views the processes through which the individual works in contexts of real musical practices. (PME, p. 182) However, Barrett is concerned that I do not draw from research that examines the creative processes of school-aged children. In relation to this issue, she asks the following questions: “What constitutes the community of practitioners in the music classroom? Is it the larger community of practitioners to whom Elliott refers – that is, the musical community beyond the classroom and school setting where the ‘practitioners who originate, maintain, and refine established ways and means of musicing’ dwell? Is it that micro-community of practitioners who operate in specific schools and classrooms encompassing all the social and cultural features of these settings? Alternatively, is it the community of practitioners who originate, maintain, and refine established ways and means of musicing in the domain of music education? In learning a musical practice, says Elliott, interactions with ‘significant others,’ including teachers and the wider community of practitioners, whether in person or on recordings (p. 161), is essential. However, should students’ ‘creative’ endeavors be judged against those of the wider musical community or (as Csikszentmihalyi and Rich now seem to suggest) in comparison to the micro-communities of the school and the domain of music education?” (pp. 182-183) My answer is: all of the above. Guiding and assessing the musical-creative development of our students requires that we include all these factors. We nurture and assess creativity in relation to their efforts in the specific musical style-practices they are working in, and in relation to their peers and, therefore, in relation to both the larger community of musical practitioners and the micro-communities of the school, and the field of music education. Accordingly, when Barrett suggests that we should make a distinction between children’s musical creativity and adult creativity, I wonder about this. If we follow this line of thinking, then do we also assess adolescents’ musical creativity on a separate scale; and, do we assess middle-aged persons’ musical creativity on a different scale? The danger in this kind of age-based view of creativity is that teachers will assess children’s creativity only “against other contributors of a similar nature made by their peers” (p. 182). If this happens, then teachers may avoid the education of musicianship-listenership in favor of unique “self-expression,” and judgments will become highly subjective. The educational consequence is that, without a musical context to “refer to,” we will have nothing to teach and students will have nothing to learn because whatever student peers think will be deemed “creative.” Of course, I know music is different from other school subjects, but (for the sake of argument), consider what would happen if we limited our judgments of students’ efforts in math, or English, or soccer to aged-based criteria. Do we ever do this in education? No. We know and bear in mind the nature and standards of good (excellent, creative) English writing, good (excellent, creative) science work, good (excellent, creative) soccer playing. In terms of musical creativity, the process is similar, but not the same, of course. Musical creativity requires musicianship and listenership, but it goes beyond these because the many dimensions of meaning that make up a “musical work” in (an improvisation, composition, arrangement, performance-interpretation), in each given style, are more fluid and elusive than a mathematical proof, an experiment, or a creative “play” in sports. Thus, it is more difficult to assess creativity in music than in most fields. So, what would happen if we compared one first-grader’s beginning-level improvisation to another first-grader’s beginning-level improvisation to determine the relative “creativity” of each. Without considering these students’ efforts in relation to the musical-style context in which they’re improvising, we have no way of knowing whether their novice efforts are musical, let alone creative. For example, if one of these students plays four different notes of a pentatonic scale, and the other student plays three random notes in serial music fashion), which one is “creative”? How could a teacher possibly determine this reasonably, fairly, and musically? So, even at the earliest stages, teaching musicianship and creativity needs to be situated in style contexts, including (of course) 20th and 21st century avante garde, “exploratory” styles. At another point in her essay, Barrett worries that my concept of inducting children into musical practicums that approximate real musical practices “suggests that children are incapable of creative endeavor in music until they have attained sufficient levels of musicianship in real music cultures” (PME, p. 185). I didn’t mean to suggest this. In fact, consider the students in Burnard’s “Music Creators Club” (PME, p. 273) who are engaged in creative endeavors. Notice that they are drawing many of their musical ideas from “real” music cultures (or so-called “adult music”). For another example, I offer a scenario in MM (pp. 225-226) wherein a student named Clara is composing a short jazz flute duet in bebop style. So, I affirm that children can and do achieve creative results in real musical practices. Second, I see a possible contradiction in Barrett’s reasoning. On one hand, she suggests that there’s a problem with the praxial curriculum due to its focus on engaging students in “real music cultures” (my term) and “the communities of practice evidenced in the adult musical world” (PME, p. 185). She argues that by conceiving music education in relation to so-called “adult music,” we may “ignore (to our detriment) the musicianship that children bring to the music education enterprise, with a concomitant potential loss of musical richness and diversity in their, and our, lives” (p. 185). On the other hand, I note that most (if not all) of her examples of “children’s creativity” are linked to adult musics, as I’ll show in a moment. The same holds for the highly social aspects of improvising, composing, performing and moving that Barrett discusses as characteristic of children’s musical activities outside the school. I suggest that these characteristics are not unique to children; most real-world musics display the same characteristics, as we can see, and as ethnomusicologists commonly tell us. I freely admit that children, and people of all ages, bring their own musical experiences and ways of thinking to their unique processes of composing, listening, and so forth. We should honor and build on these prior experiences, as I affirm in my discussion of multicultural music education (MM, p. 211). And I agree with Barrett when she states that “many children bring to school considerable musicianship within a particular community of practice” (p. 189). However, I wonder if so-called adult music is a different species or practice (or praxis) compared to music “of the child’s musical world”? Perhaps we might say that children are exploring, discovering, learning and expressing the musics of their cultures in a variety of ways, from novice to beginning levels of ability and beyond? I suggest this because the examples of “children’s creativity” Barrett names in her essay are intimately related to “adult” musical practices – they are either drawn from real music cultures, or they are variations on pre-existing music cultures of the “real world.” For example, Barrett cites research on (a) West African singing games (which are related to West African adult traditions of music making), (b) the song-writing processes of young rock musicians (“rock music” is also a cluster of adult musical practices), and (c) Harwood’s research on the improvisational practices of African American girls, which Harwood relates to the girls’ knowledge of rap and pop songs from adult media, including MTV. Barrett concludes by suggesting that “when we speak about children’s creativity as it occurs in settings where children are the ‘controllers’ of the ‘musical community of practice, these elements of the domain and field must be defined as part of and within the parameters of that ‘community of practice’. Consequently, the ‘field’ is made up of experts in that domain, that is, other children” (PME, p. 189). But if what I pointed out above is accurate – i.e., if children very often make music in relation to the musics of real world practices, as Barrett substantiates with her own examples – then I question whether children are the only “experts” involved; perhaps teachers and adult musicians are also “experts” by virtue of knowing the musics that children appropriate?

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Undoubtedly, virtual reality has been one of the most discussed topics between educators since the past year. Multiple applications try to exploit its characteristics in order to enhance students’ learning process. Virtual Speech (Language VR) is an application which through scenarios and a wide range of language situations, aims to use the virtual reality to teach foreign languages. Besides English the user can choose between the following languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese, German and Chinese. Russian, Japanese, Italian and Korean are soon to be released. Originally the app was developed to help people learn English through simulations of the English culture and landmarks. The idea behind this was to create a more exciting way of learning in a virtual environment. Research shows that visual representations help in maintaining information and learning new vocabulary (Jones, 2010). In addition the use of images helps in making abstract ideas more specific to students. Below are listed the categories that the user can pick from. Experience Culture: Virtual Reality (VR) is the possible solution for creating genuine language learning environments in EFL countries for a variety of reasons. The most beneficial part of using VR is the creation of those situations that simulate the physical environment through digital representation (Chen & Chen, 2016). London, Cotswolds, Warwick, Cornwall and many other British places are available to visit. Vocabulary: The user is asked to locate various objects in beautiful and well-designed rooms. Despite the fact that we really liked this option it should be mentioned that the free version of the app includes only room. Audiobook Chapters: The user can choose to listen to renowned books such as Treasure Island or Alice in the Wonderland. Of course, it would be an addition if moving or static images could be added as to enhance the student's involvement. Basic Tenses: The player interacts with different shapes and objects trying to put them in order while creating sentences. Each object represents a single word. At the moment the user can choose from Present Simple, Past Simple and Future Simple. Numbers: A realistic space ship simulation game in which the player tries to maneuver his spacecraft to the right number. It's not just a language learning game, but it certainly enriches the whole experience. Roleplaying Speeches: It is a fact that through virtual reality it is possible to simulate situations that would be either too expensive or unfeasible to perform (Dávideková, et al., 2017). On this axis the user can simulate a speech, an interview, make a reservation for a hotel etc. It is a fact that there is no feedback based on what is said, but this may have had dubious results and would certainly require some financial consideration such as the purchase of the application. Rewards and statistics: Finally, it is possible to record some of the user's achievements which are earned after completing certain activities. Language VR will help teach English language and culture by providing photorealistic virtual reality environments to students to talk, listen, interact, and ultimately play. The application is fully compatible with Google Cardboard and is available for Android, IOS, and GearVR devices. You can find out more here https://virtualspeech.com/ Chen, X. and Chen, M. (2016). The Application of Virtual Reality Technology in the EFL Learning Environment in China. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Sensor Network and Computer Engineering. Dávideková, M., Mjartan, M. and Greguš, M. (2017). Use of Virtual Reality in Education of Employees in Slovakia. Computer Science, 113, pp. 253-260. Jones, A.D. (2010). Science through photography. Science through photography. Science and Children, 47 (5), 26-30. The gamification of learning is a modern, student friendly, efficient way of teaching and deliving content. This approach uses the elements and characteristics of video games to transform teaching in a way that will greatly affect students' engagement. Νearpod is an extremely powerful presentation tool. It allows teachers to create digital lesson plans, share it with students during class, and track individual progress. Lessons are comprised of teacher-created slides that can include text, video, images, websites, questions, quizzes, polls, and assignments. Teachers can use Nearpod effectively in the classroom to support student learning in a variety of ways. Give students opportunities for interaction and immediate feedback by having them draw on a map, respond to a poll question, post to a collaboration board, or take a multiple-choice quiz. Besides, teachers can incoroprate virtual reality trips and 360° views into their slides using the build-in capabilities the Nearpod offers. By watching videos and reviewing notes students can review the key concepts of the lesson. In addition they are able to follow the lesson on their own devices at their own pace or teachers can lead a synchronized session where students can follow the lesson in real-time. This way the learners become active participants in their education while teachers get valuable feedback on student learning. Nearpod augments the normal PowerPoint experience. Τhe presentation experience is enhanced by administering formative assessments to students as they work and allowing the teacher to monitor students as they take notes, draw or map concepts, answer quizzes and more. This is formal learning that uses the traditional classroom model and elevates it to include more interactive elements. How to use: To use this tool, the teacher must visit the Nearpod website and register.The teacher can either create the lesson from scratch or import an already made presentation in PowerPoint and then add the elements to enhance it. When satisfied with the created lesson, teachers can choose if they are going to lead the lesson or if students will complete the lesson individually. If they are going to complete it together, students will need to log onto the lesson by entering the lesson plan’s pin into the Nearpod app or website. If this option is selected, teachers will have the ability to monitor their students’ computer screens once they are logged in, which means whatever is shown on the teacher’s screen is also shown on the students’ screen. If students complete the lesson independently, they will be able to work on their own pace. If teachers include different activities and assessments, they will be able to view student achievement and work as students progress through the lesson. Teachers will be able to see student progress by clicking the group icon on the top left of the screen. Side note: Not all the content on Nearpod is free. A teacher may have to purchase a subscription to access all the content. However, the educator can still make and use a custom lesson with the students for free but some of the options are limited. Also, teachers are encouraged to use the “Explore” option to view lessons made by colleagues and then use them or modify them for their own needs. According to Gee's evaluation criteria (2003), educational video games must be pedagogically driven and appropriate to promote learning. These criteria refer to the motivation given to the student when using the application or game, the potential problems he / she will be faced with and his / her level of interactivity. Johnny Grammar's Word Challenge is an application suitable for Android and IOS devices. It is really beneficial for students who learn English and want to improve their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. The aim of the game is to answer as many correct questions as possible within a minute, with the user receiving badges depending on his performance (Grammar Guru, Word Wizard and Supreme Speller badges). By winning badges the player is placed on a leaderboard competing with other players worldwide. There are three levels of difficulty (easy, medium and hard) depending on the level of questions asked. In the vocabulary category there are 10 sub-categories related to food, travels, idioms, movies, hobbies etc. In the grammar category there are 12 sub-categories related to intentions, irregular verbs, auxiliary verbs, etc. After completing quizzes, the application offers feedback so the user can evaluate the answers given. In fact, through this gamification process, the user indirectly aims at improving the cognitive knowledge’s capacity as this improvement will also lead to a better placement in the ranking board. Assessing the "Johnny Grammar's Word Challenge" application with Gee's criteria for mobilizing the student, this game is structured in such a way that it makes the user feel that his action have a meaning (Gee, 2004). Problems in the application are well organized as there is a scaling difficulty so the learner can easily start from the lowest level of difficulty and reach the highest, making the challenges easily manageable (Gee, 2004). Another advantage is the immediate feedback given as the student quickly acquires an image of his level and knowledge. This is a valid update on the processes that should or have been applied, which serves in understanding and building new knowledge. After all it is widely known that people learn skills, strategies and ideas better when they see how they fit into a more general frame which is meaningful for them. In fact, every experience is reinforced when we understand how it fits into a more important set. Gee, J.P. (2004). Learning by design: Games as learning machines. Interactive Educational Multimedia, (8), 15-23. Socrative is a tool primarily designed to evaluate the learner. The application (response system) allows the educator to create several kinds of quizzes: Multiple Choice, Right or Wrong, Brief Response, etc. Those quizzes are accessible by the tutor who has access to view the responses of each student (Kokina, & Juras, 2017). There is also another option called “Exit Ticket”, which provides a direct insight into the students' understanding of the main points of the course. (Tretinjak, Bednjanec & Tretinjak, 2015). Socrative is also a tool of gamification since it is a virtual environment which is full of challenges that pupils have to respond to. Unlike other applications it doesn’t embed a reward system but through its leaderboard option students can recognize their weaknesses and improve their knowledge. After a quiz is done, the teacher receives a report which records individual performance. Then the educator can share this report with the learners and process the results of their responses. An other useful option is the “Space Race”. When using the “Space race” option, the answers are given by groups of students, thus enriching the group-work spirit and the element of competition between the different teams. As stated in an article by Ferrándiz, Puentes, Moreno, & Flores, (2016), Socrative allows group collaboration and competition. As a result the students become more motivated compared to the usual quizzes. All in all, it can be said that the use of Socrative in class strengthens the metacognitive processes of learners while promoting learning at the same time. Kokina, J., & Juras, P. E. (2017). Using Socrative to Enhance Instruction in an Accounting Classroom. Journal Of Emerging Technologies In Accounting, 14(1), 85-97. doi:10.2308/jeta-51700 Tretinjak, M. F., Bednjanec, A., & Tretinjak, M. (2015). Interactive teaching with Socrative. 2015 38Th International Convention On Information & Communication Technology, Electronics & Microelectronics (MIPRO), 848. Ferrándiz, E., Puentes, C., Moreno, P. J., & Flores, E. (2016). engaging and assessing students through their electronic devices and real time quizzes. Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, Social and Technological Sciences, 3(2), 173-184. The integration and exploitation of technology in in recent years takes place through pleasant environments of learning, collaboration and authenticity. Such an environment is the Quizizz. It requires the student's active engagement and the emergence of a learning experience that no longer relies on the sterile knowledge of the content. The use of such tool keeps students' interest and commitment to acquiring new information (The effect of Kahoot, Quizizz, 2017). Quizizz is a free learning application designed for mobile phones that uses wireless handhelds to collect student responses and then show the results in the classroom while collecting direct feedback by answering questions posed by the educator (Kahoot, Quizizz, 2017). The teacher selects a quiz that has been structured for the particular subject of interest and then provides a pin for the students. Students then use the pin and the questions appear on their mobile devices. They are required to answer a timeframe predetermined by the teacher. Questions appear randomly to each student, and then the learner observes the results of the choice he/she made (Boulden, Hurt & Richardson, 2017). The total results are also shown at the interactive whiteboard with the help of the teacher’s computer and a projector. Students play together, but each at their own pace. Gamfication elements like avatars, leaderboard and funny memes add to the fun. At the end of the game, the educator receives detailed class and student-level reports to understand where the pupils need help. It is a tool based on behavioral learning theory as learning through quizizz is done with specific activities to achieve goals that are designed by the teacher (Learning Theories, n.d.). Thus, the student is not in control of the application since the teacher is the creator. As far as the evaluation of the learner is concerned, the behavioral patterns are also followed, since the results of the quiz appear at the scoreboard. Effects on the learning process: By studying the positive results in the learning process, many pedagogical benefits are attributed to Quizizz. Students perceive commitment and acquire a different perception of learning as their motives multiply (The effect of Kahoot, Quizizz, 2017). Studies show increased collaborative learning and engagement as well as increased learning outcomes (Boulden, Hurt & Richardson, 2017). Then the concentration of children in the process increases as well as their active engagement (The effect of Kahoot, Quizizz, 2017). As far as the teacher is concerned, the contribution of the tool is to control the level of understanding or lack of knowledge through the feedback system provided at the end of the process. In conclusion one could imply that the inclusion of games and technological tools offers all the resources to students for communication, contact and collaboration. In the context of teaching, the tools that technology has provided us, ensures a more extensive and cost-effective exploratory work on the subject of teaching (Cardet, 2013). Create your own Quizizz at http://quizizz.com Boulden, D. C., Hurt, J. W., & amp; Richardson, M. K. (2017). Implementing Digital Tools to Support Student Questioning Abilities: A Collaborative Action Research Report. I.E .: Inquiry In Education, 9 (1), 1. CARDET (2013). Authentic Learning. Report within the project Developing Authentic Learning Environments through School and Business Collaboration. Nicosia: CARDET Press. The effect of Kahoot, Quizizz and Google Forms on student perception in the classroom response system. (2017). 2017 International Conference on Digital Arts, Media and Technology (ICDAMT), Digital Arts, Media and Technology (ICDAMT), International Conference on, 178 Classcraft is a free e-learning system that transforms class into a role-playing game, based on the theory of the gamification of learning which attempts to make the learning process even more accessible to students (Analysis of Factors Affecting, 2015). It is basically used as a means of managing the classroom and the behaviors of its members (Sanchez, Young, & Jouneau-Sion, 2017; Bicen & Kocakoyun, 2017). Classcraft transforms school by taking the video game mechanics that provide rich and interesting play experiences and applying them to the classroom setting.The teacher is responsible for coordinating the game since he is the game master. A computer and a projector are required for viewing the statistics of the students, while students can view their progress and interact with the content by downloading the application which is available for IOS and Android devices. The game runs in the background during the lesson and it normally takes place simultaneously. The teacher chooses to switch to the game whenever he or she sees that fit or whenever (2015) . In-game students create an avatar and then are divided into small groups that will compete with one another. The student has the option to customize his own avatar with a number of predefined characters (mage, warrior, healer) each of whom has his / her own powers and weaknesses (Brettton, Sim, & Read, 2016) These powers represent behaviors and processes that occur within the classroom. For example, the healer's "Ardent Faith" power enables him to confirm a response to a test by asking the professor. In addition, students earn points by answering questions, participating in classroom activities or helping another teammate or even the teacher (Sanchez, Young, & Jouneau-Sion, 2017). Through a variety of activities, students acquire experience points and improve the level of the hero they have chosen initially, thereby improving their own cognitive ability and behavior. It is a tool based on behavioral learning theory as learning through classcraft aims to modify the student's behavior. Additional features that classify it in behavioral learning tools are the specific activities to achieve objectives that activities are designed from the beginning by the teacher (Learning Theories, n.d.). Thus the student is not in control of the application since the teacher is the creator and the one who moves the strings and directs all the parameters of reward or punishment within a course context. As far as the assessment of the learner is concerned, it can be said that it follows the behaviorism model as well since the teacher attributes the possible positive or negative reward with the experience points. Within the framework of classroom management strategies and actions, teachers build a positive ethos within the school unit by recognizing and commending positive behavior and discouraging the unsatisfactory and unacceptable. According to Bretherton, Sim, & Read (2016), Classcraft plays the role of a new behavior system, transforming the traditional responsibility of the teacher. The positive effects on the learning process include the encouragement for learning, cooperativity and student-to-student communication and effectiveness (2015; Bicen & Kocakoyun, 2017; Bretherton, Sim and Read, 2016). Worth mentioning is the flexibility the students have and the freedom of decision-making given due to the fact that the information that is provided to the users about the consequences of their choices can alter their way of behaving (Sanchez, Young, & Jouneau-Sion, 2017). Finally, with the adoption of classcraft as a regulator of the appropriate behavior, students' performance is expected to reach higher standards, aiming not only at the optimal learning culture but also in the improved social life and the extended teamwork that follows (Bretherton, Sim, & Read, 2016). Two different elements are extremely worth mentioning regarding Classcraft. On the one hand the tool is shaped in such a way that it contributes to the improvement of an individual level of the pupil and on the other it introduces social skills and interactive actions, which encourages the establishment of learning communities that can help in achieving common goals. All in all Classcraft, cultivates the development of critical thinking in students, underlining those who believe that games are not just a tool for mere entertainment but they also have huge educational potential (Sanchez, Young, & Jouneau-Sion, 2017). Applications of this type transform the traditional classroom into a learning environment where activities make sense to the pupils and thus create a sense of pleasure under fun situations. Gamify your own classroom by visiting https://www.classcraft.com/ Analysis of factors affecting user acceptance of the implementation of ClassCraft E-Learning: Case studies faculty of information technology of Tarumanagara university. (2015). 2015 International Conference on Advanced Computer Science and Information Systems (ICACSIS), Advanced Computer Science and Information Systems (ICACSIS), 2015 International Conference on, 73. Bicen, H., & Kocakoyun, S. (2017). Determination of University Students' Most Preferred Mobile Application for Gamification. World Journal On Educational Technology: Current Issues, 9(1), 18-23. Bretherton, W., Sim, G., & Read, J. C. (2016). ClassCraft in the Primary School Classroom. Proceedings Of The European Conference On Games Based Learning, 167-74. Γιαννούτσου, Ν., Μπούνια, Α., Ρούσσου, Μ., & Αβούρης, Ν. (2012). Αξιοποίηση των ψηφιακών τεχνολογιών με στόχο τη μάθηση σε χώρους πολιτισμού: μία κριτική θεώρηση επιλεγμένων παραδειγμάτων. Θέματα Επιστημών και Τεχνολογίας στην Εκπαίδευση, 4(1-3), σ.131. Θεωρίες μάθησης. (n.d.). Ανακτήθηκε από https://economu.wordpress.com/%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C-%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C/%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82-%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82/ Naismith, L., Sharples, M., Vavoula, G., & Lonsdale, P. (2004). Literature review in mobile technologies and learning. Sanchez, E., Young, S., & Jouneau-Sion, C. (2017). Classcraft: From Gamification to Ludicization of Classroom Management. Education And Information Technologies, 22(2), 497-513. Games in education are the teacher’s weapon to try and involve students in activities that combine the element of fun and learning with a meaning. Mobile devices have reshaped the way of teaching and have created new opportunities towards this approach. This article will present one of the most useful tools, Kahoot! which combines beautiful graphical representations and sounds, turns the classroom into a playroom, with the teacher being the "show" coordinator and the students to be the contestants (Fotaris, Mastoras, Leinfellner & Rosunally, 2016). Students are asked to give the appropriate answer to the current question they are dealing with using their mobile devices and according to their responses they earn points that rank them in a rating scale (Wang, 2015). A Kahoot! is a collection of questions on specific topics. Create a fun learning game in minutes – called ‘kahoot’. The format and number of questions are entirely up to you. Add videos, images and diagrams to your questions to amplify engagement and make learning so fun that your students will literals beg to be assessed The benefits that Kahoot offers! in the learning process are many, but in summary, one could claim that it transforms the learning process into a more efficient and productive one (Katyshev, n.d.). The ease with which students receive feedback individually on their devices promotes self-evaluation, while the teacher's report on the distribution of student responses gives him the opportunity to identify potential gaps, make further analysis as well as explanation of the right choices (Katyshev, nd; Wang, 2015; Dellos, 2015; Fotaris, Mastoras, Leinfellner & Rosunally, 2016). Besides, as Dellos (2015) points out, creating the conditions for a comfortable environment for feedback in their responses without the stress of evaluation is critical to assimilation of knowledge. The user-friendly interface is also enhanced by the fact that there is no need to download a separate application, although there is such a possibility, since the game can be played through any web browser (Katyshev, n.d.). Even the existence of the scoring system exploits the innate tendency of man to compete, effectively giving players an incentive to improve the position on the ranking board (Katyshev, Wang, 2015; Fotaris, Mastoras, Leinfellner & Rosunally, 2016) Being a system of responding to student choices in a pre-created game of questions by Professor (Dellos, 2015) and according to the foregoing, it is concluded that this application is largely a behavioral tool in which the right options have been set beforehand and students are asked to identify them, ultimately leading to the reward of this desirable option. Of course, if used in ways other than the above, it has the potential to become a tool of social constructivism If used properly, It has the potential to create a social, fun and game-like learning environment. Visit http://create.kahoot.it to make your own quizzes using Kahoot! or discover Kahoots! made by others Dellos, R. (2015). Kahoot! A digital game resource for learning. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 12 (4), 49-52. Fotaris P, Mastoras T, Leinfellner R and Rosenally Y (2016). Climbing Up the Leaderboard: An Empirical Study of Applying Gaming Techniques to a Computer Programming Class. The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 14 (2), 94-110. Katyshev, V. (2005). Effective Educational Use of Kahoot. Retrieved October 13, 2017, from https://meantechtools.wikispaces.com/file/view/Kahoot%20description%20of%20use%20new.pdf/541271970/Kahoot%20description%20of%20use%20new.pdf Wang, A. I. (2015). The wear out effect of a game-based student response system. Computers & Education, 82, 217-227.

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|Part of a series on Statistics| Infographics (a clipped compound of "information" and "graphics") are graphic visual representations of information, data or knowledge intended to present information quickly and clearly. They can improve cognition by utilizing graphics to enhance the human visual system's ability to see patterns and trends. Similar pursuits are information visualization, data visualization, statistical graphics, information design, or information architecture. Infographics have evolved in recent years to be for mass communication, and thus are designed with fewer assumptions about the readers' knowledge base than other types of visualizations. Isotypes are an early example of infographics conveying information quickly and easily to the masses. Infographics have been around for many years and recently the increase of a number of easy-to-use, free tools have made the creation of infographics available to a large segment of the population. Social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter have also allowed for individual infographics to be spread among many people around the world. Infographics are widely used in the age of short attention span. In newspapers, infographics are commonly used to show the weather, as well as maps, site plans, and graphs for summaries of data. Some books are almost entirely made up of information graphics, such as David Macaulay's The Way Things Work. The Snapshots in USA Today are also an example of simple infographics used to convey news and current events. Modern maps, especially route maps for transit systems, use infographic techniques to integrate a variety of information, such as the conceptual layout of the transit network, transfer points, and local landmarks. Public transportation maps, such as those for the Washington Metro and the London Underground, are well-known infographics. Public places such as transit terminals usually have some sort of integrated "signage system" with standardized icons and stylized maps. In his 1983 "landmark book" The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Edward Tufte defines "graphical displays" in the following passage: Graphical displays should - show the data - induce the viewer to think about the substance rather than about methodology, graphic design, the technology of graphic production, or something else - avoid distorting what the data has to say - present many numbers in a small space - make large data sets coherent - encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data - reveal the data at several levels of detail, from a broad overview to the fine structure - serve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation, or decoration - be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set. Graphics reveal data. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations. While contemporary infographics often deal with "qualitative" or soft subjects, generally speaking Tufte's 1983 definition still speaks, in a broad sense, to what infographics are, and what they do—which is to condense large amounts of information into a form where it will be more easily absorbed by the reader. In 1626, Christoph Scheiner published the Rosa Ursina sive Sol, a book that revealed his research about the rotation of the sun. Infographics appeared in the form of illustrations demonstrating the Sun's rotation patterns. In 1786, William Playfair, an engineer and political economist, published the first data graphs in his book The Commercial and Political Atlas. To represent the economy of 18th Century England, Playfair used statistical graphs, bar charts, line graphs, area charts, and histograms. In his work, Statistical Breviary, he is credited with introducing the first pie chart. Around 1820, modern geography was established by Carl Ritter. His maps included shared frames, agreed map legends, scales, repeatability, and fidelity. Such a map can be considered a "supersign" which combines sign systems—as defined by Charles Sanders Peirce—consisting of symbols, icons, indexes as representations. Other examples can be seen in the works of geographers Ritter and Alexander von Humboldt. In 1857, English nurse Florence Nightingale used information graphics to persuade Queen Victoria to improve conditions in military hospitals. The principal one she used was the Coxcomb chart, a combination of stacked bar and pie charts, depicting the number and causes of deaths during each month of the Crimean War. 1861 saw the release of an influential information graphic on the subject of Napoleon's disastrous march on Moscow. The graphic's creator, Charles Joseph Minard, captured four different changing variables that contributed to Napoleon's downfall in a single two-dimensional image: the army's direction as they traveled, the location the troops passed through, the size of the army as troops died from hunger and wounds, and the freezing temperatures they experienced. James Joseph Sylvester introduced the term "graph" in 1878 in the scientific magazine Nature and published a set of diagrams showing the relationship between chemical bonds and mathematical properties. Graph Theory 1736–1936, pp. 65. These were also some of the first mathematical graphs. The Cologne Progressives developed an aesthetic approach to art which focused on communicating information. Gerd Arntz, Peter Alma and Augustin Tschinkel, all participants in this movement were recruited by Otto Neurath for the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum, where they developed the Vienna Method from 1926–1934. Here simple images were used to represent data in a structured way. Following the victory of Austrofascism in the Austrian Civil War, the team moved to the Netherlands where they continued their work rebranding it Isotypes (International System of TYpographic Picture Education). The method was also applied by IZOSTAT (ИЗОСТАТ) in the Soviet Union. In 1942 Isidore Isou published the Lettrist manifesto, a document covering art, culture, poetry, film, and political theory. The included works, also called metagraphics and hypergraphics, are a synthesis of writing and visual art. In 1958 Stephen Toulmin proposed a graphical argument model, called The Toulmin Model of Argumentation. The diagram contained six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments, and was considered Toulmin's most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric, communication, and computer science. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation became influential in argumentation theory and its applications. In 1972 and 1973, respectively, the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft included on their vessels the Pioneer Plaques, a pair of gold-anodized aluminum plaques, each featuring a pictorial message. The pictorial messages included nude male and female figures as well as symbols that were intended to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft. The images were designed by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake and were unique in that their graphical meanings were to be understandable to extraterrestrial beings, who would have no conception of human language. A pioneer in data visualization, Edward Tufte, wrote a series of books – Visual Explanations, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, and Envisioning Information – on the subject of information graphics. Referred to by The New York Times as the “da Vinci of Data”, Tufte began to give day-long lectures and workshops on the subject of infographics starting in 1993. As of 2012[update], Tufte still gives these lectures. To Tufte, good data visualizations represent every data point accurately and enable a viewer to see trends and patterns in the data. Tufte's contribution to the field of data visualization and infographics is considered immense, and his design principles can be seen in many websites, magazines, and newspapers today. The infographics created by Peter Sullivan for The Sunday Times in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s were some of the key factors in encouraging newspapers to use more infographics. Sullivan is also one of the few authors who have written about information graphics in newspapers. Likewise the staff artists at USA Today, the United States newspaper that debuted in 1982, established the goal of using graphics to make information easier to comprehend. However, the paper has received criticism for oversimplifying news stories and for creating infographics that some find emphasize entertainment over content and data. Tufte coined the term chartjunk to refer to graphics that are visually appealing to the point of losing the information contained within them. With vector graphics and raster graphics becoming ubiquitous in computing in the 21st Century, data visualizations have been applied to commonly used computer systems, including desktop publishing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Closely related to the field of information graphics is information design, which is the creation of infographics. By the year 2000, Adobe Flash-based animations on the Internet had made use of many key practices in creating infographics in order to create a variety of products and games. Likewise, television began to incorporate infographics into the viewers' experiences in the early 2000s. One example of infographics usage in television and in pop culture is the 2002 music video by the Norwegian musicians of Röyksopp, for their song "Remind Me." The video was composed entirely of animated infographics. Similarly, in 2004, a television commercial for the French energy company Areva used animated infographics as an advertising tactic. Both of these videos and the attention they received have conveyed to other fields the potential value in using information graphics to describe complex information efficiently. The field of journalism has also incorporated and applied information graphics to news stories. For stories that intend to include text, images, and graphics, the system called the maestro concept allows entire newsrooms to collaborate and organize a story to successfully incorporate all components. Across many newsrooms, this teamwork-integrated system is applied to improve time management. The maestro system is designed to improve the presentation of stories for busy readers of media. Many news based websites have also used interactive information graphics in which the user can extract information on a subject as they explore the graphic. Many businesses use infographics as a medium for communicating with and attracting potential customers. Information graphics are a form of content marketing and have become a tool for internet marketers and companies to create content that others will link to, thus possibly boosting a company's reputation and online presence. Religious denominations have also started using infographics. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made numerous infographics to help people learn about their faith, missionaries, temples, lay ministry, and family history efforts. Infographics are finding a home in the classroom as well. Courses that teach students to create their own infographics using a variety of tools may encourage engagement in the classroom and may lead to a better understanding of the concepts they are mapping onto the graphics. With the popularity of social media, infographics have become popular, often as static images or simple web interfaces, covering any number of topics. Such infographics are often shared between users of social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Google+ and Reddit. The hashtag #infographic was tweeted 56,765 times in March 2012 and at its peak 3,365 times in a span of 24 hours. The three parts of all infographics are the visual, the content, and the knowledge. The visual consists of colors and graphics. There are two different types of graphics – theme, and reference. Theme graphics are included in all infographics and represent the underlying visual representation of the data. Reference graphics are generally icons that can be used to point to certain data, although they are not always found in infographics. Statistics and facts usually serve as the content for infographics and can be obtained from any number of sources, including census data and news reports. One of the most important aspects of infographics is that they contain some sort of insight into the data that they are presenting – this is the knowledge. Infographics are effective because of their visual element. Humans receive input from all five of their senses (sight, touch, hearing, smell, taste), but they receive significantly more information from vision than any of the other four. Fifty percent of the human brain is dedicated to visual functions, and images are processed faster than text. The brain processes pictures all at once, but processes text in a linear fashion, meaning it takes much longer to obtain information from text. Entire business processes or industry sectors can be made relevant to a new audience through a guidance design technique that leads the eye. The page may link to a complete report, but the infographic primes the reader making the subject-matter more accessible. Online trends, such as the increasingly short attention span of Internet users, has also contributed to the increasing popularity and effectiveness of infographics. When designing the visual aspect of an infographic, a number of considerations must be made to optimize the effectiveness of the visualization. The six components of visual encoding are spatial, marks, connection, enclosure, retinal properties, and temporal encoding. Each of these can be utilized in its own way to represent relationships between different types of data. However, studies have shown that spatial position is the most effective way to represent numerical data and leads to the fastest and easiest understanding by viewers. Therefore, the designers often spatially represent the most important relationship being depicted in an infographic. There are also three basic provisions of communication that need to be assessed when designing an infographic – appeal, comprehension, and retention. "Appeal" is the idea that the communication needs to engage its audience. Comprehension implies that the viewer should be able to easily understand the information that is presented to them. And finally, "retention" means that the viewer should remember the data presented by the infographic. The order of importance of these provisions depends on the purpose of the infographic. If the infographic is meant to convey information in an unbiased way, such as in the domains of academia or science, comprehension should be considered first, then retention, and finally appeal. However, if the infographic is being used for commercial purposes, then appeal becomes most important, followed by retention and comprehension. When infographics are being used for editorial purposes, such as in a newspaper, the appeal is again most important but is followed first by comprehension and then retention. However, the appeal and the retention can in practice be put together by the aid of a comprehensible layout design. Recently, as an attempt to study the effect of the layout of an infographic on the comprehension of the viewers, a new Neural Network based cognitive load estimation method was applied on different types of common layouts for the infographic design. When the varieties of factors listed above are taken into consideration when designing infographics, they can be a highly efficient and effective way to convey large amounts of information in a visual manner. Data visualizations are often used in infographics and may make up the entire infographic. There are many types of visualizations that can be used to represent the same set of data. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the appropriate visualization for the data set and infographic by taking into consideration graphical features such as position, size, shape, and color. There are primarily five types of visualization categories – time-series data, statistical distributions, maps, hierarchies, and networking. Time-series data is one of the most common forms of data visualization. It documents sets of values over time. Examples of graphics in this category include index charts, stacked graphs, small multiples, and horizon graphs. Index charts are ideal to use when raw values are less important than relative changes. It is an interactive line chart that shows percentage changes for a collection of time-series data based on a selected index point. For example, stock investors could use this because they are less concerned with the specific price and more concerned with the rate of growth. Stacked graphs are area charts that are stacked on top of each other, and depict aggregate patterns. They allow viewers to see overall patterns and individual patterns. However, they do not support negative numbers and make it difficult to accurately interpret trends. An alternative to stacked graphs is small multiples. Instead of stacking each area chart, each series is individually shown so the overall trends of each sector are more easily interpreted. Horizon graphs are a space efficient method to increase the data density of a time-series while preserving resolution. Statistical distributions reveal trends based on how numbers are distributed. Common examples include histograms and box-and-whisker plots, which convey statistical features such as mean, median, and outliers. In addition to these common infographics, alternatives include stem-and-leaf plots, Q-Q plots, scatter plot matrices (SPLOM) and parallel coordinates. For assessing a collection of numbers and focusing on frequency distribution, stem-and-leaf plots can be helpful. The numbers are binned based on the first significant digit, and within each stack binned again based on the second significant digit. On the other hand, Q-Q plots compare two probability distributions by graphing quantiles against each other. This allows the viewer to see if the plot values are similar and if the two are linearly related. SPLOM is a technique that represents the relationships among multiple variables. It uses multiple scatter plots to represent a pairwise relation among variables. Another statistical distribution approach to visualize multivariate data is parallel coordinates. Rather than graphing every pair of variables in two dimensions, the data is repeatedly plotted on a parallel axis and corresponding points are then connected with a line. The advantage of parallel coordinates is that they are relatively compact, allowing many variables to be shown simultaneously. Maps are a natural way to represent geographical data. Time and space can be depicted through the use of flow maps. Line strokes are used with various widths and colors to help encode information. Choropleth maps, which encode data through color and geographical region, are also commonly used. Graduated symbol maps are another method to represent geographical data. They are an alternative to choropleth map and use symbols, such as pie charts for each area, over a map. This map allows for more dimensions to be represented using various shapes, size, and color. Cartograms, on the other hand, completely distort the shape of a region and directly encode a data variable. Instead of using a geographic map, regions are redrawn proportionally to the data. For example, each region can be represented by a circle and the size/color is directly proportional to other information, such as population size. Many data sets, such as spatial entities of countries or common structures for governments, can be organized into natural hierarchies. Node-link diagrams, adjacency diagrams, and enclosure diagrams are all types of infographics that effectively communicate hierarchical data. Node-link diagrams are a popular method due to the tidy and space-efficient results. A node-link diagram is similar to a tree, where each node branches off into multiple sub-sections. An alternative is adjacency diagrams, which is a space-filling variant of the node-link diagram. Instead of drawing a link between hierarchies, nodes are drawn as solid areas with sub-sections inside of each section. This method allows for size to be easily represented than in the node-link diagrams. Enclosure diagrams are also a space-filling visualization method. However, they uses containment rather than adjacency to represent the hierarchy. Similar to the adjacency diagram, the size of the node is easily represented in this model. Network visualization explores relationships, such as friendships and cliques. Three common types are force-directed layout, arc diagrams, and matrix view. Force-directed layouts are a common and intuitive approach to network layout. In this system, nodes are similar to charged particles, which repel each other. Links are used to pull related nodes together. Arc diagrams are one-dimensional layouts of nodes with circular arcs linking each node. When used properly, with good order in nodes, cliques and bridges are easily identified in this layout. Alternatively, mathematicians and computer scientists more often use matrix views. Each value has an (x,y) value in the matrix that corresponds to a node. By using color and saturation instead of text, values associated with the links can be perceived rapidly. While this method makes it hard to view the path of the nodes,there are no line crossings, which in a large and highly connected network can quickly become too cluttered. While all of these visualizations can be effectively used on their own, many modern infographics combine multiple types into one graphic, along with other features, such as illustrations and text. Some modern infographics do not even contain data visualization, and instead are simply a colorful and succinct ways to present knowledge. Fifty-three percent of the 30 most-viewed infographics on the infographic sharing site visual.ly did not contain actual data. Infographics can be created by hand using simple everyday tools such as graph paper, pencils, markers, and rulers. However, today they are more often created using computer software, which is often both faster and easier. They can be created with general illustration software. Diagrams can be manually created and drawn using software, which can be downloaded for the desktop or used online. Templates can be used to get users started on their diagrams. Additionally, the software allows users to collaborate on diagrams in real time over the Internet. There are also numerous tools to create very specific types of visualizations, such as creating a visualization based on embedded data in the photos on a user's smartphone. Users can create an infographic of their resume or a “picture of their digital life.” - A picture is worth a thousand words - Argument map - Digital dashboard - Data Presentation Architecture - Data visualization - Graphic design - Graphic image development - Graphic organizers - Information design - List of information graphics software - Scientific visualization - Statistical graphics - Technical illustration - Isotype (picture language) - Visualization (graphic) - News Illustrated - Maestro Concept - Family tree - Doug Newsom and Jim Haynes (2004). Public Relations Writing: Form and Style. p.236. - Mark Smiciklas (2012). The Power of Infographics: Using Pictures to Communicate and Connect with Your Audience. - Heer, J., Bostock, M., & Ogievetskey, V. (2010). A tour through the visualization zoo. Communications of the ACM, 53(6), 59-67. - Card, Scott (2009). Information visualization. In A. Sears & J. A. 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Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphics Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-9613921-4-2. - "The Profession of Geography: Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter". Archived from the original on 2012-10-06. - Benking, Heiner, “Using Maps and Models, SuperSigns and SuperStructures”, 2005. - 1st Berlin Symposium on Internet and Society, “Learnings from Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter towards the Grand Global Modern Communication Challenges”. - Biggs, N., Lloyd, K., & Wilson, R. (1999). - Roth, Lynette (2008). Painting as a weapon : progressive Cologne 1920–1933 : Siewert, Hoerle, Arntz (translation, Uta Hoffman ed.). Köln: Walther König. ISBN 978-3-86560-398-2. - Tufte, Edward R. (1990). Envisioning Information. ISBN 0-9613921-1-8. - Tufte, Edward R. (2001) [1st Pub. 1983]. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (2nd ed.). ISBN 0-9613921-4-2. - Tufte, Edward R. (1997). Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative. 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Retrieved 2012-07-19. - "Topics", Newsroom [MormonNewsroom.org], The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, retrieved 17 April 2014 - "8 Examples for Incorporating Infographics in Classrooms". 17 April 2015. - "The Anatomy Of An Infographic: 5 Steps To Create A Powerful Visual – SpyreStudios". 18 November 2009. - "The beauty of data visualization". - Turnbull, Dominic. "EPRA real economy infographic". www.epra.com/media/Real_estate_in_the_real_economy_-_EPRA_INREV_report_1353577808132.PDF. Archived from the original on 13 December 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2012. - Jason Lankow, Josh Ritchie, Ross Crooks (2012). Infographics: The Power of Visual Storytelling - Majooni, Azam; Masood, Mona; Akhavan, Amir (2017-04-03). "An eye-tracking study on the effect of infographic structures on viewer's comprehension and cognitive load". Information Visualization. doi:10.1177/1473871617701971. - Heer, J., Bostock, M., & Ogievetsky, V. (2010). A tour through the visualization zoo. Communications of the ACM, 53(6), 59-67. - Grandjean, Martin (2014). "La connaissance est un réseau". Les Cahiers du Numérique. 10 (3): 37–54. doi:10.3166/lcn.10.3.37-54. - Van Slembrouck, Paul, “Analyzing the Top 30 Infographics on Visually”, June 2012. - Aparicio, Manuela and Costa, Carlos (2015) Data visualization. Communication Design Quarterly Review 3, 1 (January 2015), 7-11. DOI=https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2721882.2721883 - Heiner Benking (1981–1988) Requisite inquiry and time-line: computer graphics-infographics http://benking.de/infographics/ see there: Computer Graphics in the Environmental Sector – Possibilities and Limitations of Data-visualisation this citation in chapter 3: technical possibilities and human potentials and capacities, "a picture is more than 10.000 words", and "10.000 miles equal 10.000 books". - Sullivan, Peter. (1987) Newspaper Graphics. IFRA, Darmstadt. - Jacques Bertin (1983). Semiology of Graphics. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Translation by William Berg of Semiologie Graphique. Paris: Mouton/Gauthier-Villars, 1967. - William S. Cleveland (1985). The Elements of Graphing Data. Summit, NJ: Hobart Press. ISBN 978-1-58465-512-1 - Heiner Benking (1993), Visual Access Strategies for Multi-Dimensional Objects and Issues / "Our View of Life is too Flat", WFSF, Turku, FAW Report TR-93019 - William S. Cleveland (1993). Visualizing Data. Summit, NJ: Hobart Press. ISBN 978-0-9634884-0-4 - Sullivan, Peter. (1993) Information Graphics in Colour. IFRA, Darmstadt. - John Emerson (2008). Visualizing Information for Advocacy: An Introduction to Information Design. New York: OSI. - Paul Lewi (2006). "Speaking of Graphics". - Thomas L. Hankins (1999). "Blood, dirt, and nomograms: A particular history of graphs". In: Isis, 90:50–80. - Robert L. Harris (1999). Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference. Oxford University Press. - Eric K. Meyer (1997). Designing Infographics. Hayden Books. - Edward R. Tufte (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Edition, Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. - Edward R. Tufte (1990). Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. - Edward R. Tufte (1997). Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative. Cheshire, - Edward R. Tufte (2006). Beautiful Evidence. Cheshire. CT: Graphics Press. - John Wilder Tukey (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley. - Veszelszki, Ágnes (2014). Information visualization: Infographics from a linguistic point of view. In: Benedek, András − Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): The Power of the Image Series Visual Learning, vol. 4. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 99−109. - Sandra Rendgen, Julius Wiedemann (2012). Information Graphics. Taschen Publishing. ISBN 978-3-8365-2879-5 - Jason Lankow, Josh Ritchie, Ross Crooks (2012). Infographics: The Power of Visual Storytelling. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-31404-3 |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Information graphics.| - Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics and Data Visualization - Visual Display of Quantitative Information

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“Why stories matter for children’s learning. Scholars have found that stories have a strong influence on children’s understanding of cultural and gender roles. Stories do not just develop children’s literacy; they convey values, beliefs, attitudes and social norms which, in turn, shape children’s perceptions of reality.” “If you want your children to be smart, tell them stories. If you want them to be brilliant, tell them more stories.” – attributed to Albert Einstein IMAGERY ARTS – FOUNDATION OF INTELLIGENCE AND KNOWLEDGE College of Medicine, University of North Carolina Imagery activity may be a key to the building blocks of intelligence and education. When the brain images the brain releases endorphins and recent research has demonstrated that imagery also expands the size of the brain through the growth of new dendrites which are the branching protoplasmic processes that conduct impulses toward the body of a nerve cell. Imagery therefore speeds communication within the cells and between the cells in the brain. Imagery building skills from oral word paintings involves a process of conscious thought that transfers to reading imagery skills. If you visualize what you hear, you facilitate the ability to visualize what you read. WHAT WORKS ABOUT TEACHING AND LEARNING U.S. Department of Education 1986 1. RESEARCH FINDING: “Telling young children stories motivates them to read. Storytelling also introduces children to cultural values and literacy traditions before they can read, write and talk about stories by themselves.” COMMENT: “Elementary school teachers have found that even students with low motivation and weak academic skills are more likely to listen, read, write and work hard in the context of storytelling.” Stories from the oral tradition celebrate heroes who struggle to overcome great obstacles that threaten to defeat them. With the help of skillful questioning, they can also learn to reflect on the personal and cultural values introduced in the story. 2. RESEARCH FINDING: “Children get more out of a reading assignment when the lesson is preceded with background information and followed with discussion.” COMMENT: “Poor readers of every age have difficulty connecting between what they read and what they already know. Telling a story provides a road map of information ideas and characters to the listener and when coupled with a discussion of the story, the student learns that the purpose of reading is to acquire information and insight.” 3. RESEARCH FINDING: “Students read more fluently with greater understanding if they have background knowledge of the past and present. Such knowledge and understanding is cultural literacy.” COMMENT: “Telling stories that (a) describe people, events and places; and (b) incorporate shared heritage, institutions and values can provide the cultural literacy necessary to improve reading comprehension.” SUMMARY: “Intense exposure to stories and storytelling in the classroom stirs and develops the imagination. Learning occurs in the presence of demonstration. Learning is an interaction of concurrent events rather than a consequence of a demonstration. To learn to read and to write, people require: (1) demonstrations of how reading and writing can be used for evident meaningful purposes, (2) opportunities for engagement in such meaningful uses of reading and writing and (3) a positive environment for the process to occur.” “Storytelling provides imagery-building skills, creates an attentive listener, expands interest into new areas, centers the attention of the class, teaches language, story plots, folkways, ethics, traditions and customs. Storytelling can supplement and enhance the existing literacy program by supporting teacher’s language arts programs.” INCIDENTAL INFORMATION ON STORYTELLING AND LEARNING The entertainment quality of the oral story provides not only a mechanism to transmit information to an attentive listener but also has the residual effect of improving reading motivation. Storytelling affects the listener by expanding interest into new areas. The oral story centers the attention of the listener and this process of focusing a group’s attention spills over into other educational activities. Storytelling conveys language and story plot structure which enhances reading comprehension. Stories are effective alternative methods of teaching cross-cultural understanding, family and community values, writing, and speaking skills. With some creative thinking, any other area of emphasis toward attaining a school system’s academic goals can be and has been assisted through storytelling. Teachers, by using their own creativity and drawing on librarians and media specialists for curriculum resources, can develop story tools in English, history, social studies, science, math, etc. The oral story as a traditional transmitter of folkways, ethics, traditions, and customs is an effective provider of information that impacts on behavior modification. The entertainment value of a story is only the icing on the cake. If a teacher desires to achieve teacher-student centered attentiveness, there is a wide range of alternatives. The story can be read aloud or told. Characterization and dramatization can be added as a new dimension. The teacher may participate or listen. The students, individually or as a few in number or as a total group, may participate or listen. Varied combinations may be used to produce teacher student centered attentiveness. Tell a story that takes several sessions to complete. Be like Scheherazade, stop at an exciting point, review and continue at the next session. The art of storytelling provides a flexible teaching tool. It is cost effective, builds imagination, provides an environment for learning, is a learning experience, and can be used with individuals or groups or with visual aids, sound effects and music; and your library already has the essential resources to start, and you and the students can become the resources for new creativity. Storytelling may start with reading a story aloud to students, using your natural voice. Next, if you are inspired to be a proficient teller then set your goal, use positive thinking, go and listen to tellers, attend storytelling workshops, tell stories at every opportunity and begin to build your craftsmanship. Storytelling improves listening comprehension, a vital pre-reading skill for children, introduces us to literature we may not be familiar with, whets our appetite for further literary experiences, introduces us to characters with whom we can relate, has been the best tool for passing on the values and morals of families and peoples for centuries, increases our understanding and awareness of our world’s diverse cultures, develops mental imaging ability, another skill necessary for reading comprehension. Susanna Holstein, Librarian and Storyteller, USA Effects of Storytelling in Education – research “Storytelling and Story Reading: A Comparison of Effects on Children’s Memory and Story Comprehension”: A thesis presented to the faculty of the department of Curriculum and Instruction East Tennessee State University by Matthew P. Gallets, May, 2005 (ETSU is the only university in the United States that offers a master’s degree in storytelling.) “The population studied consisted of kindergarten, first, and second grade students. Half the students were read stories aloud, the other half were told the same stories by a storyteller. Students in both the reading and storytelling groups improved on most measures. However, on some measures, notably those regarding recall ability, students in the storytelling group improved more than students in the reading group.” “The Effects of Storytelling versus Story Reading on Comprehension and Vocabulary Knowledge of British Primary School Children”: Reading Improvement; v35 n3 p127-36 Fall 1998, by Susan Trostle and Sandy Jean Hicks “This article compares effects of storytelling versus story reading on comprehension and vocabulary development of 32 British primary children. States one group listened to stories in storytelling style, the other group listened to stories read by a student teacher. Finds children who witnessed storytelling scored higher on comprehension/vocabulary measures than did children who listened to story reading.” “Reading, Writing, and Storytelling: A Bridge from the Middle School to the Preschool”, by Joseph Sanacore and Al Alio, 2007 (no publication source given) Students aged 11-14 at Hauppauge Middle School (Long Island, New York) write original stories, learn storytelling techniques, and then tell their stories to preschool children. “Findings show that most of the preschool children read more books, select a wide variety of materials, maintain a desire to read, and tell their own stories. The middle school students increase their sensitivity for communicating with a unique audience and they report an improved awareness of children’s ability to use and appreciate language.” “The Effects of Storytelling Experiences on Vocabulary Skills of Second Grade Students”: A research paper presented to the faculty of the Library Science Department, University of Northern Iowa, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by Gail Froyen 1987. “Second grade students at Lowell School, Waterloo, Iowa, were taught storytelling techniques and given opportunities to practice these techniques for 35-40 minutes per week for six months. This activity, held during lunch, was self-selected and conducted in small groups (8-9 students in each group, with 43 students total). … After six months, these students significantly increased their performance on vocabulary and reading comprehension tests beyond what was expected for that six month period, as measured by pre- and post- Iowa Tests of Basic Skills.” “Children’s hunger for stories is constant. Every time they enter your classroom, they enter with a need for stories.” … When children create and tell a story in their own or a second language, the language becomes theirs. Wright, A. Storytelling with children. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. Oral language is an important tool for the cognitive growth of young children. Van Groenou, M. “Tell me a story”: Using children’s oral culture in a preschool setting. Montessori LIFE 1995, Summer. Critical thinking skills, vocabulary, and language patterns are enhanced through use of stories. Zabel, M. K. Storytelling, myths, and folk tales: Strategies for multicultural inclusion. Preventing School Failure, 32, 1991, Fall. Oral and literate are not opposites; rather, the development of orality is the necessary foundation for the later development of literacy…. Indeed, a sensitive program of instruction will use the child’s oral cultural capacities to make reading and writing engaging and meaningful. Egan, K., Literacy and the oral foundation of education, The NAMTA Journal, 18, 1993, Winter 11-46. One area reading researchers agree on is that oral-language competencies are essential in literacy development. Storytelling requires listening and visualization-key oral-language and comprehension competencies and strategies. It also provides vocabulary development, in context. Talking with children and encouraging talk among children is another facet of oral-language; storytelling stimulates both. The personal nature of the transaction between the storyteller and story-listener encourages the active construction of meaning. … The importance of fostering motivation for reading and learning cannot be underestimated. Skills and worksheet-driven classrooms cannot teach or motivate, as storytelling can, the love of language, stories, characters, and ideas. Nor can they, as storytelling can, foster curiosity. … Additionally, sharing stories from various cultures makes geographical knowledge more meaningful. Without them, names and lists of countries may be memorized for test-taking purposes, then quickly forgotten. When connected to story, geographical locations and characteristics are more apt to be remembered. Jane M. Gangi, an Associate Professor in the Department of Education at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, CT, author of Encountering Children’s Literature: An Arts Approach. Pearson (Allyn and Bacon). 2004. Cliatt & Shaw (1988) “The relationship of storytelling and successful children’s literacy development is well established.” and “…this process (storytelling) enhanced children’s development of language and logic skills.” Coles (1989) “Stories enhanced recall, retention, application of concepts into new situations, understanding, learner enthusiasm for the subject matter.” … “Stories enhanced and accelerated virtually every measurable aspect of learning.” Schank (1990) “Storytelling has demonstrable, measurable, positive, and irreplaceable value in teaching.” Snow and Burns (1998) “Recently the efficacy of early reading and storytelling exposure has been scientifically validated. It has been shown to work.” Story Proof: the science behind the startling power of story Kendall Haven, Libraries Unlimited, Westport CT, 2007 The book focusses on the benefits of reading and telling stories to children in the classroom, concluding that reading to children is good, but telling is better. These quotes and paraphrases are typical of the results of the 350 studies consulted by the author for the book. p. 4. “Canadian researchers found a strong positive correlation between early storytelling activity and later math abilities. … 350 studies from fifteen separate fields of science … agree that stories are an effective and efficient vehicle for teaching, for motivating, and for the general communication of factual information, concepts, and tacit information.” p. 67. “Information is remembered better and longer, and recalled more readily and accurately when it is remembered within the context of a story.” p. 86. An 8-year period of telling stories to kindergarten through fifth grade (class) in New Jersey, a one-hour session once a week or once a month, resulted in 1000 teacher feedback reports agreeing that the programme “had a major and lasting impact on student behavior and language arts achievement”. p. 90. A 1999 study showed that “telling stories to primary-grade students improved their vocabulary faster than did reading to them but that both oral activities significantly improved student reading comprehension.” p. 98. Based on classroom experiences of tens of thousands of teachers, the National Council of Teachers of English Committee on Storytelling concluded in a 1992 report: “Story is the best vehicle for passing on factual information. Historical figures and events linger in children’s minds when communicated by way of a narrative. The ways of other cultures, both ancient and living, acquire honor in story. The facts about now plants and animals develop, how numbers work, or how government policy influences history – any topic for that matter – can be incorporated into story form and made more memorable.” [See full NCTE statement below.] p. 101. “Once we recognize story structure as a prominent feature of human understanding, then we are led to reconceive the curriculum as the set of great stories we have to tell children and recognize elementary school teachers as the storytellers of our culture.” K. Egan, The Educated Mind: How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding, University of Chicago Press, 1997. p. 104. “… children process the world in story terms, using story as a structure within which to create meaning and understanding.” p. 121. “Storytelling creates excitement, enthusiasm, and more detailed and expansive images in the mind of the listener than does the same story delivered in other ways.” A Position Statement from the Committee on Storytelling, 1992 National Council of Teachers of English Once upon a time, oral storytelling ruled. It was the medium through which people learned their history, settled their arguments, and came to make sense of the phenomena of their world. Then along came the written word with its mysterious symbols. For a while, only the rich and privileged had access to its wonders. But in time, books, signs, pamphlets, memos, cereal boxes, constitutions–countless kinds of writing appeared everywhere people turned. The ability to read and write now ruled many lands. Oral storytelling, like the simpleminded youngest brother in the olden tales, was foolishly cast aside. Oh, in casual ways people continued to tell each other stories at bedtime, across dinner tables, and around campfires, but the respect for storytelling as a tool of learning was almost forgotten. Luckily, a few wise librarians, camp counselors, folklorists, and traditional tellers from cultures which still highly valued the oral tale kept storytelling alive. Schoolchildren at the feet of a storyteller sat mesmerized and remembered the stories till the teller came again. Teachers discovered that children could easily recall whatever historical or scientific facts they learned through story. Children realized they made pictures in their minds as they heard stories told, and they kept making pictures even as they read silently to themselves. Just hearing stories made children want to tell and write their own tales. Parents who wanted their children to have a sense of history found eager ears for the kind of story that begins, “When I was little ….” Stories, told simply from mouth to ear, once again traveled the land. What Is Storytelling? Storytelling is relating a tale to one or more listeners through voice and gesture. It is not the same as reading a story aloud or reciting a piece from memory or acting out a drama–though it shares common characteristics with these arts. The storyteller looks into the eyes of the audience and together they compose the tale. The storyteller begins to see and re-create, through voice and gesture, a series of mental images; the audience, from the first moment of listening, squints, stares, smiles, leans forward or falls asleep, letting the teller know whether to slow down, speed up, elaborate, or just finish. Each listener, as well as each teller, actually composes a unique set of story images derived from meanings associated with words, gestures, and sounds. The experience can be profound, exercising the thinking and touching the emotions of both teller and listener. Why Include Storytelling in School? Everyone who can speak can tell stories. We tell them informally as we relate the mishaps and wonders of our day-to-day lives. We gesture, exaggerate our voices, pause for effect. Listeners lean in and compose the scene of our tale in their minds. Often they are likely to be reminded of a similar tale from their own lives. These naturally learned oral skills can be used and built on in our classrooms in many ways. Students who search their memories for details about an event as they are telling it orally will later find those details easier to capture in writing. Writing theorists value the rehearsal, or prewriting, stage of composing. Sitting in a circle and swapping personal or fictional tales is one of the best ways to help writers rehearse. Listeners encounter both familiar and new language patterns through story. They learn new words or new contexts for already familiar words. Those who regularly hear stories, subconsciously acquire familiarity with narrative patterns and begin to predict upcoming events. Both beginning and experienced readers call on their understanding of patterns as they tackle unfamiliar texts. Then they re-create those patterns in both oral and written compositions. Learners who regularly tell stories become aware of how an audience affects a telling, and they carry that awareness into their writing. Both tellers and listeners find a reflection of themselves in stories. Through the language of symbol, children and adults can act out through a story the fears and understandings not so easily expressed in everyday talk. Story characters represent the best and worst in humans. By exploring story territory orally, we explore ourselves–whether it be through ancient myths and folktales, literary short stories, modern picture books, or poems. Teachers who value a personal understanding of their students can learn much by noting what story a child chooses to tell and how that story is uniquely composed in the telling. Through this same process, teachers can learn a great deal about themselves. Story is the best vehicle for passing on factual information. Historical figures and events linger in children’s minds when communicated by way of a narrative. The ways of other cultures, both ancient and living, acquire honor in story. The facts about how plants and animals develop, how numbers work, or how government policy influences history–any topic, for that matter–can be incorporated into story form and made more memorable if the listener takes the story to heart. Children at any level of schooling who do not feel as competent as their peers in reading or writing are often masterful at storytelling. The comfort zone of the oral tale can be the path by which they reach the written one. Tellers who become very familiar with even one tale by retelling it often, learn that literature carries new meaning with each new encounter. Students working in pairs or in small storytelling groups learn to negotiate the meaning of a tale. How Do You Include Storytelling in School? Teachers who tell personal stories about their past or present lives model for students the way to recall sensory detail. Listeners can relate the most vivid images from the stories they have heard or tell back a memory the story evokes in them. They can be instructed to observe the natural storytelling taking place around them each day, noting how people use gesture and facial expression, body language, and variety in tone of voice to get the story across. Stories can also be rehearsed. Again, the teacher’s modeling of a prepared telling can introduce students to the techniques of eye contact, dramatic placement of a character within a scene, use of character voices, and more. If students spend time rehearsing a story, they become comfortable using a variety of techniques. However, it is important to remember that storytelling is communication, from the teller to the audience, not just acting or performing. Storytellers can draft a story the same way writers draft. Audiotape or videotape recordings can offer the storyteller a chance to be reflective about the process of telling. Listeners can give feedback about where the telling engaged them most. Learning logs kept through- out a storytelling unit allow both teacher and students to write about the thinking that goes into choosing a story, mapping its scenes, coming to know its characters, deciding on detail to include or exclude. Like writers, student storytellers learn from models. Teachers who tell personal stories or go through the process of learning to tell folk or literary tales make the most credible models. Visiting storytellers or professional tellers on audiotapes or videotapes offer students a variety of styles. Often a community historian or folklorist has a repertoire of local tales. Older students both learn and teach when they take their tales to younger audiences or community agencies. Once you get storytelling going, there is no telling where it will take you. Oral storytelling is regaining its position of respect in communities where hundreds of people of every age gather together for festivals in celebration of its power. Schools and preservice college courses are gradually giving it curriculum space as well. It is unsurpassed as a tool for learning about ourselves, about the ever-increasing information available to us, and about the thoughts and feelings of others. The simpleminded youngest brother in olden tales, while disregarded for a while, won the treasure in the end every time. The NCTE Committee on Storytelling invites you to reach for a treasure–the riches of storytelling. This position statement may be printed, copied, and disseminated without permission from NCTE. Single copies of this statement are available free upon request, and may be copied without permission from NCTE. Multiple copies are available at a bulk rate of U.S. $7 per 100 prepaid only. Stock #52945. Send request to NCTE Order Department, 1111 W. Kenyon Road, Urbana, IL 61801-1096. Storytellers’ Anecdotal Evidence After the show was over one of the mothers stopped to speak with me. Her son was one of my [intermediate school workshop] tellers three years ago. At the time, he struggled with his reading skills and was receiving extra help. He was a bit shy, not very confident, but he took a leap of faith and joined the storytelling club. He wasn’t the most talented teller but what he lacked in raw talent he made up in effort and enthusiasm. At the Storytelling Festival that year his mother came up to me with tears in her eyes, clutching the folktale book with the story he had just shared on stage. She couldn’t believe the transformation in her child, how storytelling had made such a difference in his confidence level and in his life. Tonight, again with tears in her eyes, she recalled that evening and told me that he is now a straight A student and loves to read. She urged me to never stop what I was doing and said that I had changed his life. Of course I know it wasn’t me, it was the power of story, but it did my heart so much good to hear how well that kind and gentle boy is faring in his new school … Karen Chace, storyteller from East Freetown, Masschusetts USA Storytell email list 29/10/05 As an old classroom teacher, I often found that storytelling was one of the best anchors for helping my kids with processing disorders to focus, to gain understanding of content and to then be able to synthesize and dialogue about the stories, their implications, their connections to other learning. By far, the most powerful teaching strategy that I’ve known has been storytelling. My mom (1918-2010) had learning disabilities that were largely undiagnosed, given the times that she was a student (1920’s to 1930’s). But she stayed glued to stories and could tell them with rich skill. I volunteer in a local Waldorf School 3rd grade class. There are 3 kids in the class who have various forms of dyslexia. As a retired elementary school teacher, I’ve offered to help the classroom teacher with some of the diagnostic stuff with these kids and to use strategies that I think will help strengthen their reading. I always tell a story or two when I visit the class. All three of these kids had incredible recall and the ability to connect one story to another, seeing similarities. B.Z. Smith, storyteller, Sonora, California One more voice for the power of storytelling to reach students identified with various learning challenges. Liz and I are back at the pueblo school where we’ve been doing residencies for almost 10 years now. This year the terms of the contract are a little different and we are mainly working with kids with various challenges that cause them to struggle with reading, writing, comprehension, etc. Not surprisingly, because we’ve seen this again and again… most of these kids “take” to stories and often astonish their teachers with their recall, ability to remember, or retell stories… we’ve got students who haven’t heard a story in a year or more… stories we’ve forgotten we even know, that they can tell. It’s probably pretty obvious and we certainly don’t have any research to back it up… but one factor undoubtedly is that hearing and working with stories is inherently fun… whereas “language arts” for those who struggle to read, write etc, is inherently stressful. Imagine that…some kids learn better when they are having fun. Bob Kanegis, storyteller, United States As a storyteller with dyslexia and dyscalculia, I can assure you that storytelling is key to a positive learning experience. While most of us with these issues seem to be reasonably intelligent, in the past we were often shunted into situations – well-meant, where our needs could not be adequately addressed. Because of this, I applaud the storytelling approach in the classroom as it is inclusive. Oral storytelling releases something essential, allowing us to embrace meaning, color, expression and imagination; it is liberating for those of us marching to a different beat. When one is purely wired for learning through story, the classroom with all its confusing stimuli can be an intimidating experience. Storytelling’s one-on-one transmission can be miraculous, calming all the jangled nerves and allowing focus. Something literally settles as the mind automatically links into the information being provided. It is both a physical experience and an emotional one. Growing up in the fifties when little was known about learning differences, I was labeled “retarded,” in spite of high “intelligence” scores. Not until my mid-forties did I discover what I was really dealing with – learning differences, and not until sometime later did oral tradition storytelling enter the picture. While I cannot memorize a script or anything else, I can create/learn a story and tell it in no time flat. Not only that, while television bores me to tears, listening to a storyteller is mesmerizing. Saundra Kelley, storyteller and author, United States Statistics provided to me privately by a storyteller conducting sessions for 10-12-year-olds at least twice a month in a town in the United States compare results of tests in reading assessments and oral fluency between groups exposed and not exposed to regular storytelling. These figures, covering the years 2011-2014, show that the story group improved by at least 50% and often more than 100% over the school year. Even more relevant is that the students this teller worked with were “the most troubled, low-achieving students in the grade level”. This small, unofficial study accurately reflects the anecdotal reports of storytellers in schools everywhere. The 2007 compilation of information Storytelling in Schools links to many other sites, though some hyperlinks may be dead. Heather Forest’s Storytelling in the Classroom is especially practical for the teacher just embarking on the use of story. That site has a useful page called Stories in a Nutshell: Concise Folktale Plots for Student Retelling — 36 simple stories that are appropriate for young children to tell.

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Visual spatial intelligence is crucial in many academic and professional fields. Despite the importance, it is rarely included in kindergarten or elementary curriculum. But we can help our children improve their visual spatial skills through simple and fun activities. Table of Contents Basics Of Visual Spatial Intelligence - What Is Spatial Thinking / Spatial Intelligence? - The Importance Of Visual Spatial Skills - Visual Spatial Skills And Math - Visual Spatial Skills And STEM Characteristics Of Visual Spatial Intelligence How To Improve Visual Spatial Intelligence - Use Spatial Language In Everyday Interactions - Teach Using Gestures And Encourage Kids To Gesture - Teach Visualization - Play The Matching Game - Build Structures In A Storytelling Context - Do Tangram And Non-Jigsaw Spatial Puzzles - Expose To Map Reading - Read Spatially Challenging Books - Play Video Games Such As Tetris Less Proven Activities To Increase Visual Spatial Intelligence What Is Spatial Thinking / Spatial Intelligence? Spatial thinking, or spatial reasoning, concerns the positions of objects, their shapes, their spatial relations to one another and the movement they make. It involves understanding and remembering the relative locations of objects in the mind. Then through imagining or visualizing, objects are manipulated through mental movement or transformation to form new spatial relations. Visual spatial intelligence is the ability to perform spatial thinking. Here is an example where spatial reasoning is used. In the following prism test, can you tell when 1 is folded to form a triangular prism, which of the followings (2-5) can be produced? To come up with the answer, you need to mentally form a picture of the prism being folded. While doing it, you need to keep track of the relative positions of the different colored sides. Answer: 2 and 3 are both correct. The Importance Of Visual Spatial Skills We use visual spatial skills frequently in day-to-day functioning. A child imagines where a toy is inside his bedroom before walking into the room to get it. When we pack our luggage, we visualize how different items can fit together to maximize the storage capacity. To put together an easy-to-assemble furniture, we need to match the two-dimensional diagrams to the three-dimensional furniture parts. Visual Spatial Skills And Math Spatial skills are particularly important to mathematics learning. - A student creates a mental geometric object that can be measured, moved, and transformed to facilitate geometric calculation and pattern recognition. - A mathematician uses visual spatial thinking to enhance number sense, quantity comparison, and arithmetic. Many studies have found that high visual spatial ability is linked to better math performance. A $1 million pilot project supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development shows how improving spatial thinking can result in better math skills. In this project, kindergarteners and first graders were randomly assigned to two afterschool intervention groups. In one group, children were asked to construct and copy designs made from a variety of materials such as Legos, pattern blocks and construction papers. The control group, on the other hand, was given a non-spatial curriculum. After about 7 months, the children in the first group made a substantial improvement in their math performance. They moved from the 30th percentile nationwide in numeracy and applied math knowledge to the 47th percentile. In the control group, no gain in math score was observed. The most striking part of this experiment was that math was not taught at all. The instructors never specified any connections between the activities and math. Visual Spatial Skills And STEM Visual spatial skills are also crucial in many academic and professional fields, such as science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). - A geoscientist mentally manipulates the movement of tectonic planes to see the process of earth formation. - A neurosurgeon visualizes different brain areas to predict the outcome of a surgery. - An engineer imagines how various forces may affect the design of a structure. Research shows that college students who score high on spatial tests tend to major in STEM disciplines and go into STEM careers. Is Visual Spatial Intelligence Fixed Or Malleable? People have different preferred cognitive thinking styles. Some are verbal thinkers who think in words. They are more comfortable with semantically and acoustically complex verbal tasks. Verbalizers usually prefer written and spoken explanations over pictures and diagrams. Others are visual thinkers who think about subject matters using visual representation. There are two types of visualizers. - Spatial visualizers They think in terms of schematic images, spatial relations among objects and spatial transformations. But the images they visualize lack visual details. - Object visualizers They think in colorful, pictorial and high-resolutions images of individual objects. Spatial visualizers usually possess better spatial skills than object visualizers or verbalizers. So if your child is a visual spatial learner, then he/she has a head start in spatial thinking. However, visual spatial intelligence is not a fixed ability. Although some people are better at spatial thinking than others, the good news is everyone can improve. Through training and practice, spatial reasoning, and in turn mathematics and STEM learning, can be boosted. Does Gender Matter? Although many studies suggest that male performs better than female in spatial reasoning tasks, that doesn’t mean a boy is always better than a girl in spatial thinking. One’s belief in themselves and in the importance of effort can make a huge difference. A recent study in Italy illustrates the importance of belief beautifully. In the experiment, 152 high school students were divided into three groups and each group was given different instructions on a spatial relations test. One group was told that women performed better than men in this task while another group was told men were better and the third group was not told any gender reference. Results showed that women in the first group scored the same as the men. Another Italian study shows that believing in effort over innate ability can improve spatial performance, too. In this study, 120 high school students were divided into three groups. Before given a spatial test, one group was given instructions that stressed the importance of personal effort while the other the importance of genetically driven ability. The third group was the control and was only told that the test was very important. The group that received effort emphasis instructions outperformed the other two groups. How a child performs in spatial reasoning tasks can be affected given a different belief. Unfortunately, stereotypes about gender permeate our society. But as parents, we can change this misconception by believing in our girls and encouraging them to keep practicing. Even if one starts with a lower score in spatial reasoning, they, too, can improve substantially if they keep practicing. For low-ability students, they need to do more work to get over an initial hump. The initial improvement may be slow, but if they persevere, faster improvement will come. So even if your child does not show big improvement right away. Keep practicing! Researchers also find that the more a group of men and women practices spatial thinking, the smaller the gender gap is in spatial skills. There is also a study that shows the gender gap could be the result of nurture rather than nature. In a remote community in India where women have equal or more rights than men, such gender gap in spatial reasoning skills does not exist. So, never imply nor believe that girls are supposed to do worse in spatial reasoning, math or STEM. Girls and boys should both believe in themselves and their efforts spent in learning. Early Spatial Skills Education Early education plays a large role in preparing our children for later success. Preschoolers’ spatial skills can predict their future performance in math learning in middle and high school. As children’s first teachers, parents can start teaching young children, even toddlers, the basics of spatial thinking. It is not too early to start familiarizing your toddler, boy or girl, with spatial thinking. Neuroscientists find that specific regions in the brain responsible for thinking about location and spatial relationships develop in very early childhood. Infants as young as 4 months have been found to demonstrate abilities related to mental rotation. Furthermore, spatial reasoning skills are cumulative and durable. Those who master the skills in early childhood will have more opportunities to use it to acquire and organize additional information throughout their lives. So the earlier the education, the larger and longer lasting the improvement. How To Improve Visual Spatial Intelligence 1. Use Spatial Language In Everyday Interactions Parents can help children improve spatial intelligence by using more spatial terms in everyday interaction. Spatial language is a powerful spatial learning tool. Babies learn better when the spatial relations are given names. Preschoolers whose parents use more spatial words (such as triangle, big, tall or bent) perform better in spatial tests than those whose parents do not use such language. Here are some example spatial terms that can be added to daily interactions. |Type of Terms||Descriptions||Examples| |Shape||Mathematical names that describe two- and three-dimensional objects and spaces.||square, circle, sphere, triangle, pentagon| |Dimensional adjectives||Terms that describe the size of spaces, objects and people.||large, small, long, short, big, tiny, tall| |Spatial features||Terms that describe the features and properties of two- and three-dimensional spaces, objects and people.||Straight, bent, curvy, corner, side, line, corner, pointy, sharp, edge| |Spatial relations||Terms that describe the relative positions of space, objects and people.||inside, outside, under, around, corner, on top of, at the bottom of, in front of, behind, diagonal, across| But don’t just speak at your child to teach spatial terms. Ask your child to repeat the words back to you and explain what they mean. Encourage your child to use those terms, too. Kids who can use more spatial terms are found to perform better in spatial reasoning tasks. You can help them make the connections between spatial relations and objects around them. “Is the candy inside or outside of the glass?” “Do you think the toy is under or behind the couch?” “I see Lily across the street!” 2. Teach Using Gestures And Encourage Kids To Gesture Gesture is a powerful communicating and teaching tool. Researches show that children often learn better when gestures are used by teachers than when speech is used alone. Gesture is also closely linked to spatial thinking. It promotes a focus on spatial information in speech. Not only does gesture enhance the learning of spatial relations, it also plays an important role in exercising spatial reasoning. A study has found that when children use gesturing to indicate movements of objects, their spatial reasoning ability improves. This improvement is also detected in children who do not spontaneously gesture but do so after being prompted to. 3. Teach Visualization Visualization is using visual imagery to mentally represent an object not physically present. It is a powerful skill in spatial reasoning and problem solving. Young children can be taught to use visualization to enhance their spatial thinking. For example, young children often have “gravity bias”. In an experiment, when a ball drops, preschoolers tend to think that it will appear directly below, even if the ball drops down a twisted tube. But when they are instructed to visualize the path of the ball before answering, more kids got the right answer. 4. Play The Matching Game Play the construction matching game. Start by putting together a simple structure using building blocks and then ask the kids to match it in shape and in colors. You can also have one child build the structure while another copy. As they become more familiar with building and more confident in matching, increase the complexity of the structures. (Disclosure: I get a small commission for purchases made through the links below.) 5. Build Structures In A Storytelling Context Playing with building objects such as Lego and wooden blocks can substantially increase a child’s spatial thinking ability. But you don’t need perfectly crafted toys. Even a few cereal boxes or toilet paper rolls can be used to stack and build interesting structures. Give them a problem to solve. A study show that when block building activities are carried out in a storytelling context, children’s spatial thinking improves more. “Oh, those are beautiful toy cars. Imagine you are the proud owner of these two cars. Can you build a garage that can fit them both in nicely by the house you just built?” When they have completed the construction, ask them to walk around or rotate the structure to see it from different angles. Another reason why block play can promote spatial thinking is that both children and parents tend to use more spatial language when playing with blocks. 6. Do Tangram And Non-Jigsaw Spatial Puzzles Tangram is an ancient Chinese puzzles consisting of 7 pieces. The pieces can be rearranged into many different shapes such as animals, people or objects. It is a teaching tool that has been proven to increase students’ spatial ability. Jigsaw puzzle has been recommended by many sources to help increase children’s spatial ability. It is probably because a study finds that preschoolers who play puzzles perform better in a mental transformation spatial task than those who don’t. It also finds that the more frequently the child plays, they better they perform. No doubt, there is a strong association between puzzle solving and spatial intelligence. However, no controlled studies have been found to establish a causal relationship between them. The problem with jigsaw puzzles is that, unlike tangram, there is only one fixed way to fit the pieces together. A study has found that preschoolers who have played with a single-solution puzzle are less innovative and flexible in subsequent problem solving than children who have played with a multiple-solution block set. It appears that singe-solution puzzles are inferior toys to multiple-solution puzzles when it comes to kids’ creativity. Therefore, until there is research that proves the values of single-solution puzzles, I recommend using multiple-solution puzzles, such as tangram, over jigsaw puzzles to help children improve their spatial skills. 7. Expose To Map Reading Map reading can help children acquire abstract concepts of space and the ability to think systematically about spatial relations that are not otherwise experienced directly in the physical world. Maps present spatial information that differs from direct experience navigating the world. Children learn to think about multiple large-scale spatial relations among different locations in a concrete way. 8. Read Spatially Challenging Books Books such as Zoom and Re-Zoom are great picture books that can draw children into a world of visualization and spatial thinking. The increasing level of details helps illustrate the different spatial relations among objects. When reading these books with the kids, parent can enhance the spatial learning by verbal explanation and gestures. Research shows that such support from parents is linked to children’s higher spatial scores. 9. Play Video Games Such As Tetris Playing spatial video games such as Marble Madness or Tetris, have shown to be beneficial to children’s spatial intelligence. The improvement is more pronounced in low-ability kids. More Activities To Increase Visual Spatial Intelligence If you are looking for more activities to increase your child’s (or your own) visual spatial intelligence, the following are less proven but still valid (and fun) ways to do so. Visual perspective taking is the ability to imagine how things look like from another viewpoint different from one’s own. Taking photos of objects at different angles can enhance children’s ability to take on different visual perspectives and recognize changes in scale. Practice Paper Folding (Origami) Mental paper folding has long been used to increase mental rotational ability. Although no research is found to link physical paper folding to spatial intelligence, it is not farfetched to believe that physical paper folding practice can enhance mental paper folding ability. Learn To Play Music Several researches have found that learning to make music can raise spatial-temporal ability. Spatial-temporal reasoning is the ability to think of spatial relations that change through time. This skill allows you to mentally pack your luggage one item after another to see how to fit the most items. Notice that this is different from the controversial “Mozart Effect” theory that claims listening to music can enhance a variety of skills including spatial reasoning. A meta-analytic review of 553 studies supports the theory that music instruction, rather than music listening, can enhance spatial skills. Here are more spatial relations activities for preschoolers. References – Spatial Intelligence - More Evidence for Three Types of Cognitive Style: Validating the Object-Spatial Imagery and Verbal Questionnaire Using Eye Tracking when Learning with Texts and Pictures. By Tim N. Hoffler, Marta Koc-Janucht and Detlev Leutner http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.3300/pdf - Understanding kindergarten teachers’ perspectives of teaching basic geometric shapes: a phenomenographic research. By Hatice Zeynep Inan, Ozlem Dogan-Temur http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11858-010-0241-1 - The coding of spatial location in young children. By Huttenlocher J, Newcombe N, Sandberg EH. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7956105 - Geometric and Spatial Thinking in Young Children. By DH Clements http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED436232.pdf - Daniel l. shea, David lubinski, and Camilla P. benbow, “importance of assessing spatial ability in intellectually talented young adolescents: a 20-year longitudinal study,” Journal of Educational Psychology 93, no. 3 (2001): 604–614. - Charles H. Wolfgang, laura l. stannard, and ithel Jones, “advanced Constructional Play with leGos among Preschoolers as a Predictor of later school achievement in mathematics,” Early Child Development and Care 173, no. 5 (2003): 467–475. - Children’s Spatial Skills Seen as Key to Math Learning. By Sarah D. Sparks http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2013/05/15/31learning.h32.html - Are males always better than females in mental rotation? Exploring a gender belief explanation. By Angelica Moe - Beyond genetics in Mental Rotation Test performance The power of effort attribution. By Angelica Moè, Francesca Pazzaglia https://www.gwern.net/docs/dnb/2010-moe.pdf - Picture This Increasing Math and Science Learning by Improving Spatial Thinking http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ889152.pdf - Durable and Generalized Effects of Spatial Experience on Mental Rotation: Gender Differences in Growth Patterns. By MELISSA S. TERLECKI, NORA S. NEWCOMBE and MICHELLE LITTLE. http://spatiallearning.org/publications_pdfs/terlecki_newcombe_2008.pdf - A Developmental Look at a Rigorous Block Play Program http://www.naeyc.org/yc/files/yc/file/201503/YC0315_Tepylo.pdf - Spatial Thinking by Young Children: Neurologic Evidence for Early Development and “Educability”. By Philip J. Gersmehl and Carol A. Gersmehl http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/courses/geog702/articles/spatial_educability.pdf - Differential Rooting Response by Neonates: Evidence for an Early Sense of Self. By Philippe Rochat and Susan J. Hespos http://www.psychology.emory.edu/cognition/rochat/Differential%20rooting.pdf - Dynamic metal representation in infancy. By Susan Hespos, Philippe Rochat http://www.psychology.emory.edu/cognition/rochat/lab/DynamicMentalRepresentationinInfacy.pdf - The Development of Infants’ Spatial Categories. By Marianella Casasola - Environmental input and cognitive growth: a study using time-period comparisons. By Huttenlocher J, Levine S, Vevea J. - Children’s spatial thinking: does talk about the spatial world matter? By Shannon M. Pruden, Susan C. Levine, Janellen Huttenlocher https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3372906/ - Building Foundations for Spatial Literacy in Early Childhood. By Susan L. Golbeck - Children learn When their teacher’s Gestures and speech Differ. By Melissa a. Singer and Susan Goldin-Meadow - Imagining a Way Out of the Gravity Bias: Preschoolers Can Visualize the Solution to a Spatial Problem. By Amy S. Joh, Vikram K. Jaswal, and Rachel Keen https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3089714/ - Early puzzle play: A predictor of preschoolers’ spatial transformation skill. By Levine, S. C., Ratliff, K. R., Huttenlocher, J., & Cannon, J. (2012). Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 530-542. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-24641-001 - Nurture affects gender differences in spatial abilities. By Moshe Hoffman, Uri Gneezy, and John A. List - Parental Guidance in Preschoolers’ Understanding of Spatial-Graphic Representations. By Lisa E. Szechter, Lynn S. Liben - Block Talk: Spatial Language During Block Play. By Katrina Ferrara, Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Nora S. Newcombe, Roberta Michnick Golinkoff, Wendy Shallcross Lam - Using tangrams to teach geometry to young children. By - The Impact of Using Synchronous Collaborative Virtual Tangram in Children’s Geometric. By Lin, Chiu-Pin; Shao, Yin-juan; Wong, Lung-Hsiang; Li, Yin-Jen; Niramitranon, Jitti - The Effects of Play on Convergent and Divergent Problem Solving. By Debra J. Pepler and Hildy S. Ross - Effect of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys. By KaveriSubrahmanyam, Patricia M.Greenfield - Perspective-taking vs. mental rotation transformations and how they predict spatial navigation performance. By Maria Kozhevnikov, Michael A. Motes, Bjoern Rasch, Olessia Blajenkova - A social science of the arts: an emerging organizational initiative and an illustrative investigation of photography. By Lynn s. Liben and Lisa e. Szechter - Training Generalized Spatial Skills. By Rebecca Wright, William l. Thompson, Giorgio Ganis, Nora s. Newcombe, and Stephen m. Kosslyn - Learning to Make Music Enhances Spatial Reasoning. By Lois Hetland

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Here is new research to challenge the notion that video games have to be mindless and sedentary. A new study reveals how students can learn geometry through movement using the Kinect for Windows. “Carmen Petrick Smith, assistant professor of mathematics education (second from left), works with undergraduate education majors on movements that are used to help elementary school children learn geometry (credit: Andy Duback) University of Vermont assistant professor of mathematics education Carmen Petrick Smith has found in a study that elementary school students who interacted with a Kinect for Windows mathematics program while learning geometry showed significant gains in the understanding of angles and angle measurements… Smith and her research team engaged 30 third- and fourth-grade students in a series of tasks that involved moving their arms to form angles projected on a large Kinect screen. The screen changed colors when the students’ arms formed acute, right, obtuse and straight angles. A protractor helped students measure and refine their movements. Students were asked to figure out the hidden rules that made each of the four colors appear on the screen.” - Carmen Petrick Smith, Barbara King, Jennifer Hoyte. Learning angles through movement: Critical actions for developing understanding in an embodied activity. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 2014; 36: 95 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmathb.2014.09.001 Learning angles through movement: Critical actions for developing understanding in an embodied activity Pre- and post-tests showed gains in understanding of angle and angle measurement. Connections between physical and abstract representations can support learning. Exploring a variety of physical representations is associated with learning. Connections between movements and personal experiences can support learning. Angle instruction often begins with familiar, real-world examples of angles, but the transition to more abstract ideas can be challenging. In this study, we examine 20 third and fourth grade students completing a body-based angle task in a motion-controlled learning environment using the Kinect for Windows. We present overall pre- and post-test results, showing that the task enhanced learners’ developing ideas about angles, and we describe two case studies of individual students, looking in detail at the role the body plays in the learning process. We found that the development of a strong connection between the body and the abstract representation of angle was instrumental to learning, as was exploring the space and making connections to personal experiences. The implications of these findings for developing body-based tasks are discussed. - Embodied cognition; - Motion-controlled technology” Faculty Biography | Carmen Petrick Smith Carmen Petrick Smith, Ph.D. Carmen Petrick Smith is an Assistant Professor of Mathematics Education at the University of Vermont. She received her Ph.D. in Mathematics Education from the University of Texas at Austin where she studied the effects of embodied actions on learning geometry. Her research interests center on embodied cognition, games for learning, and STEM education. She is also a former high school mathematics teacher, and in addition to her work in education, she can solve a Rubik’s cube, is a former Guinness World Record holder for dancing the Thriller, and won the 2008 O. Henry Pun-Off World Championships. Paul Howard-Jones, of Bristol University, addresses the topic of Learning Games and “…using uncertain reward within computer games to make learning engaging. There is a clear theoretical basis and laboratory-based evidence for a classroom-based approach and so me exploratory research in classrooms that may be helpful in informing pedagogy, but evidence of impact on improved engagement and enhanced academic achievement is limited to young adults” (p.5). He goes on to write that; “Mental rotation skills are strong predictors of achievement in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) subjects and results from a single study show that improving mental rotation does lead to improvement in attainment. However, this has only been tested with undergraduate students. Another way of improving these skills might be through video games” (p.6). Howard-Jones adds that; “Popular games provide rapid schedules of uncertain reward that stimulate the brain’s reward system. The brain’s reward response can positively influence the rate at which we learn. Beyond just the magnitude of the reward, a range of contextual factors influence this reward response” (p.11). To read the full report by Paul Howard-Jones, Neuroscience and Education: A Review of Educational Interventions and Approaches Informed by Neuroscience Full Report and Executive Summary, Press Release from The Gates Foundation; SEATTLE–The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation today announced a suite of investments, totaling more than $20 million, focused on identifying and expanding promising cutting-edge learning resources that support teachers and students and bring innovative new instructional approaches into America’s classrooms. These investments support the development of game-based learning applications; math, English language arts and science curricula built in to digital formats; learning through social networking platforms; and embedded assessments through a real-time and engaging environment of experiences and journeys. All these promising resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards, which are college- and career-ready standards being implemented in more than 40 states. The Pearson Foundation, one of the major partners in this work, today is also announcing the development of its complete digital curriculum to support the standards. The foundation is pleased to work with Pearson Foundation by providing research and $3 million in funding to help make these tools widely available. In addition to the Pearson Foundation, the foundation is also partnering with Educurious Partners, Florida Virtual School, Institute of Play, Reasoning Mind, Quest Atlantis, Digital Youth Network and EDUCAUSE to develop and promote new applications for learning and assessments aligned to the Common Core State Standards. “Teachers are telling us what they want, and we are listening,” said Vicki L. Phillips, Director of Education, College Ready, at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. “We believe these exciting world-class tools have the potential to fundamentally change the way students and teachers interact in the classroom, and ultimately, how education works in America.” A significant part of these investments announced today include supporting work to build a complete system of digital courses aligned to the Common Core State Standards. The Pearson Foundation, the philanthropic arm of Pearson, the leading learning company, is developing 24 online math and English language arts courses to help teachers and principals implement the standards. These courses will be delivered through a combination of technologies, including video, interactive software, games, social media, and print. Funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation will support the development of this robust system of courses, including four— two in math and two in English language arts—to be available at no cost on an open platform for schools. In addition, a $2 million grant to Educurious Partners will help develop high school courses in biology, freshman literature and Algebra I using a project-based learning design and incorporating a social network Internet application. These include two literacy-based and two math-based courses that are contextualized within disciplines, such as engineering or writing in the natural sciences. The foundation’s $742,996 investment in Reasoning Mind which offers teacher professional development and online elementary math curricula that build algebraic thinking, will pilot a program that makes a single effective math teacher available across multiple classrooms. If successful, one Reasoning Mind-trained teacher can affect the math scores and proficiency of 250 students using the program in different grades at several schools. A Reasoning Mind classroom is a hybrid of online and face-to-face instruction, where the teacher gives each child individual help and attention. “Technology has advanced how we do so many things today,” added Phillips. “Yet, instead of transforming our schools, technology has generally been placed on top of antiquated models. These new cutting-edge applications have the potential to inspire students and engage them in the way they naturally learn, while giving teachers the flexibility to be creative in their craft and customize tools to their students’ needs.” The foundation is also investing in several game-based learning tools: - $2.6 million for iRemix, which is being developed by Digital Youth Network. It will be a set of 20 literacy-based trajectories that allow students to earn badges and move from novice to expert in areas like creative writing. - $2.5 million to Institute of Play will build a set of game-based pedagogical tools and game-design curricula that can be used within both formal and informal learning contexts. - $2.6 million to Quest Atlantis is creating video games that build proficiency in math, literacy and science. All these applications will support the Common Core State Standards. In addition, a $2 million grant to Educurious Partners will help develop high school courses in biology, freshman literature, and Algebra I through a social network Internet application. The application will allow students and teachers to collaborate with a variety of experts who are working in professional fields that are relevant to what the students are learning in the courses. These courses will also support the Common Core State Standards. Finally, in June, Next Generation Learning Challenges will award up to $10 million in competitive grants to support promising technology-enabled programs built around embedded assessments that can help students master 7th, 8th, and 9th-grade content and competencies aligned with the Common Core State Standards. Embedded assessments are a way of testing a student’s knowledge in real-time through program such as online math courses that help students self-pace their learning, game-based learning environments, and literacy instruction delivered through mobile phones. While learning in a digital environment that uses embedded assessments, students demonstrate mastery of a subject in order to progress to the next level of a game, course, or application. Next Generation Learning Challenges is a grant competition and community aimed at identifying and expanding promising technologies that can help improve education across the K-12 and postsecondary spectrum. It is led by EDUCAUSE and community partners with support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. For more information about the foundation’s investments to advance promising technologies in education, please visit www.gatesfoundation.org\education. Allie Bidwell, of US News, writes that; “It seems like kids do everything online these days – and school is no exception. More and more, educators are taking advantage of digital advances to supplement their teaching in the classroom, and are seeing encouraging results. This is especially the case for certain subgroups of students that typically struggle academically, such as English language learners and special education students. “The classroom you went to school in is almost the exact same classroom you’d walk into today, but the level of engagement our kids get outside of the classroom has changed dramatically,” says Jessica Lindl, general manager of the digital gaming company GlassLab and a spokesperson for the game SimCityEDU. “Teachers are almost the entertainers trying to find whatever tool they can to try to engage their kids.” Lindl says the SimCityEDU game helps engage kids by helping them improve basic cognitive functions and critical thinking. In the game, students serve as the mayor of a city and are immediately faced with challenges – they must address environmental impacts on the city while maintaining employment needs and other relationships. Although Lindl says it’s important to use games as a supplement to classroom-based learning, such digital outlets have added benefits. “There is continuous positive feedback,” Lindl says. “Learners are way more likely to feel comfortable with a video game than taking a standardized test and that’s really powerful.” Additionally, video games in the classroom provide teachers, administrators and parents with a plethora of data to give assessments on students’ performances that Lindl says is invaluable, not just because of the granularity of the data, but also because it shows student achievements in real time. Other times, parents and students may have to wait weeks or months, depending on the test, to see their results. “When you think of learning games, engagement and game mechanics is exciting, but there’s a critical value proposition around game-based assessments that we’re seeing,” Lindl says. “Teachers, students and parents can have in the moment understanding of what the child is learning, how they arrived at that learning and accelerate what the learning is, as opposed to waiting weeks down the road.” Another valuable aspect of using games in the classroom is the competition (and hence reward) mechanisms built into some games. At Mario Umana Academy in Boston, students from kindergarten through eighth grade have been using a program called First in Math since 2010.” To read the full article by Allie Bidwell, of US News, click here; Jonathan Wai wrote a very compelling article on “Why We Need To Value Students’ Spatial Creativity”. He reminds us of the spatially creative inventors and geniuses who have contributed so much to to science and industry. Then he reveals how schools neglects the development of spacial creativity. He makes clear connections between the video games, the development of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) skills and spacial creativity; “The research is clear that spatial skill is important for STEM careers, and perhaps we can even enhance spatial skill to help more people join the STEM fields. What we need is research directed at understanding the best ways to develop the talent of students who are high spatial, but relatively lower math/verbal. Perhaps spatial video games and online learning coupled with hands on interventions might help these students.” Wai also writes that; “Spatial thinking “finds meaning in the shape, size, orientation, location, direction or trajectory, of objects,” and their relative positions, and “uses the properties of space as a vehicle for structuring problems, for finding answers, and for expressing solutions.” Spatial skill can be measured through reliable and valid paper-and-pencil tests—primarily ones that assess three dimensional mental visualization and rotation. Read more about examples of items that measure spatial skill here. But despite the value of these kinds of skills, spatially talented students are, by and large, neglected. Nearly a century ago, a talent search conducted by Lewis Terman used the highly verbal Stanford-Binet in an attempt to discover the brightest kids in California. This test identified a boy named Richard Nixon who would eventually become the U.S. president, but two others would miss the cut likely because the Stanford-Binet did not include a spatial test: William Shockley and Luis Alvarez, who would go on to become famous physicists and win the Nobel Prize. Today talent searches often use the SAT and ACT which include math, verbal, and writing sections, but do not include a spatial measure. All of the physicists described above (and Tesla who could do integral calculus in his head) would likely qualify today at least on the math section, and Edison would likely have qualified on the verbal section due to his early love of reading. However, there are many students who have high spatial talent but relatively lower math and verbal talent who are likely missed by modern talent searches and therefore fail to have their talent developed to the extent it could. Also, because colleges use the SAT and ACT for selecting students, many high spatial students likely do not make it onto college campuses. Nearly every standardized test given to students today is heavily verbal and mathematical. Students who have the high spatial and lower math/verbal profile are therefore missed in nearly every school test and their talent likely goes missed, and thus under-developed. What’s more, spatially talented people are often less verbally fluent, and unlikely to be very vocal. Finally, teachers are unlikely to have a high spatial profile themselves (and typically have the inverted profile of high verbal and lower math/spatial), and although they probably do not intend to, they’re more likely to miss seeing talent in students who are not very much like themselves.” One topic that Wai did not address is the effect of the gender imbalance, in teaching, on the neglect of spacial creativity in US. Schools. When one gender so dominates the teaching profession, we should expect that certain aspects of creativity will necessarily be neglected. Gender diversity is better for all professions. Gender diversity in the teaching profession would go a long way toward fostering the development of spacial creativity in students. To read the full article by Jonathan Wai on Mind/Shift click here; NDTV notes that; Moreover, students’ interest and enjoyment in playing the math video game increased when they played with another student. The findings point to new ways in which computer, console, or mobile educational games may yield learning benefits. “We found support for claims that well-designed games can motivate students to learn less popular subjects, such as math, and that game-based learning can actually get students interested in the subject matter?and can broaden their focus beyond just collecting stars or points,” said Jan Plass, a professor in New York University’s Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development and one of the study’s lead authors. “Educational games may be able to help circumvent major problems plaguing classrooms by placing students in a frame of mind that is conducive to learning rather than worrying about how smart they look,” added co-lead author Paul O’Keefe, an NYU postdoctoral fellow at the time of the study. The researchers focused on how students’ motivation to learn, as well as their interest and performance in math, was affected by playing a math video game either individually, competitively, or collaboratively. Researchers had middle-school students play the video game FactorReactor, which is designed to build math skills through problem solving and therefore serves as diagnostic for learning.” To read the full article click here, - Playing educational video games can boost kids’ motivation to learn (indiavision.com) - Educational Video Games Help Students with Math Skills (scienceworldreport.com) - Educational video games can boost motivation to learn, NYU, CUNY study shows (hispanicbusiness.com) - Co-op gaming is a smart way to teach, says new research (polygon.com) - Breaking Barriers: Video Games as Tools for Learning and Recovery (thetechscoop.net) “Games have long been used to engage students. But as game-based learning becomes more prevalent in schools, researchers are interested in how game structure mirrors the learning process. In many games, students explore ideas and try out solutions. When they learn the skills required at one level, they move up. Failure to complete tasks is reframed as part of the path towards learning how to conquer a level. Universities like Harvard, MIT and the University of Wisconsin’s Game and Learning Society are studying how game-playing helps student engagement and achievement, and well-known researchers in the field like James Paul Gee and University of Wisconsin professor Kurt Squire show are using their own studies to show that games help students learn. Once the terrain of experimental classrooms, digital games are now becoming more common in classrooms. In a recent survey by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center, half of 505 K-8 teachers said they use digital games with their students two or more days a week, and 18 percent use them daily. Educators are using commercial games like Minecraft, World of Warcraft and SimCity for education. The Institute of Play continues to study game-based learning and helps support two Quest to Learn schools, which are based around the idea of games and learning.” To read the full article click here; Neil Peirce finds that; “Although there is a limited amount of academic research in this area, there is evidence of the benefits of specifically designed games, notably in the areas of phonological awareness, differentiating relationships, memory enhancement, coordinated motor skills, and mathematical development. However, these benefits have only been evaluated over several months in a structured preschool environment. The impact of such games being played intermittently in an informal setting is an area of Download a copy of the report here [PDF]. In her article “Teachers, Students, Digital Games: What’s the Right Mix?” Holly Korbey interviewed a few educators who had some bad ideas about computer games; “And learning is hard work. The tools children use to manipulate and change the world and their own neural pathways should reflect the profundity of that phenomenon; we should have some blisters, form calluses, break a sweat. Computer games don’t demand that from The better games are demanding. That is why they are the best games. There are educational games that are very challenging but they are challenging in the way that good play is challenging. It is counter productive to remind children that they learning not playing. The best learning happens when we are playing. Practicing a skill leads to success, but if the practice is boring then students will be less motivated to engage in the requisite practice (James Gee, 2007). The best digital games provide practice that is very compelling, engaging, and challenging, but never boring. Gamers play not because games are easy but because they are hard. But, they are hard in the right way, to the right degree, and most importantly – they are hard in a fun way. The best games provide the balance of challenge and support. To describe learning as “hard work and not play” is one of the worst possible ways to describe it. Gee, J.P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (Rev. ed.). New York: Palgrave McMillian. To read the full article by Holly Korbey click here; This could be a great tool for teachers and others who are interested in making learning games.

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Japanese music is extremely diverse: solo music, chamber music, court music, festival and folk music, different types of theatre music, percussion music, epic singing, and many more. This article presents a general overview of Japanese traditional solo and how it evolved into ensemble music. I will start with describing the most important principles in Japanese aesthetic, principles which are used in all forms of art. It will be followed by a section on the traditional teaching of music. I will then move on to music itself; its historical beginnings, its evolution into solo music and then into ensemble music. The conclusion will briefly present today's situation. I also include a list of suggested CDs for those who want to investigate further into Japanese music. The performance of Japanese music has traditionally been of a spiritual character, similarly to martial arts and other art forms of arts such as the tea ceremony and calligraphy, for example. The musician works on an inner strength in mastering of his or her instrument, more than simply perfecting a technique of some sort and providing entertainment. Audiences are looking for this self-mastery in musicians. For this reason, among many, this music has become highly ritualised. Musicians must show this spiritual self-mastery in their performance and composure. Traditional Japanese music uses concrete elements which serve to represent natural sounds and the sounds of life. Contrary to Western music, the musician's self-expression is minimized through the ritualistic and contemplative use of these concrete sounds and effects. Many Westerners feel there is not much emotion in Japanese music. This important distinction in their aesthetic of music is important for Westerners to understand, and for the appreciation of Japanese traditional music. Although composers were signing their works during the Nara period (553-794 AD), much earlier than the Europeans, composers and writers alike did not consider they had intellectual and individual rights over their work (though this has changed since the 20th century following Western influences). There are apparently two reasons for this. First, music, as well as theatre and poetry, are based on strict forms and patterns of composition, which are strictly followed. The concept of individual rights, thus, did not apply in this context. The second reason is that for the Japanese mind, the social and collective ego has precedence over the individual ego . So, when a musician writes a new musical work, it is done in the spirit of the school of which he or she belongs, and it is considered part of the repertoire of that school first and foremost. In this sense, tradition and the tradition of the school one belongs to have precedence over one's individuality. In this line of thought it is even accepted for another musician, member of a school or not, to adapt and modify a piece from another musician according to the style of their own school. Many pieces have different versions according to a musician's or a school's style. For Japanese, the basic principle governing the universe is not God or man, but time - a time which is a primordial flowing energy, through which everything evolves and becomes . The concept of naru, meaning becoming, is very important in Japanese traditional music and all other Japanese forms of art. It is even considered a natural law. All art evolves through its own temporal movement and flow. This includes as well the movement of the painter or the sculptor in creating their works, the musician performing a piece of music, a poet reciting a poem or an actor performing in a play. One of the most important aesthetic principle in Japanese music follows from this concept of naru. This principle is called jo-ha-kyû, which means roughly introduction, development and conclusion. It is a temporal aesthetic principle on which music is based, from a single note to entire pieces. It regulates the flow of time in a piece of music so that all notes, words and parts flow flawlessly between each other. Jo-ha-kyû manifests the flow of nature in temporal arts. There is another principle which is very important in Japanese arts: the ma, which is generally translated as space ; but it is not a physical space but it is more a sensory space, which involves physical space as well as the space of time. In music, it is felt through the silences between musical phrases or single notes, or through the jo-ha-kyû while playing a single note or a phrase. In a flower arrangement, it is felt through the arrangement of the different flowers, branches or leafs. Or, in a Japanese tea room, one might see a beautiful kimono hung on a corner. The ma is felt not through its physical place in the room, but through what a kimono evokes in one's mind when notices it: the beauty of wearing such a beautiful kimono. The ma is sensory in relation to what is evoked in a person's mind when experiencing something. The traditional teaching of music in Japan is considered intuitive, in the sense that the teacher does not say much; he goes straight into the music. In fact, it is not considered good for a student to ask too many questions, or the teacher to talk too much. In Japan, too many questions distract from the real goal of learning music. The student must observe and intuitively feel what the teacher wants him to learn. Most of the time the teacher plays with the student. The role of the student is to play while observing and intuitively feeling what and how the teacher is playing. It is this intuitive understanding that teachers want their students to learn. Traditionally, a teacher would not make a specific schedule for his or her students. The teaching is traditionally done on a basis of first come, first served. Today, a time is given for each student, but some of the older teaching ideas are still kept. For example, it is common for the teacher to force his or her students to wait a certain period of time for his turn. The students are generally waiting in the room where the teaching is taking place. A good student is the one who is attentive to the lesson given to the other student; he can learn as much watching another student's lesson than during his or her own lesson. The learning process is thus a lengthy one; and the students must be patient. There are scores which differ from one instrument to the other (a shakuhachi player will not be able to play on his shakuhachi a koto or shamisen score, for example, because of how each score is is written). These scores are playing aids; most of the is learning is rote learning. As a pupil, the student must respect and follow his teacher and the style of playing of his teacher. He is not allowed to study with a teacher from other schools. There is a strong sense of in-group and belonging. It is even the teacher who decides if and when a student is ready to play in a concert. After years of study, a student can get his titles, such as the jun-shi-han, which allows the student to teach his instruments, the shi-han or master title, or great master title or dai-shi-han. All Japanese art forms follow pretty much this pattern. It can take years to receive one's shi-han. This is one among many reasons why there has been a decline in interest by young people in the study traditional art forms. Some teachers have been adapting their teaching to a more Western style, with a shorter time span of learning. These monks also learned, brought and then taught different art forms, and in particular, musical instruments and styles of music unknown in Japan at the time. The main style of music brought is known by the Japanese name of Gagaku, meaning elegant or refined music. It entered Japan around 612 and quickly became the privileged music of the court. Besides being foremost a music of Chinese origin, during the then Tang Dynasty, Gagaku had important influences from Korean as well as Indian music. When in China, the monks were in fact taught by Chinese and Korean musicians. Up until around the 10th century the repertoire and the ensemble itself were adapted to suit Japanese taste; and new pieces were even composed. But since the 10th century, the repertoire as well as the way this music has been performed has remained almost exactly the same. It is believed that the sound of a Gagaku ensemble and its style of playing are almost the same today as it was a thousand years ago. The instruments forming aGagakuensemble at its beginning in the 7th century were of three types: percussion, string and wind. Among the percussion instruments, we find different sized drums, such as the enormous da-daiko or the ninai-Daiko drums, the design of which is indicative of their Korean origins (a design still kept today). There are some smaller drums, gongs, cymbals and other smaller instruments. We find three stringed instruments: the wagon, a 7-stringed table zither1, the gaku-so, a 13-stringed table zither, the ancestor of the koto, and the gaku-biwa, a 4-stringed lute. Among the winds, we find the hichiriki, a short double-reed instrument, with a very distinctive sound, the sho, a mouth organ, as well as three different transverse flutes: the kagura-bue, the koma-bue and the ryuteki. At the start, the shakuhachi was also part of theGagakuorchestra, but was removed around the 9th century. These instruments were among the first foreign musical instruments to reach the Japanese shores. Some of these instruments attracted more the attention and interest of music lovers and took a path distinct from the orchestra while still remaining part of it in one way or another (more specifically, the gaku-so, the gaku-biwa and many percussion instruments), while others have been used, up until today, only inGagakuorchestra (more specifically, the sho, the hichiriki and a few of the percussions). As for the shakuhachi; after having been removed from the orchestra, it did not attract anyone's attention for at least another 200 years. Three of today's best-known Japanese traditional instruments were introduced in Japan at that time, i.e. thebiwa,thekotoand the shakuhachi. The other major Japanese instrument is theshamisen,a three-stringed lute, which came to Japan in the middle of the 16th century. These instruments went of course through changes and adaptations to suit Japanese musical tastes, evolving differently than their Chinese ancestors, as much in their fabrications, styles and techniques of playing as in their repertoires.2 We find biwa in different sizes, for different uses, and with different names depending on their uses. In Gagaku music, the gaku-biwa was used. It also developed as well as a solo instrument by the courtiers of the late-Nara (553-794) and Heian (794-1185) periods. Around that time, blind priests in the south of Japan started to use a smaller biwa, called the moso-biwa, of Indian origin, which felt suited to accompanying the singing of sutras. At least two other versions of biwa existed at that time. In the 12th century, the blind-priest biwa players went through a decline, while, at the same time, a narrative tradition was created to recount a famous historical battle between the Heike and the Genji clans, called the Heike Monogatari or The Heike Story. The biwa created for this new narrative tradition has been called the Heike-biwa. But when the shamisen came to Japan in the 16th century, the biwa went into a decline. Yet, some musicians found ways to create new styles to keep the instrument alive up until today. Overall, the biwa has been and is still used today to accompany narratives and storytelling. The patterns played by the singers on biwa are not always melodic, depending on the types of instrument used and the style. Patterns, melodic, rhythmic or otherwise, are used; in the 19th century, a more melodic accompaniment started to be used. Previously, the biwa was used as a kind of percussion instrument between the melodic phrases of the singers. In the 19th century, it came to accompany the singer. After World War II, some composers tried to modernize it, based on Western ideas, without much success. Of Chinese origin, the koto is a table zither, approximately 2 meters long. It is one of the few musical instruments originally created in China. There, we find two main forms of this table zither: those with bridges and those without. The koto is developed from the one with bridges. Originally, the word koto meant all types of plucked instruments, which included at the beginning the biwa as well. Later it came to mean the Japanese table zithers. During the Nara period, there were two instruments of that family: the gaku-so with 12 or 13 strings, and the wagon with 6 strings. The gaku-so was used in theGagakuensemble and was plucked by three finger plectra, or tsume. There even existed a nigenkin with 2 strings and an ichigenkin, with one string. The latter is still played today by a few rare musicians. There exists today also a 17-stringed basskoto,and other versions with 20, 25 and even 30 strings. No much is known about the early centuries of koto music, except for some legends that can not be confirmed and several mentions in The Tale of Genji and the Heike Monogatari . The first official records that have been kept on the koto are from a 16th century school, Tsukushi-goto, founded by a priest. But that music was considered vulgar , i.e. popular, and was not endorsed by the court. One student of that school, after being expelled from the school and created his own school which was then endorsed by the court, from which were created three of the best-known and most important pieces of the koto solo repertoire: Rokudan, Hachidan, and Midare. In the 17th century, thekotostarted to be used to accompany dances and became part of ensembles. A new repertoire was created out of the shamisen repertoire. In fact, it was at that time that the music we call chamber music was created by a musician named Ikuta Kengyo. Up until then, the koto served as accompaniment for the singer - the same with the shamisen. The instrumental part became more important. At the end of 18th century, another musician, Yamada Kengyo, created a new style, also based on narrative shamisen forms, putting an emphasis back on the vocal part. In the 20th century, attempts were made to modernize koto music based on Western principles. The most notable name is Michio Miyagi (1894-1956), who became blind at since the age of six. Another musician credited for modernizing koto music is Tadao Sawai (1937-1997). He brought to koto music a whole new perspective, especially a sense of rhythm never heard before. During the Edo period (1615-1868), the shakuhachi went through major changes. Up until that time, it was a thin and long flute, similarly to the Chinese xiao. In the 17th century, makers started to use a thicker bamboo found in the mountains of Japan's southern island of Kyushu, maintaining its original 5 holes. Instead of having a straight flute, four rows of roots were used at the bottom of the flute. The embouchure also became larger. The name shakuhachi refers to a measure, the shaku, which is approximately a foot long, and hachi is the number 8. Shakuhachi literally means 'one shaku eight', which came to be used as the generic name for the flute. The standard 1.8 shakuhachi is in D. Different lengths are produced, from 1.4 to 3.4, each half a tone apart. During the Edo period, the new shogun was able to unify the country and finally bring peace after centuries of wars. Samurai did not have much to do since they could not find any more fighting. Many became ronin, i.e. samurai without masters, and joined the ranks of the wandering monks of the Fuke sect. These monks, called komuso or monks of nothingness , were begging while playing shakuhachi. They were wearing a basket on their heads to signify their detachment from worldly matters. Disguised as komuso, the ronin became spies for the shogun, using their shakuhachi as fighting clubs. There is a rumour suggesting that the use of a thick bamboo and the four rows of roots to make the shakuhachi is due to these ronin to protect themselves because, as monks, they could not carry their katana (their sword). The principal style of music that is played on the shakuhachi is called honkyoku, meaning original music . It is the name of the original style of playing of the Fuke sect monks. There are other styles as well. Originally, it was mainly a repertoire of solo pieces. Only a few pieces have been written for two shakuhachi, including some to which a second part was added to an originally solo piece. Another style of playing is the gaikyoku. This is the name of the shakuhachi part in Japanese chamber music. In the 20th century, the shakuhachi went through some other changes. At the beginning of the century, a new style of playing was created, called Tozan, a style of playing greatly influenced by Western music. At the end of the 1950s a seven-hole shakuhachi was created in the hope it could be used to play in a more Western way. It did not catch on, except for playing folk songs. Shakuhachi players continue to maintain, up to this day, their preference for the traditional 5-hole instrument. But one event of importance of the second half of the 20th century is the growing interest by Westerners in learning to play the shakuhachi. It is estimated that somewhere around 2,000 Westerners are currently learning the shakuhachi and that there are around 300 who have got a master's title, or shi-han. At the start, people did not find the instrument very interesting. But when biwa players started to pluck and play it with a biwa bachi (or plectrum), the sound and tone of the instrument were greatly improved, and even more so when once covered with cat skin. This gave the instrument a totally new sound, more pleasing for to the Japanese ears. Cat skin is more durable than snake skin; dog skin is used in cheaper models. A number of differentshamisenwere created for different occasions, with differences in sizes. This instrument quickly became the instrument of choice for the then new developing social life of a Japan without wars. The shamisen has no frets. A number of different effects can be produced, but one most particular characteristic for the shamisen is what is called sawari, similar to the one produced on the biwa. It is a buzzing sound produced only on the first string. The first shamisen players were biwa players. So the first repertoire for the shamisen was narrative music. But later, because of its growing popularity, to the demise of the biwa, numerous styles and schools of playing were created. There are two majors styles: katarimono, which refers to narrative singing, while utaimono refers to songs and melodies. The shamisen came to be used for all types of occasions: theatres, geisha houses, festivals, folk music and much more. The shamisen quickly became the instrument of choice for many theatre forms, in particular the well-known Kabuki theatre and Bunraku, the Japanese puppet theatre, both of which were created during the Edo period (1615-1868), at the same time of which the shamisen appeared. Another instrument closely related to the shamisen is the kokyu. It is an upright shamisen played with a bow and can have two, three or four strings. Some are suggesting that it is related to the Chinese kokin, a 2-stringed fiddle, but it construction is entirely different from this Chinese instrument. A theory suggests that it was created following the first encounters in Japan with Western instruments - at the time the Portuguese were visiting Japan, bringing along string quartets. Someone apparently had the idea to create a bowed instrument using an upright shamisen.3 This idea has not been confirmed and is not mentioned in the literature. The kokyu was popular mainly during the Edo period (1615-1868). Today, only very a few rare musicians play the instrument and will accompany koto ensembles. This idea of creating this type of small ensemble music is credited to a koto player name Ikuta Kengyo. At that time, the koto started to be used to accompany dances and being used in special ensembles. It was toward the end of the century that a form of chamber music in the true sense of the term was established, of which the koto was the main instrument. This ensemble consisted of the koto, the shamisen and the kokyu. The ensemble was called sankyoku, which means music for three instruments. Gradually the kokyu was replaced by the shakuhachi and it was in the second half of the 19th century that the kokyu was entirely set aside. It appears that the biwa was not selected as a possible candidate to be part of this traditional Japanese chamber music. Interestingly though, the repertoire that Ikuta Kengyo selected for his sankyoku ensemble was taken from the shamisen repertoires, in particular from the jiuta style. Originally, the jiuta style referred to the shamisen music played in Kyoto. But later on, the term jiuta, or more specifically jiuta-mai, came to refer to the new style of koto music played by the new sankyoku ensemble. As well, many pieces of the regular koto repertoire have also been arranged for the new trio. The main innovation in this new style was that the instrumental part came to have precedence over the vocal part. And for the first time, the koto could play a leading role. From this time on, the development of Japanese ensemble music has been closely linked to the development of the koto. For example, at the end of the 18th century, a new koto school was created, called Yamada. Although the Yamada school brought an emphasis on the vocal part, the instrumental part remained on an equal footing with the vocal. And in some new pieces, no vocal part was written. Later on, at the beginning of the 19th century, a master of the Ikuta school added a second koto part to many pieces of the repertoire, which plays a melodic line different from the main koto part. In the 20th century, sankyoku music took a modern direction, which has been greatly influenced by Western music and compositional techniques. For example, previously scores did not use what can be call measures. Each instrument has its own particular notations written from top-down, left-right. Composers started to use boxes to refer to measures, as well as lines to represent rhythms similarly to Western music. Jiuta-mai music does not have much in common with Western chamber music. We do not hear three distinct parts, with different melodic lines and a harmony of some sort. On the contrary, the three instruments play almost exactly the same melodic line, with two exceptions, the vocal parts and the melodic line of the second koto, when a second koto joins the ensemble. The melodic lines of the shamisen and shakuhachi are based on the koto line and are arranged here and there according to the particularity of both instruments. Otherwise, it is the same. The only real ensemble effect that is used is what is called kake-ai, which is a short melodic response between two instruments. For this reason, every part of a jiuta-mai piece can be played separately from the two other parts. For example, the well-known piece Rokudan No Shirabe, which has no vocal part, can be played individually by each of the three instruments, or in duet (e.g. koto and shakuhachi, the most commonly heard version, shamisen and shakuhachi, or koto and shamisen). And, of course, it can be performed with the three instruments, and with the second koto part. The jiuta-mai pieces contains parts alternating between instrumental and vocal parts; sometimes three, sometimes up to six parts. When a piece is in three parts, there are: In the 20th century, there appears to have been a decline in the writing of sankyoku pieces. There has also been a decline in the interest by Japanese themselves and musicians and composers alike regarding their traditional music and instruments. After World War II, up until the end of the 1960s, not many sankyoku pieces had been written. We have been seeing seen a renewed interest at the beginning of the 1970s. What stands out with these 20th century pieces is that the majority of them appear to have been written for koto and shakuhachi. Yet, some composers have been written pieces which include the shamisen as well as the biwa - as well as writing pieces which include Western instruments. As already mentioned, there is also a strong movement of modernization of traditional arts based on Western music, in particular with the koto with such composers as Michio Miyagi and Tadao Sawai. Some composers are doing the same with the other instruments, performed solo or in chamber music ensemble. There are a good number of new pieces written for koto and shakuhachi or for koto ensembles and that are available on CDs in the West. Some of them are avant-garde pieces, some others are semiclassical; that is to say, they are avant-garde or melodic in the Western sense of the terms. Yet many composers are able to maintain in their compositions a typical Japanese character. Additionally, there is a growing interest by Westerners about in Japanese music. Also as mentioned earlier, many people are learning to play the shakuhachi and getting their shi-han. We find shakuhachi teachers in major cities all around the world. A much smaller number are learning the koto and shamisen. We find chamber music ensembles in many cities in Europe and North America. A few Japanese musicians have now moved to Western countries. Bruno Deschênes - Montréal, Québec - 27.12 01 Bruno Deschênes (2001). The Music of Japan. Internet Site: The All Music Guide, Hugh de Ferranti (2000). Japanese Musical Instruments. Oxford: Oxford University Press. William P Malm (1959). Japanese Music & Musical Instruments. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company. Reischauer, Edwin O (1997). Histoire du Japon et des Japonais, 1. Des origines à 1945. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Akira Tamba (1988) La théorie et l esthétique musicale japonaise du 8e au 19e siècle. Paris: Publications orientalistes de France. Trasher, Alan R (2000) Chinese Musical Instruments. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |Top of page||Articles||Home Page||Reviews||News||Editorial||Map|

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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy. Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin ?duc?ti? ("A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing") from ?duc? ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym ?d?c? ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ?- ("from, out of") and d?c? ("I lead, I conduct"). Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom. Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE 476. In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era. The Aztecs also had a well-developed theory about education, which has an equivalent word in Nahuatl called tlacahuapahualiztli. It means "the art of raising or educating a person" or "the art of strengthening or bringing up men." This was a broad conceptualization of education, which prescribed that it begins at home, supported by formal schooling, and reinforced by community living. Historians cite that formal education was mandatory for everyone regardless of social class and gender. There was also the word neixtlamachiliztli, which is "the act of giving wisdom to the face." These concepts underscore a complex set of educational practices, which was oriented towards communicating to the next generation the experience and intellectual heritage of the past for the purpose of individual development and his integration into the community. After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate which was established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilizations - as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more. Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country when children enter primary education. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where kindergarten is a term often used to describe the earliest levels of primary education. Kindergarten "provide[s] a child-centred, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them." Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first five to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of children aged six to twelve are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools or elementary schools. Primary schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school. In India, for example, compulsory education spans over twelve years, with eight years of elementary education, five years of primary schooling and three years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession. Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received higher wages. Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves date even further back. Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area. Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Some universities are composed of several colleges. One type of university education is a liberal arts education, which can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum." Although what is known today as liberal arts education began in Europe, the term "liberal arts college" is more commonly associated with institutions in the United States such as Williams College or Barnard College. Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts. In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning. While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling, and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, Walden's Path, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools. Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system. In time, some ideas from these experiments and paradigm challenges may be adopted as the norm in education, just as Friedrich Fröbel's approach to early childhood education in 19th-century Germany has been incorporated into contemporary kindergarten classrooms. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison, and Ivan Illich. Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students." Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners, this includes language acquisition, cultural norms, and manners. In informal learning, there is often a reference person, a peer or expert, to guide the learner. If learners have a personal interest in what they are informally being taught, learners tend to expand their existing knowledge and conceive new ideas about the topic being learned. For example, a museum is traditionally considered an informal learning environment, as there is room for free choice, a diverse and potentially non-standardized range of topics, flexible structures, socially rich interaction, and no externally imposed assessments. While informal learning often takes place outside educational establishments and does not follow a specified curriculum, it can also occur within educational settings and even during formal learning situations. Educators can structure their lessons to directly utilize their students informal learning skills within the education setting. In the late 19th century, education through play began to be recognized as making an important contribution to child development. In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself, he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well." Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities. The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students. Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a term used to describe self-directed learning. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician). Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are prestigious private universities such as Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, the University of Pennylvania, and Caltech, as well as notable public universities including Tsinghua, Peking, Edinburgh, University of Michigan, and University of Virginia. Open education has been called the biggest change in the way people learn since the printing press. Despite favourable studies on effectiveness, many people may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons. Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal "academic value" to traditional degrees. Out of 182 colleges surveyed in 2009 nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for campus-based ones. A recent meta-analysis found that online and blended educational approaches had better outcomes than methods that used solely face-to-face interaction. The education sector or education system is a group of institutions (ministries of education, local educational authorities, teacher training institutions, schools, universities, etc.) whose primary purpose is to provide education to children and young people in educational settings. It involves a wide range of people (curriculum developers, inspectors, school principals, teachers, school nurses, students, etc.). These institutions can vary according to different contexts. Schools deliver education, with support from the rest of the education system through various elements such as education policies and guidelines - to which school policies can refer - curricula and learning materials, as well as pre- and in-service teacher training programmes. The school environment - both physical (infrastructures) and psychological (school climate) - is also guided by school policies that should ensure the well-being of students when they are in school. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has found that schools tend to perform best when principals have full authority and responsibility for ensuring that students are proficient in core subjects upon graduation. They must also seek feedback from students for quality-assurance and improvement. Governments should limit themselves to monitoring student proficiency. The education sector is fully integrated into society, through interactions with a large number of stakeholders and other sectors. These include parents, local communities, religious leaders, NGOs, stakeholders involved in health, child protection, justice and law enforcement (police), media and political leadership. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2015, calls for a new vision to address the environmental, social and economic concerns facing the world today. The Agenda includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 4 on education. Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world attending school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school. Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles: Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education. Similarities - in systems or even in ideas - that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. The Programme for International Student Assessment and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement objectively monitor and compare the proficiency of students from a wide range of different nations. Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. Charities like One Laptop per Child are dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials. The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations. In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organisation launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost. Research into LCPS (low-cost private schools) found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around LCPSs to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarized and finding growing coverage in international policy. The polarization was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reach disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, support or undermine equality, and are financially sustainable. The report examined the main challenges encountered by development organizations which support LCPSs. Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia. This success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for: The report showed some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programs; evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology, in turn, informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006). Intelligence is an important factor in how the individual responds to education. Those who have higher intelligence tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education. This effect is also observable in the opposite direction, in that education increases measurable intelligence. Studies have shown that while educational attainment is important in predicting intelligence in later life, intelligence at 53 is more closely correlated to intelligence at 8 years old than to educational attainment. There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most commonly employed learning modalities are: Dunn and Dunn focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner identified a wide range of modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter, based on the works of Jung, focus on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator follows a similar but more simplified approach. Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through visual or kinesthetic experiences. A consequence of the latter theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them. Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic(VAK) are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning. Recent research has argued, "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice." Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience, developmental cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, educational technology, education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. Researchers in educational neuroscience investigate the neural mechanisms of reading,numerical cognition,attention, and their attendant difficulties including dyslexia,dyscalculia, and ADHD as they relate to education. Several academic institutions around the world are beginning to devote resources to the establishment of educational neuroscience research. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems (...) its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy". "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline." As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few. For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between education theory and practice. There is no broad consensus as to what education's chief aim or aims are or should be. Some authors stress its value to the individual, emphasizing its potential for positively influencing students' personal development, promoting autonomy, forming a cultural identity or establishing a career or occupation. Other authors emphasize education's contributions to societal purposes, including good citizenship, shaping students into productive members of society, thereby promoting society's general economic development, and preserving cultural values. In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university-or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences. Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives. The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theatre. Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible. With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias. College basketball coach John Wooden the Wizard of Westwood would teach through quick "This not That" technique. He would show (a) the correct way to perform an action, (b) the incorrect way the player performed it, and again (c) the correct way to perform an action. This helped him to be a responsive teacher and fix errors on the fly. Also, less communication from him meant more time that the player could practice. It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth. Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions and the role of cognitive skills. At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of Jacob Mincer, on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling. Some students who have indicated a high potential for learning, by testing with a high intelligence quotient, may not achieve their full academic potential, due to financial difficulties. Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production. Many countries are now drastically changing the way they educate their citizens. The world is changing at an ever quickening rate, which means that a lot of knowledge becomes obsolete and inaccurate more quickly. The emphasis is therefore shifting to teaching the skills of learning: to picking up new knowledge quickly and in as agile a way as possible. Finnish schools have even begun to move away from the regular subject-focused curricula, introducing instead developments like phenomenon-based learning, where students study concepts like climate change instead. Education is also becoming a commodity no longer reserved for children. Adults need it too. Some governmental bodies, like the Finnish Innovation Fund Sitra in Finland, have even proposed compulsory lifelong education.

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Cymru, the nation; Cymry, the people; Cymraeg, the language Identification. The Britons, a Celtic tribe, who first settled in the area that is now Wales, had already begun to identify themselves as a distinct culture by the sixth century C.E. The word "Cymry," referring to the country, first appeared in a poem dating from 633. By 700 C.E. , the Britons referred to themselves as Cymry, the country as Cymru, and the language as Cymraeg. The words "Wales" and "Welsh" are Saxon in origin and were used by the invading Germanic tribe to denote people who spoke a different language. The Welsh sense of identity has endured despite invasions, absorption into Great Britain, mass immigration, and, more recently, the arrival of non-Welsh residents. Language has played a significant role in contributing to the sense of unity felt by the Welsh; more than the other Celtic languages, Welsh has maintained a significant number of speakers. During the eighteenth century a literary and cultural rebirth of the language occurred which further helped to solidify national identity and create ethnic pride among the Welsh. Central to Welsh culture is the centuries-old folk tradition of poetry and music which has helped keep the Welsh language alive. Welsh intellectuals in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries wrote extensively on the subject of Welsh culture, promoting the language as the key to preserving national identity. Welsh literature, poetry, and music flourished in the nineteenth century as literacy rates and the availability of printed material increased. Tales that had traditionally been handed down orally were recorded, both in Welsh and English, and a new generation of Welsh writers emerged. Location and Geography. Wales is a part of the United Kingdom and is located in a wide peninsula in the western portion of the island of Great Britain. The island of Anglesey is also considered a part of Wales and is separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait. Wales is surrounded by water on three sides: to the north, the Irish Sea; to the south, the Bristol Channel; and to the west, Saint George's Channel and Cardigan Bay. The English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucestershire border Wales on the east. Wales covers an area of 8,020 square miles (20,760 square kilometers) and extends 137 miles (220 kilometers) from its most distant points and varies between 36 and 96 miles (58 and 154 kilometers) in width. The capital, Cardiff, is located in the southeast on the Severn Estuary and is also the most important seaport and shipbuilding center. Wales is very mountainous and has a rocky, irregular coastline with numerous bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay to the west. The Cambrian Mountains, the most significant range, run north-south through central Wales. Other mountain ranges include the Brecon Beacons to the southeast and Snowdon in the northwest, which reaches an elevation of 3,560 feet (1,085 meters) and is the highest mountain in Wales and England. The Dee River, with its headwaters in Bala Lake, the largest natural lake in Wales, flows through northern Wales into England. Numerous smaller rivers cover the south, including the Usk, Wye, Teifi, and Towy. The temperate climate, mild and moist, has ensured the development of an abundance of plant and animal life. Ferns, mosses, and grasslands as well as numerous wooded areas cover Wales. Oak, mountain ash, and coniferous trees are found in mountainous regions under 1,000 feet (300 meters). The pine marten, a small animal similar to a mink, and the polecat, a member of the weasel family, are Demography. The latest surveys place the population of Wales at 2,921,000 with a density of approximately 364 people per square mile (141 per square kilometers). Almost three-quarters of the Welsh population reside in the mining centers of the south. The popularity of Wales as a vacation destination and weekend retreat, especially near the border with England, has created a new, nonpermanent population. Linguistic Affiliation. There are approximately 500,000 Welsh speakers today and, due to a renewed interest in the language and culture, this number may increase. Most people in Wales, however, are English-speaking, with Welsh as a second language; in the north and west, many people are Welsh and English bilinguals. English is still the main language of everyday use with both Welsh and English appearing on signs. In some areas, Welsh is used exclusively and the number of Welsh publications is increasing. Welsh, or Cymraeg, is a Celtic language belonging to the Brythonic group consisting of Breton, Welsh, and the extinct Cornish. Western Celtic tribes first settled in the area during the Iron Age, bringing with them their language which survived both Roman and Anglo-Saxon occupation and influence, although some features of Latin were introduced into the language and have survived in modern Welsh. Welsh epic poetry can be traced back to the sixth century C.E. and represents one of the oldest literary traditions in Europe. The poems of Taliesin and Aneirin dating from the late seventh century C.E. reflect a literary and cultural awareness from an early point in Welsh history. Although there were many factors affecting the Welsh language, especially contact with other language groups, the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked a dramatic decline in the number of Welsh speakers, as many non-Welsh people, attracted by the industry that had developed around coal mining in the south and east, moved into the area. At the same time, many Welsh people from rural areas left to find work in London or abroad. This large-scale migration of non-Welsh-speaking workers greatly accelerated the disappearance of Welsh-speaking communities. Even though there were still around forty Welsh-language publications in the mid-nineteenth century, the regular use of Welsh by the majority of the population began to drop. Over time two linguistic groups emerged in Wales; the Welsh-speaking region known as the Y Fro Cymraeg to the north and west, where more than 80 percent of the population speaks Welsh, and the Anglo-Welsh area to the south and east where the number of Welsh speakers is below 10 percent and English is the majority language. Up until 1900, however, almost half the population still spoke Welsh. In 1967 the Welsh Language Act was passed, recognizing the status of Welsh as an official language. In 1988 the Welsh Language Board was established, helping to ensure the rebirth of Welsh. Throughout Wales there was a serious effort in the second half of the twentieth century to maintain and promote the language. Other efforts to support the language included Welsh-language television programs, bilingual Welsh-English schools, as well Symbolism. The symbol of Wales, which also appears on the flag, is a red dragon. Supposedly brought to the colony of Britain by the Romans, the dragon was a popular symbol in the ancient world and was used by the Romans, the Saxons, and the Parthians. It became the national symbol of Wales when Henry VII, who became king in 1485 and had used it as his battle flag during the battle of Bosworth Field, decreed that the red dragon should become the official flag of Wales. The leek and the daffodil are also important Welsh symbols. One legend connects the leek to Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, who defeated the pagan Saxons in a victorious battle that supposedly occurred in a field of leeks. It is more likely that leeks were adopted as a national symbol because of their importance to the Welsh diet, particularly during Lent when meat was not allowed. Another, less famous Welsh symbol consists of three ostrich plumes and the motto "Ich Dien" (translation: "I serve") from the Battle of Crecy, France, in 1346. It was probably borrowed from the motto of the King of Bohemia, who led the cavalry charge against the English. Emergence of the Nation. The earliest evidence of a human presence in Wales dates from the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, period almost 200,000 years ago. It was not until the Neolithic and Bronze Age period around 3,000 B.C.E. , however, that a sedentary civilization began to develop. The first tribes to settle in Wales, who probably came from the western coastal areas of the Mediterranean, were people generally referred to as the Iberians. Later migrations from northern and eastern Europe brought the Brythonic Celts and Nordic tribes to the area. At the time of the Roman invasion in 55 B.C.E. , the area was made up of the Iberian and Celtic tribes who referred to themselves as Cymry. The Cymry tribes were eventually subjugated by the Romans in the first century C.E. Anglo-Saxon tribes also settled in Britain during this period, pushing other Celtic tribes into the Welsh mountains where they eventually united with the Cymry already living there. In the first centuries C.E. , Wales was divided into tribal kingdoms, the most important of which were Gwynedd, Gwent, Dyved, and Powys. All of the Welsh kingdoms later united against the Anglo-Saxon invaders, marking the beginning of an official division between England and Wales. This boundary became official with the construction of Offa's Dyke around the middle of the eighth century C.E. Offa's Dyke was at first a ditch constructed by Offa, the king of Mercia, in an attempt to give his territories a well-defined border to the west. The Dyke was later enlarged and fortified, becoming one of the largest human-made boundaries in Europe and covering 150 miles from the northeast coast to the southeast coast of Wales. It remains to this day the line that divides English and Welsh cultures. When William the Conqueror (William I) and his Norman army conquered England in 1066, the three English earldoms of Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford were established on the border with Wales. These areas were used as strong points in attacks against the Welsh and as strategic political centers. Nevertheless, the only Welsh kingdom to fall under Norman control during the reign of William I (1066–1087) was Gwent, in the southeast. By 1100 the Norman lords had expanded their control to include the Welsh areas of Cardigan, Pembroke, Brecon, and Glamorgan. This expansion into Welsh territory led to the establishment of the March of Wales, an area previously ruled by the Welsh kings. The Welsh continued to fight Norman and Anglo-Saxon control in the first part of the twelfth century. By the last half of the twelfth century the three Welsh kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth were firmly established, providing a permanent base for Welsh statehood. The principal settlements of Aberffraw in Gwynedd, Mathrafal in Powys, and Dinefwr in Deheubarth formed the core of Welsh political and cultural life. Although the Welsh kings were allies, each ruled separate territories swearing loyalty to the king of England. The establishment of the kingdoms marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth. Agriculture flourished, as did scholarship and the Welsh literary tradition. A period of unrest and contested succession followed the deaths of the three Welsh kings as different factions fought for control. The stability provided by the first kings was never restored in Powys and Deheubarth. The kingdom of Gwynedd was successfully united once again under the reign of Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (d. 1240) following a brief power struggle. Viewing Llywelyn as a threat, King John (1167–1216) led a campaign against him which led to Llywelyn's humiliating defeat in 1211. Llywelyn, however, turned this to his advantage and secured the allegiance of other Welsh leaders who feared total subjugation under King John. Llywelyn became the leader of the Welsh forces and, although conflict with King John continued, he successfully united the Welsh politically and eventually minimized the king of England's involvement in Welsh affairs. Dafydd ap Llywelyn, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth's son and heir, attempted to broaden Welsh power before his premature death in 1246. With Dafydd leaving no heirs, succession to the Welsh throne was contested by Dafydd's nephews and in a series of battles between 1255 and 1258 Llwelyn ap Gruffydd (d. 1282), one of the nephews, assumed control of the Welsh throne, crowning himself Prince of Wales. Henry III officially recognized his authority over Wales in 1267 with the Treaty of Montgomery and in turn Llwelyn swore allegiance to the English crown. Llwelyn succeeded in firmly establishing the Principality of Wales, which consisted of the twelfth century kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth as well as some parts of the March. This period of peace, however, did not last long. Conflict arose between Edward I, who succeeded Henry III, and Llwelyn, culminating in an English invasion of Wales in 1276, followed by war. Llwelyn was forced into a humiliating surrender that included relinquishing control over the eastern part of his territory and an acknowledgment of fealty paid to Edward I annually. In 1282 Llwelyn, aided this time by the Welsh nobility of other regions, rebelled against Edward I only to be killed in combat. The Welsh forces continued to fight but finally capitulated to Edward I in the summer of 1283, marking the beginning of a period of occupation by the English. Although the Welsh were forced to surrender, the struggle for unity and independence over the previous one hundred years had been crucial in shaping Welsh politics and identity. During the fourteenth century economic and social difficulties prevailed in Wales. Edward I embarked on a program of castle building, both for defensive purposes and to shelter English colonists, which was continued by his heir Edward II. The result of his efforts can still be seen in Wales today, which has more castles per square mile than any other area of Europe. At the end of the 1300s Henry IV seized the throne from Richard II, provoking a revolt in Wales where support for Richard II was strong. Under the leadership of Owain Glyndwr, Wales united to rebel against the English king. From 1400 to 1407 Wales once again asserted its independence from England. England did not regain control of Wales again until 1416 and the death of Glyndwr, marking the last Welsh uprising. The Welsh submitted to Henry VII (1457–1509), the first king of the house of Tudor, whom they regarded as a countryman. In 1536 Henry VIII declared the Act of Union, incorporating Wales into the English realm. For the first time in its history Wales obtained uniformity in the administration of law and justice, the same political rights as the English, and English common law in the courts. Wales also secured parliamentary representation. Welsh landowners exercised their authority locally, in the name of the king, who granted them their land and property. Wales, although no longer an independent nation, had finally obtained unity, stability, and, most importantly, statehood and recognition as a distinct culture. National Identity. The different ethnic groups and tribes that settled in ancient Wales gradually merged, politically and culturally, to defend their territory from first, the Romans, and later the Anglo-Saxon and Norman invaders. The sense of national identity was formed over centuries as the people of Wales struggled against being absorbed into neighboring cultures. The heritage of a common Celtic origin was a key factor in shaping Welsh identity and uniting the warring kingdoms. Cut off from other Celtic cultures to the north in Britain and in Ireland, the Welsh tribes united against their non-Celtic enemies. The development and continued use of the Welsh language also played important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national identity. The tradition of handing down poetry and stories orally and the importance of music in daily Ethnic Relations. With the Act of Union, Wales gained peaceful relations with the English while maintaining their ethnic identity. Until the late eighteenth century Wales was predominantly rural with most of the population living in or near small farming villages; contact with other ethnic groups was minimal. The Welsh gentry, on the other hand, mixed socially and politically with the English and Scottish gentry, producing a very Anglicized upper class. The industry that grew up around coal mining and steel manufacturing attracted immigrants, principally from Ireland and England, to Wales starting in the late eighteenth century. Poor living and working conditions, combined with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants, caused social unrest and frequently led to conflicts—often violent in nature—among different ethnic groups. The decline of heavy industry in the late nineteenth century, however, caused an outward migration of Welsh and the country ceased to attract immigrants. The end of the twentieth century brought renewed industrialization and with it, once again, immigrants from all over the world, although without notable conflicts. The increased standard of living throughout Great Britain has also made Wales a popular vacation and weekend retreat, principally for people from large urban areas in England. This trend is causing significant tension, especially in Welsh-speaking and rural areas, among residents who feel that their way of life is being threatened. The development of Welsh cities and towns did not begin until industrialization in the late 1700s. Rural areas are characterized by a scattering of isolated farms, typically consisting of the older, traditional whitewashed or stone buildings, usually with slate roofs. Villages evolved from the early settlements of the Celtic tribes who chose particular locations for their agricultural or defensive value. More successful settlements grew and became the political and economic centers, first of the kingdoms, then later the individual regions, in Wales. The Anglo-Norman manorial tradition of buildings clustered on a landowner's property, similar to rural villages in England, was introduced to Wales after the conquest of 1282. The village as a center of rural society, however, became significant only in southern and eastern Wales; other rural areas maintained scattered and more isolated building patterns. Timber-framed houses, originally constructed around a great hall, emerged in the Middle Ages in the north and east, and later throughout Wales. In the late sixteenth century, houses began to vary more in size and refinement, reflecting the growth of a middle class and increasing disparities in wealth. In Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, landowners built brick houses that reflected the vernacular style popular in England at the time as well as their social status. This imitation of English architecture set landowners apart from the rest of Welsh society. After the Norman conquest, urban development began to grow around castles and military camps. The bastide, or castle town, although not large, is still significant to political and administrative life. Industrialization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries caused an explosion of urban growth in the southeast and in Cardiff. Housing shortages were common and several families, often unrelated, shared dwellings. Economic affluence and a population increase created a demand for new construction in the late twentieth century. Slightly over 70 percent of homes in Wales are owner-occupied. Food in Daily Life. The importance of agriculture to the Welsh economy as well as the availability of local products has created high food standards and a national diet that is based on fresh, natural food. In coastal areas fishing and seafood are important to both the economy and the local cuisine. The type of food available in Wales is similar to that found in the rest of the United Kingdom and includes a variety of food from other cultures and nations. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Special traditional Welsh dishes include laverbread, a seaweed dish; cawl, a rich broth; bara brith, a traditional cake; and pice ar y maen, Welsh cakes. Traditional dishes are served at special occasions and holidays. Local markets and fairs usually offer regional products and baked goods. Wales is particularly known for its cheeses and meats. Welsh rabbit, also called Welsh rarebit, a dish of melted cheese mixed with ale, beer, milk, and spices served over toast, has been popular since the early eighteenth century. Basic Economy. Mining, especially of coal, has been the chief economic activity of Wales since the seventeenth century and is still very important to the economy and one of the leading sources of employment. The largest coalfields are in the southeast and today produce about 10 percent of Great Britain's total coal production. Iron, steel, limestone, and slate production are also important industries. Although heavy industry has played a significant role in the Welsh economy and greatly affected Welsh society in the nineteenth century, the country remains largely agricultural with almost 80 percent of the land used for agricultural activities. The raising of livestock, particularly cattle and sheep, is more important than crop farming. The principal crops are barley, oats, potatoes, and hay. Fishing, centered on the Bristol Channel, is another important commercial activity. The economy is integrated with the rest of Great Britain and as such Wales is no longer exclusively dependent on its own production. Although agriculture accounts for much of the economy, only a small segment of the total population actually works in this area and agricultural output is largely destined for sale. Many foreign companies that produce consumer goods, particularly Japanese firms, have opened factories and offices in Wales in recent years, providing employment and encouraging economic growth. Land Tenure and Property. In ancient Wales land was informally controlled by tribes who fiercely protected their territory. With the rise of the Welsh kingdoms, land ownership was controlled by the kings who granted their subjects tenure. Because of the scattered and relatively small population of Wales, however, most people lived on isolated farms or in small villages. After the Act of Union with England, the king granted land to the nobility and later, with the rise of a middle class, the Welsh gentry had the economic power to purchase small tracts of land. Most Welsh people were peasant farmers who either worked the land for landowners or were tenant farmers, renting small patches of land. The advent of the industrial revolution caused a radical change in the economy and farmworkers left the countryside in large numbers to seek work in urban areas and coal mines. Industrial workers rented living quarters or, sometimes, were provided with factory housing. Today, land ownership is more evenly distributed throughout the population although there are still large privately owned tracts of land. A new awareness of environmental issues has led to the creation of national parks and protected wildlife zones. The Welsh Forestry Commission has acquired land formerly used for pasture and farming and initiated a program of reforestation. Major Industries. Heavy industry, such as mining and other activities associated with the port of Cardiff, once the busiest industrial port in the world, declined in the last part of the twentieth century. The Welsh Office and Welsh Development Agency have worked to attract multinational companies to Wales in an effort to restructure the nation's economy. Unemployment, higher on average in the rest of the United Kingdom, is still a concern. Industrial growth in the late twentieth century was concentrated mostly in the area of science and technology. The Royal Mint was relocated to Llantrisant, Wales in 1968, helping create a banking and financial services industry. Manufacturing is still the largest Welsh industry, with financial services in second place, followed by education, health and social services, and wholesale and retail trade. Mining accounts for only 1 percent of the gross domestic product. Trade. Integrated with the economy of the United Kingdom, Wales has important trade relations with other regions in Britain and with Europe. Agricultural products, electronic equipment, synthetic fibers, pharmaceuticals, and automotive parts are the principal exports. The most important heavy industry is the refining of imported metal ore to produce tin and aluminum sheets. Government. The Principality of Wales is governed from Whitehall in London, the name of the administrative and political seat of the British government. Increasing pressure from Welsh leaders for more autonomy brought devolution of administration in May 1999, meaning that more political power has been given to the Welsh Office in Cardiff. The position of secretary of state for Wales, a part of the British prime minister's cabinet, was created in 1964. In a 1979 referendum a proposal for the creation of a nonlegislating Welsh Assembly was rejected but in 1997 another referendum passed by a slim margin, leading to the 1998 creation of the National Assembly for Wales. The assembly has sixty members and is responsible for setting policy and creating legislation in areas regarding education, health, agriculture, transportation, and social services. A general reorganization of government throughout the United Kingdom in 1974 included a simplification of Welsh administration with smaller districts regrouped to form larger constituencies for economic and political reasons. Wales was reorganized into eight new counties, from thirteen originally, and within the counties thirty-seven new districts were created. Leadership and Political Officials. Wales has always had strong left wing and radical political parties and leaders. There is also a strong political awareness throughout Wales and voter turnout at elections is higher on average than in the United Kingdom as a whole. In most of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the Liberal Party dominated Welsh politics with the industrial regions supporting the Socialists. In 1925 the Welsh Nationalist Party, known as Plaid Cymru, was founded with the intention of gaining independence for Wales as a region within the European Economic Community. Between World Wars I and II severe economic depression caused almost 430,000 Welsh to immigrate and a new political activism was born with an emphasis on social and economic reform. After World War II the Labor Party gained a majority of support. During the late 1960s Plaid Cymru and the Conservative Party won seats in parliamentary elections, weakening the Labor Party's traditional Military Activity. Wales does not have an independent military and its defense falls under the authority of the military of the United Kingdom as a whole. There are, however, three army regiments, the Welsh Guards, the Royal Regiment of Wales, and the Royal Welch Fusiliers, that have historical associations with the country. Health and social services fall under the administration and responsibility of the secretary of state for Wales. The Welsh Office, which works with the county and district authorities, plans and executes matters relating to housing, health, education, and welfare. Terrible working and living conditions in the nineteenth century brought significant changes and new policies regarding social welfare that continued to be improved upon throughout the twentieth century. Issues regarding health care, housing, education, and working conditions, combined with a high level of political activism, have created an awareness of and demand for social change programs in Wales. The Relative Status of Women and Men. Historically, women had few rights, although many worked outside the home, and were expected to fulfill the role of wife, mother, and, in the case of unmarried women, caregiver to an extended family. In agricultural areas women worked alongside male family members. When the Welsh economy began to become more industrialized, many women found work in factories that hired an exclusively female workforce for jobs not requiring physical strength. Women and children worked in mines, putting in fourteen-hour days under extremely harsh conditions. Legislation was passed in the mid-nineteenth century limiting the working hours for women and children but it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that Welsh women began to demand more civil rights. The Women's Institute, which now has chapters throughout the United Kingdom, was founded in Wales, although all of its activities are conducted in English. In the 1960s another organization, similar to the Women's Institute but exclusively Welsh in its goals, was founded. Known as the Merched y Wawr, or Women of the Dawn, it is dedicated to promoting the rights of Welshwomen, the Welsh language and culture, and organizing charitable projects. Child Rearing and Education. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries children were exploited for labor, sent into mines to work in shafts that were too small for adults. Child and infant mortality rates were high; almost half of all children did not live past the age of five, and only half of those who lived past the age of ten could hope to live to their early twenties. Social reformers and religious organizations, particularly the Methodist Church, advocated for improved public education standards in the mid-nineteenth century. Conditions began to gradually improve for children when working hours were restricted and compulsory education enacted. The Education Act of 1870 passed to enforce basic standards, but also sought to banish Welsh completely from the education system. Today, primary and nursery schools in areas with a Welsh-speaking majority provide instruction completely in Welsh and schools in areas where English is the first language offer bilingual instruction. The Welsh Language Nursery Schools Movement, Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin Cymraeg, founded in 1971, has been very successful in creating a network of nursery schools, or Ysgolion Meithrin, particularly in regions where English is used more frequently. Nursery, primary, and secondary schools are under the administration of the education authority of the Welsh Office. Low-cost, quality public education is available throughout Wales for students of all ages. Higher Education. Most institutions of higher learning are publicly supported, but admission is competitive. The Welsh literary tradition, a high literacy rate, and political and religious factors have all contributed to shaping a culture where higher education is considered important. The principal institute of higher learning is the University of Wales, a public university financed by the Universities Funding Council in London, with six locations in Wales: Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, Lampeter, Swansea, and the Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff. The Welsh Office is responsible for Religious Beliefs. Religion has played a significant role in the shaping Welsh culture. Protestantism, namely Anglicanism, began to gather more support after Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church. On the eve of the English Civil War in 1642, Puritanism, practiced by Oliver Cromwell and his supporters, was widespread in the border counties of Wales and in Pembrokeshire. Welsh royalists, who supported the king and Anglicanism, were stripped of their property, incurring much resentment among non-Puritan Welsh. In 1650 the Act for the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales was passed, taking over both political and religious life. During the period known as the Interregnum when Cromwell was in power, several non-Anglican, or Dissenting, Protestant congregations were formed which were to have significant influences on modern Welsh life. The most religiously and socially radical of these were the Quakers, who had a strong following in Montgomeryshire and Merioneth, and eventually spread their influence to areas including the Anglican border counties and the Welsh-speaking areas in the north and west. The Quakers, intensely disliked by both other Dissenting churches and the Anglican Church, were severely repressed with the result that large numbers were forced to emigrate to the American colonies. Other churches, such as the Baptist and Congregationalist, which were Calvinist in theology, grew and found many followers in rural communities and small towns. In the latter part of the eighteenth century many Welsh converted to Methodism after a revival movement in 1735. Methodism was supported within the established Anglican Church and was originally organized through local societies governed by a central association. The influence of the original Dissenting churches, combined with the spiritual revival of Methodism, gradually led Welsh society away from Anglicanism. Conflicts in leadership and chronic poverty made church growth difficult, but the popularity of Methodism eventually helped establish it permanently as the most widespread denomination. The Methodist and other Dissenting churches were also responsible for an increase in literacy through church-sponsored schools that promoted education as a way of spreading religious doctrine. Today, followers of Methodism still constitute the largest religious group. The Anglican Church, or the Church of England, is the second largest sect, followed by the Roman Catholic Church. There are also much smaller numbers of Jews and Muslims. The Dissenting Protestant sects, and religion in general, played very important roles in modern Welsh society but the number of people who regularly participated in religious activities dropped significantly after World War II. Rituals and Holy Places. The Cathedral of Saint David, in Pembrokeshire, is the most significant national holy place. David, the patron saint of Wales, was a religious crusader who arrived in Wales in the sixth century to spread Christianity and convert the Welsh tribes. He died in 589 on 1 March, now celebrated as Saint David's Day, a national holiday. His remains are buried in the cathedral. Health care and medicine are government-funded and supported by the National Health Service of the United Kingdom. There is a very high standard of health care in Wales with approximately six medical practitioners per ten thousand people. The Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff offers quality medical training and education. During the nineteenth century, Welsh intellectuals began to promote the national culture and traditions, initiating a revival of Welsh folk culture. Over the last century these celebrations have evolved into major events and Wales now has several internationally important music and literary festivals. The Hay Festival of Literature, from 24 May to 4 June, in the town of Hay-on-Wye, annually attracts thousands, as does the Brecon Jazz Festival from 11 to 13 August. The most important Welsh secular celebration, however, is the Eisteddfod cultural gathering celebrating music, poetry, and storytelling. The Eisteddfod has its origins in the twelfth century when it was essentially a meeting held by the Welsh bards for the exchange of information. Taking place irregularly and in different locations, the Eisteddfod was attended by poets, musicians and troubadours, all of whom had important roles in medieval Welsh culture. By the eighteenth century the tradition had become less cultural and more social, often degenerating into drunken tavern meetings, but in 1789 the Gwyneddigion Society revived the Eisteddfod as a competitive festival. It was Edward Williams, also known as Iolo Morgannwg, however, who reawakened Welsh interest in the Eisteddfod in the nineteenth century. Williams actively promoted the Eisteddfod among the Welsh community living in London, often giving dramatic speeches about the significance of Welsh culture and the importance of continuing ancient Celtic traditions. The nineteenth century revival of the Eisteddfod and the rise of Welsh nationalism, combined with a romantic image of ancient Welsh history, led to the creation of Welsh ceremonies and rituals that may not have any historical basis. The Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod, held from 4 to 9 July, and the Royal National Eisteddfod at Llanelli, which features poetry and Welsh folk arts, held from 5 to 12 August, are the two most important secular celebrations. Other smaller, folk and cultural festivals are held throughout the year. Support for the Arts. The traditional importance of music and poetry has encouraged a general appreciation of and support for all of the arts. There is strong public support throughout Wales for the arts, which are considered important to the national culture. Financial support is derived from both the private and public sectors. The Welsh Arts Council provides government assistance for literature, art, music, and theater. The council also organizes tours of foreign performance groups in Wales and provides grants to writers for both English- and Welsh-language publications. Literature. Literature and poetry occupy an important position in Wales for historical and linguistic reasons. Welsh culture was based on an oral tradition of legends, myths, and folktales passed down from generation to generation. The most famous early bardic poets, Taliesin and Aneirin, wrote epic poems about Welsh events and legends around the seventh century. Increasing literacy in the eighteenth century and the concern of Welsh intellectuals for the preservation of the language and culture gave birth to modern written Welsh literature. As industrialization and Anglicization began to threaten traditional Welsh culture, efforts were made to promote the language, preserve Welsh poetry, and encourage Welsh writers. Dylan Thomas, however, the best known twentieth century Welsh poet, wrote in English. Literary festivals and competitions help keep this tradition alive, as does the continued promotion of Welsh, the Celtic language with the largest number of speakers today. Nevertheless, the influence of other cultures combined with the ease of communication through mass media, from both inside the United Kingdom and from other parts of the world, continually undermine efforts to preserve a purely Welsh form of literature. Performance Arts. Singing is the most important of the performance arts in Wales and has its roots in ancient traditions. Music was both entertainment and a means for telling stories. The Welsh National Opera, supported by the Welsh Arts Council, is one of the leading opera companies in Britain. Wales is famous for its all-male choirs, which have evolved from the religious choral tradition. Traditional instruments, such as the harp, are still widely played and since 1906 the Welsh Folk Song Society has preserved, collected, and published traditional songs. The Welsh Theater Company is critically acclaimed and Wales has produced many internationally famous actors. Until the last part of the twentieth century, limited professional and economic opportunities caused many Welsh scientists, scholars, and researchers to leave Wales. A changing economy and the investment of multinationals specializing in high technology are encouraging more people to remain in Wales and find work in the private sector. Research in the social and physical sciences is also supported by Welsh universities and colleges. Curtis, Tony. Wales: The Imagined Nation, Essays in Cultural and National Identity, 1986. Davies, William Watkin. Wales, 1925. Durkaez, Victor E. The Decline of the Celtic Languages: A Study of Linguistic and Cultural Conflict in Scotland, Wales and Ireland from the Reformation to the Twentieth Century, 1983. English, John. Slum Clearance: The Social and Administrative Context in England and Wales, 1976. Fevre, Ralph, and Andrew Thompson. Nation, Identity and Social Theory: Perspectives from Wales, 1999. Hopkin, Deian R., and Gregory S. Kealey. Class, Community, and the Labour Movement: Wales and Canada, 1989. Jackson, William Eric. The Structure of Local Government in England and Wales, 1966. Jones, Gareth Elwyn. Modern Wales: A Concise History, 1485–1979, 1984. Owen, Trefor M. The Customs and Traditions of Wales, 1991. Rees, David Ben. Wales: The Cultural Heritage, 1981. Williams, David. A History of Modern Wales, 1950. Williams, Glanmor. Religion, Language, and Nationality in Wales: Historical Essays by Glanmor Williams, 1979. Williams, Glyn. Social and Cultural Change in Contemporary Wales, 1978. ——. The Land Remembers: A View of Wales, 1977. U.K. Government. "Culture: Wales." Electronic document. Available from http://uk-pages.net/culture —M. C AMERON A RNOLD S EE A LSO : United Kingdom

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1 Key Ideas and Details Anchor 1 / Literature Reading Anchor 1: Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking conclusions drawn from the text. Reading closely Thinking like a detective Grade K Standard With prompting and support, ask, and answer questions about key details key details in a text. Ask and answer questions about key details in a text. Ask and answer such questions as who?, what?, where?, when?, and how? To demonstrate understanding of key details in a text. Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. Essential Skills/ Concepts Ask questions Answer Questions Give details Listening for information Ask questions/answer questions (who, what, when, where, why) Give Details Read for details Ask and answer questions (who, what, where, when, why) Important details Sequence Ask and answer questions ( who, what, where, when, why) Refer to text for answer Synthesize information to answer questions about the text Sequence Academic Vocabulary Details Questions Understanding Sequence Details Questions Ask Answer Information Details Questions Demonstrate Information Details Questions Sequence Information 2 Key Ideas and Details Written Response to Reading Prompts Grade K ( Written and Oral Prompts) Who, what where, when, why questions. What happened in the beginning, middle, and end of the story? Draw a picture of the character, setting, or event. Complete a story map. Who, what, where, when, why questions. Where is the setting? How do you know that is where the story takes place? How does the author describe one of the characters in the text. Complete a story map. Anchor 1 / Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Where is the setting? How do you know that is where the story takes place? Tell me about the different characters. Share a detail from the text about a character. Tell me what happened in the beginning. Share what happened in the middle of the story. Share what happened at the end. Who, what, where, when, why questions. How does knowing where the story takes place help us understand the story? Retell the story. How does the author describe one of the characters in the text? Complete a story map. What was the author trying to tell you? Who are the main characters? Was there a main message in the story? What was it? Reread a passage that helped support what the author was trying to tell you. 3 Key Ideas and Details Anchor 2 / Literature Reading Anchor 2: Determine central ideas or this of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas. Central Idea/theme Getting to the point Grade K Standard With prompting and support retell familiar stories, including key details. Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Identifying the main events of the story Retelling the story Sequencing/Ordering the events of the story Sharing story elements Identifying key details Retell Beginning, middle, end Main events Details Story, problem, character Resolution/solution Sequence Retell stories, including key details, and demonstrate understanding of their central message or lesson. Understand key details Understand sequential order Retell in sequential order Identify and share key details and main events within the story Identify the conflict, problem, and resolution Retell Lesson or moral Beginning, middle, end Details Main event Problem Resolution/solution Sequence Recount stories, including fables and folktales from diverse cultures, and determine their central message, lesson, or moral. Retell stories, fables, and folktales from different cultures Answer questions about the text Determine the big idea Connect the message to other stories or lessons Fables, folktales Central message, moral Beginning, middle, end Problem Solution Sequence Recount stories, including fables, folktales, and myths from diverse cultures; determine the central message, lesson, or moral and explain how it is conveyed through key details in the text Retell stories in sequential order Distinguish different genre: fables, folktale, myths Determine the central message, lesson or moral of a story Explain how the central message, lesson, or moral is conveyed through key details Fable, folktale, myth Central message, lesson, moral Key details Culture Sequence 4 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts Draw a picture of what happened in the story. What problem did the character have? What did the character do to solve the problem? Retell what happened in the story. What problems did the characters have? Explain how they solve their problems. What lessons were learned in the story? What is the moral of the story? Tell about the problem in the story and how it is solved. Use a Three Column Chart: retell the story using beginning, middle, and end. Anchor 2/ Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Can you tell me what happened in the story? Tell me about your picture. What was the story about? What is this story mainly about? What happened in the beginning/middle/end of the story? What lesson did the character learn? What could this mean to the reader? Tell me about the story. What happens first? What is the problem or conflict in the story? How is this text similar/different from other stories you know? 5 Key Ideas and Details Reading Anchor 3: Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop and interact over the course of the test. Anchor 3 / Literature Development of characters, events, and ideas Following the thread Grade K Standard With prompting and support, identify characters, settings, and major events in a story. Describe characters, settings, and major events in a story, using key details. Describe how characters in a story respond to major events and challenges Describe characters in a story (e.g., their traits, motivations, or feelings) and explain how their actions contribute to the sequence of events. Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Identify characters Identify settings Identify major events Identify problem and solution Characters Setting/place Problem Solution Events Identify characters within the story Identify the main and minor characters in the story Identify key events and details of a story in sequential order Understand the lesson or moral of a story Characters Setting Plot Events Sequence Lesson/moral Problem, solution/resolution Understand sequence of events in a story Identify major and minor events, characters in the story Describe how characters face different events or challenges in the story Identify how characters interact and change throughout the story Event Characters Major/minor Sequence of events Challenges Interaction Understand the sequence of events in a story Identify major/minor characters Describe characters by citing their traits, motivations and emotions Understand and explain how the characters actions contribute to major and minor events in the story Interpretation of characters Character/character traits Emotion (feelings) Sequence of events `Motivation Problem/resolution/solutions 6 Key Ideas and Details Written Response to Reading Prompts Who are the characters in the story? Draw a picture of where the story took place. Where and when did the story take place? Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 3/ Literature Who is the story about? What is happening in the story? Tell me about the characters. How are they alike? How are they different? Tell about the characters in the story? Who is the main character? What happens at the beginning, middle, and end of the story? Create a story map. Use a Two Column Chart: character: looks like/acts like. Retell the story in sequential order? Explain the main character in the story, and how that character changes through the story. Use a Two Column Chart: tell about the challenges the characters / how they responded to the challenges. How are the characters behaving or feeling in the beginning of the story? Have the characters feelings changed by the end of the story? How do you know how the characters are feeling? Who are the major/main characters in the story? Who are the minor characters? Tell me about what happens in the story. How does this affect the characters? What decision could the characters have responded to differently? 7 Craft and Structure Anchor 4 / Literature Reading Anchor 4: Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone. Word meanings Knowing the word Grade K Standard Ask and answer questions about unknown words in a text. Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Identify a word Ask a question Use cues such as visuals, phonics and semantics to figure our unknown words Unknown word Question/answer Identify words and phrases in stories or poems that suggest feelings or appeal the senses. Identify and understand the difference between words, phrases and sentences Ask and answer questions about story details Understand that words are clues to what characters are thinking Identify words that use the senses: see, hear smell taste, touch Identify words that communicate feelings Word, phrase, sentence Senses Feelings Describe how words and phrases (e.g., regular beats, alliteration, rhymes, repeated lines) supply rhythm and meaning in a story, prom, or song. Distinguish between words and phrases Ability to hear the same /different sounds in words Ability to hear the pattern of the spoken language Know that alliteration means words that start with the same of similar sounds Recognize when authors repeat the same lines for emphasis or effect Words, phrases Rhyme Rhythm Repetition Alliteration Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, distinguishing literal from nonliteral language. Distinguish between words, phrase, and sentences Determine word and phrase meaning through context Distinguish between literal and non-literal language Determine Phrase Literal and non-literal Context clues Distinguish 8 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts Is there a part/chunk of that word that you know? Can you get your mouth ready to say the word? Is there something in the picture that can help you? Anchor 4 / Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Point to an unknown word on the page. What was hard about that word? What did you do when you read a word you did not understand? Explain how you could use one of the pictures to help you understand an unknown word or phrase. How does the main character feel? What words does the author use to help you understand the character s feelings? Use a Two Column Chart: 5 senses/words in the story. How does the story or poem make you feel when you read it? Look at the picture; is there something there to help you figure out the word? Reread the sentence; do the other words help you understand? How does the story or poem make you feel when you read it? Can you find a sentence where a lot of the words start with the same letter? What is the sentence? Did the author repeat any words and why? Use a Two Column Chart: rhyming words/sentence where you found the word. Can you identify words that rhyme? What is the difference between a word, phrase or sentence? Can you find a sentence that has words that begin with the same letter? 9 Craft and Structure Anchor 5 / Literature Reading Anchor 5: Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other and the whole. Text structures Examining how the text is built Grade K Standard With prompting and support, describe the relationship between illustrations and the story in which they appear (e.g., what moment in a story an illustration Use illustrations and details in a story to describe its characters, setting, or events. Use information gained from the illustrations and words in a print or digital text to demonstrate understanding of its characters, setting, or plot. depicts). or setting). Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Recognize that there are different purposes for writing. Understand that writing is formatted in different ways Know the elements of a story Know the elements of poems Recognize common genres: Fables, narrative, fairytale, poem, rhyme Fiction Poem, rhyme Fable Narrative Information Understand the narrative structure of a story and h Recognize common genres: fables, narrative, fairytale, poem, rhyme. Magazineexpository, fiction/non-fiction Narrative Expository Fiction, non-fiction Information Poem Understand story structure Understand the beginning of a story that introduces the characters and setting Describe the actions that occur at the ending of the story Know that actions in the story help lead to a resolution Drama/play Poem/poetry Paragraph Section Chapter Scene Verse Stanza Explain how specific aspects of a text s illustrations contribute to what is conveyed by the words in story (e.g., create mood, emphasize aspects of a character Understand differences between story, drama, and poem and its parts (chapter, scene, stanza) Use vocabulary particular to each genre when speaking and writing Describe how each part builds upon earlier sections when discussing or writing about story, drama, or poems Drama/play Poem/poetry Scene Verse Stanza 10 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts What is this story about? Is this story real or not real? Is this a book that tells a story or gives information? Explain. Explain if it is fiction or non-fiction. What is this book about? What can we learn from this book? Use a Two Column Chart: chapter/key event, Describe the beginning, middle, end. What are the characters problems? How does the character solve the problem? In which part of the story does most of the action occur? Use Two Column Chart: Chapter/key events, description. Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 5 / Literature Will this book tell us story or help us learn something new? What helps us know that this book is a? Is this a or a? What information can we gather from this book? What are the characters problems? In which part of the story does most of the action occur? What is the genre? How do you know? Read where the character s problem begins to be solved. What is the author trying to tell you? What information does the author include at the beginning of the story that helps you understand the rest of the story? What is the importance of having chapters, stanzas, scenes? 11 Craft and Structure Anchor 6/ Literature Reading Anchor 6: Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text. Point of view Seeing in a different way Grade K Standard With prompting and support, name the author and illustrator of a story and define the role of each in telling the story. Identify who is telling the story at various points in the text. Acknowledge differences in points of view of characters, including by speaking in a different voice for each character when reading dialogue aloud. Distinguish their own point of view from that of the narrator of those of the characters. Essential Skills/ Concepts Identify the name of the author Identify the name of the illustrator Tell what the author does Tell what the illustrator does Understand role of a narrator Understand character Understand concept of dialogue (talking between characters) Understand quotation marks. Identify narrator Identify character s voice Identify dialogue in text Identify speaker Understand and identify point of view Distinguish one character s point of view from another character s Distinguish between characters voices when reading aloud Use different voices for different characters (e.g., high gruff, low excited) Understand point of view Distinguish between one s own point of view and another s Know what is meant by first person, third person Academic Vocabulary Author Illustrator Illustration Written by Illustrated by Title cover Author Narrator Character Dialogue Quotations Point of view Distinguish Opinion Dialogue Contrast Point of view Distinguish Narrator First person Third person 12 Craft and Structure Written Response to Reading Prompts Who wrote this story? Who drew the pictures? Tell me what the book was about? Who is telling the story? What does the narrator of a story do? What does the author do? Draw a picture of a character using details from the author. Use a Two Column Chart: title/who tells the story, record one sentence from narrator. Anchor 6 / Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Can you point to the name of the author? Where can I find the name of the person who wrote this story? Who is talking? How do you know? How many characters are in the story? What are the names of the characters? Describe the3 difference between the two character s points of view. What makes the characters speak or act differently? Draw a picture of a character at a particular point in time, using details from the author. Use Three Column Chart: major problem, what did the character do, what would you have done. Can you change your voice so it sounds like how the character might talk? Why is it important for the author to use dialogue? Who narrates the story? How would things be different if the story were told from a different character s perspective of from your perspective? 13 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Anchor 7 / Literature Reading Anchor 7: Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. Content in media Putting it together Grade K Standard With prompting and support, describe the relationship between illustrations and the story in which they appear (e.g., what moment in a story an illustration Use illustrations and details in a story to describe its characters, setting, or events. Use information gained from the illustrations and words in a print or digital text to demonstrate understanding of its characters, setting, or plot. depicts). or setting). Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Recognize different types of illustrations (picture, photo, drawing, sketch, etc.) Understand and follow a story s events and plots Connect the point of the story with illustrations Know that illustrations help you understand more about the story, characters and plot Illustration Illustrator Drawing/picture/photograph Story Understand that illustrations add details to the story Understand that details are specific pieces of information that add meaning to a story Identify the sequence of the main events of a story using details in the illustrations Illustrations Events Details Characters Setting Understand character, plot, and setting Analyze text information and illustrations to understand Deeper meaning of the story Use opportunities to explore stories as digital text Illustration Character Setting Plot Digital text Explain how specific aspects of a text s illustrations contribute to what is conveyed by the words in story (e.g., create mood, emphasize aspects of a character Understand character, plot, setting Recognize how illustrations contribute to a story Explain how illustrations contribute to create mood and describe character or setting Illustrations Aspects Mood 14 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Written Response to Reading Prompts Why do you think the illustrator drew the picture? Is there anything in the pictures that help you understand the story better? Describe an illustration in the story and why it is important. How do illustrations help us understand the events of the story? Use a Two Column Chart: illustrations (page)/details. Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 7/ Literature Picture walk through the book. After looking at a picture, what do you think will happen next? Where can we look to find details about the story/characters? What clues does the illustration provide to help you understand the setting/character/plot of the story? Describe an illustration in the story that explains something about the character. Choose an illustration and retell that part of the story. Use a Two Column Chart: description of illustration/clues about important events. How does the illustration relate to what the author tells us about the characters? How does the illustration relate to what the author tells us about the setting? How does the illustration help you understand what the story is about (plot)? Why do you think the author/illustrator included that illustration? 15 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Anchor 9 / Literature Reading Anchor 9: Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take. Comparing and Weighing the works contrasting Grade K Standard With prompting and support, compare and contrast the adventures and experiences of characters in familiar stories. Compare and contrast the adventures and experiences of characters in stories. Compare and contrast two or more versions of the same story (e.g., Cinderella stories) by different authors or from different cultures. Compare and contrast the treatment of similar themes and topics (e.g. opposition of good and evil) and patterns of events (e.g., the quest) in stories, myths, and traditional literature from Essential Skills/ Concepts Academic Vocabulary Know that compare means looking for things that are alike or the same Know that contrast means looking for difference Identify similarities and differences in the adventures; experiences of characters Understand the who and the what of the story Character Adventure Experiences Compare, similar Contrast, different Identify the characters and make comparisons Understand comparison (similarities), contrast (differences) Understand what an adventure, experience is Identify similarities (comparisons), differences (contrasts) Understand the who and what within stories Compare (similarities) Contrast (differences) Adventures Experiences Compare and contrast the same Story by different authors Compare and contrast two stories that have a similar theme, idea or character Compare, contrast Plot Theme different cultures. Compare and contrast Understand theme, setting and plot Recognize author Recognize how a character remains the same or changes throughout a text or throughout a series Compare and contrast the themes, settings and plots Compare, contrast Theme, plot Setting Character 16 Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Written Response to Reading Prompts Grade K ( Written and Oral Prompts) What adventure did one character have in the story? Does this character remind you of another character? Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Anchor 9/ Literature Can you think of another story that is like this one? How is this story s ending the same as another story you have read? How is this story s ending different as another story you have read? How is the ending of this story the same as another story you have read? How is the ending of this story different as another story you have read? Use a Two Column Chart: main characters( two different books)/compare, contrast. Can you think of another story that is like this one? How is this story s ending the same as another story you have read? How is this story s ending different as another story you have read? Describe the setting of this book and another book you have read. Describe the problem faced by a character in this book and another book you read. Use a Two Column Chart: compare, contrast/two stories. What is the theme and is there another story with the same theme? What is similar about the problem-resolution sequences? Which version of the story do you like better? 17 Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity Anchor 10 Reading Anchor 10: Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts independently and proficiently. Text complexity Stepping higher Grade K Standard Actively engage in group reading activities with purpose and understanding. Essential Skills/ Concepts Listening intently Asking questions Academic Vocabulary Listen Purpose Understanding Illustrations Events Content Predictions With prompting and support, read prose and poetry of appropriate complexity for grade 1. Recall familiar stories Retell familiar stories Recite poems Make connections between texts such as poems on the same topic Make and confirm predictions about what will happen next in a story Retell Recall Compare Predict Identify By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature, including stories and poetry, in the grades 2-3 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. Recognize a variety of text (stories, poetry) Read independently and proficiently in grades 2-3 complexity band Comprehend literature read in grades 2-3 complexity band Multiple layers of meaning, figurative language and academic vocabulary Comprehend Independently Literature Proficiently Character Plot Setting By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature, including stories, drama, and poetry, in the grades 2-3 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Recognize genre in literature, including stories, dramas, and poetry Read independently and proficiently at the high end of the 2-3 grade complexity band Comprehend literature read at the high end of the 2-3 grade complexity band Comprehend Independently Literature Proficiently Story Drama Poetry Chart 18 Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity Written Response to Reading Prompts Anchor 10/ Literature Teacher-Student Conference Prompts Grade K ( Written and Oral Prompts) Retell the story to your partner. Can you predict what is going to happen using the pictures or what we have read so far? Do you have any questions about what we are reading? Would you like to read more books by this author? How did you choose this book? Was it a good fit? Do you have any questions about what we are reading? Do you have any questions about what we are reading? How did reading this book improve your reading? Explain. Describe a reading strategy you used in this text. Reread a page. Give feedback (e.g.: fluency). How did you monitor your reading? What can you do if the book is too easy or too difficult? Would you like to read more books by this author? What clues helped you predict what was happening? Reread a page. Give feedback (e.g.: fluency). Would you like to read more books by this author?

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A jester, court jester, or fool, was historically an entertainer during the medieval and Renaissance eras who was a member of the household of a nobleman or a monarch employed to entertain him and his guests. A jester was also an itinerant performer who entertained common folk at fairs and markets. Jesters are also modern-day entertainers who resemble their historical counterparts. Jesters in medieval times are often thought to have worn brightly coloured clothes and eccentric hats in a motley pattern and their modern counterparts usually mimic this costume. Jesters entertained with a wide variety of skills: principal among them were song, music, and storytelling, but many also employed acrobatics, juggling, telling jokes, and magic tricks. Much of the entertainment was performed in a comic style and many jesters made contemporary jokes in word or song about people or events well known to their audiences. - 1 Etymology - 2 History - 3 Political significance - 4 The jester as a symbol - 5 Modern usage - 6 Notable jesters - 7 See also - 8 Footnotes - 9 References - 10 Further reading - 11 External links The modern use of the English word jester did not come into use until the mid-16th century, during Tudor times. This modern term derives from the older form gestour, or jestour, originally from Anglo-Norman (French) meaning story-teller or minstrel. Other earlier terms included fol, disour, and bourder. These terms described entertainers who differed in their skills and performances but who all shared many similarities in their role as comedic performers for their audiences. Early jesters were popular in Ancient Egypt, and entertained Egyptian pharaohs. The ancient Romans had a tradition of professional jesters, called balatrones. Balatrones were paid for their jests, and the tables of the wealthy were generally open to them for the sake of the amusement they afforded. Jesters were popular with the Aztec people in the 14th to 16th centuries. English royal court jesters Many royal courts throughout English royal history employed entertainers and most had professional fools, sometimes called licensed fools. Entertainment included music, storytelling, and physical comedy. It has also been suggested they performed acrobatics and juggling. During the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I of England, William Shakespeare wrote his plays and performed with his theatre company the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later called the King's Men). Clowns and jesters were featured in Shakespeare's plays, and the company's expert on jesting was Robert Armin, author of the book Fooled upon Foole. In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Feste the jester is described as "wise enough to play the fool". King James VI of Scotland employed a jester called Archibald Armstrong. During his lifetime Armstrong was given great honours at court. He was eventually thrown out of the King's employment when he over-reached and insulted too many influential people. Even after his disgrace, books telling of his jests were sold in London streets. He held some influence at court still in the reign of Charles I and estates of land in Ireland. Charles later employed a jester called Jeffrey Hudson who was very popular and loyal. Jeffrey Hudson had the title of Royal Dwarf because he was short of stature. One of his jests was to be presented hidden in a giant pie from which he would leap out. Hudson fought on the Royalist side in the English Civil War. A third jester associated with Charles I was called Muckle John. Scholar David Carlyon has cast doubt on the "daring political jester", calling historical tales "apocryphal", and concluding that "popular culture embraces a sentimental image of the clown; writers reproduce that sentimentality in the jester, and academics in the Trickster", but it "falters as analysis". Jesters could also give bad news to the King that no one else would dare deliver. In 1340, when the French fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Sluys by the English. Phillippe VI's jester told him the English sailors "don't even have the guts to jump into the water like our brave French". End of tradition After the Restoration, Charles II did not reinstate the tradition of the court jester, but he did greatly patronize the theatre and proto-music hall entertainments, especially favouring the work of Thomas Killigrew. Though Killigrew was not officially a jester, Samuel Pepys in his famous diary does call Killigrew "The King's fool and jester, with the power to mock and revile even the most prominent without penalty" (12 February 1668). The last British nobles to keep jesters were the Queen Mother's family, the Bowes-Lyons. In the 18th century, jesters had died out except in Russia, Spain and Germany. In France and Italy, travelling groups of jesters performed plays featuring stylized characters in a form of theatre called the commedia dell'arte. A version of this passed into British folk tradition in the form of a puppet show, Punch and Judy. In France the tradition of the court jester ended with the French Revolution. In 1968, the Canada Council awarded a $3,500 grant to Joachim Foikis of Vancouver "to revive the ancient and time-honoured tradition of town fool". In the 21st century, the jester is still seen at medieval-style fairs and pageants. In 2004 English Heritage appointed Nigel Roder ("Kester the Jester") as the State Jester for England, the first since Muckle John 355 years previously. However, following an objection by the National Guild of Jesters, English Heritage accepted they were not authorised to grant such a title. Roder was succeeded as "Heritage Jester" by Pete Cooper ("Peterkin the Fool"). In Germany, Till Eulenspiegel is a folkloric hero dating back to medieval times and ruling each year over Fasching or Carnival time, mocking politicians and public figures of power and authority with political satire like a modern-day court jester. He holds a mirror to make us aware of our times (Zeitgeist), and his sceptre, his "bauble" or marotte, is the symbol of his power. In 17th century Spain, little people, often with deformities, were employed as buffoons to entertain the king and his family, especially the children. In Velázquez's painting Las Meninas two dwarfs are included: Mari Bárbola a female dwarf from Germany with hydrocephalus, and Nicolasito Portusato from Italy. Mari Bárbola can also be seen in a later portrait of princess Margarita Teresa in mourning by Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo. There are other paintings by Velázquez that include court dwarves such as Prince Balthasar Charles With a Dwarf. In Japan from the 13th to 18th centuries, the taikomochi, a kind of male geisha, attended the feudal lords (daimyōs). They entertained mostly through dancing and storytelling, and were at times counted on for strategic advice. By the 16th century they fought alongside their lord in battle in addition to their other duties. Tonga was the first royal court to appoint a court jester in the 20th century; Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, the King of Tonga, appointed JD Bogdanoff to that role in 1999. Bogdanoff was later embroiled in a financial scandal. The jester as a symbol The root of the word "fool" is from the Latin follis, which means "bag of wind" or bellows or that which contains air or breath. Fool in Tarot In Tarot, "The Fool" is a card of the Major Arcana. The tarot depiction of the Fool includes a man (or less often, a woman) juggling unconcernedly or otherwise distracted, often with a dog or cat at his heels. The fool is in the act of unknowingly walking off the edge of a cliff, precipice or other high place. Fool in literature In literature, the jester is symbolic of common sense and of honesty, notably in King Lear, where the court jester is a character used for insight and advice on the part of the monarch, taking advantage of his license to mock and speak freely to dispense frank observations and highlight the folly of his monarch. This presents a clashing irony as a greater man could dispense the same advice and find himself being detained in the dungeons or even executed. Only as the lowliest member of the court can the jester be the monarch's most useful adviser. Author Alan Gordon also writes about jesters as advisers to the king, who actually make up a super-secret spy ring that try to keep peace and control the leaders of different countries. The Fool's Guild of these novels is portrayed as a mockery to the church, and they refer to Jesus Christ as "Their Savior, The First Fool". Shakespearean fools are usually clever peasants or commoners that use their wits to outdo people of higher social standing. In this sense, they are very similar to the real fools, and jesters of the time, but their characteristics are greatly heightened for theatrical effect. The "groundlings" (theatre-goers who were too poor to pay for seats and thus stood on the 'ground' in the front by the stage) that frequented the Globe Theatre were more likely to be drawn to these Shakespearean fools. However they were also favoured by the nobility. Most notably, Queen Elizabeth I was a great admirer of the popular actor who portrayed fools, Richard Tarlton. For Shakespeare himself, however, actor Robert Armin may have proved vital to the cultivation of the fool character in his many plays. In a similar vein, a buffoon is someone who provides amusement through inappropriate appearance or behavior. Originally the term was used to describe a ridiculous but amusing person. The term is now frequently used in a derogatory sense to describe someone considered foolish, or someone displaying inappropriately vulgar, bumbling or ridiculous behavior that is a source of general amusement. Carnival and medieval reenactment Today, the jester is portrayed in different formats of medieval reenactment and entertainment, including film, stage performance, and carnival. During the Burgundian and the Rhenish carnival, cabaret performances in local dialect are held. In Brabant this person is called a "tonpraoter" or "sauwelaar", and is actually in or on a barrel. In Limburg they are named "buuttereedner" or "buutteredner" and in Zeeland they are called an "ouwoer". They all perform a cabaret speech in dialect, during which many current issues are reviewed. Often there are local situations and celebrities from local and regional politics who are mocked, ridiculed and insulted. The "Tonpraoter" or "Buuttereedner" may be considered successors of the jesters. - Tom le Fol (c. 13th century) was the 1st resident jester of Conwy, North Wales and personal jester to Edward I. - Triboulet (1479–1536), court jester of Kings Louis XII and Francis I of France. - Stańczyk (c. 1480–1560), Polish jester. - João de Sá Panasco (fl. 1524-1567), African court jester of King John III of Portugal, eventually elevated to gentleman courtier of the Royal Household and Knight of St. James. - Will Sommers (died 1560), court jester of King Henry VIII of England. - Chicot (c. 1540–1591), court jester of King Henry III of France. - Archibald Armstrong (died 1672), jester of King James I of England. - Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), "court dwarf" of Henrietta Maria of France. - Jamie Fleeman (1713–1778), the Laird of Udny's Fool. - Perkeo of Heidelberg, 18th century, jester of Prince Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine. - Jesse Bogdonoff (b. 1955), court jester and financial advisor to King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV of Tonga - Russel Erwood (b. 1981), known as Erwyd le Fol, is the 2nd official resident jester of Conwy in North Wales replacing the jester of 1295 - Soutworth, John (1998). Fools and Jesters at the English Court. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. pp. 89–93. ISBN 0-7509-1773-3. - Welsford, Enid (1935). The Fool: His Social & Literary History. London: Faber & Faber. pp. 114–115. - "Jester". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 October 2012. - Hor. Sat. i. 2. 2. (cited by Allen) - "Jester". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2012-06-07. - Carlyon, D. (2002). "The Trickster as Academic Comfort Food". The Journal of American Culture. 25 (1–2): 14–18. doi:10.1111/1542-734X.00003. - Otto, Beatrice K (2001). Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World. University of Chicago Press. p. 113. - "The Corpus Christi Caller-Times". Corpus Christi, Texas. May 14, 1968. p. 19. - "Northumberland needs county jester to lighten up politics". Archived from the original on Sep 28, 2007. - "Welsh medieval town unveils first jester-in-residence for 700 years". South Wales Evening Post. 2015-08-03. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - "Welsh town appoints first official jester in 700 years". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - Day, Liz (2015-08-08). "This official town jester can balance a flaming barbecue on his head..!". walesonline. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - Janusz Pelc; Paulina Buchwald-Pelcowa; Barbara Otwinowska (1989). Jan Kochanowski 1584-1984: epoka, twórczość, recepcja (in Polish). Lublin: Instytut Badań Literackich, Polska Akademia Nauk. Wydawnictwo Lubelskie. pp. 425–438. ISBN 978-83-222-0473-3. - Jan Zygmunt Jakubowski, ed. (1959). "Przegląd humanistyczny" (in Polish). 3. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe: 200. - "Jesters joust for historic role". BBC News. 2004-08-08. Retrieved 2010-05-06. - Griffiths, Emma (2004-12-23). "England | Jesters get serious in name row". BBC News. Retrieved 2012-07-11. - "England | Jester completes 100-mile tribute". BBC News. 2006-08-09. Retrieved 2012-07-11. - "Tonga royal decree appointing JD Bogdanoff as court jester" (JPEG). Retrieved 2009-10-29. - "Tongan court jester faces trial". BBC News. 11 August 2003. Retrieved 2009-10-29. - "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2017-03-30. - The fools of Shakespeare: an ... - Frederick B. Warde - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-12-24. - "History of the Fool". Foolsforhire.com. Retrieved 2011-12-24. - Encyclopædia Britannica; or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature, Volume 4. Archibald Constable and Company. 1823. p. 780. - Home Kalender Nieuws Zoekertjes Albums Copyright. "Wat is carnaval? | Fen Vlaanderen". Fenvlaanderen.be. Retrieved 2014-01-23. - "Conwy jester to take new job 'seriously'". BBC News. 2015-07-16. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - "No joke - Welsh town gets its own official jester!". ITV News. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - MacGuill, Dan. "A Welsh town has just appointed its first resident jester in 700 years". TheJournal.ie. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - Hemming, Jez (2015-07-15). "Official jester to be hired by Conwy council". northwales. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - A Medieval Revival: The Jester Returns in a Small Town in Wales, retrieved 2016-10-14 - "Bristol juggler to become North Wales town's first official jester in 700 years". Bristol Post. 2015-07-19. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - "British town appoints first jester in 700 years". The Japan Times Online. 2015-08-05. ISSN 0447-5763. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - Editor, Kira Brekke; Video, HuffPost (2015-08-05). "Welsh Castle Appoints First Jester Since 13th Century". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-10-14. - Billington, Sandra A Social History of the Fool, The Harvester Press, 1984. ISBN 0-7108-0610-8 - Doran, John A History of Court Fools, 1858 - Hyers, M. Conrad, The Spirituality of Comedy: comic heroism in a tragic world 1996 Transaction Publishers ISBN 1-56000-218-2 - Otto, Beatrice K., "Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World," Chicago University Press, 2001 - Southworth, John, Fools and Jesters at the English Court, Sutton Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-7509-1773-3 - Welsford, Enid: The Fool : His Social and Literary History (out of print) (1935 + subsequent reprints): ISBN 1-299-14274-5 - Janik, Vicki K. (ed.) (1998). Fools and Jesters in Literature, Art, and History: A Bio-bibliographical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group, USA. ISBN 0313297851. - Robins, Elizabeth, "Mischief in the Middle Ages" in: The Atlantic Monthly, v.48, n.285, July 1881, pp. 1–8. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jesters.| |Look up jester or buffoon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Fool.| - Fooling Around the World (A history of the court jester) - Foolish Clothing: Depictions of Jesters and Fools in the Middle Ages and Renaissance What 14th-16th century jesters wore and carried, as seen in illustrations and museum collections. - Costume (Jester Hat), ca. 1890-1920, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collection Database

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Planning to look at vocabulary in a reading session should not be a laborious task. A quick annotation of the text should allow you to choose the key vocabulary that you would like to look at and discuss with the students. This week I looked at Survivors by David Long with a group of Y6 children. I decided to focus on vocabulary with the children in this short 15-20 minute reading session. The class theme at the moment is Mountains so I chose the text to tie in with this. I asked – was this avalanche expected? They answered no. I asked them to highlight or underline three phrases which show that the events happened quickly or rapidly. They underlined: ‘Within seconds,’ ‘With no time,’ ‘sudden’ and we discussed how using all three of these in quick succession intensified the feeling of speed. We read the next section and I instructed the students to find any evidence that the avalanche was very powerful. We then collected synonyms that the children knew could be used to describe the powerful avalanche. We then discussed which other natural phenomena could be described using these words. The savage ocean, a ferocious earthquake, an awesome eruption (of a volcano) Ask a teacher to name a book about WW2 and they can usually throw around the names of quite a few. ‘The Silver Sword’ (classic one), ‘Good Night Mr. Tom’ (Heart-warming one), ‘Boy in the Striped Pyjamas’ (shocking one) and ‘Once’ (graphic one). Ask though, which of these books describes the setting of a bomb crater the best and less books may be suggested. It is imperative though, that teachers have a good working knowledge of the texts, the language used and the structures in order to weave them skilfully into English lessons. For this to happen, a wide range of texts need to have been read by the teacher or teachers so that they can recall features, concepts and even sentences which they can use with their students as model texts. Take the examples below, each of them is from a different text but each of them describes a forest. It doesn’t really matter what genre the children are writing; a good description can be utilised across a range of writing episodes. In a hypothetical classroom, somewhere around Year 5 or Year 6, a child is writing about ‘waiting in a forest ready to go into battle during WW2’ based on a picture, film or other stimulus that the teacher has provided. If the class teacher wants to show them a model, they generally have two options – try and find a book where the exact same scenario is occurring (this may not even exist) or write their own model. (Some teachers find difficult). However, much of the language used in the extracts below would be useful, as would some of the sentence structures and techniques such as building atmosphere or using similes. None of the books below are about World War 2 or are from battle scenes though. With some slight adjustments they can be adapted to work for any narrative which needs a description of a forest. The Wizards of Once Perhaps you feel that you know what a dark forest looks like. Well, I can tell you right now that you don’t. These were forests darker than you would believe possible, darker than inkspots, darker than midnight, darker than space itself, and as twisted and as tangled as a Witch’s heart. They were what is now known as wildwoods, and they stretched as far in every direction as you can possibly imagine, only stopping when they reached a sea. Cowell, Cressida. The Wizards of Once: Book 1 (Kindle Locations 32-35). Hachette Children's Group. Kindle Edition. In this description the teacher can discuss how Cowell has directly addressed the reader, used rhetorical devices and repeated the word darker and how this effects the audience. Tanglefern Forest was vast, with some trees so old and tangled that few had passed beneath their branches. But there were places you went and places you didn’t. The Ancientwood in the north of the forest was safe: there was the glade of brilliant spring bluebells and yews beyond Oak’s camp, then a grove of crab-apple trees, and beyond that, after the forest, the farm itself and Tipplebury village. But south . . . Well, south was another place altogether. So she’d heard. The Deepwood was rumoured to be full of shady trees and rotting undergrowth and, when it ended, the heathland, with it sinking bogs and soggy marshes, began. Elphinstone, Abi. The Dreamsnatcher (Dreamsnatcher 1) (pp. 9-10). Simon & Schuster UK. Kindle Edition. I like in this extract how Elphinstone paints a positive picture of the forest in the North but then lets the reader imagine what the forest to the South is like. Think back to the scenario of world war 2. The soldier is in the forest and using Elphinstone’s technique, they could say something like: ‘The North side of the barbed wire was safe. The animals went about their daily business, birds were in the trees feeding worms to their chicks, fox cubs frolicked in the long grass of the clearing and a few of us managed to take off our boots and clean ourselves in the babbling brook. But on the other side of the barbed wire? Well that was another place altogether, from what he had heard it was worse than hell, a mud filled hell…’ The Lie Tree Faith walked through a midnight forest. The trees were pure white, and rose high above her head, disappearing into a blue-black darkness. There was no wind, and yet the snow-white leaves shivered and whispered. She raised one hand to push aside low-hanging foliage, and felt her fingertips brush paper. The trees were flat and pale. The ragged-torn ferns stroked the skin of her hands, paper-cutting her, slyly cruel. She was not alone. Hardinge, Frances. The Lie Tree (pp. 234-235). Pan Macmillan. Kindle Edition. The colours that Hardinge uses here are interesting and the last line. 'She was not alone' could be utilised in the scenario above to describe the soldier as well as in many other narrative scenarios. The Spell Thief (Little Legends Book 1) The air in the dark woods was thick and damp. Anansi stopped in front of a fallen tree. The roots rose above him like huge dead claws. Percival, Tom. The Spell Thief (Little Legends Book 1) (pp. 41-42). Pan Macmillan. Kindle Edition. This is a great example of simile, but it is from a book that most teachers would use with Year 3 and Year 4. Having a knowledge of books from other year groups and other key stages, including books for adults is also useful. I am working on collecting some texts around a number of themes like these which I will continue to blog and discuss in my CPD sessions. I am currently updating my CPD courses and the range which I offer for the next academic year so keep your eyes peeled for updates here www.literacyshed.com/cpd Click the book covers for more information about each About 3 years ago I decided to write a novel. A historical novel for children set in and around Norwich Cathedral. At this point you may be wondering 'Why?' There are a number of reasons but basically I had an idea and I fancied pursuing it. I have some time on my hands, it is purely for my own pleasure and it allows me time to drop out of the hectic day to day running of The Literacy Shed and sit quietly. It also allows me to visit as many cathedrals as I possibly can which is a secondary pleasurable benefit. These are some of the key points that I have learned during the VERY slow process. - No one needs to read this writing in order for the process to be enjoyable. - Not everything that I write will be published anywhere except in my own private notebooks. - Not everything will go as planned because ideas ebb and flow as the ink runs across the page. - There is no need to stick rigidly to planned structures at the sentence level either. They are fluid and will change through the process. - The quality of the writing isn't dependable on a narrow set of grammatical conditions. - It is useful to write in small chunks and add them into the narrative. - Characters come alive once the writing begins and take on a whole new personality sometimes. The biggest lesson really is that it is OK to start again. The story has been set in Middles ages Norwich, which at one point became the fantasy city of Nearwich. I experimented with the same story being set during the industrial revolution and then in a strange 'steam-punkish' industrial/medieval landscape and now me and Tom (main character) are back in the medieval period. How does this affect the teaching of writing? - Remind the children that their writing may not be published but give them the choice whether to have people read it or not. - If you have a great idea you do not need to stick to the plan. - Experiment with language and grammar structure and go with what sounds best. - Write in small chunks and build up towards a finished piece. - Allow time to go back and add in more small chunks (or even big chunks) into the narrative. - It is ok to start again! Writing like this has really given me an insight in both the processes we force the children to go through and the way in which we help them to build narratives around given characters and themes. I will continue to reflect upon this process and blog about how this can aid the teaching of writing. WICKED, the award-winning West End musical that tells the incredible untold story of the witches of Oz, together with the National Literacy Trust celebrates its eighth year of the prestigious WICKED YOUNG WRITER AWARDS. As in previous years, entrants can enter one of five different age categories; 5-7, 8-10, 11-14, 15-17, 18-25. In addition, the 2018 Awards see the third year of the FOR GOOD Award for Non-Fiction, encouraging 15-25 year olds to write essays or articles that recognise the positive impact that people can have on each other, their communities and the world we live in. The WICKED FOR GOOD programme supports the charitable causes at the heart of the stage musical. There is a 750-word limit (not including the title words) on any theme. In the fiction categories, any creative writing will be accepted, a story, play or poem, it can be something written at school or home that has not be entered into a competition before. If you prefer to write non-fiction, you may like to enter the Wicked: For Good Award for Non-Fiction and write an article, essay, biography, review or letter, to name a few! A shortlist of 120 entrants from across the UK will see their work published in the WICKED YOUNG WRITER AWARDS Anthology. They are also invited to an exclusive ceremony at London’s Apollo Victoria, home to the hit musical since 2006, where judges and members of the WICKED cast will read the winning stories and poems and announce who has won in each category. For T&C’s and full prize fund structure please see Wicked Young Writer Awards website. www.wickedyoungwriterawards.com Here are the rules: · Entrants must be aged between 5-25 years old when entering the Wicked Young Writer Awards · Entries can be hand-written or typed · Writing must be original and your own ideas · Judges criteria: originality, narrative, descriptive language, characterisation. · Ensure that all students include their name, surname and age on the entry form · Open to UK residents only · Win four tickets to see the London production of WICKED at the Apollo Victoria Theatre. · Meet cast members after the show along with an exclusive backstage tour. · £50 worth of books/eBooks tokens to spend. Other prizes for each category: 5-7 also win: · A creative writing workshop for your class · £100 worth of books for the winners' school library donated by Hachette Children's Books. 8-10 and 11-14 also win: · An annual subscription to First News · £100 worth of books for the winners' school library donated by Hachette Children's Books. 15-17 also win: · A writing masterclass with a professional author 18-25 also win: · A self-publishing package from Spiderwize, to publish your very own work. Award for Non-Fiction also win: · Work experience at First News newspaper, shadowing the editor Nicky Cox, MBE. · The 3 schools that submit the most entries also win creative writing workshops. · All finalists’ entries get printed in the Wicked Young Writer Awards anthology. A flamboyance of flamingos This week I came across a collective noun that I had not heard before, ‘A flamboyance of flamingos’ and this reminded me of some of others which I already knew: a business of ferrets, a murder of crows and a parliament of owls. I then started to share them each day on twitter using the hashtag #collectivenouns and sharing the most unusual examples that I could find, such as a dazzle of zebras. The posts garnered lots of interest, so I began to think about how I would use the collective nouns in writing. Many of the words are incredibly descriptive and could be used when writing setting descriptions in order to help convey a mood. For example, when creating a peaceful mood, perhaps to describe a quiet country walk, the following examples could be used: As I crossed the dew-kissed meadow, the sun rose above the distant hills and a wisp of snipe took flight from the long reeds. The word ‘wisp’ used here adds to the peaceful mood whereas an example such as a ‘pandemonium of parrots’ or ‘a band of plovers,’ or even a ‘parliament of owls’ would shatter the peace. It isn’t only birds that can lead us to imagine a peaceful moment. Barely a sound could be heard, except the gentle ruffling of the breeze-blown leaves in the trees and a prickle of hedgehogs snuffling for worms. As well as peace, they could help children to include some atmospheric language in their writing: A murder of crows nestled on the black, skeletal branches above, almost invisible now as the darkness descended. The word murder will have connotations for the reader as will the word skulk in the following example: A skulk of foxes prowled through the town, silently illuminated only by the weak moonlight. Taking it further... To take it further, collective noun can be used as similes – see the examples below: The gang prowled the estate like an ambush of tigers. The snowy mountains nestled together on the horizon like a giant aurora of polar bears. The models took to the catwalk like an flamboyance of flamingos; tall, thin and colourful. The children alighted the bus like a troop of monkeys Another interesting activity would be to ask children to create their own collective nouns. We asked on social media for a collective noun for teachers and amongst my favourites were: As always thanks for reading! Please share! This is the second list of Primary focussed teachers that I have produced. These are people that I have interacted with and followed rather than a list of people that I have looked up. Apologies if you haven't made the list but I am sure there will be a further list very soon. The first 50 can be found here. @AllanaG13 - Secondary Leader in Primary Ed - #BAMEed Founder @Brogan_Mr - #WhatItaughttoday Deputy Head @cazzash - Deputy head and children's book fan @ChrisChivers2 - Francophile and all round knowledgeable guy @Claresealy - Primary Head Teacher in that there London @DaisyMay29 - Teacher, Reader, Writer, Dreamer @Darynsimon - Teacher often at the heart of the debate @etaknipsa - Curiosity hasn't killed this primary teacher... yet! @ey_inspiration1 - Early years duet @GalwayMr - Part of the amazing Herts for Learning team @gareth_metcalfe - He sees maths! @geordiecat2012 - Cat lady teacher @hengehall ICT Master Wizard @HeyMissPrice - Always sharing great Literacy ideas @HopeStreetBlues - Member of the optimistic SLT society @isright - I wouldn't want to walk a week in his shoes he runs too far! @JulesDaulby Literacy, SEND and a penguin @librarymice - School Librarian sharing great books @Libwithattitude - with attitude like this the books are never late back @lobroo - My oldest Antipodean twitter pal! @macfin76 - Y1 teacher who likes a ramble @Marygtroche Almost legendary critical thinking bookworm @MaryMyatt - Hopeful about schools @Mr_P_hillips - Friend, Teacher, Entertainer (in that order) @MrBKing1988 - A thoroughly entertaining twitter feed @MrBReading - One of my 'go to' book peeps @MrBoothY6 - Computing lead who loves books even more than computers! @MrEFinch - Generally irritated except when on a reading spree @MrGPrimary - his bio says incompetent but I can't believe that! @MrMarchayes - holder of multiple learning powers @nancygedge - SEND legend! @NikkiGamble - Off exploring children's literature @OldPrimaryHead1 - <--Does what it says on the tin! @Parky_teaches - Love of books, StarWars and Night Zoos @pickleholic - Headteacher of Hogwarts @pivotalpaul - Teacher wrangler @primarypercival - Genius behind the Ladybird book of Edutwitter @rachelrossiter - SENDco checking your ladder is against the right wall @RobertsNiomi - Laminating Queen ;) @Sarah_Jayne1982 - Teaching the next generation @Sarah_Wright1 - Enthusiastic Senior Primary Edu Lecturer @Skippity_doo - Another awesome librarian sharing awesome books @Thatboycanteach - Positive teacher knocking out some great blogs @theprimaryhead - the definite article @trainingtoteach - filled with positivity for the job - will he change his twitter handle soon? @Vocabularyninja - Creeps up behind you and shares words of the day (PS I know there are only 45 but I have left some space for when people inform me who I have missed out) As always I welcome your comments. Plus follow the new subject specific Primary Rocks threads for themed ideas and discussions. #primaryrocks (more coming soon too) I have been thinking about and researching how to improve comprehension skills using a range of high quality texts, images, picture books and of course film. After a number of sessions with children in schools using the new content domains, which can be found on the gov.uk website, I found that all of the key comprehension skills were being covered through the domains. As some of you who follow this blog will know, I like a mnemonic. So I set about thinking about a mnemonic that could be used by teachers, other adults who read with children and also the children themselves. My first attempt - MR SIP TEA was not the catchiest so we have come up with Reading Vipers. Vipers cover the key comprehension skills in line with the 'new' content domains. At Literacy Shed the minions are now busy making a whole host of resources that will link to Reading Vipers. There are now 30+ Film VIPERS on www.literacyshedplus.com We are also creating a range of comprehension materials based on extracts from classic texts such as Black Beauty, The Time Machine, Robinson Crusoe and many more which will soon be available here. www.literacyshedplus.com Until then you can download The Time Machine sample (as seen below) by clicking here. = The same key viper skills can be rehearsed effectively using single images or picture books. Take a look at this example using the picture book 'Return' by Aaron Becker. There are over 30 sets of VIPERS questions for the Literacy Shed films now on www.literacyshedplus.com The question stem documents can be downloaded by click on the relevant image below. As always comments are welcome! Click the text below for further reading. “Don’t tell me the moon is shining; show me the glint of light on broken glass.” Anton Chekov talking about the use of a well know literary device called ‘Show, don’t tell’ and more recently ‘Show, not tell.’ This method which has many proponents in the world of literature is not a new phenomenon. Ernest Hemingway opens his novel ‘To have and have not’ written in 1937 with the following lines: You know how it is there early in the morning in Havana with the bums still asleep against the walls of the buildings; before even the ice wagons come by with ice for the bars? Here Hemingway is painting a picture of early morning in Cuba, he could have easily written ‘One very early morning…’ some writers may argue that these examples are still ‘telling’ although somewhat elaborately. Calling it ‘Show, not tell though does simplify it for our students and is a great way of getting them to use vivid description. Evan Marshall from http://themarshallplan.net/ says: Don’t just write “The subway station was shabby.” Write: “Near the edge of the platform, a man with knotted hair held out a Dixie cup to no one in particular, calling, ‘Spare some change? Spare some change?’ Swirls of iridescent orange graffiti covered the Canal Street sign. The whole place smelled of urine and potato chips.” Perhaps both are telling but one is telling in much more detail. The latter has much more detail and drama. I use film widely in my teaching and I use film to demonstrate this technique. The following two extracts are from a music video called 'Titanium' by David Guetta. These two excerpts are from one of my favourite films on The Literacy Shed, called 'Catch a Lot.' There are many other examples in the films on www.literacyshed.com and I may follow this blog up with them if people think it is useful. Thanks for reading and I hope you leave a comment. On Tuesday I had the pleasure of speaking at a conference in Coventry, I was followed by Roger Black MBE who delivered a keynote speech about his career. I sat and wondered what the relationship between his career and teaching would be. Roger spoke at length about overcoming adversity and teamwork, the type of thing that teachers do on a daily basis. One thing, however, struck a chord with me. Roger discussed his 'fear of failure' how this fear pushed him from excellent to outstanding. I wondered... Do we instil this fear in children? Should we? Would our children in school perform better if they had a fear of failure? I thought about my own classroom setting, are my children striving to achieve at all times? No. Do they have a fear of failure? The majority don't. I then began to think about how I deal with failure on a daily basis. In my Year 5 class what happens if a child delivers a substandard piece of work? The answer: not a lot! If they have been lazy, they may have to do the work again, but only if the work is substantially below standard. If they have failed to achieve due to carelessness, I will probably warn them about their effort or concentration levels. Is it my fault that these children do not have an intrinsic fear of failing? Do they just think they can get away with it or is there another underlying problem? I have met a number of children throughout my career who don't seem to care about their work, who don't care about achieving. These children lack ambition, it could be down to social pressures, family traditions or a lack of aspiration. We need to engage these children in a way that makes them care. We need to make sure they care about achieving and instil in them a fear of failure. The question is how? [I will blog about this at a later date.] I am forming some ideas....

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July-August 2009 American Scientist Magazine Human History Written in Stone and Blood Two bursts of human innovation in southern Africa during the Middle Stone Age may be linked to population growth and early migration off the continent Zenobia Jacobs, Richard G. Roberts Even by archaeological standards, Blombos Cave is a modestly sized shelter. Yet artifacts recovered from just 13 cubic meters of deposit inside transformed our understanding of when our species developed behavioral attributes we associate with “modern” humans. From this cramped hole in a sandstone cliff on the Southern Cape coast of South Africa, Christopher Henshilwood and his colleagues unearthed evidence of symbolic expression, in the form of abstract designs (carved ochre bars) and personal ornaments (shell beads) at least 70,000 years old. That is more than 35,000 years before anything comparable emerged in Europe. When these discoveries were first announced earlier this decade, they stood out as extraordinary and provocative—at odds with the prevailing wisdom about the time and place of emergence of symbolic behavior, a trait unique to Homo sapiens . Our modern anatomical features can be traced back almost 200,000 years, based on fossilized remains found in Ethiopia, but the making of the modern mind apparently lagged behind by more than 100,000 years. The remarkable finds at Blombos raised several intriguing questions. What triggered this watershed event in human prehistory? How geographically widespread was it? Did it occur simultaneously elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa? And what role, if any, did such innovations play in the first steps of the worldwide dispersal of our species? Important clues come from the stone toolkit that accompanied the crosshatched ochres and deliberately perforated shells at Blombos. Stone tools commonly are the most ubiquitous items at archaeological sites because they survive longer than animal or plant remains. Archaeologists pay close attention to their method of manufacture and how they might have been used. Although much less heralded than engraved ochre and shell beads, the Middle Stone Age deposits at Blombos contained an important assemblage of stone tools known as Still Bay points. These finely shaped lanceolate, or narrow, points are flaked on both sides and probably formed spearhead parts. Discovered in 1866 by Sir Langham Dale near Cape Town, they were among the first type of stone tool described in South Africa. A. J. H. Goodwin, the father of South African archaeology, was the first to appreciate the technological sophistication of this stone-tool industry. The Still Bay cultural industry is now widely viewed as a phase of precocious and innovative technology within the Middle Stone Age of Africa, preceded by 200,000 years of much less sophisticated stone toolkits. It was followed by another episode of technological innovation—the Howieson’s Poort industry—that includes bladelike tools made blunt on one side and attached to a wooden handle to produce a composite weapon. Like the Still Bay, Howieson’s Poort vanished too. Technology of similar sophistication does not appear again in the archaeological record until the Later Stone Age in Africa and the Upper Paleolithic in Europe, many tens of millennia later. The importance of the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort lies not only in their enhanced technological sophistication with what looks like hunting tools, but also with the range of associated innovative behavioral artifacts. These include the Blombos finds in the south, engraved ochre at Klein Kliphuis and decorated ostrich eggshells at Diepkloof in the west, and bone points and shell beads at Sibudu to the east. These relics of human cognitive advancement imply that an increasingly complex technological and social organization coincided with what some archaeologists now consider a period of expanded human population size and settlement density in Africa. Comparably sophisticated stone-tool technologies also existed in North Africa (most notably the bifacially flaked and stemmed Aterian projectile points found throughout the Maghreb) and, possibly, in East Africa, the suspected launching ground for early human forays off their native continent. Personal ornaments occasionally have been found at those sites as well, including perforated ostrich eggshell beads and pierced shells of marine gastropods. Efforts to compare the timing of these technological and behavioral innovations to those in southern Africa have long been frustrated by uncertainties in the dating of evidence from each region. As a result, identifying the time and place of the emergence of modern human behavior has eluded us. So have the reasons for, and the immediate consequences of, our ancestors becoming “human.” Solving these puzzles will require more finely resolved dating and chronologies for key archaeological sites across the continent. We started this quest with a systematic dating study of several sites in southern Africa. Our results hint at the possible role of population expansions in Africa as a trigger for these Stone Age innovations—and, maybe, for early migrations out of Africa about 60,000 years ago. The Chronological Haze A general problem encountered in trying to date archaeological events or objects is that multiple, independent age estimates are typically more scattered than would be expected with normal statistical variation, even when margins of error for each estimate are considered. Much of this extra spread is an artifact of experimentations unwanted but unavoidable outcome of different materials being dated by different methods, using variable equipment, calibration standards, measurement procedures and data-analysis techniques. This complication often arises even when a common set of samples (or a single sample) from one site is dated using the same technique in different laboratories. Unless all experimental conditions, instrument specifications, reference standards and analytical software are identical, extra spread in results should be expected. We call this the chronological “haze” because it obscures the true age of the sample or event of interest. Many attempts have been made to determine when the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort industries started and ended, using a range of numerical and relative dating methods. Numerical methods produce quantitative age estimates that can be placed on a standard timescale, commonly expressed as years before present. Relative dating methods produce ages that can be ordered relative to one another but need to be calibrated against a numerical age to get anchored on a timescale. The first and best-known numerical technique is radiocarbon dating, which under ideal circumstances can pinpoint when a plant or animal died in the last 60,000 years. In practice, however, sample contamination makes it challenging to reliably date samples more than half that age, so alternative numerical methods are used for older samples and nonplant or nonanimal materials. Uranium-series dating of calcite formations in caves, electron spin resonance dating of tooth enamel, thermoluminescence dating of burnt stones and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of sun-bleached sediments have all been applied with varying success to southern African archaeological sites over the past three decades. So has dating of ostrich eggshell by amino acid racemization, a relative dating method. Resulting age estimates for the Still Bay ranged between about 130,000 and 50,000 years ago, whereas the Howieson’s Poort estimates were slightly younger, 100,000 to 40,000 years ago. Such coarse-grained chronologies leave plenty of room for imaginative speculation about the likely duration of these two industries and the reasons for their origins and demise. In 2006, we began to clear the haze obscuring the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort industries. We did it by deploying a single dating method, OSL, on the same type of material from a number of key sites, using identical procedures and equipment. OSL offers many advantages. It can capture ages of objects that originate or events that occurred during the entire Middle Stone Age. It produces ages with a precision of better than plus or minus 5 percent. If a single operator can perform the dating, then the precision can be improved further, as can the chances for consistency. OSL exploits the fact that buried quartz grains absorb energy from natural ionizing radiation sources (mainly uranium and thorium, their radioactive decay products, and potassium) in the surrounding ground. A small fraction of that energy is stored by electrons trapped at defects in the crystal structure of the grains. Using blue or green light, the electrons are released from their traps in the laboratory and the resulting OSL is detected with a filtered photomultiplier. This allows an estimate to be made of the equivalent radiation dose. By also measuring the rate of supply of ionizing radiation to the quartz grains from the surrounding deposit (the environmental dose rate), it is possible to calculate when the grains and nearby artifacts, whether they be stone tools or Stone Age ornaments, were buried. OSL dating was introduced by David Huntley of Simon Fraser University and his colleagues in 1985, primarily to date geological sediments. But the method underwent a revolution near the turn of the millennium, when measurement procedures and instrumentation enabled equivalent radiation doses (and, by inference, burial ages) to be obtained from single grains of quartz as small as 0.1 millimeter in diameter. That made it feasible to routinely measure hundreds of individual grains for every sample, providing multiple, independent estimates of age that could be compared for self-consistency and any signs of sample contamination or disturbance. For our dating of the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort artifacts, article co-author Zenobia Jacobs collected and analyzed all of the samples in a systematic fashion, eliminating inconsistencies from site to site that plagued earlier dating efforts. Judging when an archaeological tradition might have started and ended is not simple. It cannot be done solely from artifacts collected at one site because it is unlikely that the entire duration of an industry will be represented at one location. Archaeologists must assemble a series of “snapshots” from multiple sites to get a fix on first and last appearance dates. This is easier said than done, especially in the case of the Still Bay, which has been found at only a handful of spots throughout southern Africa. The situation is much better for the Howieson’s Poort, with around 30 confirmed or claimed occurrences in the high mountains of Lesotho, the desert fringes of Namibia, the continental interior and subtropics of South Africa and the coastal areas and hinterlands along the continent’s southern margin. All the sites are natural shelters and caves that hunter-gatherers used as temporary camping places. Remnants of their everyday activities—fireplaces, food remains and tools—have been excavated at the sites. Our subcontinental survey included 11 locations that contained one or both of the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort industries, including some of the classic Middle Stone Age sites of southern Africa, such as Klasies River. Other sites were either not accessible for sampling or, in the case of Blombos Cave, had been dated previously by Jacobs. We intentionally selected geographically widespread sites in diverse environmental settings to capture the full range of natural variability in climatic conditions affecting the region at different times. The deposits at two of the sites proved unsuitable for OSL dating, but a sufficient number of samples (54 in total) were dated from the remaining nine sites to allow us to establish the time of first and last appearance of the Howieson’s Poort and, with less confidence, the Still Bay. As we reported in Science in 2008, both industries appear to have been extremely short-lived, appearing suddenly and then vanishing soon after. Remarkably, this pattern is seen over an area of 2 million square kilometers, cutting across a range of climatic and ecological zones. Because of the lack of any spatial variation in timing, we pooled all of these data in a statistical model, devised by Rex Galbraith of University College London, to estimate the first and last appearance dates of the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort. We concluded that the Still Bay lasted no longer than perhaps 1,000 years (from approximately 72,000 to 71,000 years ago). Howieson’s Poort debuted 7,000 years later in the archaeological record, around 65,000 years ago. This industry ended abruptly five millennia later, followed by another gap of about 3,000 years before the first of the subsequent periods of less sophisticated Middle Stone Age technology. The margin of error on these estimates is only a few millennia at the 95 percent confidence interval—sufficiently precise to resolve the ephemeral and punctuated nature of these bursts of technological and behavioral innovation. Catalysts of Creativity Answers about the ages of these artifacts, of course, lead only to more questions. What stimulated the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort industries? Why did they last so briefly and end so abruptly? And what was responsible for their—in archaeological terms—instantaneous appearance and subsequent disappearance across a vast expanse of southern Africa? Human responses to environmental change have long intrigued archaeologists, so climate change must top the list of suspects. The last interglacial/glacial cycle stretched from about 130,000 to 12,000 years ago, which includes the time span of the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort. During this period, southern Africa experienced marked changes in temperature and precipitation associated with global changes in ice volume, sea level and patterns of oceanic and atmospheric circulation. The timing and magnitude of these climatic fluctuations have been detected by international climate research groups in the pattern of change in the ratio of oxygen isotopes (and the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases) in ice cores retrieved from Greenland and Antarctica. These records share many general features, but the Southern Hemisphere climatic records from Antarctica are the most relevant to There are uncertainties involved in extrapolating from one continent to the other, and there are some differences in the timing and amplitude of changes among the various Antarctic records. But neither obscures the overall picture: the Howieson’s Poort occurred during a period of climatic warming, whereas the Still Bay cannot be confidently assigned to either a warming or a cooling interval. The fact that the same climatic conditions do not appear to have prevailed during these two episodes of innovation suggests that their emergence and their demise were not driven by a common environmental cause. The lack of correlation between symbolic human expression and a particular type of shift in climate does not preclude the possibility that climatic fluctuations influenced where and when people occupied or abandoned rock shelters. On the contrary, given the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers, the best sites for habitation and access to resources surely changed over time, in concert with environmental changes. In fact, our data hint at the preferential occupation of rock shelters during generally warmer intervals; perhaps more open-air sites were favored at other times. Two further lines of evidence challenge the view that the rise of Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort can be explained simply as responses to environmental factors alone. First, these industries are found in diverse climatic and biogeographic contexts, yet they appeared and disappeared around the same times at various sites. Such synchronicity would not be expected if only certain environmental conditions were conducive to their launch and spread. Second, the Howieson’s Poort was followed by three separate periods of much less sophisticated stone-tool making known as the post-Howieson’s Poort, the late Middle Stone Age and the final Middle Stone Age. No personal adornments or symbolic renderings contemporary to those periods have been found. The latter pair of cultural phases, and possibly the post-Howieson’s Poort, flourished during periods of relative warming—as did the Howieson’s Poort—yet none of them boasts any technological or behavioral innovations. When viewed in this broader context, therefore, the flaring of symbolic behavior during the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort periods cannot be linked exclusively to a warm, cool or transitional climate. Demographic Expansions … What, then, might have triggered the onset and termination of these two bursts of creativity and ingenuity? The answer may lie in the history of expansions and isolations of hunter-gatherer populations, as revealed by recent studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in living humans. These genetic sequences are inherited maternally, meaning they do not recombine with paternal-source DNA generation after generation the same way nuclear DNA does. Mitochondrial DNA records the pattern of ancient population expansions, declines and isolations, albeit accompanied by a number of assumptions and complications that still thwart consensus on the demographic history of H. sapiens . Still, for sub-Saharan Africa, new genetic data offer a much clearer picture of the major demographic events that affected the diversity and dispersal of our species. One of the most recent studies, by Quentin Atkinson of the University of Oxford and his colleagues, examined four major mtDNA lineages indigenous to Africa—the L0, L1, L2 and L3 groups of haplotypes. The L3 haplogroup is the youngest and is especially interesting because all mtDNA lineages found outside of Africa derive from just two haplogroups (M and N) that descend from L3. Intriguingly, when the timing and pattern of expansion of the four major haplogroups were estimated for the last 150,000 years, the first marked increase in population size began some time between 86,000 and 61,000 years ago in the L3 haplogroup—a time span that includes the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort. No other haplogroup expanded substantially until more recently than 20,000 years ago. It is tempting to link the population explosion of the L3 haplogroup with significant environmental events that occurred about 75,000 years ago. As recently reported by Christopher Scholz of Syracuse University and his colleagues, 60,000 years of severe drought in East Africa ended around that time, followed by the onset of generally wetter and more stable conditions. Also, the supereruption of the Toba volcano on the island of Sumatra—the largest eruption known to have occurred on Earth since the emergence of the genus Homo —occurred about 74,000 years ago. The injection of volcanic ash and aerosols into the atmosphere is thought by some scientists to have triggered a brief, so-called volcanic winter around the world that reduced the size of human populations. But the breaking of East African megadroughts cannot account for the demographic expansion of only one of the four haplogroups. And the Toba supereruption is incompatible with the observed increase in size of the L3 haplogroup. As a result, Atkinson and his colleagues have dismissed environmental change as the sole factor responsible for the rapid growth in L3 populations and the migration of their descendents out of Africa 10,000 years later. As an alternative explanation, they proposed that some form of cultural innovation and increase in behavioral complexity by members of the L3 haplogroup gave them a competitive edge over rivals, perhaps by improving technological efficiency, economic productivity, social cohesion and group coordination. Our new ages for the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort industries place them squarely in the same time frame as these estimated human population expansions. We cannot say whether their innovative attributes were a cause or a consequence of the L3 expansion. But the latter would seem more likely, given the thousands of miles separating southern Africa from East Africa, where the L3 haplogroup is most diverse and is thought to have originated. But resolving cause and effect here requires a fine-tuned chronology for the L3 expansion, so that its precise timing can be compared with the start and end dates of the Still Bay, the Howieson’s Poort, and the similarly sophisticated stone toolkits in North and East Africa. … and Demographic Contractions On the flip side of the demographic coin are records of population isolation also preserved in mtDNA. There is an emerging consensus that our species experienced several such episodes in sub-Saharan Africa, and did not always form a single, geographically continuous population. Particular attention has been paid to the L0 haplogroup, which is the most ancient of the African mtDNA lineages and has two branches (L0d and L0k) that are most prevalent among the Khoi and San (Khoisan) “Bushmen” of southwest Africa. The Khoisan still live a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and are famous for speaking a “click” language. Recent studies of complete mtDNA genomes have revealed that the Khoisan became genetically isolated more than 90,000 years ago. Only with the advent of the Later Stone Age—tens of millenia later—was there renewed genetic admixture in the Khoisan mtDNA pool, supporting a deep ancestry for this language family. A similar demographic pattern has been uncovered in tropical central Africa, using the L1c haplogroup to trace the mtDNA history of isolation of Pygmy hunter-gatherers. The ancestors of these equatorial rainforest dwellers became genetically isolated no later than about 74,000 years ago, with gene flow resuming about 40,000 years ago. At present, we also cannot rule out the possibility that the L3 haplogroup experienced episodes of population isolation, superimposed on a general trend of growth and lineage diversification between 80,000 and 60,000 years ago. Is the similarity in timing of these major demographic shifts in sub-Saharan Africa and the ages for the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort mere coincidence? We think not. Successive pulses of population expansion and contraction in southern Africa might explain why the Still Bay rose to prominence so abruptly across such a large area and then vanished in less than a millennium, and why the Howieson’s Poort began 7,000 years later and lasted about 5,000 years. For technological and behavioral innovations to be spread widely and rapidly, a cohesive network of social contacts is needed to promote the transmission of new ideas and inventions. Periods of population expansion of the L3 haplogroup could conceivably have created such a network and prompted geographically widespread trade and exchange of high-quality stone and symbolic artifacts across southern Africa. In this hypothesis, the gap between the Still Bay and the Howieson’s Poort represents a period of population contraction, during which social networks weakened or collapsed. The reasons for this calamity remain an enigma, but perhaps the prevailing cooler conditions altered the balance of nature, triggering a change in the distribution, diversity, predictability and productivity of resources needed by hunter-gatherers. If people were forced to abandon habitation sites and to move to find sustenance, links in the social network could have been strained or broken, isolating new innovations to smaller groups with limited geographic dispersal. It might have taken another explosion in population size to reinvigorate this social network across southern Africa, resulting in the widespread transmission of the latest technological innovation associated with the Howieson’s Poort (backed blades for hunting weapons). This integrated, subcontinental network of hunter-gatherer communities was maintained for more than five millennia, but then disappeared about 60,000 years ago, perhaps in response to the population contractions and isolations identified by genetic studies. Similarly sophisticated stone-tool technology did not reappear for another 20,000 years—the end of the Middle Stone Age in East Africa—when there is evidence for renewed gene flow south of the Sahara. Teasing Out the Truth The hypothesis offered above is a mix of fact and fiction, imaginative storytelling based on disparate datasets, some of which are better constrained than others. But it is consistent with computer simulations carried out by Stephen Shennan of University College London in 2001 that posit that cultural innovations are more likely to be kept and shared in larger rather than smaller populations. Periods of population expansion would be more likely to produce successful transmissions of technological and behavioral innovations—such as those associated with the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort. And such novelties would likely have been lost when populations shrank and became isolated. If cultural differences developed among segregated populations, then recent model simulations suggest that migration between groups would have been discouraged and demographic growth further impeded. The rise and fall of the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort may most likely be linked, therefore, with the demographic history and social fabric of our hunter-gatherer ancestors. The challenge before us now is to transform speculative claims into robust inferences. The quest to understand the emergence of modern human behavior and our ancestors’ dispersal from Africa will require insights from archaeology, ecology, genetics, linguistics and climate science. There is also a clear need for reliable dating of key archaeological, genetic, demographic and environmental events, and the placement of each on a more finely resolved and standardized timescale. At present, we cannot explain the population expansion of the L3 haplogroup in sub-Saharan Africa as the direct outcome of any particular environmental event. In fact, the timing of climatic and demographic changes is too imprecise to confidently plot them in correct chronological order. Perhaps it was a spark of human ingenuity among a group of L3 carriers in East Africa that was the catalyst for cultural innovation. And perhaps that innovation encouraged social cohesion and the more efficient use of natural resources, prompting rapid population growth among this group of people. This population expansion may have, in turn, promoted more innovations—including the Still Bay and Howieson’s Poort in southern Africa—and the migration of people out of Africa to the north. A crucial next step is to resolve the timing of the main cultural phases in North and East Africa with a precision similar to what has been accomplished for southern Africa. We must position all of these archaeological turning points on the same chronological yardstick with the major climatic, genetic and demographic events on the continent. By arranging events in the correct sequence on the same time line, it may be possible to establish cause and effect—action and reaction—and produce a more informed model of modern human prehistory.

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European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Rabbit is the common name for small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, characterized by long ears and legs, large hind feet, a short and bushy tail, and young born without fur and with closed eyes. All other members of Leporidae are placed in the Lepus genus and are known as hares, characterized by longer ears, generally larger size and faster running speed, and young born with fur and with open eyes (Angerbjörn 2004). The term, "rabbit" sometimes is used as a collective term for all members of the Leporidae family, including the hares, and sometimes for all members of the Lagomorpha order, a group that also includes the pikas, which are placed in family Ochotonidae. Some true hares (genus Lepus) also have the name rabbit (jackrabbits). This article will encompass all members of Leporidae family placed in genera other than Lepus. Rabbits are an important component of their native ecosystems in which their high reproductive rate makes them integral to terrestrial food chains, as they consume plant matter and provide food for such animals as foxes, raptors, cats, ferrets, and raccoons. Where humans have introduced rabbits into ecosystems like those of Australia in which there are few controlling predators, however, rabbits have proliferated excessively and caused environmental problems, including habitat degradation, loss of unique native flora and fauna, and agricultural damage. Humans in many parts of the world have used rabbits as a source of food and fur, hunted them for sport, used them in laboratory research, and raised them as pets. Rabbits add to the human enjoyment of nature and are a feature in culture, whether in books and paintings, or as symbols, such as for fertility or rebirth. Rabbits, hares, and pikas comprise the order Lagomorpha, which is divided into two families: Leporidae (hares and rabbits) and Ochotonidae (pikas). Originally classified as rodents (order Rodentia), the lagomorphs are separated based on having a second, small, peg-like upper incisor sitting behind the first, large, continually growing incisor, whereas rodents possess only a single, upper incisor (Smith 2004). Also, lagomorphs have a single layer of enamel in the front incisors versus the double layer in rodents (Smith 2004). Lagomorphs have relatively large to huge ears, short tails (not visible in pikas), and cannot grasp food with their paws (Smith 2004). Lagomorphs have a very large digestive system, apparently adapted to digesting large amounts of plant material whose nutrient content is difficult to extract (Smith 2004). The caecum tends to be giant—up to ten times larger than the stomach—and it has a rich fauna of bacteria and other microorganisms that help to break down the plant matter (Smith 2004). Lagomorphs also practice coprophagy, whereby they eat their feces to undergo re-digestion, which helps yield up to five times as many vitamins as in the original food (Smith 2004). The Leporidae family comprises 11 extant genera and 61 species of hares and rabbits (Angerbjörn 2004) with one genus, Lepus, comprising all the true hares, while rabbits are classified into the other 10 genera. Leporids tend to have brown or gray as the base of the soft fur, although some forms turn white for winter, and two species are striped (Angerbjörn 2004). There also is the black Amami rabbit, Pentalagus furnessi, of Japan. Leporids all have long legs, long ears, and large hind feet, as well as a short and bushy tail. Each foot has five digits (one reduced); rabbits and hares move about on the tips of the digits in a fashion known as digitigrade locomotion. Full-bodied and egg-shaped, wild rabbits are rather uniform in body proportions and stance. Rabbits tend to range in size from 25 to 50 centimeters (cm) in length (10 to 20 inches), and weigh from 400 to 3,000 grams (14 ounces to 6.6 pounds) (Angerbjörn 2004). Hares tend to be larger in size, ranging up to 6,000 grams (13.2 pounds) and 75 centimeters (30 inches) (Angerbjörn 2004). Hares tend to have longer legs and ears (often with black markings on the fur of their ears) and tend to be faster. The smallest rabbit is the pygmy rabbit, Brachylagus idahoensis, at only 20 cm in length and 0.4 kg (0.9 pound) in weight. Rabbits are clearly distinguished from hares in that rabbits are altricial, having young that are born blind and hairless. In contrast, hares are generally born with hair and are able to see (precocial). Rabbits are often known affectionately by the pet name "bunny" or "bunny rabbit," especially when referring to young, domesticated rabbits. Originally, the word for an adult rabbit was "coney" or "cony," while "rabbit" referred to the young animals. More recently, the term "kit" or "kitten" has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A group of young rabbits is referred to as a "kindle." Young hares are called "leverets," and this term is sometimes informally applied to any young rabbit. Male adult rabbits are called "bucks" and female adult rabbits are known as "does." A group of rabbits or hares is often called a "fluffle" in parts of Northern Canada. A group of rabbits is called a "herd." Rabbits are ground dwellers that live in environments ranging from desert to tropical forest and wetland. Most rabbits are found in forest and shrubs and live underground in burrows or warrens (interconnected maze of burrows); hares are more common to open areas and live in simple nests above the ground. Some rabbits do not build burrows, but live in dense cover or hollows underground. The eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus, nests in holes, where the young are raised (Angerbjörn 2004). Rabbits are found in most areas of the world. The natural geographic range of rabbits encompasses the middle latitudes of the Western Hemisphere, and in the Eastern Hemisphere, rabbits are found in Europe, portions of Central and Southern Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Sumatra, and Japan. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has been introduced to many locations around the world, and all breeds of domestic rabbit originate from the European. Most rabbits live solitary lives and are non-territorial, although the European rabbit is "extremely social," living in a warren (a maze of burrows connected together) with 6 to 12 adults and controlled by a dominant male at the top of a linear dominance hierarchy (Smith 2004). Rabbits tend to stay in the vicinity of safe hiding places in home ranges or territories and to escape predation by running into burrows and holes (Angerbjörn 2004). Hares, on the other hand, may travel considerable distances and have large home ranges, and tend to escape predators by running away (Angerbjörn 2004). Many species of rabbits and hares have distress calls or thump their hind feet to warm of predators (Angerbjörn 2004). The large, laterally set eyes of rabbits provide a nearly circular field of vision, which allows them to detect motion and avoid predators (Smith 2004). Rabbits have a keen ability to detect odors and communicate largely through the sense of smell (Smith 2004). Utilizing glands on their cheeks, groin, or chin, they rub pheromones on their fur during grooming and deposit scent marks on rocks or shrubs, or use urine or feces to leave scent markings (Smith 2004). Such odors advertise their reproductive status or mark territories (Smith 2004). Their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem by coprophagia—ingesting their own droppings (feces), as is common with all lagomorphs. Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and caecum. A soft feces is excreted from the caecum and reingested and then digested in the stomach and small intestine (Smith 2004). They also produce hard round dry pellets, separated in the digestive system by a mechanical separation, and generally consisting of poorer quality particles; these hard pellets are passed quickly (Smith 2004). While literature often states that hard pellets are not eaten, research has shown that lagomorphs also regularly eat hard feces (Smith 2004). Basically, leporids tend to feed on fresh food during the evening and night and excrete the hard and soft feces during the day and reingest them (Smith 2004). Males and females are promiscuous, not forming lasting pair-bonds, but rather mating with different individuals. Females of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)—and presumably other rabbits—are reflex (or induced) ovulators that require the act of copulation to stimulate ovulation, which occurs about 12 hours after mating (Smith 2004). Most rabbits produce many offspring each year, although scarcity of resources may cause this potential to be suppressed. A combination of factors allows the high rates of reproduction commonly associated with rabbits. Rabbits generally are able to breed at a young age, and many regularly conceive litters of up to seven young, often doing so four or five times a year due to the fact that a rabbit's gestation period is only about 30 days (Smith 2004). They may mate again soon after giving birth. (Some hares actually mate and are impregnated again prior to giving birth.) As an example, the eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus, normally has three to five litters per year, but can have up to seven, and the mean litter size is typically two to six individuals, with fifty percent of the juveniles breeding their first year (Angerbjörn 2004). Newborn rabbits are naked, blind, and helpless at birth (altricial). While the European rabbit is social, for most other rabbits the young do not receive much parental care (Smith 2004). While mothers typically make a nest, sometimes lined with fur from their own belly and plant material, they may nurse their young only one time a day, for a few minutes, although the milk is highly nutritious (Smith 2004). This rare attention to the young may be an adaptation to reduce the likelihood of predators finding the juveniles (Angerbjörn 2004). Angerbjörn (2004) reports that there are 29 extant species of rabbits in 10 genera: Oryctolagus (1 species, the European rabbit), Sylvilagus (17 species, cottantails), Brachylagus (1 species, pygmy rabbit), Bunolagus (1 species, riverine rabbit), Pentalagus (1 species, Amami rabbit), Pronolagus (3 species, red rock-hares), Caprolagus (1 species, hispid hare), Poelagus (1 species, Bunyoro rabbit), Nesolagas (2 species, striped rabbits), and Romerolagus (1 species, volcano rabbit). The following is one taxonomy, with a partial listing of the Sylvilagus species: Rabbit breeds are notably different varieties of domestic rabbit created through selective breeding or natural selection both as pets and as a meat source. Breeds recognized by organizations such as the American Rabbit Breeders' Association (ARBA) may be exhibited and judged in rabbit shows. Breeders attempt to emulate the breed standard by which each breed is judged. The ARBA lists more than 40 different rabbit breeds. They range in size from the 3 pound Dwarf Hotot to the giant German Grey rabbit, which has attained a record weight of 23 pounds and has been imported into North Korea as a new food animal. Colors range from white to brown, grey, and black, with a variety of spotting patterns. The "lop" varieties are notable for their long floppy ears. Rabbits are an important component of many ecosystems. They also provide humans with economic, nutritional, and recreational benefits and as well play a part in the aesthetic dimensions of diverse cultures. Rabbits are integral to food chains, as they consume vegetative materials and in turn are eaten by predators, including foxes, raptors (such as eagles), lynxes and other cats, ferrets, and raccoons. Rabbits are a favorite food item of large pythons, such as Burmese pythons and reticulated pythons, both in the wild, as well as pet pythons. Rabbits are a meat source for humans in Europe, South America, North America, some parts of the Middle East, and China, among other places. Rabbit is still commonly sold in United Kingdom markets, although not frequently in supermarkets. At farmers markets and the famous Borough Market in London, rabbits will be displayed dead and hanging unbutchered in the traditional style next to braces of pheasant and other small game. Rabbit meat was once commonly sold in Sydney, Australia, but quickly became unpopular after the disease myxomatosis was introduced in an attempt to wipe out the feral rabbit population. When used for food, rabbits are both hunted and bred for meat. Snares or guns, along with dogs, are usually employed when catching wild rabbits for food. In many regions, rabbits are also bred for meat, a practice called cuniculture. Rabbits can then be killed by hitting the back of their heads, a practice from which the term rabbit punch is derived. Rabbit meat is a source of high quality protein. It can be used in most ways chicken meat is used. Rabbit meat is leaner than beef, pork, and chicken meat. Rabbit products are generally labeled in three ways, the first being fryer. This is a young rabbit between 1½ and 3½ pounds and up to 12 weeks in age. This type of meat is tender and fine grained. The next product is a roaster; they are usually over 4 pounds and over 8 months in age. The flesh is firm and coarse grained and less tender than a fryer. Then there are giblets, which include the liver and heart. One of the most common types of rabbit to be bred for meat is New Zealand white rabbit. There are several health issues associated with the use of rabbits for meat, one of which is tularemia or rabbit fever. Caused by a bacteria, Francisella tularensis, tularemia can affect both animals and humans and can be contracted by eating rabbit meat that is not cooked well, among other means (UTDH 2001). Another illness is called rabbit starvation, and it is the form of acute malnutrition caused by excess consumption of any lean meat (specifically rabbit) coupled with a lack of other sources of nutrients. It is due most likely to essential amino acid deficiencies in rabbit meat and synthesis limitations in human beings. Another economic value of rabbits is as a source of fur, such as the pelt of the cottontail rabbit (genus Sylvilagus) sometimes being used for clothing and accessories, such as scarves or hats. Rabbits are very good producers of manure; additionally, their urine, being high in nitrogen, makes lemon trees very productive. Rabbits also are a source of hunting for sport, with cottontail rabbit particularly popular in North America. Rabbits also are kept as pets. They typically are kept in hutches—small, wooden, house-like boxes—that protect the rabbits from the environment and predators. Rabbits kept in a home as pets for companionship are referred to as house rabbits. They typically have an indoor pen and a rabbit-safe place to run and exercise, such as a living or family room. Rabbits can be trained to use a litter box and can learn to respond when called. Their diet typically consists of unlimited timothy hay, a small amount of pellets, and fresh vegetables. House rabbits are quiet pets, but are unsuitable for households with small children as they are easily frightened by loud noises and can be harmed by mishandling. Domestic rabbits that are not house rabbits also often serve as companions for their owners, typically living in an easily accessible hutch outside the home. Rabbits as pets can find their companionship with a variety of creatures, including humans, other rabbits, guinea pigs, and sometimes even cats and dogs. It was commonly believed that pregnancy tests were based on the idea that a rabbit would die if injected with a pregnant woman's urine. This is not true. However, in the 1920s, it was discovered that if the urine contained the hCG, a hormone found in the bodies of pregnant women, the rabbit would display ovarian changes. The rabbit would then be killed to have its ovaries inspected, but the death of the rabbit was not the indicator of the results. Later revisions of the test allowed technicians to inspect the ovaries without killing the animal. A similar test involved injecting Xenopus frogs to make them lay eggs, but animal assays for pregnancy have been made obsolete by faster, cheaper, and simpler modern methods. Rabbits can provide an aesthetic joy in the wild. They also have been used as objects for paintings, novels, and other art works, and have symbolic value in culture as well. Rabbits are often used as a symbol of fertility or rebirth, and have long been associated with spring and Easter as the Easter Bunny. Rabbits are often used as symbols of playful sexuality, which also relates to the human perception of innocence, as well as its reputation as a prolific breeder. The rabbit often appears in folklore as the trickster archetype, as he uses his cunning to outwit his enemies. In Chinese literature, rabbits accompany Chang'e on the Moon. Also associated with the Chinese New Year (or Lunar New Year), rabbits are also one of the twelve celestial animals in the Chinese Zodiac for the Chinese calendar. It is interesting to note that the Vietnamese lunar new year replaced the rabbit with a cat in their calendar, as rabbits did not inhabit Vietnam. In Japanese tradition, rabbits live on the Moon where they make mochi, the popular snack of mashed sticky rice. This comes from interpreting the pattern of dark patches on the moon as a rabbit standing on tiptoes on the left pounding on an usu, a Japanese mortar. A popular culture manifestation of this tradition can be found in the character title character of Sailor Moon, whose name is Usagi Tsukino, a Japanese pun on the words "rabbit of the moon." A Korean myth similar to the Japanese counterpart also presents rabbits living on the moon making rice cakes (Tteok in Korean), although not specified as mochi (rice cakes that have sweet red bean paste fillings). A Vietnamese mythological story portrays the rabbit of innocence and youthfulness. The Gods of the myth are shown to be hunting and killing rabbits to show off their power. In Aztec mythology, a pantheon of four hundred rabbit gods known as Centzon Totochtin, led by Ometotchtli, or Two Rabbit, represented fertility, parties, and drunkenness. In Ugandan folklore, Shufti the rabbit was the leader of the peoples when the sun God burnt the crops to the ground after the skull of the golden albatross was left out on the plains on the first day of the year. In Native American Ojibwe mythology, Nanabozho, or Great Rabbit, is an important deity related to the creation of the world. On the Isle of Portland in Dorset, United Kingdom, the rabbit is said to be unlucky and speaking its name can cause upset with older residents. This is thought to date back to early times in the quarrying industry, where piles of extracted stone (not fit for sale) were built into tall rough walls (to save space) directly behind the working quarry face; the rabbit's natural tendency to burrow would weaken these "walls" and cause collapse, often resulting in injuries or even death. The name rabbit is often substituted with words such as “long ears” or “underground mutton,” so as not to have to say the actual word and bring bad luck to oneself. It is said that a public house (on the island) can be cleared of people by calling out the word rabbit and while this was very true in the past, it has gradually become more fable than fact over the past 50 years. In the African-American slave culture of the Southern United States, the trickster Bre'r Rabbit is thought to have emerged as a conflation of a hare trickster that figures prominently in the storytelling traditions in Central and Southern Africa and rabbit trickster myths of the Native American Cherokee. Many have suggested that Br'er Rabbit represents the black slave who uses his wits to overcome circumstances and to exact revenge on his adversaries, representing the white slave-owners. Though not always successful, his efforts made him a folk hero. These stories were popularized in printed form in the late nineteenth century by Joel Chandler Harris, who wrote them up using the voice of an old former slave, Uncle Remus, telling stories to the grandson of his former owner. Bre'r Rabbit and his nemesis Bre'r Fox are central protagonists in episodes filled with intrigue, humor, wit, deception, and moral and practical lessons. In one noted example, Bre'r Fox used a tar baby, a human figure made of tar, to capture Br'er Rabbit by playing on Br'er Rabbit's vanity and gullibility to goad him into attacking the fake baby and becoming stuck. Walt Disney made an animated movie of three of the stories in the mid-twentieth century. The stories have fallen out of popularity due to their being deemed racially offensive by some and the Disney Company has declined to release a home video version of the film for the same reason. Bugs Bunny, a rabbit-like cartoon character, is an animated icon of American popular culture. Created in the 1930s, Bugs Bunny has feuded on screen with such cartoon characters as Elmer Fudd, Bucky Buzzard, Daffy Duck, and Wile E. Coyote. He usually wins these conflicts, but maintains the sympathy of the audience because the antagonist characters repeatedly attempt to bully, cheat or threaten him. In 2002, TV Guide celebrated Bugs Bunny as the No. 1 greatest cartoon character of all time. Cases in which rabbits have been introduced into an ecosystem that lacks natural predators to control their population provide, by counterexample, a good illustration of the balance and harmony of nature. The most striking case may be the introduction of the European rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, to Australia in 1859. Twenty-four introduced rabbits multiplied to an estimated 750 million rabbits by 1950 (Smith 2004). As a result of their appetites, and the rate at which they breed, uncontrolled wild rabbit populations raise major problems for both agriculture and the environment. In Australia, rabbits have degraded the habitat, caused the loss of many of Australia's unique flora and fauna, and affected the livestock. Rabbits in Australia are considered to be such a pest that land owners are legally obliged to control them. Efforts to control rabbits in areas to which they have been introduced have included gassing, barriers (fences), shooting, snaring, and ferreting. The disease myxomatosis was used in Australia as a biological control agent and was initially very effective, killing nearly all rabbits in most populations, but subsequently the rabbit populations have developed immunity and have rebounded (Smith 2004). The disease calicivirus also has been used in areas. In Europe, where rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus. The virus was developed in Spain, and is beneficial to rabbit farmers, but there remains a risk of this virus getting into introduced populations and creating a population boom. |Extant Lagomorpha species| New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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Dracula Lesson Plans Below are lesson plans for Bram Stoker's Dracula. I "inherited" an Honors I class from another English teacher and part of the curriculum was this novel. I don't know that I would have chosen it myself, but once I started reading and teaching it, I became convinced of the value of including it in the course. These lesson plans, as with other lesson plans on the website, are not intended to substitute for a knowledge of the book. I have included some tests and assignments used in teaching Dracula within these lesson plans. [The edition used was Dracula by Bram Stoker, 1981 Bantam Books.] -Beginning focus for notes. Take notes of (1) relationships between people [characters] (2) instances of the supernatural. Later in the book Bram Stoker's inclusion of the latest technology of the day is also interesting for students to consider. Read pages, 1-14 Discuss Chapter one. NOTE: In 1994-95 they read twenty pages per day, Mon.-Fri. In 1996-97 they read 16 pages per day. M-F. In later classes they read less pages per day. That decrease may have a number of different causes. Chapter I p.1 1. Jonathan, from Britain, is unaware of Eastern things.. Power of description [Stoker's], like National Geographic, gives feeling of verisimilitude. See: Description in Chapter II p.15 1. Jonathan, getting to know castle, and realizing that he is a prisoner. Chapter III p.28 1. Talking with the Count, learning about Dracula. Chapter IV p.42 -FOCUS 1. three suitors are important to the story, not just peripheral characters. 2. 'catalog' of vampires' supernatural powers. 3. Issue of 3 powers in the world: Good, Man, Evil-Bad-Demon 4. Mr. Swales, role of doubter converted- [as in old prospector in 'Tremors' helps create suspension of disbelief] Note- students need help with Mr. Swales' dialogue. 1. Dracula tries to frame Harker by stealing child while wearing Harker' clothes on. Wolves called to 'dispose' of the child's Chapter V. p.57 1. Miss Mina Murray writes to Miss Lucy Westenra. Chapter VI p.66 1. Mina's journal, graveyard lookout. Chapter VII p.80. 1. In Mina's journal, cutting from the Dailygraph about the ship arriving in a storm, with a dead captain. Chapter VIII p.94. 1. Mina's journal: Lucy sleepwalking to the lookout cemetery seat. Mina follows and sees pale man with red eyes bending over her.[Why no suspicion?] 1. Identify briefly Lucy's three suitors: 2. Identify Mr Swales: 3. Identify Seward's patient: Identify the following quotes: the speaker and the situation. 1. "You may go anywhere you wish in the castle, except where the doors are locked,..." Identify the following quotes: the speaker and the situation. 1. She then rose, and dried her eyes, and taking a crucifix from her neck offered it to me. Chapter IX p.110 1. Arrival in Buda-Pesth Chapter X p. 125 1. Seward to Art.. "Lucy... had gone back a bit." *The tension to this is the reader knows[?] Dracula is the cause. p.125 [In horror stories, what is the "psychology" as we who are 'in the know' watch danger creep up on the unsuspecting, and the sometimes incredibly dumb. Do we identify with them? What about at the first of the book/movie when 'we' the audience and the character[s], find out the danger together??] 2. Van Helsing keeps his thoughts, ideas, and hypotheses to himself. [Perhaps a parallel situation would be thinking a friend, student, teacher, family member, was an alien. Who would believe?] p.126. 3. Van Helsing in control- Lucy needs transfusion. 'Art' gives it to her. -no notice taken of blood types in this "new" science - **Hmm, does Dracula notice blood types?? Van Helsing tells Seward not to sleep while watching Lucy. p.128+ 4. Lucy feels better 'Arthur close to me'- [blood transfusion]. p.134. 5. John Seward blood to Lucy, who is close to death. p.134+ 6. Lucy better- Van Helsing puts garlic all around, perhaps to keep out 'an evil spirit.' p.138. Chapter XI. p.140 1. Lucy going to bed peacefully, with garlic. p.140. Chapter XII p.153 1. Seward and Van Helsing find the chaos at Lucy's. Van Helsing does not want to let Lucy die in her present state. p.153- For a very well done extra credit assignment see: Lucy's Journal Chapter XIII p. 171 1. Lucy very beautiful corpse. p.171 SIX FRAME DRAWING- showing the "principles" of the supernatural at work in relation to man. i.e. crucifix protects, can't see Dracula in the mirror, blue flames, rather jump overboard, etc. Six Frame Drawings- are done by folding a piece of typing paper in half length ways and then folding it in thirds crossways. This folding results in six frames which can be filled with "comics" type drawings. [*This technique can also be used to plan out scenes for filming.] The drawings for this assignment can be picked from one event in Dracula, or a series of separate events. Student are graded on their understanding of the book and the number of "principles" illustrated and Not their artistic ability. [I usually demonstrate my art ability on the blackboard, to show the students that they should have no fears about their relative artistic ability being graded too critically.] The front page of the assignment contains the drawings, which may have the characters speaking in little "dialogue bubbles" in the scenes. On the back of each frame the students write the corresponding principle being illustrated. Grade the paper on the back of the drawing, so that their "art" remains unmarked. NOTE: the students enjoy this type of assignment, and after about ten minutes all are happily drawing. Students' showing each other their pictures before they are handed in, should be discouraged so that students can do their own thinking, but discipline should not be so strict that it detracts from the classroom mood. Students should know that when the pictures are returned that they will have time to share them. Also, the teacher might consider showing a few pictures when they are being returned to the class, without showing the grade. This assignment can be used for other literature and composition activities. Chapter XIV p.188 1. Mina reads Jonathan's journal. p.188-189. DISCUSS? In the story, in the fight against Dracula, what actions are good strategy, and what actions are bad strategy? TEST QUESTION: [30+ min] What is Bram Stoker's attitude toward women? Support with details to as far as having read in the book. The paper should be type written on one side of the paper, 1 to 2 pages. Skip lines. The rough draft can be written in pencil or ink, but the final draft should be typewritten. Remember to support your views with material from your notes and the book. Topics can include the following: Foreshadowing- clues and hint of what is to happen. 1. Wind blowing the ship toward shore- Dracula may be Tone- the mood or emotion of the book. 1. The wolves circle the carriage and the horses being afraid create the mood of..... Theme- author's message to the reader. 1. First mate jumping overboard- it's better to die than lose your soul. Supernatural- things happening beyond normal mortal human powers. 1. Dracula changing at the sight of the crucifix when he is about to attack Jonathan who cut himself while shaving. Shortcomings of characters- weaknesses that characters have. 1. Jonathan not getting a 'clue' from all the village people's reaction to Sample Organization for Paper: NOTE: This paper is designed to give students further experience in writing mult-paragraph papers from earlier assignments. An entire course can be designed to developmentally teach desired skills to students. The skills in each unit can be planned to develop skills presented in earlier units, throughout the course. Dracula has many interesting qualities. One of the main ones is the use of themes not generally found in recent books and stories. Some of these themes relate to good and evil, _____, ________, and ________. Good and evil is illustrated as a theme in one part of the story when ......... Another theme is .......... A third theme, different from today is ....... In conclusion, the themes in Dracula such as _______, ________, __________, and __________ are interesting because they are written in a memorable way, and they're different than those of more recent times. [Briefly summarize highlights of the paper.] Chapter XVI p. 204 1. The four meet in the cemetery when Lucy is returning and put the 'Host' on the door of the tomb so she couldn't enter. They are convinced that she is a vampire when she tries to get Arthur and is stopped by Van Helsing with a crucifix. They return again with a mallet, scalpels, etc. to drive a stake through Lucy's heart and cut off her head. Arthur drives the stake. Van Helsing and Seward cut off the head. p.219-229. 2. They make a pact to stop Dracula. p.229-230. Teacher's Note: Teachers should realize the importance of pacing tests throughout a unit and throughout a course. There are a multitude of different types of tests. The "total learning situation" of the students in each class should be considered when giving tests. To give only multiple choice tests would not develop higher writing and thinking skills in the students. To give too many essay tests takes time and energy from a class that they might need simply to read an extensive book and take thorough notes on it. Therefore, multiple choice, fill in the blank, and true-false tests can keep a class reading on schedule without over-burdening it while they are reading challenging, or boring material. Essay tests and creative writing assignments can give a class the opportunity to look at the material in a new and deeper way. These tests can also make students happily aware of the growth in their own skills and understanding. [Happiness is the consciousness of growth. -Wilhelm Reich] Dracula [Chapters 1-16] 1. What is Buda-Pesth? 8. What does Van Helsing think needs to be done with Lucy some days after her funeral? 11. Van Helsing seals the tomb door with __________________ Chapter XVII p. 231 1. Mina meets and 'charms' Renfield with her 'goodness.' p.245- 247 [Renfield hopes that she will leave- is aware that Dracula is after her.. we learn this later.] 2. Vampires' powers catalogued- by this point in the book, they are believable. p.250 3. Pact against Dracula [all six] and the dangers of fighting him. p. 251-254 4. Van Helsing to Mina: "And now for you, Madam Mina, this night is the end until all be well. You are too precious to us to have such risk. When we part tonight, you no more must question. We shall tell you all in good time. We are men and are able to bear; but you must be our star and hope, and we shall act all the more free that you are not in the danger, such as we are." p.255 [IRONY- This 'cutting off' places her in more danger.] 5. Mina's comment on Van Helsing's decision: 'All the men, even Jonathan, seemed relieved; but it did not seem to me good that they should brave danger and, perhaps lessen their safety- strength being the best safety- through care of me; but their minds were made up, and though it was a bitter pill for me to swallow, I could say nothing, save to accept their chivalrous care of me.' p.256 6. Renfield pleads with Seward to let him go. Seward refuses. p.257-261. [We later learn that Renfield has agreed to let Dracula in.] Chapter XIX p.262 1. Harker, re: Mina- "I am so glad she consented to hold back and let us men do the work." p.262 Chapter XX p. 276 1. Jonathan tracking boxes. Breaking and entering and legal means. Chapter XXI p. 291 1. Renfield regains consciousness, tells of his involvement with Dracula who had bribed him with living creatures.. And Dracula is invited in and Renfield tries to stop him and is thrown down. He reports that Dracula has gotten to Mina. p. 291-297 2. In the Harker's room, Mina is being forced to drink Dracula's blood while Jonathan is unconscious. p. 298-299. 3. Harkers and others learn extent of Dracula's doings. p. 298-305 4. Mina: "Oh my God, what have I done to deserve such a fate?" p. 304 *Question of power of God- involvement of god. Mina "What have I done?" People become under the power of evil by choice [seduction], but what about 'overpowering'? i.e. Mina, or the woman with the baby, and the wolves? *Also, Is power of God found in church, or sacred objects, or places? Then why is Dracula in old sanctuary places? Chapter XXII p. 306 1. Harker, "As I must do something or go mad, I write this diary." *TEST [DracuTs3.Cp1] Ch 16-22 1. When the men meet at Lucy's tomb to "release her soul," first Arthur ________________________________________. 2. And then Van Helsing and Seward _______________________________ 3. Weapons against Dracula include _________, _______________, and __________________. 4. Dracula's weapons include _________________, _______________, _______________________, and ____________________. 5. Renfield gives Dracula permission to enter because ___________ 6. Renfield tries to stop Dracula because ______________________ 7. Dracula creates a 'link' between him and Mina by ____________ 8. Why doesn't the 'sacred wafer' protect Mina? _______________ 9. Van Helsing mentions euthanasia when ______________________ 10. What is one thing the men do illegally as they are trying to find Dracula? ___________________________________________. Chapter XXIII p. 319 1. Jonathan, a haggard, old man under the strain. p. 319 2. Quincey, Arthur, Harker, Van Helsing ambush the Count, but he escapes and threatens them. p. 323 Dracula states, "My revenge is just begun. I spread it over centuries and time is on my side. Your girls that you all love are mine already; and through them you and others shall yet be mine- my creatures, to do my bidding and to be my jackals when I want to feed. Bah!" p. 324 *Van Helsing thinks these words show that Dracula is afraid. 3. Mina asks the men to pity Dracula because they may have to pity her too, as she transforms into a vampire. p.326-327 4. Quincy guarding the Harkers. p. 328. 5. Mina thinks of Van Helsing hypnotizing her so he can learn of Dracula's whereabouts because of the psychic connection between them. p. 329. [**Later they think he is using her to spy on them. 6. From the trance they learn that Dracula is fleeing in a ship. p. 331. 7. They can't just let him go because if they don't kill him, Mina will become a vampire. p. 332. *NOTE: We keep reading a long book, with complicated details because we begin to care about Mina, Jonathan, and the others- as good people. Perhaps we empathize with them as people who are like we are, against 'fearsome' odds. [**What else is the appeal of Dracula that he persists? GOOD DISCUSSION QUESTION? Some said his power, wealth, confidence?] NOTE- discussed again somewhat after chapter XXV. 1. On p. 289 is Count deVille really Count 'Devil'? Chapter XXIV p. 333 1. Van Helsing tells Jonathan, with Seward's 'phonograph,' to stay with Mina while the rest hunt for Dracula and how to pursue him. ?? p. 333. 2. On Dracula's trail, discovering the ship, etc. p.335+ 3. Dracula forces the captain (with bad weather) to take him and his box on board for Transylvania. 4. Van Helsing says they are like the knights of old- for God... redeem one soul already. p. 338 5. Van Helsing - Dracula's "childlike brain" slowly learning [Concept of Dracula being non-human, different capabilities for learning ??? Not clear.. p. 339. 6. Seward's diary.. Mina- indications, she is slowly turning becoming a vampire. Does the Count know about them through her? p. 341. 7. Van Helsing to tell Mina that she could be a communication tool for Dracula. [This is stupid!] Perhaps they could feed him misinformation? - Or does Van Helsing think that would be cruel to Mina? p. 342. 8. Mina says "don't tell me anything.." p. 344 and "take me with you." p. 345. Chapter XXV p. 348 1. Mina makes them promise to cut off her head, etc. when they feel she is too far gone to save otherwise. p. 350-351 Class writing assignment and class discussion. 1. Write five things that you're afraid of. Don't sign your name. Chapter XXVI p. 364. 1. Mina's hypnotic trance tells them Dracula is still on board a ship, but possibly going up a river. p. 364-367. 2. Captain Donelson reports the weather while carrying Dracula favorable all the way through until they got the box in port. p. 368-369. 3. Petrof Skinsky picks up the box and dies for it. p. 369-370 4. Mina reasons out Dracula's tactics to travel by water. Van Helsing again impressed by her intelligence. 5. Quincey Morris and John Seward to follow the river on horses, well armed. Arthur and Jonathan Harker to follow Dracula on the river. Van Helsing to take Mina directly to Dracula's castle to destroy his refuge there, before he gets there. p. 374-376. 6. Everybody in pursuit. p. 377-381. Chapter XXVII p. 382. 1. Superstitious people notice the mark on Mina's forehead. p. 382. 2. Toward Dracula's country.. Mina laments that she is 'unclean.' p.383. 3. Van Helsing- Travels with Mina until they arrive outside the castle. p. 384+ He makes a ring of wafer crumbs.. Mina can't get out of, and the vampire ladies can't get in. Although they do evidently kill the horses. p. 387-389. 4. Harker and Arthur delayed by boat 'accident.' p. 389. 5. Seward and Quincey in pursuit of a band of gypsies transporting what probably is Dracula's coffin. p. 390-393. 6. Van Helsing goes into Dracula's castle and kill/frees the three vampires and seals Dracula's coffin. p. 390-393. 7. Mina's journal p. 393-399.. describes the end. Dracula is gathering wolves. The gypsies are racing to the castle with his coffin. The four men are in pursuit, make the gypsies stop; Harker and Quincey rush through, break open the coffin and kill Dracula. But Quincey is mortally wounded. He dies seeing that the Mark is gone from Mina's forehead. Note p. 400 Seven years later. The Harkers have a son named after the four. They return to Transylvania and Harker realizes there is no proof for his account. Arthur and Seward are both happily married. p. 400. Panel of Characters: *Teacher's note: This panel is a great change of pace. It can be done After the final has been given or Before. It is entertaining for the students to see these characters 'come to life' and the various interpretations of the characters from the students' viewpoints. The panel shows the teacher, and the class who understands the material, in a gentle way. The panel is also useful to a teacher 'buried' under end of semester paper grading. The panel involves the class without increasing the paper correcting load. The panel is done by placing six desks at the front of class, facing the class. Name signs printed on typing paper are placed on the desks as students volunteer for the characters. The teacher can expect each class member to ask a question of one of the panel members. A grade is placed in the grade book for the question. *Grading questions in this manner prevents a student in the class from dominating the class or the panel, or disrupting in some way. Final Exam: [Alternate] *Alternate test/final for those students leaving early. [This test is given to those who receive permission to leave school before the final is given. An alternate test is given so that those taking this test do not inform the rest of the class about the contents of the final. How extensive such a test can be depends on the circumstances.] -Write on one side of the paper, skip lines. 2. Compare the villains [or antagonists] of The Odyssey, Beowulf, and Dracula with each other and with your own ideas of a 'villain.' 3. From the viewpoint of one of the cultures of the above books, describe your own culture. Dracula, The Odyssey, Beowulf, Esther *Choose ONE of the first four questions. 1. When considering the characters in the above stories, which one do you feel the most sympathy with? Why? 2. Which character do you most dislike? Why? 3. If you had to choose one of the cultures from the above stories to live in, which would it be? Why? 4. What have you learned about your own culture, from studying these other cultures? ANSWER THE NEXT TWO QUESTIONS ON THE TEST PAPER: *5. What is the climax in each of the stories? A. Dracula ____________________________________________ B. The Odyssey _____________________________________________ C. Beowulf ________________________________________________ D. Esther ________________________________________________ *6. A. Quincey keeps his promise to Mina that he will be a true friend by _________________________________________________. B. Van Helsing meets the three vampire ladies and ________ ______________________________________________________. C. How can the men tell where Dracula is through Mina? _______ D. The Szgany who help Dracula are also known as _____________. E. Three groups pursue Dracula toward his castle. They are: *7. Pick a character that you think is not understood [NOT ONE THAT YOU HAVE ALREADY WRITTEN ABOUT] and write a 1st person narrative paragraph- explaining that character. "Some may think that I am _____________, but I really am __________." *8. Which book would you most recommend to others to read? Write a paragraph persuading others to read it. Use support. *9. Summarize the story of Dracula from Mina' point of view. I always considered Dracula a worthy book to be included in my 9th grade Honors English class. The students respond well to brave people fighting for a good cause. Many girls are drawn into the book because of the part played by Mina and the respect the men show for her. In spite of sometimes stifling restrictions placed on women by her society, Mina comes off well in Bram Stoker's presentation of a woman rising above her perceived societal position due to grave circumstances that cause the men around her to allow this growth. Also, good and evil, concepts lost or caricatured in later books and films, are presented clearly and present great opportunities for examination and discussion in classes prepared for such discussions. Finally, most of my students have enjoyed reading Dracula, and once they were "into the book" often read on further before they were assigned to do so. Return to the: Teaching Literature page

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FOUNDATIONS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING The Old Testament has nothing to say about the origin of writing, which seems to have been invented early in the fourth millennium B.C. but it does assume writing on the part of Moses, who wrote the Law not earlier than about 1450 B.C. Many earlier records of writing have been discovered in various places. But, what was the character of those records? Were they drawings? Symbols? If so, what did they symbolize? Three stages in the development of writing may be discerned: pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms. These were representations that long antedated the origin of writing and played a role in the development of it. They were actually crude pictures that represented objects such as the sun, an old man, an eagle, an ox, a lion. As long as pictograms represented nothing other than the objects themselves, there was no difficulty in using them. However, as time passed the use of pictures to depict ideas appeared, and pictograms lost their dominant position in recorded communication. Ideograms superseded pictograms. They were pictures that actually represented ideas rather than The Picture of ||an old man Thus, a long stride toward writing was taken, although writing in the modern sense was still a long way off. But ideograms, actually a particular use of pictograms, were not the only extension of pictograms. Still another extension of pictograms, phonograms was really representations of sounds rather than objects or ideas. Thus, a representation of the sun might speak of a son rather than the sun; a picture of a bear might be used to express the verb 'to bear'; the picture of a bee to express the verb 'to be.' As a result, another step was taken in the direction of written languages, but there was still a long succession of events necessary before writing in the modern sense was achieved. Ideographic and phonographic writings were later intermingled with simple syllabic writing, and that with a more sophisticated system wedge-shaped signs was used by the Sumerians. Merrill F. Unger adequately summarizes the situation: "Those who first attempted to reduce human speech to writing did not at once perceive the chasm that separates the spoken words from the characters in which they are symbolized. They wrote as they spoke in unbroken succession, inscribing the letters in closest proximity to each other, without separating them into words, much less into sentences, paragraphs and chapters. Although letters were used in writing by the time of Moses, they were consonants only, as vowels were added much later. Hence, an unbroken succession of consonants covering an entire tablet, later a scroll, and still later a codex (sheets of papyrus bound into a book form) would appear before the reader of a given text. Needless to say, even that was still far from the modern concept of writing. Although the witnesses to writing in antiquity are far from abundant, there is sufficient evidence available to indicate that it was the hallmark of cultural achievement. During the second millennium B.C. there were several experiments that led to the development of the alphabet and written documents. In Palestine itself there have been very few documents that have survived from the pre-exilic period, but the evidence from surrounding territories makes it reasonable to assume that the Israelites shared in the act of writing even earlier than the beginning of the Davidic kingdom. Several lines of evidence may be called upon to witness to the fact that writing was most certainly practiced by the Israelites prior to the time of the Moabite Stone of Mesha, king of Moab, which dates from about It was this item that was used by the late-nineteenth-century higher critical writers, for example, Graf and Wellhausen, as the earliest example of writing in Palestine. Evidence from Mesopotamia This dates from about 3500 B.C. and includes cuneiform tablets of the Sumerians. The successors to the Sumerians used the latter's cuneiform script in developing their own individual |From 3500 B.C. ||The above are antedated by many other tablets, including some dating to about 3500 B.C. found in Erech of Gen. 10:10) and Kish. |From 2100 B.C ||Leonard Woolley discovered many temple tablets in the ruins of ancient Ur of the Chaldees that date from about 2100 B.C. narrative found at Nippur dates from about 2100 B.C. These confirm those found in Mesopotamia, and they are dated about 3100 B.C. |From 3100 B.C. ||The hieroglyphic script first appeared in Egypt just prior to the founding of Dynasty I (c. 3100 B.C.), whereas its successors, the hieratic and demotic scripts, both appeared prior to the exilic period in Israel's history. |From 2700 B.C. ||Among the early Egyptian writings are The Teachings for Kagemni and The Teaching of Ptah-Hetep, which date from about 2700 B.C. There are, in addition to those witnesses, other testimonies that illustrate the use of writing in Egypt prior to the time of Moses, Joseph, and even Abraham, regardless of the dates ascribed to each of those individuals. Furthermore, the Israelites must have been aware of writing techniques prior to their exodus from Egypt, for Moses was raised as a child with great position in the household of the pharaoh during the New Kingdom period. The New Testament record indicates the Hebrew traditional position, as Stephen bears witness in his famous sermon when he relates that "Moses was educated in all the learning of the Egyptians, and he was a man of power in words and deeds" (Acts 7:22). That learning most likely included writing on papyrus, as papyrus was used in writing earlier than (c. 2500 B.C.). East Mediterranean testimony |From 3100 B.C. ||As early as about 3100 B.C. there was writing used on cylinder seal impressions in Byblos. |From 2500 B.C. ||Evidence from about 2500 B.C., shows that pictographic signs were used in Byblos (Gebal) and Syria. Leonard Woolley's discoveries at Atchana (in northern Syria) appear to have been contemporaneous to the records found by Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos, Crete. These records date into the mid-second millennium B.C. and they indicate that connection between the mainland of Asia and the island bridge of Europe, namely, Crete. Early Palestinian and Syrian contributions |From 2300 B.C. ||From 1947 to 1976, excavations at Tell-Mardikh (ancient Elba) south of Aleppo in northern Syrian uncovered over 15,000 clay tablets inscribed in the cuneiform script with an early northwest Semitic dialect of 2300 B.C. The tablets are from the time of the Babylonian king Naram-Sin (equated by some with Nimrod of Gen. 10:9) who campaigned in the area. ||Included among the tablets are portions of the Epic of Gilgamesh and other kinds of literature from later Syria (Ugarit). Thus they attest to an early literary tradition, as already well known from Babylonia. addition, they have caused Old Testament scholars to reevaluate the accuracy of the Bible patriarchs as well as names and events recorded in Mitchell Dahood provides specific examples of clarification of the Hebrew text from Eblaic evidence in his article "Ebla, Ugarit, and the |From 1800 to |A pottery fragment from Gezer is dated from about 1800 to 1500 B.C. The Lachish dagger inscription is contemporary, as are inscriptions from Shechem, Beth-Shemesh, Razor, and |From 1500 to |Alphabetic inscriptions from the turquoise mines in southern Sinai date from about The Ras Shamra tablets, from the coastal site in northwest Syria identified as Ugarit, date from about 1500 to 1300 B.C. employed the same diplomatic language as the Tel el-Amarna tablets (c. 1380 B.C.) from the ancient Egyptian capital of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). At Ras Shamra were also found specimens of the Canaanite language written in alphabetic form. Those writings were made by inscribing unique cuneiform signs on clay tablets, known as the Ugaritic tablets. All of the above evidence is extant from the period prior to the Moabite Stone of Mesha, king of Moab. The event recorded on the Moabite Stone is that revolt against Israel recorded in 2 Kings 1:1 and 3:4-27. the preceding evidence is not direct, it is overwhelming in its denunciation of the negative higher critical position. It is also overwhelming in its demarcation of the history of writing before the time As a result, the more than 450 biblical references to writing may be seen as reflective of the cultural diffusion between Israel and her Activity of Biblical writers within literate history The foregoing discussion makes the assertion that "Moses and the other biblical writers wrote during the literate age of man" almost redundant. Nevertheless, the biblical record itself asserts that its writers wrote. Several of the more 450 biblical references may be called upon to indicate The Torah (Law) makes reference to several kinds of writing done by Moses and his predecessors: This is the book (the written record, the history) of the generations of the offspring of Adam. When God created man, He made him in the likeness of God. Then the LORD said to Moses, "Write this for a memorial in the book and recount it in the hearing of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven." And Moses wrote all the words of the LORD. Then the LORD said to Moses, "Write these words, for according to the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with you and with Israel." So he was there with the LORD forty days and forty nights; he neither ate bread nor drank water. And He wrote on the tablets the words of the covenant, the And the LORD spoke to Moses, saying: "... Write each man's name on his rod. And you shall write Aaron's name on the rod of Levi." So Moses wrote this law and delivered it to the priests And the LORD said to Moses: "... Now therefore, write down this song for yourselves" Therefore Moses wrote this song the same day, and taught it to the children of Israel. So it was, when Moses had completed writing the words of this law in a book... The Prophets (Nevi'im) indicate that writing was employed by several individuals even prior to the time of the Moabite as Moses the servant of the LORD had commanded the children of Israel, as it is written in the Book of the Law Then the men arose to go away; and Joshua charged those who went to survey the land, saying, "Go, walk through the land, survey it, and come back to me, that I may cast lots for you here before the LORD in Shiloh." So the men went, passed through the land, and wrote the survey in a book in seven parts by cities... Then Joshua wrote these words in the Book of the Law of God. These Kethuvi'im (Writings) also relate that individuals were writing before the time of the Moabite insurrection recorded in 2 Kings 1:1 (2 Kings 1:1 - "Moab rebelled against Israel after the death of Have I not written to you excellent things Of counsels and knowledge. |2 Chronicles 35:4 Prepare yourselves according to your fathers' houses, according to your divisions, following the written instruction of David king of Israel and the written instruction of Solomon his son. The materials upon which the ancients wrote were also used by the writers Clay was not only used in ancient Sumer as early as about 3500 B.C., but it was used by Ezekiel (4:1 - "You also, son of man, take a clay tablet and lay it before you, and portray on it a city, Jerusalem.). This material would be inscribed while it was still damp or soft. It would then be either dried in the sun or baked in a kiln to make a The clause "this is the account of" or "the book of the generations of" occurs twelve times in Genesis and probably indicates the divisions of early family records of the patriarchs: ||"This is the history of the heavens and the earth" ||"This is the book of the genealogy of Adam" ||"This is the genealogy of Noah" ||"Now this is the genealogy of the sons of Noah" ||"These were the sons of Shem, according to their ||"This is the genealogy of Shem" ||"This is the genealogy of Terah" ||"Now this is the genealogy of ||"This is the genealogy of Isaac" ||"Now this is the genealogy of Esau, who is Edom." ||"And this is the genealogy of Esau the father of the Edomites in Mount Seir" ||"This is the history of Jacob" This was used in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Palestine, as is evidenced biblical writers also made use of stone as a writing material Then the LORD said to Moses, "Come up to Me on the mountain and be there; and I will give you tablets of stone, and the law and commandments which I have written, that you may teach them." (NKJV) Now Joshua built an altar to the LORD God of Israel in Mount Ebal, as Moses the servant of the LORD had commanded the children of Israel, as it is written in the Book of the Law of Moses: "an altar of whole stones over which no man has wielded an iron tool." And they offered on it burnt offerings to the LORD, and sacrificed peace offerings. And there, in the presence of the children of Israel, he wrote on the stones a copy of the law of Moses, which he had written. (NKJV) Also, at the Dog River in Lebanon and at Behistun in Iran royal inscriptions were carved on cliff faces. Papyrus was used in ancient Gebal (Byblos) and Egypt from about It was made by pressing and gluing two layers of split papyrus reeds together in order to form a sheet. A series of papyrus sheets were joined together to form a scroll. It is that type of papyrus "scroll" that is mentioned in Revelation 5:1 (though it is translated "book" in The apostle John used papyrus for his epistles (cf. 2 John 12). And I saw in the right hand of Him who sat on the throne a scroll written inside and on the back, sealed with seven seals. |3 John 13 Having many things to write to you, I did not wish to do so with paper and ink (NKJV) Vellum - Parchment These are various quality grades of writing material made from animal skins of: |calf or antelope ||The finest material - prepared for writing on both sides, as in a codex |sheep or goat ||Prepared for writing on both sides, as in a codex |cow or bull ||Prepared for writing on only one side, as in a Although these substances are not mentioned directly as writing materials in the Bible, some kind of animal skin may have been in mind in Jeremiah 36:23 It could hardly have been vellum, for Frederic Kenyon has indicated that vellum was not known prior to about 200 B.C. Most likely it was leather, for the king used a knife on it. And it happened, when Jehudi had read three or four columns, that the king cut it with the scribe's knife and cast it into the fire that was on the hearth, until all the scroll was consumed in the fire that was on the hearth. (NKJV) Parchments are, on the other hand, clearly mentioned in Paul's request to Timothy (2 Tim. 4:13). |2 Timothy 4:13 Bring the cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas when you come — and the books, especially the parchments. (NKJV) Writing also was done in the biblical narrative upon such things as - Metal - (Ex. 28:36; Job 19:24; Matt. 22:19-20) writing board recessed to hold a wax writing surface - (cf. Isa. 8:1; 30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63); Precious stones - (Ex. 28:9, II, 21; 39:6-14) Potsherds - (Job 2:8), better known as ostraca, as found in such locations as Samaria and Lachish in Palestine. They were broken bits and pieces of pottery. Linen - Still another item used in ancient writing in Egypt, Greece, Etruscan and Roman Italy, but not mentioned in the Bible, was linen. instruments were necessary in the production of written records on the various materials mentioned above: A three-sided instrument with a beveled head, the stylus was used to make incursions into clay and wax tablets. It was sometimes called a "pen," as in Jeremiah 17:1. The sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron; with the point of a diamond it is engraved (NKJV) A chisel was used in making inscriptions in stone, as in Joshua 8:31-32. Job wished that his words might be engraved with "an iron stylus" in the rock forever. "an altar of whole stones over which no man has wielded an iron A pen was employed in writing on papyrus, vellum, leather, and parchment, as indicated in 3 John 13 (above). This was used in Jeremiah 36:23 to destroy a scroll (see reference above), the material of which was probably tougher than papyrus. It was also used to sharpen the writer's pen after it had begun to wear down. Inkhorn and Ink These were necessary concomitants of the pen, and they served as the container and fluid used for writing on papyrus, vellum, leather, and parchment. Thus, just as writing and its materials were available for the biblical writers, so were the instruments necessary for their vital task.

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Telegraphy (from Greek têle, "at a distance" and ? gráphein, "to write") is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic (as opposed to verbal or audio) messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not. Telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Many methods are designed according to the limits of the signalling medium used. The use of smoke signals, beacons, reflected light signals, and flag semaphore signals are early examples. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy. The advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. In the Internet age, telegraphic means developed greatly in sophistication and ease of use, with natural language interfaces that hide the underlying code, allowing such technologies as electronic mail and instant messaging. A "telegraph" is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i.e., for telegraphy. The word "telegraph" alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph. Contrary to the extensive definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit and record messages at a distance. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which merely transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, not telegraph. According to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by an electrical telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code (or a printing telegraph operator using plain text) was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a message sent by a submarine telegraph cable, often shortened to a cable or a wire. Later, a Telex was a message sent by a Telex network, a switched network of teleprinters similar to a telephone network. A wire picture or wire photo was a newspaper picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a diplomatic cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the method used for transmission. Even though early telegraphic precedents, such as signalling through the lighting of pyres, have existed since ancient times, long-distance telegraphy (transmission of complex messages) started in 1792 in the form of semaphore lines, or optical telegraphs, that sent messages to a distant observer through line-of-sight signals. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837. The first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for an optical telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767. During 1790-1795, at the height of the French Revolution, France needed a swift and reliable communication system to thwart the war efforts of its enemies. In 1790, the Chappe brothers set about devising a system of communication that would allow the central government to receive intelligence and to transmit orders in the shortest possible time. On 2 March 1791, at 11 am, they sent the message "si vous réussissez, vous serez bientôt couverts de gloire" (If you succeed, you will soon bask in glory) between Brulon and Parce, a distance of 16 kilometres (9.9 mi). The first means used a combination of black and white panels, clocks, telescopes, and codebooks to send their message. In 1792, Claude was appointed Ingénieur-Télégraphiste and charged with establishing a line of stations between Paris and Lille, a distance of 230 kilometres (about 143 miles). It was used to carry dispatches for the war between France and Austria. In 1794, it brought news of a French capture of Condé-sur-l'Escaut from the Austrians less than an hour after it occurred. The Prussian system was put into effect in the 1830s. However, they were highly dependent on good weather and daylight to work and even then could accommodate only about two words per minute. The last commercial semaphore link ceased operation in Sweden in 1880. As of 1895, France still operated coastal commercial semaphore telegraph stations, for ship-to-shore communication. The first suggestion for using electricity as a means of communication appeared in the "Scots Magazine" in 1753. Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end. Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system. One very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an electrochemical telegraph created by the German physician, anatomist, and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) in order to visually represent most Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. As an electric current was applied by the sender representing each character of a message, it would at the recipient's end electrolyse the acid in its corresponding tube, releasing a stream of hydrogen bubbles next to its associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would visually observe the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message, albeit at a very low baud rate. The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a complete subterranean system in a 175-yard long trench as well as an eight-mile long overhead telegraph. The lines were connected at both ends to clocks marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages. Offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as "wholly unnecessary". His account of the scheme and the possibilities of rapid global communication in Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus was the first published work on electric telegraphy and even described the risk of signal retardation due to induction. Elements of Ronalds' design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later. An early electromagnetic telegraph design was created by Russian diplomat Pavel Schilling in 1832. He set it up in his apartment in St. Petersburg and demonstrated the long-distance transmission of signals by positioning two telegraphs of his invention in two different rooms of his apartment. Schilling was the first to put into practice the idea of a binary system of signal transmissions. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber built the first electromagnetic telegraph used for regular communication in 1833 in Göttingen, connecting Göttingen Observatory and the Institute of Physics, covering a distance of about 1 km. The setup consisted of a coil that could be moved up and down over the end of two magnetic steel bars. The resulting induction current was transmitted through two wires to the receiver, consisting of a galvanometer. The direction of the current could be reversed by commuting the two wires in a special switch. Therefore, Gauss and Weber chose to encode the alphabet in a binary code, using positive and negative currents as the two states. The first commercial electrical telegraph was co-developed by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone. In May 1837, they patented the Cooke and Wheatstone system, which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet. The patent recommended a five-needle system, but any number of needles could be used depending on the number of characters it was required to code. A four-needle system was installed between Euston and Camden Town in London on a rail line being constructed by Robert Stephenson between London and Birmingham. It was successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837. Euston needed to signal to an engine house at Camden Town to start hauling the locomotive up the incline. As at Liverpool, the electric telegraph was in the end rejected in favour of a pneumatic system with whistles. Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a system installed on the Great Western Railway over the 13 miles (21 km) from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838, the first commercial telegraph in the world. This was a five-needle, six-wire system. The cables were originally installed underground in a steel conduit. However, the cables soon began to fail as a result of deteriorating insulation and were replaced with uninsulated wires on poles. As an interim measure, a two-needle system was used with three of the remaining working underground wires, which despite using only two needles had a greater number of codes. But when the line was extended to Slough in 1843, a one-needle, two-wire system was installed. From this point, the use of the electric telegraph started to grow on the new railways being built from London. The London and Blackwall Railway (another rope-hauled application) was equipped with the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph when it opened in 1840, and many others followed. The one-needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways, and 15,000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century. Some remained in service in the 1930s. In September 1845, the financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke formed the Electric Telegraph Company, the first public telegraphy company in the world. This company bought out the Cooke and Wheatstone patents and solidly established the telegraph business. As well as the rapid expansion of the use of the telegraphs along the railways, they soon spread into the field of mass communication with the instruments being installed in post offices across the country. The era of mass personal communication had begun. An electrical telegraph was independently developed and patented in the United States in 1837 by Samuel Morse. His assistant, Alfred Vail, developed the Morse code signalling alphabet with Morse. The first telegram in the United States was sent by Morse on 11 January 1838, across two miles (3 km) of wire at Speedwell Ironworks near Morristown, New Jersey, although it was only later, in 1844, that he sent the message "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT" from the Capitol in Washington to the old Mt. Clare Depot in Baltimore. From then on, commercial telegraphy took off in America with lines linking all the major metropolitan centres on the East Coast within the next decade. The overland telegraph connected the west coast of the continent to the east coast by 24 October 1861, bringing an end to the Pony Express. The Morse telegraphic apparatus was officially adopted as the standard for European telegraphy in 1851. Only Great Britain with its extensive overseas empire kept the needle telegraph of Cooke and Wheatstone. In 1858, Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system in Puerto Rico, then a Spanish Colony. The line was inaugurated on March 1, 1859, in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags. Telegraphy was driven by the need to reduce sending costs, either in hand-work per message or by increasing the sending rate. While many experimental systems employing moving pointers and various electrical encodings proved too complicated and unreliable, a successful advance in the sending rate was achieved through the development of telegraphese. The first system that didn't require skilled technicians to operate was Sir Charles Wheatstone's ABC system in 1840 where the letters of the alphabet were arranged around a clock-face, and the signal caused a needle to indicate the letter. This early system required the receiver to be present in real time to record the message and it reached speeds of up to 15 words a minute. |Before Telegraphy, a letter by post from London took| |12||New York in the United States| |13||Alexandria in Egypt| |19||Constantinople in Ottoman Turkey| |33||Bombay in India (west coast of India)| |44||Calcutta in Bengal (east coast of India)| |57||Shanghai in China| |73||Sydney in Australia| In 1846, Alexander Bain patented a chemical telegraph in Edinburgh. The signal current made a readable mark on a moving paper tape soaked in a mixture of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide, which gave a blue mark when a current was passed through it. David Edward Hughes invented the printing telegraph in 1855; it used a keyboard of 26 keys for the alphabet and a spinning type wheel that determined the letter being transmitted by the length of time that had elapsed since the previous transmission. The system allowed for automatic recording on the receiving end. The system was very stable and accurate and became the accepted around the world. The next improvement was the Baudot code of 1874. French engineer Émile Baudot patented a printing telegraph in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters. Each character was assigned a unique code based on the sequence of just five contacts. Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute. By this point, reception had been automated, but the speed and accuracy of the transmission were still limited to the skill of the human operator. The first practical automated system was patented by Charles Wheatstone, the original inventor of the telegraph. The message (in Morse code) was typed onto a piece of perforated tape using a keyboard-like device called the 'Stick Punch'. The transmitter automatically ran the tape through and transmitted the message at the then exceptionally high speed of 70 words per minute. Teleprinters were invented in order to send and receive messages without the need for operators trained in the use of Morse code. A system of two teleprinters, with one operator trained to use a typewriter, replaced two trained Morse code operators. The teleprinter system improved message speed and delivery time, making it possible for messages to be flashed across a country with little manual intervention. Early teleprinters used the ITA-1 Baudot code, a five-bit code. This yielded only thirty-two codes, so it was over-defined into two "shifts", "letters", and "figures". An explicit, unshared shift code prefaced each set of letters and figures. In 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray and around 1930, the CCITT introduced the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) code as an international standard. By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation. Large telegraphy providers began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialling to connect teletypewriters. These machines were called "Telex" (TELegraph EXchange). Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialling for circuit switching and then sent data by Baudot code. This "type A" Telex routing functionally automated message routing. Telex began in Germany as a research and development program in 1926 that became an operational teleprinter service in 1933. The service was operated by the Reichspost (Reich postal service) and had a speed of 50 baud - approximately 66 words-per-minute. At the rate of 45.45 (±0.5%) baud--considered speedy at the time--up to 25 telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel by using voice frequency telegraphy multiplexing, making telex the least expensive method of reliable long-distance communication. Automatic teleprinter exchange service was introduced into Canada by CPR Telegraphs and CN Telegraph in July 1957, and in 1958, Western Union started to build a Telex network in the United States. Beginning in 1956, telegrams begun to be transmitted over the Telex network using the standard named Gentex in order to lower the costs for some European telecommunications companies by allowing the sending telegraph station to connect directly to the receiving station. Soon after the first successful telegraph systems were operational, the possibility of transmitting messages across the sea by way of submarine communications cables was first mooted. One of the primary technical challenges was to insulate the submarine cable sufficiently to prevent the current from leaking out into the water. In 1842, a Scottish surgeon William Montgomerie introduced Gutta-percha, the adhesive juice of the Palaquium gutta tree, to Europe. Michael Faraday and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from Dover to Calais. It was tried on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne. In 1849, C.V. Walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a two-mile wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully. John Watkins Brett, an engineer from Bristol, sought and obtained permission from Louis-Philippe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication between France and England. The first undersea cable was laid in 1850 and connected London with Paris. After an initial exchange of greetings between Queen Victoria and President Napoleon, it was almost immediately severed by a French fishing vessel. The line was relaid the next year and then followed by connections to Ireland and the Low Countries. The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in London in 1856 to undertake to construct a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. It was successfully completed on 27 July 1866, by the ship SS Great Eastern, captained by Sir James Anderson after many mishaps along the way. Earlier transatlantic submarine cables installations were attempted in 1857, 1858, and 1865. The 1858 cable only operated intermittently for a few days or weeks before it failed. The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of very long transmission lines. An overland telegraph from Britain to India was first connected in 1866 but was unreliable so a submarine telegraph cable was connected in 1870. Several telegraph companies were combined to form the Eastern Telegraph Company in 1872. Australia was first linked to the rest of the world in October 1872 by a submarine telegraph cable at Darwin. This brought news reportage from the rest of the world. The telegraph across the Pacific was completed in 1902, finally encircling the world. From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line. In 1896, there were thirty cable laying ships in the world and twenty-four of them were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent. During World War I, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide. In 1843, Scottish inventor Alexander Bain invented a device that could be considered the first facsimile machine. He called his invention a "recording telegraph". Bain's telegraph was able to transmit images by electrical wires. Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bain's design and demonstrated a telefax machine. In 1855, an Italian abbot, Giovanni Caselli, also created an electric telegraph that could transmit images. Caselli called his invention "Pantelegraph". Pantelegraph was successfully tested and approved for a telegraph line between Paris and Lyon. In 1881, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the scanning phototelegraph that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, not requiring manual plotting or drawing. Around 1900, German physicist Arthur Korn invented the Bildtelegraph widespread in continental Europe especially since a widely noticed transmission of a wanted-person photograph from Paris to London in 1908 used until the wider distribution of the radiofax. Its main competitors were the Bélinographe by Édouard Belin first, then since the 1930s, the Hellschreiber, invented in 1929 by German inventor Rudolf Hell, a pioneer in mechanical image scanning and transmission. The late 1880s through to the 1890s saw the discovery and then development of a newly understood phenomenon into a form of wireless telegraphy, called Hertzian wave wireless telegraphy, radiotelegraphy, or (later) simply "radio". Between 1886 and 1888, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz published the results of his experiments where he was able to transmit electromagnetic waves (radio waves) through the air, proving James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 theory of electromagnetic radiation. Many scientists and inventors experimented with this new phenomenon but the general consensus was that these new waves (similar to light) would be just as short range as light, and, therefore, useless for long range communication. At the end of 1894, the young Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi began working on the idea of building a commercial wireless telegraphy system based on the use of Hertzian waves (radio waves), a line of inquiry that he noted other inventors did not seem to be pursuing. Building on the ideas of previous scientists and inventors Marconi re-engineered their apparatus by trial and error attempting to build a radio-based wireless telegraphic system that would function the same as wired telegraphy. He would work on the system through 1895 in his lab and then in field tests making improvements to extend its range. After many breakthroughs, including applying the wired telegraphy concept of grounding the transmitter and receiver, Marconi was able, by early 1896, to transmit radio far beyond the short ranges that had been predicted. Having failed to interest the Italian government, the 22-year-old inventor brought his telegraphy system to Britain in 1896 and met William Preece, a Welshman, who was a major figure in the field and Chief Engineer of the General Post Office. A series of demonstrations for the British government followed--by March 1897, Marconi had transmitted Morse code signals over a distance of about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) across Salisbury Plain. On 13 May 1897, Marconi, assisted by George Kemp, a Cardiff Post Office engineer, transmitted the first wireless signals over water to Lavernock (near Penarth in Wales) from Flat Holm. The message sent was "ARE YOU READY". From his Fraserburgh base, he transmitted the first long-distance, cross-country wireless signal to Poldhu in Cornwall.[when?] His star rising, he was soon sending signals across The English channel (1899), from shore to ship (1899) and finally across the Atlantic (1901). A study of these demonstrations of radio, with scientists trying to work out how a phenomenon predicted to have a short range could transmit "over the horizon", led to the discovery of a radio reflecting layer in the Earth's atmosphere in 1902, later called the ionosphere. Radiotelegraphy proved effective for rescue work in sea disasters by enabling effective communication between ships and from ship to shore. In 1904, Marconi began the first commercial service to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which could incorporate them into their on-board newspapers. A regular transatlantic radio-telegraph service was finally begun on 17 October 1907. Notably, Marconi's apparatus was used to help rescue efforts after the sinking of Titanic. Britain's postmaster-general summed up, referring to the Titanic disaster, "Those who have been saved, have been saved through one man, Mr. Marconi...and his marvellous invention." Around 1965, DARPA commissioned a study of decentralised switching systems. Some of the ideas developed in this study provided inspiration for the development of the ARPANET packet switching research network, which later grew to become the public Internet. As the PSTN became a digital network, T-carrier "synchronous" networks became commonplace in the U.S. A T1 line has a "frame" of 193 bits that repeats 8000 times per second. The first bit called the "sync" bit alternates between 1 and 0 to identify the start of the frames. The rest of the frame provides 8 bits for each of 24 separate voice or data channels. Customarily, a T-1 link is sent over a balanced twisted pair, isolated with transformers to prevent current flow. Europeans adopted a similar system (E-1) of 32 channels (with one channel for frame synchronisation). Later, SONET and SDH were adapted to combine carrier channels into groups that could be sent over optic fiber. The capacity of an optic fibre is often extended with wavelength division multiplexing, rather than rerigging new fibre. Rigging several fibres in the same structures as the first fibre is usually easy and inexpensive, and many fibre installations include unused spare "dark fibre", "dark wavelengths", and unused parts of the SONET frame, so-called "virtual channels". In 2002, the Internet was used by Kevin Warwick at the University of Reading to communicate neural signals, in purely electronic form, telegraphically between the nervous systems of two humans, potentially opening up a new form of communication combining the Internet and telegraphy. Since the Internet operates over any digital transmission medium, further evolution of telegraphic technology will be effectively concealed from users. E-mail was first invented for CTSS and similar time sharing systems of the era in the mid-1960s. At first, e-mail was possible only between different accounts on the same computer (typically a mainframe). ARPANET allowed different computers to be connected to allow e-mails to be relayed from computer to computer, with the first ARPANET e-mail being sent in 1971.Multics also pioneered instant messaging between computer users in the mid-1970s. With the growth of the Internet, e-mail began to be possible between any two computers with access to the Internet. Various private networks like UUNET (founded 1987), the Well (1985), and GEnie (1985) had e-mail from the 1970s, but subscriptions were quite expensive for an individual, US$25 to US$50 per month, just for e-mail. Internet use was then largely limited to government, academia, and other government contractors until the net was opened to commercial use in the 1980s. By the early 1990s, modems made e-mail a viable alternative to Telex systems in a business environment. But individual e-mail accounts were not widely available until local Internet service providers were in place, although demand grew rapidly, as e-mail was seen as the Internet's killer app. It allowed anyone to email anyone, whereas previously, different system had been walled off from each other, such that America Online subscribers could email only other America Online subscribers, Compuserve subscribers could email only other Compuserve subscribers, etc. The broad user base created by the demand for e-mail smoothed the way for the rapid acceptance of the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s.Fax machines were another technology that helped displace the telegram. On Monday, 12 July 1999, a final telegram was sent from the National Liberty Ship Memorial, the SS Jeremiah O'Brien, in San Francisco Bay to President Bill Clinton in the White House. Officials of Globe Wireless reported that "The message was 95 words, and it took six or eight minutes to copy it." They then transmitted the message to the White House via e-mail. That event was also used to mark the final commercial U.S. ship-to-shore telegraph message transmitted from North America by Globe Wireless, a company founded in 1911. Sent from its wireless station at Half Moon Bay, California, the sign-off message was a repeat of Samuel F. B. Morse's message 155 years earlier, "What hath God wrought?" |Country||Service available (yes/no)||Year service ended||Comments| |Argentina||Yes||n/a||Correo Argentino still offers telegram service within Argentina and to international destinations.| |Australia||No||2011||Australia Post closed its telegram service on 7 March 2011.| |Bahrain||Yes||n/a||Batelco still offers telegram service. Telegrams are sent for deaths or important occasions as they are thought to be more formal than email or fax, but less so than a letter.| |Belgium||No||2017||Proximus discontinued telegram service on 29 December 2017. It sent 63,000 telegrams in 2010, which declined to 8,000 in 2017.| |Canada||Yes||n/a||Telegrams Canada still offers telegram service. AT&T Canada (previously CNCP Telecommunications) had discontinued its telegram service in 2001 and later became MTS Allstream.| |France||No||2018||Orange S.A. closed its telegram service on 30 April 2018.| |Germany||Yes||n/a||Deutsche Post still offers telegram service, delivering telegrams the next day as ordinary mail. Deutsche Post discontinued service to foreign countries on 31 December 2000. A private firm, TelegrammDirekt.de, offers delivery in Germany and service to a number of foreign countries.| |Hungary||Yes||n/a||Magyar Posta still offers telegram service.| |India||No||2013||BSNL discontinued telegram service on 15 July 2013. Telegrams to foreign countries had been discontinued in May 2013.| |Iran||Yes||n/a||Telecommunication Infrastructure Company of I.R.Iran still offers telegram service.| |Ireland||No||2002||Eircom discontinued telegram service on 30 July 2002.| |Israel||Yes||n/a||Israel Postal Company still offers telegram service. Telegrams may be sent via the internet or by a telephone operator. Illustrated telegrams are available for special occasions.| |Italy||Yes||n/a||Poste Italiane still offers telegram service. Around 12.5 million telegrams are sent annually.| |Japan||Yes||n/a||NTT and KDDI still offer telegram service. Telegrams are used mainly for special occasions such as weddings, funerals, graduations, etc. Local offices offer telegrams printed on special decorated paper and envelopes.| |Lithuania||No||2007||Teo LT discontinued telegram service on 15 October 2007.| |Malaysia||No||2012||Telekom Malaysia discontinued telegram service on 1 July 2012.| |Mexico||Yes||n/a||Telmex still offer telegram service as a low-cost service for people who cannot afford or do not have access to e-mail.| |Nepal||No||2009||Nepal Telecom discontinued telegram service on 1 January 2009.| |Netherlands||Yes||n/a||KPN sold its telegram service to the Swiss-based company Unitel Telegram Services in 2001.| |New Zealand||Yes||n/a||New Zealand Post discontinued telegram service in 1999. It later reinstated the service in 2003 for use only by business customers, primarily for debt collection or other important business notices.| |Pakistan||No||2006||Pakistan Telecommunication Company Ltd discontinued telegram service on 27 January 2006.| |Philippines||No||2013||The government's Telecommunications Office or Tanggapan ng Telekomunikasyon discontinued telegram service on 20 September 2013. The last telegram was sent on that day at 3:15 PM.| |Poland||No||2018||Poczta Polska offered telegram service with guaranteed time of delivery until 1 October 2018. Telegram could be ordered via website and additionally pre-delivered by SMS or e-mail.| |Portugal||Yes||n/a||SEUR (a DPD company) still offers telegram service.| |Russia||Yes||n/a||Central Telegraph (subsidiary of national operator Rostelecom) still offers telegram service. "Regular" or "Urgent" telegrams can be sent to any address in Russia and other countries. So called "Stylish" telegrams printed on artistic postcards are also available.| |Serbia||Yes||n/a||JP Po?ta Srbije Beograd, the state-owned post, still offers telegram service. It is commonly used to express condolences, official notifications of death or to congratulate anniversaries, births, graduations, etc. Telegrams may be sent by using special telephone number or directly at the post office. Telegrams are delivered on the same day for recipients in territories covered by post offices with telegram delivery service and are delivered as regular mail for post offices which do not have telegram delivery service. In internal traffic, length of message is limited to 800 characters and is charged at flat rate while in international traffic telegrams are charged by word. International delivery is possible for recipients in Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia.| |Slovakia||No||2007||The Slovak post discontinued telegram service on 1 January 2007.| |Slovenia||Yes||n/a||Po?ta Slovenije d.o.o. (Slovenian Post) still provides telegram service commonly used for special occasions such as births, anniversaries, condolences, graduations, etc. It is considered more formal than email or SMS. Telegrams are usually printed in a typewriter font on greeting or condolences cards delivered in a specific yellow envelope. It is also possible to send gifts (e.g. chocolates, wine, plush toys, flowers) together with a message. The telegrams can be sent from local post offices, over the phone or online to addresses in Slovenia only.| |Spain||Yes||n/a||SEUR (a DPD company) still offers telegram service.| |Sweden||No||2002||Telia discontinued telegram service in 2002.| |Switzerland||Yes||n/a||Unitel Telegram Services took over telegram service from the national PTTs. Telegrams can still be sent to and from most countries.| |Thailand||No||2008||Thailand Post discontinued telegram service on 30 April 2008, at 20.00 local time.| |Ukraine||No||2018||Ukrtelecom discontinued telegram service on 1 March 2018.| |United Kingdom||Yes||n/a||British Telecom sold its telegram service in 2003 to Telegrams Online, which promotes the use of telegrams as a retro greeting card or invitation.| |United States||Yes||n/a||iTelegram took over telegram service from Western Union on 27 January 2006. iTelegram offers telex over IP but does not offer legacy Telex as subscriber telex lines are no longer available in the United States. Individual subscribers can send telegrams via the iTelegram web site or via Deskmail, a legacy Windows program.| Prior to the electrical telegraph, ancient civilizations, such as Greece, Egypt, and China, transmitted long-distance information using drumbeats, flame beacons, or light flashes with a heliograph. Later, nearly all information was limited to traveling at the speed of a human or animal. The telegraph freed communication from the time constraints of postal mail and revolutionized the global economy and society. By the end of the 19th century, the telegraph was becoming an increasingly common medium of communication for ordinary people. The telegraph isolated the message (information) from the physical movement of objects or the process. Telegraphy facilitated the growth of organizations "in the railroads, consolidated financial and commodity markets, and reduced information costs within and between firms". This immense growth in the business sectors influenced society to embrace the use of telegrams. Worldwide telegraphy changed the gathering of information for news reporting. Messages and information would now travel far and wide, and the telegraph demanded a language "stripped of the local, the regional; and colloquial", to better facilitate a worldwide media language. Media language had to be standardized, which led to the gradual disappearance of different forms of speech and styles of journalism and storytelling. Numerous newspapers and news outlets in various countries, such as The Daily Telegraph in Britain, The Telegraph in India, De Telegraaf in the Netherlands, and the Jewish Telegraphic Agency in the US, were given names which include the word "telegraph" due to their having received news by means of electric telegraphy. Some of these names are retained even though more sophisticated means are now used. A newspaper in Indian state of Tamil Nadu is named as Dhina Thanthi which means daily telegraph. The average length of a telegram in the 1900s in the US was 11.93 words, more than half of the messages were 10 words or fewer. According to another study, the mean length of the telegrams sent in the UK before 1950 was 14.6 words or 78.8 characters. (n.) 4. a telegram sent abroad, especially by submarine cable. (v.) 9. to send a message by submarine cable. It was in the month of J, a century ago, that Franklin made his celebrated experiment with the Electric Kite, by means of which he demonstrated the identity of electricity and lightning. Manage research, learning and skills at defaultlogic.com. Create an account using LinkedIn to manage and organize your omni-channel knowledge. defaultlogic.com is like a shopping cart for information -- helping you to save, discuss and share.

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Chanson de geste The chanson de geste[a] (Old French for "song of heroic deeds", from Latin gesta "deeds, actions accomplished") is a medieval narrative, a type of epic poem that appears at the dawn of French literature. The earliest known poems of this genre date from the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, before the emergence of the lyric poetry of the trouvères (troubadours) and the earliest verse romances. They reached their apogee in the period 1150–1250. Composed in verse, these narrative poems of moderate length (averaging 4000 lines) were originally sung, or (later) recited, by minstrels or jongleurs. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in around three hundred manuscripts that date from the 12th to the 15th century. - 1 Origins - 2 Subject matter and structure - 3 Versification - 4 Composition and performance - 5 The poems themselves - 6 Legacy and adaptations - 7 See also - 8 Notes - 9 References - 10 External links Since the 19th century, much critical debate has centered on the origins of the chansons de geste, and particularly on explaining the length of time between the composition of the chansons and the actual historical events which they reference. The historical events the chansons allude to occur in the eighth through tenth centuries, yet the earliest chansons we have were probably composed at the end of the eleventh century: only three chansons de geste have a composition that incontestably dates from before 1150: the Chanson de Guillaume, The Song of Roland and Gormont et Isembart: the first half of the Chanson de Guillaume may date from as early as the eleventh century; Gormont et Isembart may date from as early as 1068, according to one expert; and The Song of Roland probably dates from after 1086 to c.1100. Three early theories of the origin of chansons de geste believe in the continued existence of epic material (either as lyric poems, epic poems or prose narrations) in these intervening two or three centuries. Critics like Claude Charles Fauriel, François Raynouard and German Romanticists like Jacob Grimm posited the spontaneous creation of lyric poems by the people as a whole at the time of the historic battles, which were later put together to form the epics. This was the basis for the "cantilena" theory of epic origin, which was elaborated by Gaston Paris, although he maintained that single authors, rather than the multitude, were responsible for the songs. This theory was also supported by Robert Fawtier and by Léon Gautier (although Gautier thought the cantilenae were composed in Germanic languages). At the end of the nineteenth century, Pio Rajna, seeing similarities between the chansons de geste and old Germanic/Merovingian tales, posited a Germanic origin for the French poems. A different theory, introduced by the medievalist Paul Meyer, suggested the poems were based on old prose narrations of the original events. Another theory (largely discredited today), developed by Joseph Bédier, posited that the early chansons were recent creations, not earlier than the year 1000, developed by singers who, emulating the songs of "saints lives" sung in front of churches (and collaborating with the church clerics), created epic stories based on the heroes whose shrines and tombs dotted the great pilgrimage routes, as a way of drawing pilgrims to these churches. Critics have also suggested that knowledge by clerics of ancient Latin epics may have played a role in their composition. Subsequent criticism has vacillated between "traditionalists" (chansons created as part of a popular tradition) and "individualists" (chansons created by a unique author), but more recent historical research has done much to fill in gaps in the literary record and complicate the question of origins. Critics have discovered manuscripts, texts and other traces of the legendary heroes, and further explored the continued existence of a Latin literary tradition (c.f. the scholarship of Ernst Robert Curtius) in the intervening centuries. The work of Jean Rychner on the art of the minstrels and the work of Parry and Lord on Yugoslavian oral traditional poetry, Homeric verse and oral composition have also been suggested to shed light on the oral composition of the chansons, although this view is not without its critics who maintain the importance of writing not only in the preservation of the texts, but also in their composition, especially for the more sophisticated poems. Subject matter and structure Composed in Old French and apparently intended for oral performance by jongleurs, the chansons de geste narrate legendary incidents (sometimes based on real events) in the history of France during the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries, the age of Charles Martel, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, with emphasis on their conflicts with the Moors and Saracens, and also disputes between kings and their vassals. The traditional subject matter of the chansons de geste became known as the Matter of France. This distinguished them from romances concerned with the Matter of Britain, that is, King Arthur and his knights; and with the so-called Matter of Rome, covering the Trojan War, the conquests of Alexander the Great, the life of Julius Cæsar and some of his Imperial successors, who were given medieval makeovers as exemplars of chivalry. A key theme of the chansons de geste, which set them off from the romances (which tended to explore the role of the "individual"), is their critique and celebration of community/collectivity (their epic heroes are portrayed as figures in the destiny of the nation and Christianity) and their representation of the complexities of feudal relations and service. The subject matter of the chansons evolved over time, according to public taste. Alongside the great battles and scenes of historic prowess of the early chansons there began to appear other themes. Realistic elements (money, urban scenes) and elements from the new court culture (female characters, the role of love) began to appear. Other fantasy and adventure elements, derived from the romances, were gradually added: giants, magic, and monsters increasingly appear among the foes along with Muslims. There is also an increasing dose of Eastern adventure, drawing on contemporary experiences in the Crusades; in addition, one series of chansons retells the events of the First Crusade and the first years of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The conflicts of the 14th century (Hundred Years' War) brought a renewed epic spirit and nationalistic (or propagandistic) fervor to some chansons de geste (such as La Chanson de Hugues Capet). The poems contain an assortment of character types; the repertoire of valiant hero, brave traitor, shifty or cowardly traitor, Saracen giant, beautiful Saracen princess, and so forth. As the genre matured, fantasy elements were introduced. Some of the characters that were devised by the poets in this manner include the fairy Oberon, who made his literary debut in Huon de Bordeaux; and the magic horse Bayard, who first appears in Renaud de Montauban. Quite soon an element of self-parody appears; even the august Charlemagne was not above gentle mockery in the Pèlerinage de Charlemagne. The narrative structure of the chanson de geste has been compared to the one in the Nibelungenlied and in creole legends by Henri Wittmann on the basis of common narreme structure as first developed in the work of Eugene Dorfman and Jean-Pierre Tusseau Early chansons de geste were typically composed in ten-syllable lines grouped in assonanced (meaning that the last stressed vowel is the same in each line throughout the stanza, but the last consonant differs from line to line) stanzas (called laisses). These stanzas are of variable length. An example from the Chanson de Roland illustrates the technique of the ten-syllable assonanced form. The assonance in this stanza is on e: Desuz un pin, delez un eglanter Under a pine tree, by a rosebush, Later chansons were composed in monorhyme stanzas, in which the last syllable of each line rhymes fully throughout the stanza. Later chansons also tended to be composed using alexandrines (twelve-syllable) lines, instead of ten-syllable lines (some early chansons, such as Girart de Vienne, were even adapted into a twelve-syllable version). Or s'en fuit Corbarans tos les plains de Surie, So Corbaran escaped across the plains of Syria; Composition and performance The public of the chansons de geste—the lay (secular) public of the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries—was largely illiterate, except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and (in the south) smaller noble families. Thus, the chansons were primarily an oral medium. Opinions vary greatly on whether the early chansons were first written down and then read from manuscripts (although parchment was quite expensive) or memorized for performance, or whether portions were improvised, or whether they were entirely the product of spontaneous oral composition and later written down. Similarly, scholars differ greatly on the social condition and literacy of the poets themselves; were they cultured clerics or illiterate jongleurs working within an oral tradition? As an indication of the role played by orality in the tradition of the chanson de geste, lines and sometimes whole stanzas, especially in the earlier examples, are noticeably formulaic in nature, making it possible both for the poet to construct a poem in performance and for the audience to grasp a new theme with ease. Scholarly opinions differ on the exact manner of recitation, but it is generally believed that the chansons de geste were originally sung (whereas the medieval romances were probably spoken) by poets, minstrels or jongleurs, who would sometimes accompany themselves, or be accompanied, on the vielle, a mediæval fiddle played with a bow. Several manuscript texts include lines in which the jongleur demands attention, threatens to stop singing, promises to continue the next day, and asks for money or gifts. By the middle of the 13th century, singing had probably given way to recitation. It has been calculated that a reciter could sing about a thousand verses an hour and probably limited himself to 1000–1300 verses by performance, making it likely that the performance of works extended over several days. Given that many chansons from the late twelfth century on extended to over 10,000 verses or more (for example, Aspremont comprises 11,376 verses, while Quatre Fils Aymon comprises 18,489 verses), it is conceivable that few spectators heard the longest works in their entirety. While poems like The Song of Roland were sometimes heard in public squares and were no doubt warmly received by a broad public, some critics caution that the chansons should probably not be characterized as popular literature and some chansons appear particularly tailored for an audience of aristocratic, privileged or warrior classes. The poems themselves More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in around three hundred manuscripts that date from the 12th to the 15th century. Several popular chansons were written down more than once in varying forms. The earliest chansons are all (more or less) anonymous; many later ones have named authors. By the middle of the 12th century, the corpus of works was being expanded principally by "cyclisation", that is to say by the formation of "cycles" of chansons attached to a character or group of characters—with new chansons being added to the ensemble by singing of the earlier or later adventures of the hero, of their youthful exploits ("enfances"), the great deeds of their ancestors or descendants, or their retreat from the world to a convent ("moniage") – or attached to an event (like the Crusades). About 1215 Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, in the introductory lines to his Girart de Vienne, subdivided the Matter of France, the usual subject area of the chansons de geste, into three cycles, which revolved around three main characters (see quotation at Matter of France). There are several other less formal lists of chansons, or of the legends they incorporate. One can be found in the fabliau entitled Des Deux Bordeors Ribauz, a humorous tale of the second half of the 13th century, in which a jongleur lists the stories he knows. Another is included by the Catalan troubadour Guiraut de Cabrera in his humorous poem Ensenhamen, better known from its first words as "Cabra juglar": this is addressed to a juglar (jongleur) and purports to instruct him on the poems he ought to know but doesn't. The listing below is arranged according to Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube's cycles, extended with two additional groupings and with a final list of chansons that fit into no cycle. There are numerous differences of opinion about the categorization of individual chansons. Geste du roi The chief character is usually Charlemagne or one of his immediate successors. A pervasive theme is the King's role as champion of Christianity. This cycle contains the first of the chansons to be written down, the Chanson de Roland or "The Song of Roland". - Chanson de Roland (c. 1100 for the Oxford text, the earliest written version); several other versions exist, including the Occitan Ronsasvals, the Middle High German Ruolandsliet and the Latin Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis. - Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne or Voyage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople dealing with a fictional expedition by Charlemagne and his knights (c. 1140; two 15th century reworkings) - Fierabras (c. 1170) - Aspremont (c. 1190); a later version formed the basis of Aspramonte by Andrea da Barberino - Anseïs de Carthage (c. 1200) - Chanson de Saisnes or "Song of the Saxons", by Jean Bodel (c. 1200) - Huon de Bordeaux originally c. 1215–1240, known from slightly later manuscripts. A "prequel" and four sequels were later added: - Gaydon (c. 1230) - Jehan de Lanson (before 1239) - Berthe aux Grands Pieds by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275), and a later Franco-Italian reworking - Les Enfances Ogier by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275) | to Ogier the Dane. - Entrée d'Espagne (c. 1320) - Hugues Capet (c. 1360) - Galiens li Restorés known from a single manuscript of about 1490 - Aiquin or Acquin - Otuel or Otinel - Ogier le Danois by Raimbert de Paris - Gui de Bourgogne - Macaire or La Chanson de la Reine Sebile - Huon d'Auvergne, a lost chanson known from a 16th-century retelling. The hero is mentioned among epic heroes in the Ensenhamen of Guiraut de Cabrera, and figures as a character in Mainet Geste de Garin de Monglane The central character is not Garin de Monglane but his supposed great-grandson, Guillaume d'Orange. These chansons deal with knights who were typically younger sons, not heirs, who seek land and glory through combat with the Infidel (in practice, Muslim) enemy. - Chanson de Guillaume (c. 1100) - Couronnement de Louis (c. 1130) - Le Charroi de Nîmes (c. 1140) - La Prise d'Orange (c. 1150), reworking of a lost version from before 1122 - Aliscans (c. 1180), with several later versions - La Bataille Loquifer by Graindor de Brie (fl. 1170) - Le Moniage Rainouart by Graindor de Brie (fl. 1170) - Foulques de Candie, by Herbert le Duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170) - Simon de Pouille or "Simon of Apulia", fictional eastern adventures; the hero is said to be a grandson of Garin de Monglane - Floovant (late 12th); the hero is a son of Merovingian King Clovis I - Aymeri de Narbonne by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube (late 12th/early 13th) - Girart de Vienne by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube (late 12th/early 13th); also found in a later shorter version alongside Hernaut de Beaulande and Renier de Gennes - Les Enfances Garin de Monglane (15th century) - Garin de Monglane (13th century) - Hernaut de Beaulande; a fragment of the 14th century and a later version - Renier de Gennes - Les Enfances Guillaume (before 1250) - Les Narbonnais (c. 1205), in two parts, known as Le département des enfants Aymeri, Le siège de Narbonne - Les Enfances Vivien (c. 1205) - Le Covenant Vivien or La Chevalerie Vivien - Le Siège de Barbastre (c. 1180) - Bovon de Commarchis (c. 1275), reworking by Adenet le Roi of the Siege de Barbastre - Guibert d'Andrenas (13th century) - La Prise de Cordres (13th century) - La Mort Aymeri de Narbonne (c. 1180) - Les Enfances Renier - Le Moniage Guillaume (1160–1180) Geste de Doon de Mayence This cycle concerns traitors and rebels against royal authority. In each case the revolt ends with the defeat of the rebels and their eventual repentance. - Gormond et Isembart - Girart de Roussillon (1160–1170). The hero Girart de Roussillon also figures in Girart de Vienne, in which he is identified as a son of Garin de Monglane. There is a later sequel: - Renaud de Montauban or Les Quatre Fils Aymon (end of the 12th century) - Raoul de Cambrai, apparently begun by Bertholais; existing version from end of 12th century - Doön de Mayence (mid 13th century) - Doon de Nanteuil current in the second half of the 12th century, now known only in fragments which derive from a 13th-century version. To this several sequels were attached: - Aye d'Avignon, probably composed between 1195 and 1205. The fictional heroine is first married to Garnier de Nanteuil, who is son of Doon de Nanteuil and grandson of Doon de Mayence. After Garnier's death she marries the Saracen Ganor - Gui de Nanteuil, evidently popular around 1207 when the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras mentions the story. The fictional hero is son of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon (to which Gui de Nanteuil forms a sequel) - Tristan de Nanteuil. The fictional hero is son of the hero of Gui de Nanteuil - Parise la Duchesse. The fictional heroine is daughter of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon. Exiled from France, she gives birth to a son, Hugues, who becomes king of Hungary - Maugis d'Aigremont - Vivien l'Amachour de Monbranc This local cycle of epics of Lorraine traditional history, in the late form in which it is now known, includes details evidently drawn from Huon de Bordeaux and Ogier le Danois. Not listed by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, this cycle deals with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. - Chanson d'Antioche, apparently begun by Richard le Pèlerin c. 1100; earliest surviving text by Graindor de Douai c. 1180; expanded version 14th century - Les Chétifs telling the adventures (mostly fictional) of the poor crusaders led by Peter the Hermit; the hero is Harpin de Bourges. The episode was eventually incorporated, c. 1180, by Graindor de Douai in his reworking of the Chanson d'Antioche - Matabrune tells the story of old Matabrune and of the great-grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon - Le Chevalier au Cigne tells the story of Elias, grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon. Originally composed around 1192, it was afterwards extended and divided into several branches - Les Enfances Godefroi or "Childhood exploits of Godefroi" tells the story of the youth of Godefroi de Bouillon and his three brothers - Chanson de Jérusalem - La Mort de Godefroi de Bouillon, quite unhistorical, narrates Godefroi's poisoning by the Patriarch of Jerusalem - Baudouin de Sebourc (mid-14th century) - Bâtard de Bouillon (early 14th century) - Gormont et Isembart - Ami et Amile, followed by a sequel: - Beuve de Hanstonne, and a related poem: - Aigar et Maurin - Aïmer le Chétif, a lost chanson - Aiol (13th century) - Théséus de Cologne, possibly a romance The chansons de geste reached their apogee in the period 1150–1250. By the middle of the 13th century, public taste in France had begun to abandon these epics, preferring, rather, the romances. As the genre progressed in the middle of the 13th century, only certain traits (like versification, laisse structure, formulaic forms, setting, and other clichés of the genre) remained to set the chansons apart from the romances. The 15th century saw the cycles of chansons (along with other chronicles) converted into large prose compilations (such as the compilation made by David Aubert). Yet, the themes of the epics continued to exert an influence through the 16th century. Legacy and adaptations The chansons de geste created a body of mythology that lived on well after they ceased to be produced in France. The chanson de geste was also adapted in southern (Occitan-speaking) France. One of the three surviving manuscripts of the chanson Girart de Roussillon (12th century) is in Occitan, as are two works based on the story of Charlemagne and Roland, Rollan a Saragossa and Ronsasvals (early 12th century). The chanson de geste form was also used in such Occitan texts as Canso d'Antioca (late 12th century), Daurel e Betó (first half of the 13th century), and Song of the Albigensian Crusade (c.1275) (cf Occitan literature). In medieval Germany, the chansons de geste elicited little interest from the German courtly audience, unlike the romances which were much appreciated. While The Song of Roland was among the first French epics to be translated into German (by Konrad der Pfaffe as the Rolandslied, c.1170), and the German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach based his (incomplete) 13th century epic Willehalm (consisting of seventy-eight manuscripts) on the Aliscans, a work in the cycle of William of Orange (Eschenbach's work had a great success in Germany), these remained isolated examples. Other than a few other works translated from the cycle of Charlemagne in the 13th century, the chansons de geste were not adapted into German, and it is believed that this was because the epic poems lacked what the romances specialized in portraying: scenes of idealized knighthood, love and courtly society. In Italy, there exist several 14th-century texts in verse or prose which recount the feats of Charlemagne in Spain, including a chanson de geste in Franco-Venetian, the Entrée d'Espagne (c.1320) (notable for transforming the character of Roland into a knight errant, similar to heroes from the Arthurian romances), and a similar Italian epic La Spagna (1350–1360) in ottava rima. Through such works, the "Matter of France" became an important source of material (albeit significantly transformed) in Italian romantic epics. Morgante (c.1483) by Luigi Pulci, Orlando innamorato (1495) by Matteo Maria Boiardo, Orlando furioso (1516) by Ludovico Ariosto, and Jerusalem Delivered (1581) by Torquato Tasso are all indebted to the French narrative material (the Pulci, Boiardo and Ariosto poems are founded on the legends of the paladins of Charlemagne, and particularly, of Roland, translated as "Orlando"). The incidents and plot devices of the Italian epics later became central to works of English literature such as Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene; Spenser attempted to adapt the form devised to tell the tale of the triumph of Christianity over Islam to tell instead of the triumph of Protestantism over Roman Catholicism. The Welsh poet, painter, soldier and engraver David Jones's Modernist poem In Parenthesis was described by contemporary critic Herbert Read as having "the heroic ring which we associate with the old chansons de geste". - Crosland, 1. - France, Peter (1995). The new Oxford companion to literature in French. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198661258. - Hasenohr, 242. - Holmes, 66. - La Chanson de Roland, 12. - Hasenohr, 239. - Hasenohr, 520–522. - Holmes, 102–104. - Holmes, 90–92. - La Chanson de Roland, 10. - Hasenohr, 1300. - Holmes, 68. - Holmes, 66–67. - Holmes, 67. - see also Hasenohr, 239. - La Chanson de Roland, 11. - Holmes, 68-9. - see also Hasenohr, 240. - Hasenohr, 240. - This three-way classification of mythology is set out by the twelfth-century poet Jean Bodel in the Chanson de Saisnes: for details see Matter of France. - La Chanson de Roland, 16–17. - Hasenohr, 242 - Adam, 45. - Wittmann, Henri. 1995. "La structure de base de la syntaxe narrative dans les contes et légendes du créole haïtien." Poétiques et imaginaires: francopolyphonie littéraire des Amériques. Edited by Pierre Laurette & Hans-George Ruprecht. Paris: L'Harmattan, pp. 207–218. - Dorfman, Eugène. 1969. The narreme in the medieval romance epic: An introduction to narrative structures. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. - *Tusseau, Jean-Pierre & Henri Wittmann. 1975. "Règles de narration dans les chansons de geste et le roman courtois". Folia linguistica 7.401-12. - La Chanson de Roland, 12. - Bumke, 429. - La Chanson de Roland, 14. - Bumke, 521-2. - Bumke, 522. - see Bumke, 522. - Brault, 28. - Brault, 353 (note 166). - see Brault, 28. - Adam, 10. - Recueil général et complet des fabliaux ed. A. de Montaiglon (1872) vol. 1 p. 3 - Martín de Riquer, Los cantares de gesta franceses (1952) pp. 390–404 - Le Roland occitan ed. and tr. Gérard Gouiran, Robert Lafont (1991) - La geste de Fierabras, le jeu du réel et de l'invraissemblable ed. André de Mandach. Geneva, 1987. - "Fierabras and Floripas: A French Epic Allegory" ed. and trans. by Michael A.H. Newth. New York: Italica Press, 2010. - Ed. F. Guessard, S. Luce. Paris: Vieweg, 1862. - Jehan de Lanson, chanson de geste of the 13th Century ed. J. Vernon Myers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965. - Ed. A. Thomas. Paris: Société des anciens textes français, 1913. - Galiens li Restorés ed. Edmund Stengel (1890); Le Galien de Cheltenham ed. D. M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1981. - Aiquin ou la conquête de la Bretagne par le roi Charlemagne ed. F. Jacques. Aix-en-Provence: Publications du CUER MA, 1977. - Raimbert de Paris, La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche ed. J. Barrois (1842) - Ed. François Guessard, Henri Michelant. Paris, 1859. - Simon de Pouille ed. Jeanne Baroin (1968) - La geste de Beaulande ed. David M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes (1966) - Ed. C. Wahlund, H. von Feilitzen. Upsala and Paris, 1895. - Ed. W. Cloetta. Paris, 1906–13. - "La chanson de Doon de Nanteuil: fragments inédits" ed. Paul Meyer in Romania vol. 13 (1884) - Parise la Duchesse ed. G. F. de Martonne (1836); Parise la Duchesse ed. F. Guessard, L. Larchey (1860) - Gormont et Isembart ed. Alphonse Bayot (1931) - R. Weeks, "Aïmer le chétif" in PMLA vol. 17 (1902) pp. 411–434. - Ed. Jacques Normand and Gaston Raynaud. Paris, 1877. - Adam, 38. - Haseonohr, 243. - Hasenohr, 547. - Hasenohr, 1305. - Hasenohr, 1320. - Bumke, 92–93. - Hasenohr. Article: "Entrée d'Espagne", pp. 412–3. - Brand, 168. - (in French) Antoine Adam, Georges Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds. Littérature française. "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle," Paris: Larousse, 1967. - Peter Brand and Lino Pertile, eds. The Cambridge History of Italian Literature Cambridge. 1996; revised edition: 1999. ISBN 0-521-66622-8 - Gerard J. Brault. The Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition. Tome I: Introduction and Commentary. Pennsylvania State University, 1978. ISBN 0-271-00516-5 - Joachim Bumke. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages. English translation: 1991. The Overlook Press: New York, 2000. ISBN 1-58567-051-0 - Jesse Crosland. The Old French Epic. New York: Haskell House, 1951. - (in French) Geneviève Hasenohr and Michel Zink, eds. Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Age. Collection: La Pochothèque. Paris: Fayard, 1992. ISBN 2-253-05662-6 - Urban T. Holmes Jr. A History of Old French Literature from the Origins to 1300. New York: F.S. Crofts, 1938. - (in French) La Chanson de Roland. Edited and Translated into Modern French by Ian Short. Paris: Livre de Poche, 1990. p. 12. ISBN 978-2-253-05341-5 |Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Chansons de Geste.| - La Chanson de Geste, with useful references (in French)

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Turkish literature, the body of written works in the Turkish language. The Orhon inscriptions represent some of the earliest extant writing in Turkish. These inscriptions appear on two monuments built in the early 8th century ce in northern Mongolia. Other early Turkish writing includes poetry in an 11th-century Turkish-Arabic dictionary by Mahmud Kashgari and Kutudgu bilig (“Knowledge Which Leads to Happiness”) by Yusuf Khass Hajib, which uses poetic forms from the Arabic and Persian literary traditions. During the later 13th century, what came to be known as Turkish literature was produced primarily in Mongol-controlled Anatolia. Among the numerous Turkic dynasties of Central Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the Caucasus, only the post-Mongol Anatolian states and then the Ottoman Empire maintained Turkish as a literary language. From the 14th through the early 20th century, writing in Turkish flourished in the Ottoman Empire, and it subsequently continued in the Turkish republic. Despite changes in language and culture from the Mongol and Ottoman periods to the emergence of modern-day Turkey, Turkish literature has remained an important means of expression for the Turkish-speaking peoples of Anatolia and the adjacent areas of the Balkans. Much of this region’s literary activity has centred on Istanbul, its central urban metropolis since the mid-15th century. The same changing attitude toward the function of literature and the same shift toward realism can be observed in Turkey. After 1839, Western ideas and forms were taken up by a group of modernists. Ziya Paşa (died 1880), the translator of Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s… Epic and the emergence of the âşik The oldest genre of Turkish literature is the heroic epic, of which the prime example is the Kitab-i Dede Korkut (“The Book of My Grandfather Korkut”; Eng. trans. The Book of Dede Korkut), which has survived in two 16th-century manuscripts. The actual date of the work is unknown. At least one of the tales was already circulating in written form in the early 14th century, and Central Asian sources suggest that the shaman-bard Korkut and his tales date from the 9th and 10th centuries. The style of the epic—which consists of prose narrative mixed with verse speeches—suggests oral composition. The language of the text is Oghuz Turkish, containing both Anatolian and Azerbaijani elements. There is no overall narrative framework, but most of the 12 tales revolve around legendary Oghuz heroes. The original poem (if not the 16th-century manuscripts) was evidently created by an oral bard, or ozan, the heir to a partly shamanic tradition, although the circumstances of the epic’s transformation to written literature are unknown, and the work as such had no influence on the subsequent development of Turkish literature. Both manuscripts known at the turn of the 21st century were discovered in Europe, the larger one in Germany in the early 19th century. Yet Turkish interest in the Book of Dede Korkut emerged nearly a century after significant German and Russian work. In the 20th century major studies of the text were undertaken in Turkey, Russia, and Azerbaijan as well as in Europe. Much of the style of the Book of Dede Korkut predates the heroic tradition of the Oghuz Turkish poet-musician known as the âşik, who emerged in the 16th century in Anatolia, Iran, and the southern Caucasus and eventually supplanted the ozan. The âşik (ashoog in Azerbaijani; from the Arabic ʿashiq, “lover” or “novice Sufi”) was a professional or semiprofessional performer, singing a variety of epic, didactic, mystical, and lyrical songs to the accompaniment of a long-necked lute (saz). The classical âşik of the Anatolian Turkmen tribes was Karacaoğlan, who flourished in the later 16th century or possibly the mid-17th century (his date of death is sometimes given as 1679). He is mentioned in several biographical dictionaries (tezkires) of the period. In its formal qualities his poetry is closely related to folk verse, and he generally treats lyrical themes without the mystical subtext that was common in courtly verse of the period. His style influenced such 17th-century âşiks as Âşik Ömer of Aydin and Gevherî, as well as the âşiks of the 18th century. During the 17th century the popular urban song (şarkı) was taken up by court poets and musicians, and it became fashionable for courtiers to entertain themselves by performing these songs with the folkloric bağlama. The great 17th-century poet Nâʾilî was the first to include such songs in his divan (collected works), a practice that reached its culmination in the following century with Ahmed Nedim. The outstanding âşik of the later 17th century was Âşik Ömer, who wrote both folkloric qoşma poems and courtly lyrics, or gazels (Persian: ghazals). Thus, during the 17th century the âşiq became a bridge between the literary taste of the court and the people of the towns. The interplay between this popular poetry and the courtly gazel continued into the 19th century, when it was exemplified by the work of İbrahim Dertli. By the middle of the 13th century, mystical (Sufi) poetry had become a major branch of Turkish literature, with Sufi poets working primarily in Anatolian Turkish. One of the two well-known poets of the 13th and 14th centuries was Âşık Paşa, author of the Garībnāmeh (“The Book of the Stranger”), a didactic poem of some 11,000 couplets that explores philosophical and moral themes. It is considered among the finest mesnevîs (Persian: mas̄navīs) of the era. Yunus Emre, author of a divan and of the didactic mesnevî Risâletʿün nushiyye (“Treatise of Counsel”), was the period’s other well-known poet. Despite Yunus Emre’s evident scholastic learning, he wrote in a language and style that appealed to popular taste. His poetry was read and studied in Ottoman times, and it remains central today to the dhikr ceremony of ritual prayer practiced by Sunni brotherhoods (tarikats) and to the ayîn-i cem ritual of the Alevî Bektashi, an order of tribal Shīʿite Sufis. Later in the 13th century Seyid İmadeddin Nesimi, probably of southeast Anatolia, created brilliant Sufi verse in Persian and in a form of Turkish rather closer to Azerbaijani. The 15th century saw a split between heterodox Sufi tendencies, as seen in the verse of Kaygusuz Abdal, and the orthodox Sufism of Eşrefoğlu Rumi. Like Yunus Emre, Eşrefoğlu wrote verse in which the Sufi poet functions as a charismatic and sacred figure who writes poetry in order to communicate his sacerdotal authority to his disciples. By the early 16th century, this style of poetry, generally known as ilâhî (“divine”), was practiced by such sheikh-poets as İbrahim Gülşeni and his son Gülşenîzâde Hayali as well as Muslihiddin Merkez, Muhiddin Uftade, Seyyid Seyfullah Nizamoğlu, and Aziz Mahmud Hüdâyî. The growth during the 16th and 17th centuries of this type of poetry, which was intended to be sung in the dhikr ceremony, was a function of the monopoly over mysticism held by the Sufi brotherhoods of that era. The most outstanding representative of this tradition is Niyazi Mısri, a 17th-century poet of the Halvetiye tarikat. His verse was enormously popular in his lifetime and throughout the 18th century. Like Yunus Emre, Niyazî Misrî was able to express subtle mystical insights using very simple language: I was seeking a cure for my trouble; My trouble became my cure. I was seeking a proof for my origin; My origin became my proof. I was looking to the right and the left So that I could see the face of the Beloved. I was searching outside, But the Soul was within that very soul. Poetry of the Ottoman Empire (c. 1300–1839) While the Ottomans wrote a great deal of prose (especially on history, theology, mysticism, biography, and travel), poetry was the focus of literary thought; hence, the following discussion will confine itself to verse. The forms, genres, and themes of pre-Ottoman and Ottoman Turkish literature—those works written between about 1300 and 1839, the year in which the wide-ranging Tanzimat reforms were begun—were generally derived from those of Persian literature, either directly or through the mediation of Chagatai literature. Anatolia and parts of the Balkans, although increasingly Turkish-speaking, developed a high literary culture of the type known as Persianate. Forms and genres The dominant forms of Ottoman poetry from its origins in the 14th century until its decline in the late 19th century were the gazel and the kasîde (originally from the Arabic qaṣīdah). The formal principles of the gazel were the same for both Persian and Ottoman varieties. Composed of a series of couplets (distichs), it was subject to a single metrical scheme and was usually in monorhyme, often using a repeated word (redîf). The pen name (mahlas) of the poet usually appeared in the closing distich. In the 15th and 16th centuries Ottoman gazels might extend from 5 to 10 couplets, but in the mid-17th century 5 became the norm. The tropes and images of the classical Ottoman gazel were extremely conventional; in many cases they appeared as early as the 12th century in the Persian ghazals of Sanāʾī. In general, the images of the gazel cast the poet as the lover singing to his beloved—that is, as the nightingale singing to the rose. The world of the gazel is thus largely confined to a garden, with a vocabulary related to the appearance and growth of flowers and plants and also to birds. A second family of images concerns the hair and face of the beloved, focusing on the eyes, eyebrows, mouth, and cheeks as well as the expressions created by these features. The speaker, addressee, and theme might also change from couplet to couplet. It was mainly religious gazels that retained a single speaker and theme; these single-melody poems were known as yek-ahenk. But by the mid-17th century, with the work of poets Cevri, Nâʾilî, Fehim, and Neşatî, gazels of all sorts became largely monothematic. The kasîde was an encomium whose object was to praise its subject. It had two major varieties, secular and religious. Unlike the gazel, whose mystical references (as well as its secular ones) were often ambiguous, the religious kasîde had as its ostensible subject God, the Prophet Muhammad, or ʿAlī, Muhammad’s son-in-law and the fourth caliph. Secular kasîdes usually took as their subject individuals—a sultan, a vizier, a pasha, or a high member of the secular bureaucracy (ulema)—or specific events, such as a military victory. All kasîdes were divided into several sections. In the secular kasîde the lyric prologue (nesîb) often described some aspect of nature or the garden, while in the religious kasîde it might take a more general moral or philosophical theme. The medhîye followed, a section that named and praised the subject. In secular kasîdes this section’s imagery was usually drawn from the Shāh-nāmeh (“Book of Kings”), the epic completed by the Persian poet Ferdowsī in the 11th century, while in religious kasîdes allusions to the Qurʿān and Hadith are very common. After the medhîye came a couplet, the hüsn-i tahallus (literally, “beauty of the pen name”), in which the poet mentions his own name. It led into a section of self-praise (the fahrîye), in which the poet lauds his skills. The poem might end with a hüsn-i taleb (literally, “beauty of the request”), in which he seeks patronage or a favour. Within these parameters, the kasîde could take a wide variety of forms. Some are centred to such an extent on a specific situation or request of the poet that the distinctions between these sections become somewhat blurred. Other kasîdes share with gazels a lyric mood. During the 17th century a number of kasîdes incorporated into the fahrîye praise for poetry in general or, similarly, broader meditations on the nature of poetry. In size the kasîde varies from 14 to more than 100 couplets. The Ottomans’ principal narrative poetic form, the mesnevî, was also made up of couplets. (It was common practice for poets to insert gazels or other stanzaic forms into a mesnevî to express the speech of the characters.) Starting with Aşık Paşa and Yunus Emre in the 14th century, the mesnevî was often used by Sufi writers as a vehicle for didactic works. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Ottoman writers achieved distinction by writing original mesnevîs, such as the Çengname (“Tale of the Harp”), a mystical allegory by Ahmed-i Dâi, and the satirical Harname (“Tale of the Donkey”), by Sinan Şeyhi. A century later, Lâmiî Çelebi of Bursa initiated translations of the major Persian mesnevîs into Turkish. He was especially influenced by the 15th-century Persian scholar and poet Jāmī. Nevertheless, the major innovations in the narrative structure of the mesnevî created by the brilliant Chagatai poet ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī, who was a student of Jāmī, had little effect among the Ottomans. Indeed, the acknowledged Ottoman master of the genre in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Nevʾî-zade Atâyî, broke up the narrative into small unconnected tales and criticized Navāʾī for the complexity of his mesnevîs. The mesnevî was still used successfully at times for didactic works such as the 17th-century Hayrîyye of Yusuf Nâbî. By the 17th century both the Persian and the Chagatai mesnevî forms had gone into decline, and Ottoman writers generally ceased to treat the genre as one of first-rate literary significance. Nevertheless, the final two major works of Ottoman literature were written in the mesnevî form: Hüsn ü aşk (1782; “Beauty and Love”), a mystical allegory by Şeyh Galib, and Mihnetkeşan (1822; “The Sufferers”), a self-satirizing autobiography by Keçecizade İzzet Molla. Thus, the Ottoman mesnevî was generally of the first order of literary significance only at the beginning and end of Ottoman literary history. The one striking exception is the Leyla ü Mecnun (Leylā and Mejnūn) of Mehmed bin Süleyman Fuzuli, written in the 16th century. Although this work has been accepted into the Ottoman canon, its author wrote within the Turkmen literary tradition, under the influence of the Chagatai mesnevî. While the gazel was the Ottoman lyric form par excellence, stanzaic forms were also in limited use. Stanzas ranged from 4 to 10 lines and were of two basic types: the müzdeviç, in which the last line (or couplet) of each stanza has the same rhyme, and the mükerrir, in which the last line (or couplet) is the same in each stanza. The four-line murabbaʾ form seems to have emerged from both Persian quatrain forms (especially the robāʿī) and Turkic quatrain forms (especially the tuyugh). Ottoman murabbaʾs often feature an epigrammatic style. The tercibend and terkibbend are more-elaborate stanzaic forms. Both feature stanzas with the stylistic features of the gazel, but, unlike gazels, each stanza in these forms is followed by a couplet with a separate rhyme. In the tercibend the same couplet is repeated after each stanza, while in the terkibbend each couplet following a stanza is unique. Poems that use these forms are frequently elegies, in which case they are called mersiyes. A masterpiece of the terkibbend genre is the elegy for Sultan Süleyman I written by Bâkî in the 16th century. Other Ottoman stanzaic forms utilize varying numbers of couplets, such as the müseddes, which has three. A fine example of this form is the “Müseddes der ahvâl-i hod” (“Six-Line Poem on His Own State”), by Nâʾilî. Less common are the müsemmen, with four couplets, the muʾaşşer, with five couplets, and the müsebbaʾ, with seven lines. The muhammes, a five-line poem, was generally reserved for a type of poetic imitation in which a second poet closed the poem by writing three lines that mimicked the style of the opening couplet, written by a first poet. The second poet might also insert three new lines between the first and second lines of the other poet’s couplet. In the muhammes the aim was for the second poet to subordinate his style to that of the first poet. (The type of imitation used in the muhammes was distinct from that used in certain types of gazel and kasîde in which a poet referred to a poem by another poet—or sometimes by two or three previous poets—in order to “answer” and surpass his predecessors.) Movements and poets Poetry’s place within Turkish society prior to the second half of the 15th century is relatively unknown, but the 16th century saw the composition of seven biographical dictionaries (tezkires) by Ottoman poets that make clear the high esteem in which poets and their poetry were held. Of these, five—by Sehî Bey (1538), Latifî (1546), Âşık Çelebi (1568), Hasan Çelebi (1585), and Ali Efendi (1599)—may be considered major examples of the genre. All five are large-scale works that include much biographical material as well as many anecdotes and some aesthetic judgments. Early in the 17th century, three more tezkires were written, of which one (by Riyazî) covers the entire 16th century in detail. Patronage for Ottoman poets in the classical age took a variety of forms. The location of this patronage varied as well: poets were attached to the imperial household in Bursa or, later, Istanbul, or they were supported at the provincial Anatolian courts of the Ottoman princes. These princes also sometimes took poets along on military campaigns. Aside from the sultan, the leading ministers of state might also contribute toward the upkeep of poets. The simplest form of patronage was the annual stipend. During the 15th and 16th centuries the sultan Bayezid II granted an annual stipend to each of more than 30 poets. Throughout the Ottoman Empire’s early history, either official patronage or a good position in the bureaucracy—or both—were available (and often attained) by poets who were from provincial cities or otherwise outside the inner circles of Ottoman rulers. During the second reign (1451–81) of the sultan Mehmed II, the poet İsa Necati, who was of obscure origins, was able to attract the attention of the sultan, who read and admired one of his gazels and immediately had him enrolled as a chancery secretary. Hayali Bey, the most influential poet of the first half of the 16th century, was the son of a timar sipahî (feudal cavalryman) from Rumeli, in the Balkans. He began his career with a troupe of wandering dervishes and eventually came under the protection of the vizier İbrahim Paşa. Through the vizier he became a favourite of Sultan Süleyman I, who granted him a yearly stipend and the income of several fiefs. A major basis for this structure of poetic patronage was the bureaucratization of the ulema. (See Ottoman Empire: Classical Ottoman society and administration.) Once the ilmiye (ulema class) had become firmly attached to the imperial bureaucracy, it was possible for a talented poet who was a graduate of a madrassa (Turkish: medrese; a Muslim school of theology) to expect an appointment first as a mülâzim (assistant professor) and eventually as a müderris (professor). Among the many candidates for these professorships, a considerable number composed poetry and were, at least in their own minds, identified as “poets.” Some of the most talented or ambitious could use their poetry to advance quickly in the system. Bâkî is perhaps the supreme example of a poet who achieved success in the ilmiye system of mid-16th-century Turkey, but he is in no way typical. These two trends—the integration of the Islamic clergy into the Ottoman bureaucratic system and the separation (and subsequent expansion) of the secular bureaucracy from the madrassa-educated potential clergy—came to alter fundamentally the meaning of the word poet as a professional designation by the middle of the 16th century. From the beginning of the reign of Sultan Selim I in 1512 until the 1539 reorganization of the bureaucracy (following the execution of İbrahim Paşa in 1536), the Ottoman state seemed to be able both to fill its expanded bureaucracies and to support leading poets. But it appears that, after this time, the state began to view its bureaucratic and fiscal needs as holding priority over its literary ones. The entry of Rüstem Paşa into the office of grand vizier in 1555 ushered in a new period of fiscal austerity and antiliterary sentiment in which new poets had a much slimmer chance of patronage. The real and apparently inexorable decline in state patronage for poetry set in with the accession of Murad III as sultan in 1574. Ottoman poetry of the later 15th and 16th centuries represents a mature synthesis of the three major Islamic languages—Turkish, Persian, and Arabic—within a secure matrix of Turkish syntax. Despite the hybridization of courtly literary language, the literary production of the Ottoman court, almost alone among Turkic dynasties of the period, remained predominantly Turkish. A close analysis of the language of the classical-age poets reveals the liberal use of Turkish linguistic features, sometimes linked with popular and humorous effects, even to the point of self-parody. Stylistically, the 16th century was marked by two major trends: the further elaboration of the Turkish courtly style of the later 15th century, represented by Necati, and the creation of a new synthesis of Sufi and secular concerns. The foremost representative of the former movement was Bâkî; the latter was Hayali Bey. In the second half of the 16th century, the courtly style asserted itself by way of the brilliant poetry of Bâkî. A ranking member of the ulema, Bâkî perfected an essentially secular style that held a central position in the poetry of the period. Among Bâkî’s couplets are Behold the beauty that expands the heart within the mirror of the rose— Behold the one who holds the mirror to the shining face of Truth. Behold the love-addicted heart—a beggar wandering in the street. Behold the beggar who loves kingship and sovereignty. In the first half of the 17th century this courtly style was represented most notably by Yahya Efendi, who rose to the position of şeyhülislâm, the highest rank within the ulema. However, this style was challenged by Yahya Efendi’s contemporary Nefʾi, an aristocrat from the eastern Anatolian provinces who was an outsider in the Ottoman capital. Nefʾi was a master of the kasîde, but he is also remembered for couplets such as I am the wonder-speaking parrot. Whatever I say is no idle chatter. He emphasized his outsider identity by perfecting his satirical verse (hiciv; Arabic: hijāʾ) and by adopting features of the new Indo-Persian style of the Mughal court in northern India. In doing so, he initiated a major stylistic movement in Ottoman poetry. The principal poets of this school, some of them students or followers of Nefʾi, were Cevri, Nâʾilî, Fehim, and Neşatî, all of whom wrote some of the very finest verse in Ottoman Turkish. By using an almost exclusively Persian lexicon, however, their poetry reversed the dominant trend of Ottoman poetry. In the 17th century this newer style of poetry was termed tâze-gûʾî (“fresh speech”) or tarz-i nev (“new style”). (By the early 20th century it had come to be known as poetry of the Indian school, or Sabk-i Hindī.) In the late 16th century the two most important figures had been the Indian-born poet Fayzî and the Iranian Urfî (who was patronized in India). The Persian poets of the next generation, such as Kalîm Kâshânî and Saib-i Tabrizi, were encouraged by the Mughal court to develop their meditations on the poetic imagination. Much of this new philosophy of literature and poetic style influenced a major group of 17th-century Ottoman poets. The death of the Ottoman sultan Murad IV in 1640 was followed by a series of events that resulted in a progressively weaker basis for governmental patronage of poetry. While higher clerical positions continued to be monopolized by a group of prominent Istanbul ulema families in the mid-17th century, places in the secular bureaucracies were being apportioned largely according to political patronage. Poets continued to rise through the ranks of the bureaucracies, but only rarely was their poetic ability a major factor in their careers or a source of much material benefit for them. The ulema, however, continued to produce poets, the most illustrious of whom was the şeyhülislâm Bahayî Efendi. Like his predecessor Yahya Efendi, he was the scion of an illustrious ulema family. Bahayî Efendi’s poetry is a continuation of Bâkî’s style as it was developed by Yahya Efendi, and, as such, it furnishes the prime example of the neoconservative tendencies of the poets of his class. It is also indicative of the secondary position of poetry within his life that his divan is very small; it contains only 6 kasîdes and 41 gazels. The major contemporary source for knowledge about the poets of the mid-17th century is the Teşrîfâtʾ üs-şuarâ of Edirneli Güftî, written in 1660–61—the only Ottoman tezkire composed as a mesnevî. It was not commissioned nor apparently presented to any patron, and its major function seems to have been as a means for the author to satirize and slander many of his contemporaries. It was also a general attack on and complaint about the literary situation in Turkey. Beginning in the early 17th century, the Mawlawīyah (Turkish: Mevleviyah), an order of dervishes who were followers of the 13th-century Sufi mystic and poet Rūmī, were exerting a major influence on poetry. Cevri and Neşatî are the prime examples of leaders of the “fresh speech” who were committed Mawlawīyah. In the Ottoman capital the order began to create an alternative structure of literary evaluation that was independent of the courtly tradition, which had by this time become largely dominated by the higher ulema. The leading poet of the later 17th century was Nâbî, a provincial notable who became an intimate of the second vizier, Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Paşa, and eventually served as his chancery secretary. In his youth Nâbî attracted the notice of Nâʾilî, the most eminent poet of his time. Nâbî’s fame rests mainly on his didactic mesnevî Hayrîyye, which contains moral maxims for his son. The 18th century witnessed significant changes in style and genre that led ultimately to the dissolution of the classic form of Ottoman poetry. But these changes were incremental and resulted in major stylistic splits only after the middle of the century. The first third of the 18th century was dominated by Ahmed Nedim, scion of an illustrious ulema family, who rose to prominence under the grand vizier Damad İbrahim Paşa between 1718 and 1730. Nedim’s fame rests largely on his kasîdes, the strongest and most original since those of Nefʾi a century earlier, and on two lesser genres that were undergoing development at this time—the tarîh (chronogram) and the şarki (a form of urban popular song). The tarîhs of Nedim display an entirely new awareness of the physical characteristics of the buildings being praised, thereby registering a perceptible shift from formal, highly stylized techniques of literary representation to ones based partly on observation of worldly phenomena. Similarly, his şarkis revel in the physical surroundings of the pleasure grounds of Saʿadābād Palace in Tehrān. The leading poet of the middle of the 18th century was Koca Ragıb Paşa, whose public life was that of a high bureaucrat and diplomat. His career extended from serving as chief secretary of foreign affairs and, later, as grand vizier to being governor of several large provinces. Ragıb Paşa made no striking formal innovations, but the language of his gazels shows a happy synthesis of the canonical tradition of Bâkî with the “fresh” (or “Indian”) style of Nâʾilî. By this period such stylistic departures no longer aroused the acrimony of a century earlier. The last third of the 18th century saw a lack of faith in older lyric metaphors. Drawing on the tradition of popular theatre, poets turned toward colloquial speech. At times they also embraced a new form of poetic subversion by which the praise characterizing the traditional lyric was replaced by its traditional opposite—hiciv, the poetry of satire. Vâsif Enderunî combined local Istanbul speech with a strong reminder of Nedim’s kasîdes and gazels in his poetry. Fazıl Enderunî went even further in his development of the şehrengiz (city-description) genres, of which Hubanname (“The Book of Beauties”), Zenanname (“The Book of Women”), and Çengîname (“The Book of Dancing Boys”) were part. All of these are replete with dialogue and descriptions that are both satirical and vulgar. The album paintings accompanying manuscripts of these works emphasize the new realism of their style and contents. These tendencies took a somewhat more mature form in the Mihnetkeşan (1823–24) of Keçecizade İzzet Molla, who wrote a humorous autobiographical mesnevî that has been hailed by some as the first work of modern Ottoman literature. Unique in Ottoman literature, the tale has no purpose other than to describe the author’s trials and misfortunes as he was sent into exile from the capital. One of the most important Ottoman literary classics was created at the end of the 18th century, when Şeyh Galib, a sheikh of the Galata Mawlawīyah dervishes, wrote his mesnevî Hüsn ü aşk (1782; “Beauty and Love”), an allegorical narrative poem. Galib, who had been befriended by Sultan Selim III, wrote with considerable reference to the Indian style, although by his era Ottoman poets were no longer conversant with contemporary Indo-Persian literature. Despite the masterly quality of Beauty and Love, which is perhaps the greatest mesnevî ever written by an Ottoman poet, neither Galib’s mystical theme nor his highly Persianate language were to have much influence on succeeding generations of Ottoman writers. The last chapter of traditional Ottoman verse was written in the mid- and late 19th century within a bureaucratic circle, the Encüman-i Şuarâ (“Council of Poets”) group of Leskofçali Galib Bey, which also included Arif Hikmet Bey and Yenişehirli Avnî Bey. The Indian-style poets of the mid-17th century, especially Nâʾilî, Neşatî, and Fehim, furnished the models for these late Ottoman poets, who rejected the type of change that began engulfing Ottoman literature in the 1840s. Two of the major poets of this generation, Ziya Paşa and Namık Kemal, began their literary careers as members of this conservative circle, only to break with it in their own mature works.

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Supporting Young Emergent Bilinguals: Tips from CUNY-NYSIEB Background information on Young Emergent Bilinguals Using CUNY-NYSIEB Principles to Support Young Emergent Bilinguals Supporting Young Emergent Bilinguals: Tips from CUNY-NYSIEB Young children with home or primary languages other than English (LOTEs) enter nurseries, pre-school, and kindergarten settings withemergent language repertoires that educators must recognize. These students, whom we refer to as young emergent bilinguals, or Emergent Multilingual Learners (EMLLs), arenot just developing emergent English skills— they are becoming multilingual and multiliterate. As teachers, we can find it challenging to learn about, sustain, and build upon young children’s emergent multilingualism, especially if we do not speak their home languages. This resource is meant to help you understand, educate, and advocate for this student population. The ideas and examples we share in this resource draw on the expertise and years of experience of the CUNY-NYSIEB support team, whose members have guided dozens of schools across New York State to develop best practices for Emergent Bilingual students, including those in early childhood programs. We draw on our core principles in all the work we do, which view bilingualism as a resource in education and support a multilingual ecology for the whole school. Before we start, a quick note about language: If you are new to CUNY-NYSIEB’s work, you may be wondering why we refer to students as we do. Labeling so often characterizes emergent bilinguals’ learning experiences in school: they are called ELLs (English Language Learners), and in the case of those IEPs, SWDs (Students with Disabilities) or SPEDs (Special Education Students), all terms that emphasize what they can’t do or the services they receive. We refer to these students as emergent bilinguals to emphasize their skills (bilingualism) and their growth potential (emergence). I. Background Information on Young Emergent Bilinguals How do we get to know Young Emergent Bilinguals? Young emergent bilinguals are children from infancy to 2nd grade who are socialized in homes in which both English and a language other than English are heard. In some cases, the parents and/or siblings are bilingual themselves. In other cases, the parents only speak a language other than English, but children hear English on the television, the radio, and in the surrounding community. Because children are very young, they are developing both English and their home language simultaneously. These children usually enter school with receptive abilities that are typically more developed than their productive performances in either language. What should teachers understand about the language of young emergent bilinguals? There is No “Gap” in the Language of Young Emergent Bilinguals While it is true that the language practices of multilingual children differ from those of monolingual children, we must recognize that the idea of a “language gap” is a fallacy. This “gap”, which aims to describe the alleged disparity in vocabulary that students from underprivileged backgrounds enter school with (mostly bilingual and bidialectal children of color), is based on deficit views of marginalized communities. Their linguistic practices are stigmatized and seen as impoverished because the language practices of privileged monolingual communities have been extensively normalized (García & Otheguy, 2016). Educators must understand that young emergent bilinguals language in ways that are richer and more complex than the language typically recognized in schools. Young Emergent Bilingual Children Translanguage Naturally Bilingual infants experience language bilingually so, unlike monolinguals, they produce language bilingually when they begin to babble. Although parents recognize their initial sounds as attempts to say words in specific languages, young multilingual children deploy all of their language features freely, or translanguage, before they begin to realize that it is perceived as deficient by many adults. A 14-month-old’s words, for example, might include “agua,” “meow-meow” “milk,” “guagua,” “bus,” and “choo-choo”. Her words, accompanied by other meaning-making resources, such as gestures, pulling, crying, and onomatopoeic words, are meaningful and must be validated by those with whom she interacts, including her teachers. The Language of Young Emergent Bilingual Children is Multimodal Like all young children, the language of Emergent Multilingual Learners is multimodal. That is, young children use gestures, point, act, draw, sing, sign, and find numerous ways to communicate and make meaning. Therefore, many of the language practices young children use to play, ask and answer questions, tell a story, express feelings, and solve problems go beyond what many adults regard as language. Educators must validate the rich and organic multimodal language of young children before they can extend them. What Can Early Childhood Programs do for Emergent Multilingual Learners? Young emergent bilingual children flourish in early childhood programs that engage all of their linguistic and cultural identities. Educators should welcome their emergent multilingualism by creating spaces within their classrooms for bilingual languaging, bilingual literacy experiences, and bilingual play. In order to understand, validate, and extend a child’s bilingualism, educators must maintain strong partnerships with their parents and families. II. Using CUNY-NYSIEB Principles to Support Emergent Bilinguals in Early Childhood In our experience working with schools, a few strategies have stood out as particularly promising for young emergent bilinguals in early childhood programs. Below, we highlight classroom examples from CUNY-NYSIEB cohort schools where these strategies have been successfully implemented. We distinguish between “school-based” and “classroom-based” practices, to differentiate between what we have seen successfully implemented on a schoolwide level and what individual teachers have accomplished with these students. A. Supporting Young Emergent Bilinguals on a Schoolwide Level Learn with and from families Strong partnerships with parents and families are crucial for the success young emergent bilingual children. Schools should cultivate an environment where parents feel welcomed and are often reminded of the importance of continuing to develop their child’s home language(s). It is also important to encourage family participation in schoolwide decision-making, moving beyond a mere family “involvement” paradigm to instead consider meaningful family engagement or even family leadership in schools (Menken, 2017). These collaborations need to be regular and ongoing throughout the year, not just seen as special enhancements to instruction. Allotting time for teachers to learn with and from families of is essential. Families have a wealth of language and knowledge that can enrich the learning experience of all of the school community. Successful partnerships require educators to spend time talking to parents, learning about their social histories, their interactions, and their language/literacy use. Some schools organize orientations, community events, open-school days, and other opportunities for families to lead events and share their hobbies, interests, and backgrounds. Educators can also get to know families through in-person meetings, phone calls, or even home visits. Some questions that teachers in our cohort schools have asked to learn more about their young multilingual students and their families include: - What family members are in your child’s life? - What does your family enjoy doing on the weekends? - What are some of your family’s favorite television shows? - What print do you have in your home? (i.e., books, newspapers, etc.) - Does your child use the internet or any digital/online games? - What do your family members do for a living? - Would you feel comfortable sharing your hobbies/skills/talents/interests with our class community? Questions to Learn About Families’ Linguistic Backgrounds: - What languages do your family members speak at home? - In what language do you speak to your child most of the time? - What languages does your child understand? - In what language does your child speak to you… to others? - What are some ways your child uses gestures or objects to communicate? - In what language does your child attempt to read/write? - In what languages do you sing, read, or tell stories to your child? - How has your child learned English so far (television shows, siblings, childcare, etc.)? For more intake questions and ideas about getting to know multilingual children of early childhood ages, see “Right from the Start: A Protocol for Identifying and Planning Instruction for Emergent Bilinguals in Universal Prekindergarten”. Professional Development and Collaborative Planning for Teachers Ongoing schoolwide support is imperative for educators to leverage young children’s emerging bilingualism to enhance their learning. Teachers benefit from time and space for collaborative inquiry and planning that allows them to share expertise and reflect on their students’ multilingual practices. In one of our cohort schools, early childhood teachers organized a Professional Learning Community (PLC) around play and bilingualism. Teachers met once a week to share anecdotes, ideas, and challenges around play-based instruction that welcomes and builds on students’ bilingualism. This collaborative space allowed the teachers to reflect on their own learning and implement new approaches in their classrooms. For a guide to developing a PLC around early childhood and bilingualism, see our resource, “Professional Learning Community on Early Childhood Education and Bilingualism”. B. Supporting Young Emergent Bilinguals at the Early Childhood Classroom Level Holistically observe the language practices of young emergent bilinguals To better understand and support the language development of young emergent bilinguals, teachers must observe them holistically and from a perspective of strength. This means that rather than focusing on the absence of specific words or attending to what is “appropriate” in one language or another, educators must focus on the messageof each interaction and the way students use all of their language (verbal and non-verbal) to express themselves and make meaning. Educators can gain a broader perspective of multilingual children’s linguistic repertoires by observing each child in various contexts and taking note of how and when the child interacts with others. Such continuous and holistic observations allow teachers to design ways of validating and extending the linguistic repertoires of young emergent bilinguals. Validate, nurture, and extend young bilingual children’s language practices Young emergent multilingual children enter early childhood classrooms with creative, flexible, and multimodal linguistic repertoires that are reflective of their lived experiences outside of the classroom. Their emergent language practices must be validated and celebrated before they are extended to help them meet expectations in contexts outside of the home. Teachers can understand, welcome, and build upon children’s full linguistic repertoire in creative and authentic ways throughout each day, even if they are not familiar with a child’s home language practices. Build and sustain meaningful partnerships with families of Emergent Multilingual Learners Parental partnerships should be commonplace, rather than a special enhancement to early childhood instruction. Regular and ongoing collaborations with families of young emergent bilinguals are especially fundamental, since cultural and linguistic differences often increase the distance between school and home. Parents who speak languages other than English often believe that they don’t have the language, knowledge, or skills that are valued in schools. Inviting families to share their cultural and linguistic backgrounds, as well as their interests and skills with the school community (i.e., storytelling, cooking, drawing, singing, planting, knitting) is a powerful way of reminding them that their wealth of language and knowledge is valuable and that they are their child’s primary educators—both in and out of the classroom. Phone conversations, audio and video recordings, and mobile applications are some creative and convenient ways to collaborate with families from afar. Enhance play centers in ways that build on and sustain multilingualism Young children develop language and learn about the world through play. During play, children feel safe to use their entire multimodal linguistic repertoire as they language freely and explore new ideas. For this reason, play is an opportunity to observe, welcome, and build on young children’s emergent multilingualism. Teachers can maximize young bilingual students’ learning and language development by creating opportunities for their bilingual imaginations to flourish during play. To celebrate and build on students’ bilingualism during play, educators can: - Label and refer to play centers in the different languages of the class. - Add toys and objects that reflect the diverse cultures and home languages of the class. Families can be asked to assist in selecting pretend foods, dress-up clothing, and playthings that encourage children to share their cultures and languages as they play. - Model enthusiasm and interest in the diverse multimodal language practices that children exhibit as they play. - Ask purposeful questions to better understand students’ language practices, and to support their bilingual development. - To expand children’s linguistic repertoires, highlight different ways in which children use language during play and model other ways of using language to socialize, inquire, express feelings, and solve problems. - Provide access to other resources such as audio, video, realia, and manipulatives, that support multimodal learning and translanguaging. - Invite parents to play with students and share their multicultural and multilingual imaginations. - Cultivate bilingual reading identities by extending children’s favorite books to play centers (see below). For more about modeled play and purposefully-framed play, read Play-based Learning and Intentional Teaching: Forever Different? by Susan Edwards. Foster bilingual reading identities As educators engage young children in emergent literacy activities, it’s essential that they maintain their bilingual identities at the forefront of their learning. Educators should: Read culturally and linguistically sustaining books Thoughtful selection of culturally and linguistically sustaining books allows children to connect to literature, engage their bilingual imaginations, and begin to develop identities as bilingual readers. These include books written in students’ home languages, stories with characters who translanguage, texts that highlight children’s cultures, and books that tell everyday stories of diverse characters (for lists of such texts, see CUNY-NYSIEB’s Culturally Relevant Books and Resources). Elicit multicultural and multilingual interpretations of books Educators can also cultivate bilingual reading identities by engaging children’s bilingual imaginations when reading traditional storybooks like Goldilocks and the Three Bears. Teachers should encourage young children to use their unique multicultural and multilingual perspectives to interpret and reimagine stories. Adding book-related and culturally-relevant props to play areas is one way to promote multilingual interpretations of books. Families should be invited to assist in selecting pretend foods, dress-up clothing, and playthings that may encourage children to transform stories in ways that reflect their dynamic multilingual worlds. See Fostering Bilingual Reading Identities in Early Childhood Programs: Storybook Extensions. Language Development & Play in Preschool – VIDEO by Teacher Scott Harding at Maury Elementary School, DC Public Schools. iTEO: Examining the use of the App iTEO for teaching and learning languages in preschools and primary schools. (Research by professor Claudine Kirsch (PI) We Need Diverse Books — A non-profit and grassroots organization committed to diversity in children’s books. Further Reading and References: Axelrod, Y. (2017). “Ganchulinas” and “Rainbowli” Colors: Young Multilingual Children Play with Language in Head Start Classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal (45), 1, pp. 103-110. Edwards, S. (June 2017). Play-based Learning and Intentional Teaching: Forever Different Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42(2). Espinosa, C. and Lehner-Quam, A. (To be published 2019). Sustaining Bilingualism: Multimodal Arts Experiences for Young Readers and Writers. Language Arts. García, O. and Otheguy, R. 2016). Interrogating the Language Gap of Young Bilingual and Bidialectal Students. International Multilingual Research Journal, 11(1), pp. 52-65. Genesee, F. (2015). Myths about early childhood bilingualism. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 56(1), 6-15. Halgunseth, L. (2009). Family engagement, diverse families, and early childhood education programs: An integrated review of the literature. YC Young Children, 64(5), 56. Gort, M. (2012). Code-switching patterns in the writing-related talk of young emergent bilinguals. Journal of Literacy Research, 44(1), pp. 45-75. Kultti, A. & Pramling, N. (2017). Translation activities in bilingual early childhood education: Children’s perspectives and teachers’ scaffolding . Multilingual Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 36(6), pp. 703-725. Maldonado, N. & Espinosa, C. (2012) Thinking and Speaking: Enhancing Oral Language Development in Emergent Bilingual Children’s Play Experiences. IPAUSA journal, pp. 31-37. McLeod, S., Verdon, S. & Theobald, M. (2015). Becoming Bilingual: Children’s Insights About Making Friends in Bilingual Settings. International Journal of Early Childhood, (45), 3, pp 385-401. Morell, Z. (2017). Rethinking Preschool Education through Bilingual Universal Pre-kindergarten: Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Multilingual Education Research, 7(2). Pontier, R. & Gort, M. (2016). Coordinated Translanguaging Pedagogy as Distributed Cognition: A Case Study of Two Dual Language Bilingual Education Preschool Coteachers’ Languaging Practices During Shared Book Readings, International Multilingual Research Journal, 10:2, 89-106. Reyes, I., DaSilva Iddings A. C. & Feller, N. (2015). Promoting a Funds of Knowledge Perspective: Preservice Teachers’ Understanding about Language and Literacy Development of Preschool Emergent Bilinguals through Family and Community Interactions. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 15(2) 1-26. Rodriguez, M. (2015). Families and Educators Supporting Bilingualism in Early childhood. School Community Journal, (25), 2, 177-914 — http://www.schoolcommunitynetwork.org/SCJ.aspx Schwartz, M., Moin, V., & Leikin, M. (2011). Parents’ discourses about language strategies for their children’s preschool bilingual development. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education: An International Journal, 53(3), 149–166. Schwartz, M. & Yagmur, K. (2018) Early language development and education: teachers, parents and children as agents. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 31:3, 215-219. Soltero-Gonzalez, L. and Butvilofsky, S. (2015). The early Spanish and English writing development of simultaneous bilingual preschoolers. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy. (16), 4, pp 473-497. Souto-Manning, M. (2016). Honoring and building on the rich literacy practices of young bilingual and multilingual learners. The Reading Teacher, 70(3), 263-271. Souto-Manning, M. (2017). Is play a privilege or a right? And what’s our responsibility? On the role of play for equity in early childhood education. Early Child Development and Care, 187(5-6), pp. 785-787. Tazi Morell, Z. and Aponte, A. (2016). Right from the Start: A Protocol for Identifying and Planning Instruction for Emergent Bilinguals in Universal Prekindergarten. Educator’s Voice, 9, pp. 12-25 Tazi, Z., Gunning, A., and Marrero, M. (March 2015). Engaging Parents as Coteachers – Educational Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/mar15/vol72/num06/Engaging-Parents-as-Coteachers.aspx Velasco, P., & Fialais, V. (2016). Moments of metalinguistic awareness in a Kindergarten class: translanguaging for simultaneous biliterate development. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1–15. Wells Rowe, D. and Miller, M. E. (2015). Designing for diverse classrooms: Using iPads and digital cameras to compose eBooks with emergent bilingual/biliterate four-year-olds. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy (16), 4, 425-472. Welsch, J. (2008). Playing Within and Beyond the Story: Encouraging Book-Related Pretend Play. Reading Teacher, 62(2), pp. 138-160. Worthy, J., & Rodríguez-Galindo, A. (2006). “Mi hija vale dos personas”: Latino immigrant families’ perspectives about their children’s bilingualism. Bilingual Research Journal, 30(2), 579–601. Yoshida, H. (2008). The cognitive consequences of early bilingualism. Zero to Three, 29(2), 26–30. This CUNY-NYSIEB resource was created by Gladys Aponte and Laura Ascenzi Moreno. Ofelia García, Kathryn Fangsrud Carpenter, Cecilia Espinoza, Zoila Morell, Kate Seltzer, Ivana Espinet, and Maite Sánchez, served as advisors to the authors. We would like to give special thanks to the teachers and administrators who provided feedback on this resource.

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Native American, also called American Indian, Amerindian, Amerind, Indian, aboriginal American, or First Nation person, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, although the term often connotes only those groups whose original territories were in present-day Canada and the United States. Pre-Columbian Americans used technology and material culture that included fire and the fire drill; the domesticated dog; stone implements of many kinds; the spear-thrower (atlatl), harpoon, and bow and arrow; and cordage, netting, basketry, and, in some places, pottery. Many indigenous American groups were hunting-and-gathering cultures, while others were agricultural peoples. American Indians domesticated a variety of plants and animals, including corn (maize), beans, squash, potatoes and other tubers, turkeys, llamas, and alpacas, as well as a variety of semidomesticated species of nut- and seed-bearing plants. These and other resources were used to support communities ranging from small hamlets to cities such as Cahokia, with an estimated population of 10,000 to 20,000 individuals, and Teotihuacán, with some 125,000 to 200,000 residents. At the dawn of the 16th century ce, as the European conquest of the Americas began, indigenous peoples resided throughout the Western Hemisphere. They were soon decimated by the effects of epidemic disease, military conquest, and enslavement, and, as with other colonized peoples, they were subject to discriminatory political and legal policies well into the 20th, and even the 21st, century. Nonetheless, they have been among the most active and successful native peoples in effecting political change and regaining their autonomy in areas such as education, land ownership, religious freedom, the law, and the revitalization of traditional culture. Culturally, the indigenous peoples of the Americas are usually recognized as constituting two broad groupings, American Indians and Arctic peoples. American Indians are often further grouped by area of residence: Northern America (present-day United States and Canada), Middle America (present-day Mexico and Central America; sometimes called Mesoamerica), and South America. This article is a survey of the culture areas, prehistories, histories, and recent developments of the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States and Canada. Some of the terminology used in reference to indigenous Americans is explained in Sidebar: Tribal Nomenclature: American Indian, Native American, and First Nation; Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band; and Sidebar: Native American Self-Names. An overview of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas is presented in American Indian; discussions of various aspects of indigenous American cultures may also be found in the articles pre-Columbian civilizations; Middle American Indian; South American Indian; Arctic: The people; American Indian languages; Native American religions; and Native American arts. Native Americans form an ethnic group only in a very general sense. In the East, centuries of coexistence with whites has led to some degree of intermarriage and assimilation and to various patterns of stable adjustment. In the West the hasty expansion of… Native American culture areas Comparative studies are an essential component of all scholarly analyses, whether the topic under study is human society, fine art, paleontology, or chemistry; the similarities and differences found in the entities under consideration help to organize and direct research programs and exegeses. The comparative study of cultures falls largely in the domain of anthropology, which often uses a typology known as the culture area approach to organize comparisons across cultures. The culture area approach was delineated at the turn of the 20th century and continued to frame discussions of peoples and cultures into the 21st century. A culture area is a geographic region where certain cultural traits have generally co-occurred; for instance, in North America between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Northwest Coast culture area was characterized by traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, large villages or towns, and hierarchical social organization. The specific number of culture areas delineated for Native America has been somewhat variable because regions are sometimes subdivided or conjoined. The 10 culture areas discussed below are among the most commonly used—the Arctic, the Subarctic, the Northeast, the Southeast, the Plains, the Southwest, the Great Basin, California, the Northwest Coast, and the Plateau. Notably, some scholars prefer to combine the Northeast and Southeast into one Eastern Woodlands culture area or the Plateau and Great Basin into a single Intermontane culture area. Each section below considers the location, climate, environment, languages, tribes, and common cultural characteristics of the area before it was heavily colonized. Prehistoric and post-Columbian Native American cultures are discussed in subsequent sections of this article. A discussion of the indigenous peoples of the Americas as a whole is found in American Indian. This region lies near and above the Arctic Circle and includes the northernmost parts of present-day Alaska and Canada. The topography is relatively flat, and the climate is characterized by very cold temperatures for most of the year. The region’s extreme northerly location alters the diurnal cycle; on winter days the sun may peek above the horizon for only an hour or two, while the proportion of night to day is reversed during the summer months (see midnight sun). The indigenous peoples of the North American Arctic include the Eskimo (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleut; their traditional languages are in the Eskimo-Aleut family. Many Alaskan groups prefer to be called Native Alaskans rather than Native Americans; Canada’s Arctic peoples generally prefer the referent Inuit. The Arctic peoples of North America relied upon hunting and gathering. Winters were harsh, but the long hours of summer sunlight supported an explosion of vegetation that in turn drew large herds of caribou and other animals to the inland North. On the coasts, sea mammals and fish formed the bulk of the diet. Small mobile bands were the predominant form of social organization; band membership was generally based on kinship and marriage (see also Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band). Dome-shaped houses were common; they were sometimes made of snow and other times of timber covered with earth. Fur clothing, dog sleds, and vivid folklore, mythology, and storytelling traditions were also important aspects of Arctic cultures. See also Arctic: The people. This region lies south of the Arctic and encompasses most of present-day Alaska and most of Canada, excluding the Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island), which are part of the Northeast culture area. The topography is relatively flat, the climate is cool, and the ecosystem is characterized by a swampy and coniferous boreal forest (taiga) ecosystem. Prominent tribes include the Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi), Cree, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, Beaver, Slave, Carrier, Gwich’in, Tanaina, and Deg Xinag (Ingalik). Their traditional languages are in the Athabaskan and Algonquian families. Small kin-based bands were the predominant form of social organization, although seasonal gatherings of larger groups occurred at favoured fishing locales. Moose, caribou, beavers, waterfowl, and fish were taken, and plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap were gathered. In winter people generally resided in snug semisubterranean houses built to withstand extreme weather; summer allowed for more mobility and the use of tents or lean-tos. Snowshoes, toboggans, and fur clothing were other common forms of material culture. See also American Subarctic peoples. This culture area reaches from the present-day Canadian provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and the Maritimes (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) south to the Ohio River valley (inland) and to North Carolina (on the Atlantic Coast). The topography is generally rolling, although the Appalachian Mountains include some relatively steep slopes. The climate is temperate, precipitation is moderate, and the predominant ecosystem is the deciduous forest. There is also extensive coastline and an abundance of rivers and lakes. Prominent tribes include the Algonquin, Iroquois, Huron, Wampanoag, Mohican, Mohegan, Ojibwa, Ho-chunk (Winnebago), Sauk, Fox, and Illinois. The traditional languages of the Northeast are largely of the Iroquoian and Algonquian language families. Most Northeastern peoples engaged in agriculture, and for them the village of a few dozen to a few hundred persons was the most important social and economic unit in daily life. Groups that had access to reliably plentiful wild foods such as wild rice, salmon, or shellfish generally preferred to live in dispersed hamlets of extended families. Several villages or hamlets formed a tribe, and groups of tribes sometimes organized into powerful confederacies. These alliances were often very complex political organizations and generally took their name from the most powerful member tribe, as with the Iroquois Confederacy. Cultivated corn (maize), beans, squash, and weedy seed-bearing plants such as Chenopodium formed the economic base for farming groups. All northeastern peoples took animals including deer, elk, moose, waterfowl, turkeys, and fish. Houses were wickiups (wigwams) or longhouses; both house types were constructed of a sapling framework that was covered with rush matting or sheets of bark. Other common aspects of culture included dugouts made of the trunks of whole trees, birchbark canoes, clothing made of pelts and deerskins, and a variety of medicine societies. See also Northeast Indian. This region reaches from the southern edge of the Northeast culture area to the Gulf of Mexico; from east to west it stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to somewhat west of the Mississippi valley. The climate is warm temperate in the north and grades to subtropical in the south. The topography includes coastal plains, rolling uplands known as the Piedmont, and a portion of the Appalachian Mountains; of these, the Piedmont was most densely populated. The predominant ecosystems were coastal scrub, wetlands, and deciduous forests. Perhaps the best-known indigenous peoples originally from this region are the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole, sometimes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes. Other prominent tribes included the Natchez, Caddo, Apalachee, Timucua, and Guale. Traditionally, most tribes in the Southeast spoke Muskogean languages; there were also some Siouan language speakers and one Iroquoian-speaking group, the Cherokee. The region’s economy was primarily agricultural and often supported social stratification; as chiefdoms, most cultures were structured around hereditary classes of elites and commoners, although some groups used hierarchical systems that had additional status levels. Most people were commoners and lived in hamlets located along waterways. Each hamlet was home to an extended family and typically included a few houses and auxiliary structures such as granaries and summer kitchens; these were surrounded by agricultural plots or fields. Hamlets were usually associated with a town that served as the area’s ceremonial and market centre. Towns often included large earthen mounds on which religious structures and the homes of the ruling classes or families were placed. Together, each town and its associated hamlets constituted an autonomous political entity. In times of need these could unite into confederacies, such as those of the Creek and Choctaw. People grew corn, beans, squash, tobacco, and other crops; they also gathered wild plant foods and shellfish, hunted deer and other animals, and fished. House forms varied extensively across the region, including wickiups (wigwams), earth-berm dwellings, and, in the 19th century, chickees (thatched roofs with open walls). The Southeast was also known for its religious iconography, which often included bird themes, and for the use of the “black drink,” an emetic used in ritual contexts. See also Southeast Indian. The Plains lie in the centre of the continent, spanning the area between the western mountains and the Mississippi River valley and from the southern edge of the Subarctic to the Rio Grande in present-day Texas. The climate is of the continental type, with warm summers and cold winters. Relatively flat short-grass prairies with little precipitation are found west of the Missouri River and rolling tallgrass prairies with more moisture are found to its east. Tree-lined river valleys form a series of linear oases throughout the region. The indigenous peoples of the Plains include speakers of Siouan, Algonquian, Uto-Aztecan, Caddoan, Athabaskan, Kiowa-Tanoan, and Michif languages. Plains peoples also invented a sign language to represent common objects or concepts such as “buffalo” or “exchange.” Earth-lodge villages were the only settlements on the Plains until the late 16th century; they were found along major waterways that provided fertile soil for growing corn, beans, squash, sunflowers, and tobacco. The groups who built these communities divided their time between village-based crop production and hunting expeditions, which often lasted for several weeks and involved travel over a considerable area. Plains villagers include the Mandan, Hidatsa, Omaha, Pawnee, and Arikara. By 1750 horses from the Spanish colonies in present-day New Mexico had become common in the Plains and had revolutionized the hunting of bison. This new economic opportunity caused some local villagers to become dedicated nomads, as with the Crow (who retained close ties with their Hidatsa kin), and also drew agricultural tribes from surrounding areas into a nomadic lifestyle, including the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Arapaho, and Kiowa. Groups throughout the region had in common several forms of material culture, including the tepee, tailored leather clothing, a variety of battle regalia (such as feathered headdresses), and large drums used in ritual contexts. The Sun Dance, a ritual that demanded a high degree of piety and self-sacrifice from its participants, was also found throughout most of the Plains. The Plains is perhaps the culture area in which tribal and band classifications were most conflated. Depictions of indigenous Americans in popular culture have often been loosely based on Plains peoples, encouraging many to view them as the “typical” American Indians. See also Plains Indian. This culture area lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Mexican Sierra Madre, mostly in present-day Arizona and New Mexico. The topography includes plateaus, basins, and ranges. The climate on the Colorado Plateau is temperate, while it is semitropical in most of the basin and range systems; there is little precipitation and the major ecosystem is desert. The landscape includes several major river systems, notably those of the Colorado and the Rio Grande, that create linear oases in the region. The Southwest is home to speakers of Hokan, Uto-Aztecan, Tanoan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Penutian, and Athabaskan languages. The region was the home of both agricultural and hunting and gathering peoples, although the most common lifeway combined these two economic strategies. Best known among the agriculturists are the Pueblo Indians, including the Zuni and Hopi. The Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham (Papago) engaged in both farming and foraging, relying on each to the extent the environment would allow. The Navajo and the many Apache groups usually engaged in some combination of agriculture, foraging, and the raiding of other groups. The major agricultural products were corn, beans, squash, and cotton. Wild plant foods, deer, other game, and fish (for those groups living near rivers) were the primary foraged foods. The Pueblo peoples built architecturally remarkable apartment houses of adobe and stone masonry (see pueblo architecture) and were known for their complex kinship structures, kachina (katsina) dances and dolls, and fine pottery, textiles, and kiva and sand paintings. The Navajo built round houses (“hogans”) and were known for their complex clan system, healing rituals, and fine textiles and jewelry. The Apaches, Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham generally built thatched houses or brush shelters and focused their expressive culture on oral traditions. Stone channels and check dams (low walls that slowed the runoff from the sporadic but heavy rains) were common throughout the Southwest, as were basketry and digging sticks. See also Southwest Indian. The Great Basin The Great Basin culture area is centred in the intermontane deserts of present-day Nevada and includes adjacent areas in California, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. It is so named because the surrounding mountains create a bowl-like landscape that prevented water from flowing out of the region. The most common topographic features are basin and range systems; these gradually transition to high intermontane plateaus in the north. The climate is temperate in the north and becomes subtropical to the south. Higher elevations tend to receive ample moisture but other areas average as little as 2 inches (50 mm) per year. Much of the region’s surface water, such as the Great Salt Lake, is brackish. The predominant ecosystem is desert. The Great Basin is home to the Washoe, speakers of a Hokan language, and a number of tribes speaking Numic languages (a division of the Uto-Aztecan language family). These include the Mono, Paiute, Bannock, Shoshone, Ute, and Gosiute. The peoples of this region were hunters and gatherers and generally organized themselves in mobile, kin-based bands. Seeds, piñon nuts, and small game formed the bulk of the diet for most groups, although those occupying northern and eastern locales readily adopted horses and equestrian bison hunting after Spanish mounts became available. Some of these latter groups also replaced wickiups and brush shelters, the common house forms until that time, with Plains-style tepees; peoples in the west and south, however, continued to use traditional house forms well into the 19th century. Other common forms of material culture included digging sticks, nets, basketry, grinding stones for processing seeds, and rock art. See also Great Basin Indian. This culture area approximates the present states of California (U.S.) and northern Baja (Mexico). Other than the Pacific coast, the region’s dominant topographic features are the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada; these north-south ranges are interspersed with high plateaus and basins. An extraordinary diversity of local conditions created microenvironments such as coasts, tidewaters, coastal redwood forests, grasslands, wetlands, high deserts, and mountains. California includes representatives of some 20 language families, including Uto-Aztecan, Penutian, Yokutsan, and Athabaskan; American linguist Edward Sapir described California’s languages as being more diverse than those found in all of Europe. Prominent tribes, many with a language named for them, include the Hupa, Yurok, Pomo, Yuki, Wintun, Maidu, and Yana. Many California peoples eschewed centralized political structures and instead organized themselves into tribelets, groups of a few hundred to a few thousand people that recognized cultural ties with others but maintained their political independence. Some tribelets comprised just one village and others included several villages; in the latter cases, one village was usually recognized as more important than the others. The relatively few groups that lived in areas with sparse natural resources preferred to live in small mobile bands. Agriculture was practiced only along the Colorado River; elsewhere hunting and gathering provided a relatively easy living. Acorns were the most important of the wild food sources; California peoples devised a method of leaching the toxins from acorn pulp and converting it into flour, thus ensuring abundant and constant food. Fishing, hunting, and gathering shellfish and other wild foods were also highly productive. Housing varied from wood-framed single-family dwellings to communal apartment-style buildings; ceremonial structures were very important and could often hold several hundred people. The California peoples were also known for their fine basketry, ritualized trade fairs, and the Kuksu and Toloache religions. See also California Indian. The Northwest Coast This culture area is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the east by the Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Rocky Mountains; it reaches from the area around Yakutat Bay in the north to the Klamath River area in the south. It includes the coasts of present-day Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, much of southern Alaska, and a small area of northern California. The topography is steep and in many places the coastal hills or mountains fall abruptly to a beach or riverbank. There is an abundance of precipitation—in many areas more than 160 inches (406 cm) annually, but rarely less than 30 inches (76 cm). The predominant ecosystems are temperate rainforests, intertidal zones, and the ocean. This culture area is home to peoples speaking Athabaskan, Tshimshianic, Salishan, and other languages. Prominent tribes include the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka), Coast Salish, and Chinook. The peoples of the Northwest Coast had abundant and reliable supplies of salmon and other fish, sea mammals, shellfish, birds, and a variety of wild food plants. The resource base was so rich that they are unique among nonagricultural peoples in having created highly stratified societies of hereditary elites, commoners, and slaves. Tribes often organized themselves into corporate “houses”—groups of a few dozen to 100 or more related people that held in common the rights to particular resources. As with the house societies of medieval Japan and Europe, social stratification operated at every level of many Northwest Coast societies; villages, houses, and house members each had their designated rank, which was reflected in nearly every social interaction. Most groups built villages near waterways or the coast; each village also had rights to an upland territory from which the residents could obtain terrestrial foods. Dwellings were rectilinear structures built of timbers or planks and were usually quite large, as the members of a corporate “house” typically lived together in one building. Northwest Coast cultures are known for their fine wood and stone carvings, large and seaworthy watercraft, memorial or totem poles, and basketry. The potlatch, a feast associated with the bestowal of lavish gifts, was also characteristic of this culture area. See also Northwest Coast Indian. Lying at the crossroads of five culture areas (the Subarctic, Plains, Great Basin, California, and Northwest Coast), the Plateau is surrounded by mountains and drained by two great river systems, the Fraser and the Columbia. It is located in present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Topographically, the area is characterized by rolling hills, high flatlands, gorges, and mountain slopes. The climate is temperate, although milder than the adjacent Plains because the surrounding mountain systems provide protection from continental air masses. The mountains also create a substantial rain shadow; most precipitation in this region falls at higher elevations, leaving other areas rather dry. The predominant ecosystems are grassland and high desert, although substantial forested areas are found at altitude. Most of the languages spoken in this culture area belong to the Salishan, Sahaptin, Kutenai, and Modoc and Klamath families. Tribes include the Salish, Flathead, Nez Percé, Yakama, Kutenai, Modoc and Klamath, Spokan, Kalispel, Pend d’Oreille, Coeur d’Alene, Walla Walla, and Umatilla. “Flathead” is incorrectly used in some early works to denote all Salishan-speaking peoples, only some of whom molded infants’ heads so as to achieve a uniform slope from brow to crown; notably, the people presently referred to as the Flathead did not engage in this practice (see head flattening). The primary political unit was the village; among some groups a sense of larger tribal and cultural unity led to the creation of representative governments, tribal chieftainships, and confederations of tribes. This was possible in part because the Columbia and Fraser rivers provided enough salmon and other fish to support a relatively dense population; however, this region was never as heavily populated or as rigidly stratified as the Northwest Coast. Efficient hunters and gatherers, Plateau groups supplemented fish with terrestrial animals and wild plant foods, especially certain varieties of camas (Camassia). Most groups resided in permanent riverside villages and traveled to upland locales during fair-weather foraging excursions; however, horses were readily adopted once available and some groups subsequently shifted to nomadic buffalo hunting. These groups quickly adopted tepees and many other Plains cultural forms; they became particularly respected for their equine breeding programs and fine herds (see Appaloosa). Plateau fishing villages were characterized by their multifamily A-frame dwellings, while smaller conical structures were used in the uplands; both house forms were covered with grass, although canvas became a popular covering once available. In terms of portable culture, the Plateau peoples were most characterized by the wide variety of substances and technologies they used; continuously exposed to new items and ideas through trade with surrounding culture areas, they excelled at material innovation and at adapting others’ technologies to their own purposes. See also Plateau Indian.

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"At the very least, a practice is something people do, not just once, but on a regular basis. But it is more than just a disposition to behave in a certain way; the identity of a practice depends on not only on what people do, but also on the significance of those actions and the surroundings in which they occur." (Stern, 2004, p. 166) In the previous pages, we have discussed the balance of instruction and the stages of literacy development. It is at this point that we would like to "get to the rough ground" and emphasise the importance of establishing routines and practices based on quality teaching principles that progressively build and extend a learner's capabilities. We are contrasting what may appear as sporadic, isolated activities with activities that are carefully arranged and which contribute to the development of meaningful literacy skills. We will spend the present discussion on the following: that developing language, literacy and learning skills involves a range of practices through which learners develop skills in decoding, comprehension, composition and critical thinking. With that central term (practices) laid out onto the page, our attention now turns to defining what - indeed - is a practice, or "what makes a practice?" Sometimes the best way to approach this is to imagine the culminating event that is the fulfilment of a range of building blocks acquired over time that finds closure in the ability to "do something". This may be cake baking, fly fishing, trumpets blowing, or advanced spelling. For instance, the ability to write a great short story, prepare for that spelling bee, or draft a persuasive essay involves the culmination of heaps of practice, revision, learning and exploring. It is also often impacted by the practices and expertise of others, who instil the appreciation and the tips of - let’s say - storytelling into the learner. It is often necessary for the individual to have certain experiences to develop the skills that are synthesised into a practice and rewarded as a practice. The learner is also benefited if he or she lives in an environment that regularly reinforces the practice of - again - storytelling, and which contain many ways to unmask the mysteries of the craft. When we speak of developing practices, we similarly speak of “scaffolding” practices. Scaffolding refers to supports that teachers and/or parents provide to learners during some act of learning or problem-solving. These supports take the form of activities, axioms, mnemonics, reminders, hints, routines and encouragement, which are essential to ensure successful completion of the task. An important feature of scaffolding - especially in authentic, apprenticeship contexts - is keeping the task/goal whole and visible (Shepard, 2005). For instance, - when a child is learning to sew or set the table, adults may step in and help with the trickiest most difficult part — threading the needle or taking the breakable glasses down from the top shelf; - in classrooms, teachers may help students with the research before sending them to the library. When a student is stuck because he or she can’t find information on a given topic, the teacher may suggest a new search term or help the student narrow the topic (Shepard, 2005); - when a student is learning to write a short story, the teacher might divide the story into its most significant parts (orientation, complication, rising action, conflict, climax and resolution) to gradually build the learner's skills; or - when learning to write an argumentative paragraph, one might suggest the clever "burger" device to make visible the implicit structure of the form. Gradually, as competence increases, the teacher and/or parent cedes more control to the learner. To be successful, the learner must also come to understand and take ownership of the goal. In other words, what becomes necessary is the individual's "willingness to engage with such activities in a particular way, thus changing ‘mere’ activities into practices where standards of excellence do matter.” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010 pg 196) The two elements of this quote are quite significant. We would like to draw our attention to two factors (a) the ”willingness to engage" and (b) "where standards of excellence do matter." In the first instance, it is important to mention the implied term: motivation. The question being, is the learner motivated, aware and strategic enough to engage in the activities to such an extent so as to develop the practice? We will ignore the complexities of motivation for the present moment. In the second factor, engagement in activities will be impacted by the extent to which the individual understands and appreciates what "the standard of excellence" - or a successful practice - would look like. Does the learner have access to models that exemplify goal states on the way to excellence and encouragement to meet these goals? The above suggests that a learner ideally must comes into a practice as a member of a community or culture, so to speak. This reminds me of the Australian novel Maestro by Peter Goldsworthy. In the novel, the adolescent protagonist is a talented pianist growing up in Adelaide and - subsequently - Darwin. His parents provide the optimal conditions and support that allow the young man to develop into a technically sound and accomplished young musician in Australia. It is only when he encounters a new teacher - a pianist from old Europe - that the young man comes to realise that there is something missing in his repertoire that will limit the possibility for his talent to be fully realised. He is missing culture. The Australian culture lacks the depth of connection to the music, and so the young protagonist becomes an adept pianist but not a profound one. At first, he rebels against this realisation, since all signs in Australia point to his technical and musical prowess. However, it is clear as the novel unfolds that the young man lacks access to the culture and the temperament behind the music to really understand the depth of its practice and the role that the music plays for those who are immersed in its history. He has the capacity to alter his musical practice, but that might require an initial act of submission and immersion. If we return to a previous example, we would see that being able to write an absolutely great story is not enough evidence to suggest that the individual has acquired the practice. It shows that the individual has completed the activities to write that one great short story but not necessarily adopted the practice of story writing. The writing of a second “fantastic short story" would be strong evidence to suggest that the practice has evolved. The fact that the individual writes a second story without any prompting or with only limited prompting would also be great evidence. If the person could articulate how he or she went about writing both the original short story and a subsequent story, then we would be quite satisfied. If the person could also articulate the purpose and/or motivation of the story writing, then the person would be approaching the ability to express his or her appreciation of the practice's significance. If the person could join a peer group who discussed the merits of short fiction, then we could say that the learner was well on his or her way to membership in a community of practice. Being initiated into such a practice - therefore - involves the internalising of - what we might call - deliberative talk. For instance, the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein models this aspect by presenting the inner monologue of a character who is building something: Every now and then there is the problem “Should I use this bit?” — The bit is rejected, another is tried. Bits are tentatively put together, then dismantled; he looks for one that fits etc, etc.. So I sometimes make him say “No, that bit is too long, perhaps another’s fit better.” — Or “What am I to do now?” — “Got it!” — Or “That’s not bad” etc. ... "If he has made some combination in play or by accident and he now uses it as a method of doing this and that, we shall say he thinks. — In considering he would mentally review ways and means. But to do this he must already have some in stock. Thinking gives him the possibility of perfecting his methods. Or rather: He ‘thinks’ when, in a definite kind of way, he perfects a method he has." (Wittgenstein, Zettel #100 & 104). Whilst the character's dialogue is personal and internal, this internal voice - or self talk - is developed in practice with others: “Our deliberations seem to be entirely personal and self-determined - yet which obviously derive from previous conversations with others, in which their voices and perspectives are represented in one’s own internal deliberations. Often this dynamic is what we call ‘conscience.’” — (Burbles and Smears, 2010, pg 180) In refining a practice, we become conscious of our actions, their intentions and the consequences. Therefore, a practice “is something people do, not just once, but on a regular basis.” (Stern, 2004, pg 166). For some reason, people pray, brush their teeth, complete their tax, hike in National Parks, long for the next dance, etc. Each “activity” is part of - let’s says - religious practices, hygienic practices, economic practices, artistic practices, social practices and more. Each practice is much more than the sum of its parts. The activities become part of a way of acting, anticipating and performing. For instance, the combination of spelling practice, shared reading, guided comprehension, writing practice, concept exploration, and experiential learning amounts to more than a collection of disparate activities. They amount to a form of life, and they rely upon resources, other participants, teachers, a sense of attachment, cultural artefacts, instruction (or initiation) and more. Time and space must be carved out in the great hurly burly of life so that the practice can grow, flourish and evolve. Richard Allington (2002) captures this well when he describes the six T's of effective literacy instruction: - Substantial time allocated to real practice in reading and writing; - Availability of texts that are engaging and suitable for learners; - Teaching that is of the utmost quality, which is adaptive and which scaffolds the development of key skills and understandings; - Teachers who facilitate rich "talk" (conversations) that allow learners to solidify and expand on ideas; - Tasks that are deep, authentic, and purposeful; and - Assessments (or "testing") that provide real information about a learner’s progress toward complete, comprehensive literacy (Allington, 2002) Therefore, “one can distinguish activities, games, practices and rituals ... When we consider a ‘practice’ we must think about (1) how they are learned - for instance through imitation, initiation, instruction and so forth; and (2) how they are enacted.” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010, pg 193 - 194) It is a practice to commit facts to memory and to draw connections between this knowledge that will enhance one's understanding. This act of developing knowledge and understanding involves many stages and processes, which a person (in school) is often asked to do without clear guidance. For some, the practice is obscure and there are few opportunities for one to find guidance. For others, the practice is moulded and shaped and reinforced by a parent, teacher, family friend, and/or peers. Vygotsky (1978) would remind us 'every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people..., and then inside people... All higher [mental] functions originate as actual relations between human individuals' (p.57) So ... how do we make certain activities part and parcel of the practices of home, school, the community, etc? What are the material and social conditions that make this happen? What roles do adults and peers play in establishing the conditions of a practice? Is it realistic that all budding "apprentices" will have access to "teachers" (including parents) with sufficient expertise and wherewithal? Overall, how does something become a practice and, through practice, how does the learner's engagement with the world change? To begin with, we must acknowledge that any practice occurs in environments through engagement with others (peers, adults, etc). And particular environments provide better venues for certain practices to prosper than others. In this case, we may illustrate how the multiple conceptions of literacy practices - for instance - take shape within the dynamics of a given household or classroom (Heath, 1983). In some homes, it is not surprising for one to imagine how bedtime reading, alphabetic flashcard practice, scaffolded writing instruction and language-in-context practice can occur with only limited orchestration. The adult has a bedtime routine of rich reading of favourite books (building vocabulary), time set aside to play with enticing alphabetic games (enhancing word recognition), time to write a birthday card to grandma (modelling of genre conventions), and an emphasis on language in the act of - for instance - baking a cake (learning vocabulary connected to a valued activity). In the above example, each activity emphasises different aspects of language and literacy development, and each activity - occurring more or less frequently - is integrated through the joint intentional activity of the adult & child. If more direct, formal instruction is necessary, it is woven into the fabric of the overall practice. Therefore, “every instance of the use [or participation in a practice] … is the culmination of a process of socialisation.” (Phillips, 1979, pg 126). Through this journey, the learner “develop[s] an impressive variety of skills.” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010, pg 191). As stated in the essay "A Framework for Considering Literacy Instruction" the inculcation of such skills involves the careful arrangement of: - (a) systematic instruction in core skills, - (b) meaningful routines and practice in reading and writing, and - (c) scaffolded practice of literacy in authentic and/or disciplinary contexts. The images to the left/above extend this thinking. We see how literacy practices involve a range of elements, including intentional (instructional) conversations; vocabulary development; word/language study (including phonemic awareness); reading for fluency and comprehension; writing and composing; developing knowledge; and the fostering of interests, habits, routines and expertise. We see the need for a parallel emphasise on core skills, meaningful routines and authentic practices. We acknowledge that time must be plentiful, resources made available, teaching made accessible and partnerships formed (between home, school and community) if literacy practices are to emerge, deepen and mature. The most skilled teachers, families, communities, etc. are those who orchestrate a variety of experiences for learners in different environments which are able to bring about meaningful routines, habits, ceremonies, perspectives and more. They are sensitive to the needs of the learners and they carve out time and space so that learning, development and communication are happening. When you look down at the daily, weekly, monthly and term calendars of exemplary teachers, you see that careful arrangement of opportunities that provides time for explicit and scaffolded instruction as well as spaces for creativity, exploration, application and inspiration (Chall, Jacobs & Baldwin, 1990; Snow, et al, 1991). When you look at the arrangement of classroom spaces, home environments and community resources, you are likely to see literacy- and learning-rich environments that facilitate the practices that take place within them. In the classroom, you see literacy rotations, regular and diverse readings, incursion from the community, formative assessments, and research into relevant, purposeful tasks. It appears that teachers and students know where they are going and what needs to be done. "According to research, amount of teaching is the single most important determinant of amount of literacy learning [and practice] (Carroll, 1963; Siedel & Shavelson, 2007; Walberg, 1986). Research has not been very precise about what counts as teaching, but it certainly would include teacher presentations, modelling, and explanations. It would also usually include many student activities such as guided practice or independent practice. Some researchers make the valuable distinction between allotted time and engaged time." (Shanahan, 2008 pg 3-4) The following are some core principles to be mindful of when thinking about factors that impact our engagement in practices. - To become a participant in the practice - whether artistic, athletic, religious, etc - involves an engagement in a whole raft of behaviours, rules, perspectives, and more. - Practices are "part and parcel of our early socialization in life, [through which] we each learn ways of being in the world, of acting and interacting, thinking and valuing, and using language, objects, and tools that crucially shape our early sense of self.” (Gee, 2008, pg 100) - Practices rely upon resources, other participants, a sense of attachment, cultural artefacts and avenues to be rewarded for the practice. - It is much easier for a practice to be adopted when it builds upon (or extends) “the informal practices [people already] find themselves involved in.” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010, pg 196 - 197). - And furthermore, a practice is only possible "if one trusts something,” which includes trusting others as well as the situations in which we find ourselves in. (Klagge, 2011, pg 66) - Consequently, “it is [much] easier to be a ‘tacit teacher’ within an ongoing community of practice, where one is not the only influence drawing learners into reflective participation; conversely, it is harder to be a ‘tacit teacher’ when a cacophony of other influences distract and compete with one’s own influence.” (Burbles, 2010, pg 212) - Practices can be defined by “how they are learned - for instance through imitation, initiation, instruction and so forth..” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010, pg 193 - 194). The novice proceeds to quite literally practice “a certain kind of know-how [that] is gained through repetition: watching and doing the same thing over and over again, under the watchful eye of a skilled practitioner." (Burbles, 2010, pg 208) This is also described as a process whereby, “newcomers pick up both overt and tacit knowledge through a process of guided and scaffolded participation in the community of practice, a process that has been compared to apprenticeship.” (Gee, 2008, pg 91 - 92). - This is teaching by any other name, otherwise described as “the structuring provided by a community or practice, [which is] physically necessary because the very possibility of any learning at all is the presence of exemplars and models.” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010, pg 186). - We want to focus on, "people’s willingness to engage with such activities in a particular way, thus changing ‘mere’ activities into practices where standards of excellence do matter.” (Smeyers and Burbles, 2010 pg 196). - "The child's understanding is not achieved in an instance or a flash, but requires multifarious repetition in multifarious contexts." (Moyal-Sharrock, 2010, pg 6). - “What seems to be needed is the development of a theory of social learning which would indicate what in the environment is available for learning, the conditions of learning, the constraints on subsequent learning, and the major reinforcing process.” (Bernstein, 1964, pg. 55) We - then - return to questions raised above ... how do we make certain activities part and parcel of the practices of home, school, the community, etc? What are the material and social conditions to make this happen? How does something become a practice and, through practice, how do we see improvement? We must emphasise the importance of motivation, understanding, effective teaching, and access to the space and time for engaged concentration. As the diagram to the left illustrates, we must also consider factors internal to the individual (e.g. cognitive and language processing), factors in the environment (ecological factors), and factors impacting motivation and engagement (psychological factors) (Chiu, McBride-Change & Lin, 2012). In the view of Timothy Shanahan (2008), the five most important aspect of literacy learning are (1) amount of teaching/time, (2) access to appropriate content, (3) quality of instruction, (4) motivation of the learner, and (5) whether the instruction/resources align with the needs of the learner. And from a sociological perspective it is important to remember how a child’s acquisition of knowledge (and literacy) is influenced by five characteristics of the sociocultural context: (a) the identity of the participants, (b) how the activity is defined or executed, (c) the timing of the activity, (d) where it occurs, and (e) why children should participate in the activity. (Tharp and Gallimore, 1988) As mentioned elsewhere, it goes without saying that the experienced language/literacy user takes many items for granted. It is helpful to forget that it was once quite a challenge to read and hear that code; to shape letters with delicacy; to retrieve a word from memory and understand its spelling; to form a sentence; to make sense of sentences whether they appear in poetry or in a textbook; to write in a manner fitting the occasion and the audience; and to allow oneself the time to read-interpret-and-learn. This section asks readers to reflect on the principles that influence the ways in which we manage environments, activities, resources, people and expectations. In the future, I hope to provide some concrete examples in different contexts which would help us better reflect upon the impact of our activities on the daily, weekly, monthly, quaterly, and yearly levels. We should seek out examples that magnify the importance of forming partnerships amongst parents, teachers and communities so that language, literacy and learning practices can permeate these spheres, as we explore the conditions that give rise to learning practices and we consider how to be more inclusive in our teaching. The discussion borrows sparingly from an extended essay (Why We Do What We Do?) which we encourage you to visit when/if you have the time. We also encourage you to visit the Practices Glossary, which also presents a number of key concepts on the topic. Please explore and enjoy! “I do not remember that first moment of knowing I could read, but some of my memories - of a tiny, two-room school with eight grades and two teachers - evokes many pieces of what the language expect Anthony Bashir calls the ‘natural history’ of the reading life. The natural history of reading begins with simple exercises, practices, and accuracy, and ends, if one is lucky, with the tools and the capacity to ‘leap into transcendence.’ “My other vivid memory of those days centres on Sister Salesia, trying her utmost to teach the children who couldn’t seem to learn to read. I watched her listening patiently to these children’s torturous attempts during the school day, and then all over again after school, one child at a time ... My best friend, Jim, ... looked like a pale version of himself, haltingly coming up with the letter sounds Sister Salesia asked for. It turned my world topsy-turvy to see this indomitable boy so unsure of himself. For at least a year they worked quietly and determinedly after school ended.” (Wolf, 2008, p 109 - 112) Allington, R. L. (2002). What I’ve Learned about Effective Reading Instruction from a Decade of Studying Exemplary Elementary Classroom Teachers. The Phi Delta Kappan, 83(10), 740–747. Bernstein, B. (1964). Elaborated and Restricted Codes: Their Social Origins and Some Consequences. American Anthropologist, 66(6_PART2), 55–69. doi:10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00030 Burbles, N. (2010). Tacit Teaching. In M. Peters, N. Burbles, & P. Smeyers (Eds.), Showing and doing: Wittgenstein as a pedagogical philosopher (pp. 199 – 214). London: Paradigm Publishers. Burbles, N., & Smears, P. (2010). The practice of ethics and moral education. In M. Peters, N. Burbles, & P. Smears (Eds.), Showing and doing: Wittgenstein as a pedagogical philosopher (pp. 169 – 182). London: Paradigm Publishers. Carroll, J.B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723–733. Chall, J. S., Jacobs, V. A., & Baldwin, L. E. (1990). The Reading Crisis: Why Poor Children Fall Behind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chiu, M. M., McBride-Chang, C., & Lin, D. (2012). Ecological, psychological, and cognitive components of reading difficulties: testing the component model of reading in fourth graders across 38 countries. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 391–405. dos:10.1177/0022219411431241 Gee, J. P. (2008). A sociocultural perspective on opportunity to learn. In P. Moss, D. Pullin, J. P. Gee, E. Haertel, & L. Young (Eds.), Assessment, equity, and opportunity to learn (pp. 76 – 108). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Klagge, J. (2011). Wittgenstein in exile. Cambridge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Moyal-Sharrock, D. (2010). Coming to Language: Wittgenstein’s Social “Theory” of Language Acquisition. In SOL Conference 6-8 May 2010. Bucharest. Seidel, T. & Shavelson, R. J.(2007). Teaching effectiveness research in the past decade: The role of theory and research design in disentangling meta-analysis results. Review of Educational Research, 77, 454-499. Shanahan, T. (2008). Literacy across the lifespan: what works? Community Literacy Journal, 3(1), 3–20. Shepard, L. A. (2005). Linking Formative Assessment to Scaffolding. Educational leadership, 63(3), 66-70. Smeyers, P., & Burbles, N. (2010). Education as initiation into practices. In M. Peters, N. Burbles, & P. Smeyers (Eds.), Showing and doing: Wittgenstein as a pedagogical philosopher (pp. 183 – 198). London: Paradigm Publishers. Snow, C. E., Barnes, W. S., Chandler, J., Goodman, I. F., & Hemphill, L. (1991). Unfulfilled expectations: home and school influences on literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Stern, D. (2004). Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations: an introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Walberg, H. J. (1986). Syntheses of research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research and teaching (pp. 214–229). New York: Macmillan. Wittgenstein, L. (1967). Vettel. (G. E. M. Anscombe & G. H. von Wright, Eds.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Wolf, M. (2008). Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain. Cambridge: Icon Books.

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Oral literature, the standard forms (or genres) of literature found in societies without writing. The term oral literature is also used to describe the tradition in written civilizations in which certain genres are transmitted by word of mouth or are confined to the so-called folk (i.e., those who are “unlettered,” or do not use writing). Oral literature is, arguably, the best phrase available for describing these two senses. The term oral covers both, but these two meanings should be distinguished. While certain forms, such as the folktale, continue to exist, especially among the unlettered component of complex societies, what might also be called oral tradition (or folk literature) is inevitably influenced by the elite written culture. The term literature also poses problems because it is ultimately derived from the Latin littera, “letter,” essentially a written, indeed alphabetic, concept. Among scholars, the phrases standardized oral forms and oral genres have been suggested in place of oral literature, but, since the word literature is so widely used, it has to be reckoned with, even though it is essential to recall the major differences between the two registers, oral and written, as well as the way in which the latter influences the spoken word. The storyteller speaks, time collapses, and the members of the audience are in the presence of history. It is a time of masks. Reality, the present, is here, but with explosive emotional images giving it a context. This is… The relation of speech to writing Because writing is an additional register to speech, writing’s advent has an important influence on speech. Writing’s effects have been dramatic on society generally, but, for much of the vast span of recorded history, writing and reading were confined to a small, elite minority of a population, while a large proportion of people continued to depend on oral communication alone. In many cases these two traditions existed side by side. Such a combination creates problems for the analysis of the various genres or oral literature, for there is a tendency today to read back the characteristics of literate literature (such as the use of a narrative structure) into purely oral genres. Written literature is never simply a matter of writing down what already exists; a myth or story is always changed in being “transcribed” and takes its place among a set of new genres as well as among modifications of old ones. The term folklore generally refers to certain of the spoken (or nonwritten) activities of complex literate cultures where only a minority can read and write and where the rest are illiterate, a frequent situation of the peasantry in the post-Bronze Age cultures of Europe and Asia especially. While these activities have some links with parallel ones in purely oral cultures, they are inevitably influenced by the always-dominant literary modes, especially those related to the major (written) religions. (Folklore is largely confined to the exposition of peripheral beliefs.) But even the forms taken by genres such as the epic can influence folklore. It is clear that, in societies with writing, a great deal of communication—including communication that takes literary forms—is still done by word of mouth. Not only is this an aspect of all human intercourse, but it was inevitably the case until near-universal literacy was achieved in Europe during the last quarter of the 19th century. Until that time, literature had to be oral for the large part of the population. That did not mean oral literature was uninfluenced by the written word. Indeed, some of the oral communication consisted in the repetition of written texts, as when lessons from the Bible were preached to an unlettered populace. A written epic, as was the case with the Hindu Vedas or the works of Homer, might be learned by heart and recited to the population at large, by priests in the former case and by the rhapsodes in the latter. Of course a society with writing might inherit some genres, such as folktales, largely unchanged from an earlier, purely oral culture whereas other genres, such as the epic, would undergo a sea change. Part of the influence of the written word on speech consisted in the development not of oratory but of its formal counterpart, rhetoric, with its explicit body of rules. Specialists in the spoken word might achieve fame and be rewarded for their appearance in presenting a case at court. More directly in the field of the arts, specialist reciters, especially of praise songs but also of epics and other lengthy recitations, might be recompensed for their contributions, either as freelance performers or as professionals. Many early written forms, such as the Breton lays, draw their subject matter from spoken genres, though inevitably transformations take place in the face of the new media. There has also been a good deal of exchange between coexistent folk and written (elite) literature. Homer’s poems incorporated “popular” tales, for example, as did the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, although these transfers are as much between genres as between the registers of speech and writing, akin to when popular melodies, such as the bourrée of rural France, were taken up by those composing elite music in the urban courts of 17th-century Europe. The example of the epic The Homeric poems are often viewed as oral epics that have been transposed into writing. Commentators have dwelt on the presence of certain features, such as the formulaic expressions (epithets and repeated verses) that they see as typical of oral forms. Yet, while the regular repetition of phrases is found in such forms, some have argued that the precise format of Homer’s formula—as defined by the American scholar Milman Parry, who in the 1930s recorded epics in Yugoslavia performed by guslari—is very likely an early literate device. The epic itself is a case in point. It is often assumed to be a typical product of oral cultures, being sung by bards at courts or in camps. However, records of epics in purely oral cultures are sparse. Epics tend to be found in early states with important warrior classes that enjoy hearing of the brave exploits of their predecessors. These societies already have writing, but the texts are often committed to memory and reproduced by the speaker rather than read aloud from a written version of the text. These oral texts are recited in gatherings of chiefs and warriors by specialist bards and, in fact, are the works that have been written down at some point. Indeed, only because they have been written down are they known at all. And it is a regular characteristic of early written works, such as Homer’s or the Vedas, that, although written versions exist, these are learned by heart, internalized, and reproduced through the spoken word alone, just as is often the case with religious texts such as the Qurʾān and the Bible. At the very moment in history when writing allows one to dispose of verbal memory as a means of recalling such works, the role of verbal memory is in fact enhanced—hence part of the difficulty in deciding whether these works are both orally composed and orally reproduced. They are typical of societies where only the few can read and where mnemonic skills and devices that encourage the perfect oral reproduction of written texts are therefore encouraged. The way that purely oral forms have been changed under the influence of written cultures is illustrated by the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic, a final version of which was published in 1849 by Elias Lönnrot. A systematic collector of folk poetry, Lönnrot concluded that what had been recorded as distinct poems could be conflated into a continuous folk epic. He joined a number of shorter compositions together with material of his own and imposed on the whole a unifying plot. Its publication had an enormous influence on Finnish culture. It has been suggested that the Gilgamesh epic may have been constructed in a similar way; other cases have been reported from Africa. In North America stories that centre on particular characters such as Coyote or Raven (see Raven cycle) are sometimes grouped together by scholars into cycles, but it seems doubtful whether these cycles represent a meaningful category for the Native Americans who created these tales. Differences between oral and written literatures Oral and written literatures differ in their authorship and audience. In oral cultures the memory of authorship, though never entirely absent, is of little general importance—occasionally with songs but not with myths, folktales, and, rarely, epics. That is not to say that these genres do not become the subjects of intellectual property rights. Songs may be associated with particular clans, recitations with specific groups or gatherings. But usually no individual author is traced. That absence, however, does not imply that there is a process of collective composition. Each reciter will introduce variations of his own, some of which will be taken up by succeeding speakers for whom the previous version will have been the (or a) model. In this way changes are constantly being introduced by individuals but anonymously, in a syntagmatic (contextual) chain, without looking back to any fixed original. Only with writing and with oral recitations in literate societies, as in the case of Homer or the Vedas, is the oral transmission of an original possible, partly because writing introduces a new dimension to verbal memory and partly because reference can then always be made back to the “correct” version. As a result, it seems to be in these early literate societies that the development of mnemonic skills and aide-mémoire is first found. Beyond the epic, the main oral genres include the folktale; song, including laments, praise songs, and work songs; folk drama; myth; and, closely related, legend and historical recitation. There are also the minor genres of the proverb and the riddle. While these genres are not necessarily always given separate designations in local languages, in scholarly practice they are distinguished because of their different forms, content, and functions, which relate partly to their audience. At the very broadest level, folktales are rarely seen as anything but fictional, whereas the other genres, apart from song, have quite a different relation to “truth.” In purely oral societies, recitations and songs encompass the whole of life’s experience, including cosmology and theology. In early societies with writing, the religious domain tends to be incorporated by way of texts associated with a religion’s canon (its most important scriptural works), leaving the oral literature to deal with the peripheral—with magic, charms, and fairy tales. With oral literature, as with any other literature, it is important to always consider not only the speaker but the audience and the situational context. Intention, form, and content make all the difference between recitations in a religious or ritual ceremony and the kind of story told at a veillée (a small private gathering for storytelling) in Europe. These differences mean that to incorporate all these genres in one holistic analysis of culture, symbolism, or myth runs the risk of mixing levels of communication that should be the subject of distinct interpretations. Folktales are virtually universal. These are short, occasionally in verse, sometimes with an ending that echoes the explanations embedded in Rudyard Kipling’s Just So Stories (e.g., “How the Camel Got His Hump”), and possibly with an irrelevant coda. The personages consist of humans, animals, gods, and, more rarely, inventions such as giants and monsters, who interact with one another by speech and by other means. In this wide array of tales there is a place for the salacious, and some stories are apparently directed to adults (or at least to adolescents), but the bulk of folktales undoubtedly anticipate an audience of children. Grim as some of their contents can be, they are “nursery tales,” to use an English term equivalent to Charles Perrault’s “fairy stories” (contes des fées). Because the vast number of folktales are intended for children, it is quite mistaken for anthropologists to use them as evidence of the typical thoughts of primitive societies or for historians to do the same for, say, the rural population of 17th-century Europe. But just such an approach is sometimes taken by those who see culture holistically, with each item having the same representative status and value in characterizing mentalities, beliefs, and practices and with each item taken to exist within an undifferentiated cultural ensemble of artistic forms. In fact, the relationship of these stories to other aspects of culture is very particular. While their relationships to culture are very particular, the stories told within folktales also persist over long periods of time and have no very close relationship to a particular culture at a particular time; examples from English-speaking societies include children’s rhymes and songs such as “Ring a Ring of Roses” and “Three Blind Mice” and the story “Jack and the Beanstalk.” Like the rhyme “Frères Jacques” or the story of Cinderella, they cross sociopolitical and linguistic boundaries rather freely and are adapted by individual storytellers. Such movement across boundaries is encouraged by the relatively small size of individual oral cultures, and these stories may be transposed into other dialects and other languages; the ease with which that can happen emphasizes the transcultural character of their themes and expressions. It is this comparative insulation of children’s stories that, arguably, accounts for their relative homogeneity around the world, as does their frequent use of nonhuman animals and panhuman themes. Fables are a subcategory of the folktale, employing animals as well as humans as the main characters. In the form they are known today, either from ancient Greece and Rome (e.g., Aesop’s fables) or from India, they are in fact products of written cultures but are close in many respects to folktales more generally. Song plays a very general role in oral culture. A song’s words often resemble lyric poetry, having to be of a tight metrical structure because of the musical accompaniment. Equally, when epic and other recitations are accompanied by a musical instrument or a strong beat, the rhythmic verbal structure is always influenced. An important variety of song is the lament at the death of an individual, which may take the form of stressed speech or follow a more melodic line. Songs may be included in rituals and in folktales and other genres, but they are often performed solely for entertainment. The melodies themselves may be elaborated and expanded upon by way of musical instruments, leading to innumerable variations invented for the occasion, as with jazz. An important subcategory is the work song, the performance of which is likely to be gendered, as is the work itself. The ballad is a form of narrative song that arose in Europe during the Middle Ages and hence is arguably part of a mixed oral-literary tradition. The genre displays strong metrical forms associated with a melodic accompaniment; it is often concerned with conflict (especially in the Scottish-English border ballads of the 15th and 16th centuries), celebrating heroes and outlaws, and has held its popularity in the modern period, as exemplified in popular songs such as “Frankie and Johnny.” Narrative songs of this kind are much less common in oral cultures, though varieties of the form mark early literate societies. Songs are distinguished from chant by being shorter and more melodic. Chant is a rhythmic manner of presenting speech that verges on recitation; while it may be accompanied, chant is carried out with a regular beat that does not interfere greatly with the words, which are deemed more important than the music. Chant may be used for shorter recitals and in such contexts as the Maori haka, and it is sometimes employed for epic poetry or for the long recitations typically categorized as myth. Theatre in the modern sense is an outcome of the written tradition in Greece, Europe, India, Japan, and elsewhere. It is sometimes difficult to draw a distinction between drama and ritual; indeed, the origins of drama in Europe lie in religious and ritual performances. The occurrence of secular drama in oral cultures is not well attested and, where it does occur, is peripheral. Nevertheless, (folk) plays of a more or less secular kind do occur in the popular culture of literate societies, such as the mumming plays of the European tradition, which stand in opposition to the written plays of the elite theatre. Myth is a particular form of oral literature, the subject of which is cosmological. It was earlier thought that many such stories were explanatory. A few undoubtedly are, including those of “that is why the camel has a hump” variety, but most are not, even though intellectual curiosity (sometimes expressed through the notion of the quest, for example) is often incorporated. For some commentators, myth was central to folktales: the meaning of folktales was seen to derive from their assumed status as broken-down myths that accounted for solar, meteorological, or other natural phenomena. Other commentators (such as representatives of the myth and ritual school at the beginning of the 20th century) have seen the explanation of myth as a function of ritual and of ritual as a function of myth. Such an explanation, however, does little to explain the content of myth or ritual. Others, such as Bronisław Malinowski and the functionalist school, have understood myth as a legitimizing “charter” of social institutions. Later in the 20th century there was a move to interpretations of myth that were dependent on a search for hidden meanings, some relying on psychoanalysis, others on different approaches to symbolic decoding, and yet others on structuralist analyses, especially in the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, which sought in myths an underlying structure of abstract similarities (often binary in character) between a range of social institutions. Myth is often considered to be the highest achievement of oral literature. It has certainly proved to be the most interesting to outsiders and at the same time the most difficult to comprehend, because, even though it deals in cosmological matters, myth is in some ways the most localized of genres and the most embedded in cultural action (such as when it is recited in a very specific ceremonial context). The oral literature of the Australian Aborigines, for example, has an essential ceremonial function. The song cycles and narratives relate to the Dreaming, a mythological past in which the existing environment was shaped and humanized by ancestral beings. These performances may be open to the world at large (and hence akin to entertainment) or closed to all but initiates. It is important to distinguish between contributions to mythologies (i.e., accounts of worldviews constructed by observers) and myths in a narrower sense, which are actual recitations around a cosmological theme (for example, creation myths). The latter are relatively rare and unevenly distributed around the world, being recited in particular restricted circumstances. As such, the knowledge they contain is available not to all but only to certain individuals. Women in some groups, for example, may be excluded from certain ritual occasions. Yet these women, precluded from some knowledge, may also have parallel ceremonies from which men are excluded and during which women hand down different bodies of knowledge. Myths were earlier thought to have been transmitted verbatim from one generation to the next, partly because that is how those who conveyed the myths often understood the situation. As such, the myths were interpreted as “keys to culture,” throwing a privileged light on society as a whole. But the advent of the portable audio recorder and of air travel enabled investigators to return at intervals to record such recitations in the actual context of performance rather than with pencil and paper in a decontextualized situation. These new techniques showed that myths vary considerably over time, the exigencies of oral reproduction making such generative transmission a virtual necessity. In other words: people invent and fill in where they do not have perfect recall. The result is a plurality of versions spread over time (and space), but, arguably, no fixed text such as often found with written literature. Legends and historical recitations Legends and historical recitations—or “histories”—occur everywhere: chiefless societies might produce stories of clan migration, for instance, while chiefly societies might generate stories of the coming of rulers and of the establishment of kingdoms. Examples proliferate with writing and become more differentiated, but they exist in purely oral cultures as an important formal activity, to be told on ritual occasions. These genres may also be associated with totemism, telling how a particular animal helped a past ancestor in troubled times and so is taboo to his or her descendants. The term legend (derived from the Latin legenda, “to be read”) was especially applied to the stories of saints in Roman Catholic Europe, but similar kinds of narrative, believed to be true, are also characteristic of oral cultures and often later form the basis for the construction of written histories, as was the case in early Greece. Some formalized historical recitations in purely oral cultures retain earlier forms and content that have passed out of current usage. The speech of former generations can legitimize the material within a recitation, making that material more valuable and more sacred at the time of the recitation, but it can also make the material less comprehensible, more mysterious, and more prone to conflicting and ambiguous interpretations. More broadly, histories are often more concerned with legitimation, especially in providing a suggested link with the distant past, rather than with the story itself. Performance, content, and distribution In oral cultures the genres described above are not simply categories in a library catalog but are part of an ensemble of actions that constitute the setting, often the ritual, and sometimes the music and dance of the performers; these actions also guide the voice and gestures and the intentions of the performers, as well as the audience and its expectations. Each genre has its characteristic context of performance, its own place, its own time, its own performers, and its own aims. Myths, in the concrete sense, are unlikely to be recited by “ordinary” people but instead by specialists in special ritual contexts. Folktales may be told by adults who have built up a reputation for doing so, but they are more likely to make the rounds within families or among groups of children. Given the variety of genres of oral literature, it is difficult to generalize about their content as a whole, but it is (perhaps misleadingly) easy to generalize within each genre. Mythology deals with gods, deities, and supernatural agencies in their relationship—whether distant or close—with humankind. Epics often deal with human as well as half-divine heroes and monsters. Folktales show a nearly universal concern with animals, and they introduce as actors humans, gods, and sometimes monsters. The widespread inclusion of animals, in turn, may indicate a recognition of a continuity between living things; animals often reenact the lives of humans, not only by speaking but in their roles and actions. A continuity between living things is also expressed in tales of humans born of animals, being cared for by them (as in the case of Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome), or being looked after by them in a more mystical sense (as with the North American Indian notion of the guardian spirit or in versions of totemism where humankind is aided by or even descended from an animal). Yet animals recur across many of the genres that can be classed as oral literature, where they take on multiple meanings and stand for many concepts. It is, again, difficult to generalize in good faith about the content of oral literature. While similar genres are found widely distributed in oral cultures and in oral traditions, they do not occur equally in all contexts. Long recitations defined above as myths are very unequally distributed even in neighbouring societies that otherwise display rather similar practices and beliefs, for they occur only under very restricted conditions. Epics and histories tend to be associated with warrior and chiefly societies, respectively. Some researchers have argued that there appears to be little use of proverbs and riddles in America, a situation they contrast with Africa, where collections of proverbs (such as those made in Asante by the Swiss missionary J.G. Christaller) were considered very common. (Other researchers disagree and question the historical and geographical generalizations embodied in such characterizations of “America” and “Africa.”) The content of myths and legends is considered by many in oral societies to be true; by contrast, the content of folktales and fables is believed to be fictional. While the first are often tied to particular societies (and later to written religions), the latter travel relatively freely between groups, including linguistic groups. That ability to travel reaffirms the fact that both have a different “truth” status, with folktales rarely tied to specific cosmologies but instead showing a more universal appeal, especially to children. Märchen (folktales with an element of the magical or supernatural) and ghost stories have a wider appeal and are widespread features of both oral literature and written literature told orally; monsters are found in many societies, and even specific types, such as dragons, turn up over large areas. Fairies and trolls are found yet more frequently as characters in folktales and cosmologies, operating as intermediaries between humankind and the higher deities and either helping or hindering their activities. Attempts to explain “rationally” and “historically” (which are nothing but speculation) the contents of oral literature have led the enquiry down false paths. As with oral literature in general, it is essential, wherever possible, to consider the context of performance and of transmission.

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Grades4 to 12 tag(s): vocabulary (314) In the ClassroomWhat a perfect addition to music or art class! Share this site on your interactive whiteboard or projector. Have students work in cooperative learning groups, divide up the vocabulary words, and have each group find the definitions for their assigned vocabulary words. Have the groups share their words and definitions in an online book, using a tool such as Bookemon (reviewed here). Encourage them to add terms of their own, as well. Have the groups share the online books on your interactive whiteboard or projector. If you don't have the time to complete online books, have students share the definitions using a class wiki. Be sure to also check out the interactive word puzzles! Grades2 to 12 This site includes advertising. tag(s): organizational skills (122) In the ClassroomOnce an account is created, add the bookmarklet to your browser bar for quick access. Check with your IT department to have the ability to download bookmarklets on your computer. Knowledge of embed codes are required to manage Livebinders in other sites. To get a better idea of Livebinder basics, watch the 90 second video tour before you "play." Click on "start a blank binder," enter a description, tags, category, and mark it private or public. Click yes to "use Google search to fill a binder" to find plenty of information fast. Your new binder will instantly be filled with a new tab for each site matching your search term. After entering "climate change," a new Livebinder was created with tabs that matched research I had previously spent a lot of time to find. Now it can be instantly shared. Click on "edit menu" in the upper right of your binder to change description, title, etc. as well as fonts, tabs, and other details. To share, click on share this binder along the bottom right to share by email, Facebook, Twitter, or embedding via link or embed code. Embed your Livebinder in a blog, wiki, or other site or provide the link for access by others. Safety/Security: Users must be 13 years of age to create an account. Teachers can create an account and share Livebinders for student use at any age. Create a class account with a global login and password. Students use the same login to access the Livebinder and create tabs on various topics. As each collaborator would not be known, ask students to add initials to tabs they create so you know the source. Check your school policies on whether student work may be displayed online and what information is permitted, then enforce that policy with your students. Create a Livebinder to assemble information and requirements for a student project. Make the Livebinder the actual ASSIGNMENT sheet. Use a new tab in the binder for each type of resource or topic of information. In English classes, use to offer spelling, writing, or grammar hints for students. Create a binder for specific sports teams that showcase team accolades, resources for increasing skills, or to create snack lists and travel information. Create a Livebinder for groups of students to plan or report on vacation plans, learn about cultures or countries, or maintain information for student projects. Students can use Livebinders to assemble information for group projects that can be discussed with the teacher to track progress. Consider creating a binder for assignments for students that focus on the use of information versus just the searching for the information. Any content or subject area can be easily managed by creating a Livebinder for student learning. Create an art or music gallery easily with a Livebinder. Use each tab of a Livebinder for each cell part necessary for the functioning of a cell. Create tabs in a binder for each battle or campaign in a specific war. Create a tab for each candidate in a specific election. Have students or student groups (13 and over) create Livebinder "tours" or annotated collections on a topic such as the pros and cons of organic foods, a cultural tour of a country, or applications of geometry in architecture. Of course their student-written annotations and commentary will be key to make these collections into meaningful products. They might even create tasks and questions for other students to try to learn about the topic. If you are simply looking for a way to share technology-infused project assignments with students from grade 2 and up, a teacher-made Livebinder is an easy way to do it, and you can share the assignment with parents and learning support teachers by simply providing the URL. Parent permission advised before posting student work created using this tool Includes Interaction w general public/ public galleries with unmoderated content Requires registration/log-in (WITH email) Products can be embedded Products can be shared by URL Multiple users can collaborate on the same project Includes teacher tools for registering and/or monitoring students I've used LIveBinder successfully at the 3rd/4th grade level to share web pages with students on specific subjects and topics. My students went back to the binders to read more, even when that unit was finished. I also create and fill binders as I am planning and gathering webpages as I plan my units.Linda, IL, Grades: 3 - 4 Takes some getting used to, instructions not as clear as they could be, but very helpful for sharing lots of resources that share a common theme.Frances, CT, Grades: 6 - 8 GradesK to 7 In the ClassroomThis colorful website will appeal to lower elementary students immediately, but its activities are stimulating for older students as well. Share this site on your interactive whiteboard. Have pairs of students explore the site together and create multimedia presentations to share with the class. You could create a class wiki for students to share their thoughts on the podcasts, video clips, or artwork. Not comfortable with wikis? Have no wiki worries - check out the TeachersFirst's Wiki Walk-Through. Another idea, have students create online books demonstrating their new knowledge using a site such as Bookemon, reviewed here. Grades5 to 12 In the ClassroomWhile this is a free site, in order to participate in all its functions, each student will need to sign up for a "flork" account which is open to worldwide use and discussion forums. Teachers may want to limit student use to the content that does not require membership or use a whole-class account created by the teacher. This site could be used with an interactive whiteboard or projector to illustrate how author selection works and show relationships between similar authors. Students may search individually for new authors. In higher level literature classes, ask students to explain why certain authors are shown as similar. What similarities do they see? Have students use this question as a prompt for a blog post or full expository writing piece. GradesK to 8 In the ClassroomStudents can use the activities on this site to help improve those all important problem solving and critical thinking skills. Each activity starts out easy and then builds to more difficult situations. This site can be used as a center in the classroom, in the computer lab as an activity, or at home for extended problem-solving practice. Tie games into geometry, scientific method (hypothesis testing), design and composition, and many other curriculum concepts. Primary teachers can reinforce basic sequencing with maze games. Challenge your students to build informational writing skills buy writing their own desriptions or directions for a favorite game. Share the writing pieces on your class wiki. Not comfortable with wikis? Check out the TeachersFirst's Wiki Walk-Through. Grades2 to 12 tag(s): vocabulary (314) In the ClassroomThis site does far more than aid memorization. Reading teachers can also use it to teach comprehension skills, such as using context clues to determine meaning in a paragraph. Paste in the paragraph (perhaps a passage from a non-fiction science or social studies article) and use this tool on your interactive whiteboard for students to "figure out" the missing words. Do the same with world language texts to reverse match using subject verb agreement and to analyze missing content using inflected endings. In science class, use this site to remove clues from a paragraph explaining a concepts or terms, subtracting information and having students fill it back in as they review for test and quizzes. Learning support teachers will love this option! Enter passage students write that include new vocabulary words, letting students challenge each other by subtracting portions. Speech and language teachers can use this tool to provide practice with expressive language. For work with memorization, use this site with popular song lyrics in class. Listen to the song first and give the students the lyrics to be memorized. Or, go to YouLyrics (if district policy allows) to get the song and see a video of it and then have the students use this site to help them memorize the lyrics. ESL, ELL, and students of other languages will enjoy memorizing songs which helps them improve their vocabulary and accent. Use this site in a group by projecting the screen on a whiteboard or projector and systematically show fewer and fewer words on the screen. Have teams of students compete against each other by writing the text as quickly as possible on two boards in the classroom. Share this link on your class website for students to use both in and out of the class to memorize new information. Share it as a personal study skills tool, as well. GradesK to 12 This site includes advertising. In the ClassroomNo registration is needed to use this free, web based application. Users need to be able to find an appropriate You Tube video and know where the start and end times of the portion they wish to cut. If more than one portion is wanted from the video (i.e. remove the whole middle), users will have to create two chopped segments which can be posted separately. First, select the video you want to use. If the URL is not known, no problem. Search for the video within TubeChop itself. Once the video is selected, click the "Chop" button. Select the part you want by dragging the two black sliders that appear under the video to choose the desired start and end times of your chopped piece. It is helpful to note the time markers when you are previewing the original video and then move the markers to those points. Once your chopped piece has been chosen, simply click "Chop it." The chopped video appears with its own Tubechop link. Copy the embed code to share the video on your blog or website. The embed code is easily entered on a wiki as well. If YouTube is blocked in your district, Tubechop videos will not show, either, since they are "pulled" from YouTube. Check school access before you plan to use TubeChop! (When tested in a district that blocks You Tube, the actual Tube Chop video did not play.) Be sure to check District policy about use of You Tube videos. Even if YouTube is not filtered, as with all resources used in the classroom, be sure to preview the appropriateness of the video before using in the classroom. TubeChop removes unwanted material whether inappropriate or not needed for that particular lesson. Choose only portions needed for use in that particular lesson or remove unwanted portions that are inappropriate (or boring!) Create little clips to use as a webquest. Though it is time consuming, it would be easier for younger students to focus on smaller pieces of video to locate information. Chop small pieces of video for use as writing prompts for essays, creative writing, or blog posts. Chop portions of videos showing different viewpoints or arguments to any scientific, political, economic, or historical event. Use in the Arts to showcase music, dance, art, or other creative pursuits. Use chopped portions of video footage captured by the public to compare with news accounts to uncover bias and discuss perspective. TubeChop is a great tool to select one part of some YouTube video, but if you are interested in selecting multiple parts of the same video, then you will need something else. I've found www.vibby.com to be great for this purpose - and it even allows annotating and commenting each specific part!Toni, , Grades: 0 - 12 GradesK to 12 tag(s): news (258) In the ClassroomCheck here for well-developed lesson plans for a specific topic you'd like to teach. Or scroll through the offerings for your grade level and subject. Complete directions for each lesson plan will guide you through how you can use it in the classroom. Share the interactive or photos on your projector or interactive whiteboard. Save this site in your favorites to visit often for some new ways to freshen up the content in your class. GradesK to 5 In the ClassroomUse these videos as starters for discussions in class. These videos could be used as whole class activities on your projector or interactive whiteboard or individually (don't forget the headsets). You may also want to create a story learning center where students can view the videos in small groups or individual computers. Many topics are discussed with these classic videos from Sesame Street, Disney, Muppets, PBS, and more. Grades9 to 12 In the ClassroomStudents will love this site for reviewing and preparing for exams. Share this link on your class website for students to access both in and out of the classroom. Take advantage of the FREE study guides. Why not have cooperative learning groups investigate specific topics relative to your current unit of study and create multimedia presentation. Create podcasts, using a site such as PodOmatic (reviewed here). Have students create a Have students create an annotated image including text boxes and related links using a tool such as Thinglink, reviewed here. Challenge students to find a photo (legally permitted to be reproduced), and then narrate the photo as if it is a news report about the event or topic. To find Creative Commons images for student projects (with credit, of course), try Compfight, reviewed here. Teachers can also use this site to differentiate between the typical lectures used to teach a US history project. Use the images on this site to create a "picture walk" in your classroom, introducing any one of the topics offered. Select 10-15 of the more powerful and diverse images, hanging them up in different locations around your classroom. Have students rotate around the classroom every 30-45 seconds, jotting down what they observe and infer about each image until the entire class has completed the circuit. After the class is back in their seats, have a class discussion based on what they observed and what this says about the topic. Grades3 to 12 tag(s): music theory (44) In the ClassroomTest this site to be sure you can open it at school. Then turn up your speakers and open this site on a projector or -- even better -- interactive whiteboard to begin a music class, discuss key signatures, pitch, or instrumentation, and allow students to mix and remix their choice of sounds in harmonious blend. In science class, use the various sounds and an oscilloscope to teach about sound waves and the physical nature of sound. Challenge your musically gifted students to create a very simple version of this musical "machine" by recording and embedding videos of their own in a class music and technology wiki. Upload the videos to a school-friendly site such as SchoolTube reviewed here or TeacherTube reviewed here to avoid filtering issues. Set up a simpler face-to-face option by allowing student "conductors" to "turn on and off" multiple instruments and objects in your music classroom all playing the same pitch. GradesK to 12 This site includes advertising. In the ClassroomYou need to know how to browse and upload a file from your computer or find the URL of an image already on the web (one you can legally use, of course!). Make sure students are aware of copyright laws. Use this site to encourage proper use of photographs that students have the authorization to use. Model including appropriate photo credits on the posters. Younger students can use this tool together as a whole-class activity or simply enjoy the posters their teacher creates. Have students create a picture about what has been studied with a caption of what has been learned. For example, create posters about predators and prey or classifications of animals. Students can create a poster of a study skill or learning activity that helps them learn. Create a caption that explains how the student learns the best. Every subject area can use this resource to create interesting presentation posters for display or as springboards to talk about what was learned. For example, in Biology, students could create a poster about a cell part with a clever caption about the importance of the job. In Literature or History, students can create posters about the perspectives of others in the story or at that time of history. Rather than a traditional research project. Have cooperative learning groups use this site to show their knowledge in any subject area. Ask students to apply concepts such as constitutional rights by illustrating them in poster images with captions. Teachers can create bulletin board images, as well. Have a classroom motivation poster competition to start off the school year! Share the winners on your class wiki or in a PowerPoint presentation at back to school night/open house. As special occasions approach, have students bring in or take a digital picture they can make into a poster as a family gift with their own inspirational saying. GradesK to 8 In the ClassroomUse these minute-length videos to introduce a topic on your interactive whiteboard or projector. These would also make a great introduction to writing prompts or blog posts. Consider using these as examples for one minute projects for students to demonstrate understanding for any topic or content area (and make accompanying quizzes for their peers to try). Have cooperative learning groups view videos of their choice and add their findings to your class "One Minute Wonder Wiki." Not comfortable with wikis? Have no wiki worries - check out the TeachersFirst's Wiki Walk-Through. In lower grades, have students plan and act out their own one minute wonder plays to explain something they have learned or simply share the videos as humorous but accurate portrayals of science topics. American students will need to grow accustomed to the British accents. Grades2 to 12 In the ClassroomShare specific activities on your interactive whiteboard or projector. Teachers should provide the address URL of the actual game to prevent students from accessing other games (or advertisements that you may wish to avoid). Use these interactives as individual activities or in groups to learn a variety of data. For example, play "Element by Symbol" to review the names of the elements of the periodic table by knowing the names of the symbols. This game entertained this science teacher editor and her chemistry student son for fifteen minutes. Enjoy other science games or in subjects such as Geography, History, or Literature. Use the unknown answers that are shown at the end to create study cards in order to improve scores the next time. Grades4 to 10 tag(s): air (146) In the ClassroomUse these lessons as part of a unit in social studies, Family and Consumer Science, or several other subjects. Take your students on a visit to a local food coop or invite one of their members to speak to your class live or via Skype (explained here.). Have students do a project comparing coop grocery sales with the more commercial establishments. Maybe even have student groups create an online Venn Diagram comparing the two using a site such as Interactive Two Circle Venn Diagram (reviewed here). If you have international students from the Dominican Republic or other cocoa producing countries, share this site with them and allow them to compare what the students say on the video to their own experiences. Create your own videotaped interviews with food growers or their families. Share the videos using a tool such as Teachers.TV reviewed here. Grades6 to 12 In the ClassroomShare the graphics on an interactive whiteboard or projector. Use data visualizations to ask questions about interactions among the parts shown. For example, use any of the food chain visualizations to look at the interactions in the chains and identify roles of organisms. Ask students to use the whiteboard tools to explain how the visual "shows" the underlying information. Be prepared for less visual students to struggle while more visual students thrive using such a tool. Share the interesting map graphics in geography class. Use this at the beginning of a discussion and identify the organisms in the chain to uncover the relationships. Use the graphics for creative writing projects (displaying the graphic on a whiteboard while students react in writing). Ask your gifted students to choose a graphic they particularly enjoy as an inspiration to create one of their own. GradesK to 8 In the ClassroomThe site is so simple, you can utilize the entire pre-prepared curriculum and lesson plans or just add pieces of it to your current curriculum. Integrate the lessons into your language arts component as cross-curricular activities. The pre-K to 1st grade activities and curriculum are available in Spanish. Choose the Spanish version for ESL/ELL lessons or enrichment activities. The Spanish version would be a great supplement for secondary Spanish teachers. Have your science or health class create a Heart Health wiki or use Click2Map, reviewed here, to map out walking landmarks for your community. GradesK to 6 In the ClassroomUse the activities, videos, songs, and puzzles to reinforce the lessons during center time. Have students create their own superkids character using their favorite fruit or vegetable. Students can compile their own fact sheets using the information provided on the website. Have students report to the class all of the pertinent information they located about their assigned fruit or vegetable and the overall affects it has on their diet and within their body. Conduct a taste-testing for students to try new fruits and vegetables on the list. Check out Mia Mango's Recipe Maker by allowing students to create and name their own recipes and proceed to make them in class or at home. Be sure to catch some of the activities on video (if district policy allows) and share the video using a site such as SchoolTube reviewed here. Consider having students video their own cooking show or short commercial. Send a list of the superkids characters home and have families choose 5 new fruits or vegetables from the list to try together. Encourage families to post their comments about the new fruits and vegetables to the class blog. Grades5 to 12 NOTE: Music on this site is submitted by the general musical public and may include lyrics inappropriate for school. The "Hip Hop" genre includes some inappropriate offerings, so teachers will want to decide the best way to handle use of this site by students. Each genre has its own URL, so it is possible to make only certain areas available. The "classical," "jazz" and other instrumental areas are safer. Depending on the maturity and trustworthiness of students, teachers may want to directly supervise use of this site. Listeners can find their favorite music by browsing through the many genre categories or trying some of the daily featured artists.Besides music files, there are artist and album profiles, and listeners can star favorites. tag(s): air (146)

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V.S. Naipaul once wrote that Indian indentured labourers to Trinidad came from an 'old and perhaps an ancient India' untouched by 'the great Indian reform movements of the nineteenth century'. The Indian migrants Naipaul referred to were part of a movement of humanity which began soon after the abolition of slavery. In response to a request by white settlers in the sugar growing colonies for labour, the British Government turned to India and began recruiting workers from the populous United Provinces (Uttar Pradesh) and Bihar in the first instance to work in the sugar plantations of British Guiana (Guyana), Dutch Guiana (Surinam), Trinidad, Mauritius, South Africa and, finally, Fiji. This movement of labour spanned some eighty years, from 1840 to 1917, when the 'new system of slavery' was finally abolished. Thus began the saga of indenture, or girmit, as it came to be known by the indentured labourers themselves. The 'agreement' that had to be signed, through a characteristic process of linguistic transformation, became girmit, the contract now representing an entire ethos, a legend, a tyranny, and, finally, a history and an ideology. What V.S. Naipaul referred to was in fact a background which would affect the psychology of these migrant Indians and would become, in years to come, a defining feature of the three million or so Indians of the Indian diaspora. Since these Indians came, on the whole, from a relatively homogeneous part of India, they developed a language (a variant of Bhojpuri and Standard Hindi) which quickly became the language of the indentured labourers regardless of their place of origin. Such was the impact of this language that indentured labourers to these plantations from other linguistic groups (Tamil, Telegu, Malayalam and Bengali for instance) quickly adopted this language. Subsequent free migrants too, notably from Gujerat and the Punjab, acquired this language with a speed that has confounded linguists. Some 60,000 Indians came to Fiji during indenture which, for Fiji, began in 1879 with the arrival of 467 labourers on the Leonidas. The initial batch of indentured labourers were from North India, mainly Hindus and peasant in origin. By the time the system came to an end the Indian population in Fiji stood at a few thousand above the 60,000 figure with small additions to it being made by the migration of free traders from India. The population also reflected in a microcosm the caste and linguistic divisions of India itself. The unified experience of indenture and the remarkable linguistic homogeneity that followed helped in the creation of a phenomenon to which I gave the term 'Girmit ideology' some fifteen years ago. Though internally ruptured and empirically elusive, this 'Girmit ideology' unites the experience of indentured labourers of the Indian diaspora, from Natal to Fiji, from Mauritius to Trinidad. Like any ideology, however, its strength lay precisely in its capacity to falsify reality and project itself unwittingly, though appealingly, as an imaginary set of beliefs which nevertheless is invoked as a point of reference for purposes of (spurious) legitimation. The Indian fragment in Fiji constructed imaginary belief systems for its own self-authentication, self-generation and legitimation. But the Indians themselves were essentially a fragment which had been forcefully wrenched from its centre. For the Girmitiyas (the indentured labourers) their life in Fiji was retrospectively seen as a deception played upon them by recruiting agents (arkatis) who convinced them of future possibilities filled with millenarian expectations. This dual process - the logic of a fragment and the process of millenarianism - led to a Fiji Indian cultural complex which is both specific to that racial group as well as connects it to the larger Girmitiya diaspora around the world. As Australian settler society knows only too well, one of the characteristics of any fragment is that it very quickly becomes fossilised. The principle of dynamic growth which is at the very centre of the contradictions of the land left behind is replaced by a synchronic principle which 'stills' history and constructs a world based upon fantasies which have no real foundation in fact. In this respect the Fiji Indian fragment was no different. The imaginative world of Satendra Nandan grows out of the special predicament of this Indian fragment in Fiji. It is built around an intuitive grasp of the Girmit ideology, which Nandan occasionally blasts open, often parodies, but invariably enters into through a process of self-dialogisation. To read Satendra Nandan's fables about Fiji has been, for me, a kind of a return to a past which I had repressed through something akin to racial amnesia. His fables confront me with uncanny specular images which haunt me and which rekindle a language and a cultural complex I left behind so many years ago. Like a ghost from one's past, Nandan's fictions suddenly energise my powers of imagination as they take me back to a world no longer available to me directly. What are the constituents of Satendra Nandan's fictive world that,years later, remind me of my own rootlessness, lack of permanence and, as if to over-compensate for an absence, my almost perverse idolisation of great (yet decaying) civilisations? The first thing that strikes me about The Wounded Sea is the enormous weight of an 'anxiety of influence' which stalks these pages. Behind the literature of the Indian diaspora stands the gigantic figure of V.S. Naipaul. It was Naipaul who gave form and language to the Girmit ideology; it was Naipaul who gave the Indian diaspora a distinctive discourse and a consciousness. Two fictive figures borrowed from Naipaul - Biswas and Ganesh Pandit - sum up Nandan's character types: the tragic hero, Biswas, trapped in the contradictions of the fragment and its fictions, finally, fails to recognise himself in the mirror, and the comic hero, Ganesh, seeking release from the girmit ideology through the mastery of a colonial language. By introjecting the Girmit ideology and transforming it into a comic discourse, the comic heroes plunge on regardless; the tragic hero, a shadow of the totality left behind, play out Gautama's curse from which release is possible only through Rama, himself banished. In a way Naipaul is the literary precursor for Nandan, a 'structure of possibility', defining limits and suggesting alternatives. Great writers have the capacity to do this since great writers, as Foucault once said, are founders of discursivity. Naipaul is the founder par excellence of the Girmitiya discourse. What other writers of the Indian diaspora will have to do is embellish that discourse, add to it, challenge it, destabilise it and yet recognise that founding discourses - like those of Marx or Freud - can never be dislodged. In this respect I believe Satendra Nandan adds to the Naipaul discourse through a writing which modifies it. Where Naipaul, the monolingual Girmitiya, transformed a Hindi discourse into English, Nandan brings the discourse of the colonised to the fore, thereby simultaneously appropriating and abrogating the language of the coloniser, and problematising bilingual writing itself. Naipaul finds a centre, a fictive order by, initially, positioning himself at the very heart of oppositions and tensions in the Girmit ideology itself. It is a device not unknown to Western literature, and certainly not unknown to Indian literature where the authorial voice often expresses itself in a signature line such as kahata kabira suno bhai sadhu ('says Kabir, the poet, listen to me fellow saints'). The centre in Nandan's fiction is also the self; the beginning of all his narratives is the writer himself. This is not to say that what we have here are simply autobiographical pieces. No, that is certainly not the case. In fact Nandan transforms his 'memorial reconstructions' (since the memories are really of 'texts') through a strategy of polyphonic composition. Here the narrator's own sympathies never remain fixed as other voices destabilise the seeming monological imperialism of the narrator. As a consequence a plethora of voices invade Nandan's text as the various utterances of the grandfather, the father, the son, the Fijians, the school master or the priest struggle for momentary ascendancy. In the Mahabharata such multiplicity of voices is marked by the use of the Sanskrit verb uvaca (said or spoke) alongside the speaker to indicate his/her quite independent narrative presence. Discovering the Naipaul text in Nandan is, however, not necessarily the central nor indeed the primary role of the informed reader. What the reader like myself discovers beyond the influence of the precursor text are the ways in which the Indian fragment reconstituted itself and the texts that framed the life of the fragment. The crucial text that emerges in these fables is the Ramacaritamanasa of Tulasidasa (1532-1623), the Avadhi -Hindi re-writing of the Sanskrit epic the Ramayana. Popularly known as the 'Ramayan', this vernacular version of the Sanskrit classic seems to have acquired the status of the 'Book' among the Hindu Fiji Indians. The concept of the 'Book' or the single 'Holy Text' invested with all moral and spiritual authority is something new though it is clear that peasant North India had in fact given the Tulasidasa Ramayana something of this auratic status. Yet in India, where textual heterogeneity and ritual seem to be the over-riding principles, the power of the single book had to compete with other texts and rituals. In the Fiji Indian fragment, probably in response to the Christian missionary's emphasis on the Bible as the ultimate 'Book', the Ramayana found an extraordinary receptivity and soon became the pre-eminent text. In many ways the principle of fictive order that Naipaul imposes finds an earlier expression in the dharmic order always already present in Tulasidasa's 'book'. The narrative structure of Rama's banishment is already there, as are the discourses on suffering and salvation, the renouncer and the man-of-the-world, and the paths that lead one towards human perfection. The narrative of Rama's banishment is an underlying structural imperative of Fiji Indian culture and society. Its force lies not in any vulgar homologisation - as if Fiji Indians consciously played out this structure - rather it is a function of the complex transformation of the fossil society itself as it attempts to construct a narrative to explain its own existence in terms of the only available and shared discourse in which a similar act of displacement or banishment had been documented. Satendra Nandan's work expresses the agony of banishment in other forms but the narratives are written against the backdrop of this 'primal' banishment. Thus the complete inclusiveness of the village world, its closed world-order and most importantly its myths and idioms are informed, at every point, by a complex transformational process which, finally, left the Fiji Indian with an ideology which was dated and bereft of any revolutionary impetus. A fossil retreated into its memories of a prior narrative which was itself an uncritical glorification of a mythic past, with its sexism, racism and caste ideology intact. It is this dominance of a fictional imperative that takes me to the second crucial historical 'moment' after the foundation event itself that informs The Wounded Sea . This 'moment' was the Fijian rebellion of May 14, 1987. Exactly 108 years after the arrival of the Leonidas in Fijian waters, the Fijian coup confounded the Fiji Indians at the very moment when, through political power, one kind of millenarian fulfilment was within their grasp. If the Girmit ideology was a consequence of a repression based upon unfulfilled expectations, if the Fiji Indian could be cured only by a political act which would legitimate his/her existence in a land to which he/she had been banished, then the Fijian rebellion effectively brought an end to that possibility. The repressed returned to haunt them and the Indian fragment was left in a state of shock. The fictions which the fragment had internalised - the pre-eminence of parliamentary democracy, the contradictory obsession with all things colonial and Indian Ð when my father built his house in 1959, the first thing he did was cover the wooden floorboards with lino and place pictures of Gandhi and Nehru on the walls (he also painted the outside walls of the house blue and red) Ð manifested themselves for what they were, an empty ideology responding to psychological rather than social needs. The Girmit ideology lay in tatters, its believers distraught; there was no self-sustaining belief system since the ideology was always retrospective, a racial memory. The cure for the Fiji Indians lay in political power and this was denied them. Without the dynamic tensions of the centre left behind, the Indian fossil turned inwards and panicked. It could not respond through any radical action, since its own commitment to Fiji remained so deeply ambiguous. The Fiji-Indians, as a relatively homogeneous and self-sufficient community, trapped in a cultural time-warp which existed only as a fragment and not as a political totality, relapsed into a pathetic rhetoric which could not grasp the real issues at stake. The peculiar logic of the Indian psychology and even the inevitability of the Fijian rebellion seem to me to be so prophetically implicit in Satendra Nandan's fictions. In this respect The Wounded Sea offers both representations of the fragment as well as its simultaneous critique. If literature is to be critically read as much by the unsaid, the marginalised, as by the said, the central, then Nandan's curious absences, negations and self-enclosed imaginative worlds are equally important points of entry for purposes of critical interpretation. In other words, the ideological flaws in this fragment's world-order from which Nandan himself is not immune and which makes immensely problematic Nandan's own position on the fundamental question of race in Fiji (marked, for instance, in his rejection of the Fijian 'Other' and the failure to define the Fiji-Indian self in terms of this 'Other') are heightened precisely by the self-enclosed world of The Wounded Sea. It is a kind of a black-hole theory of race relations in which self-sufficiency and gestalt replace interaction and mutual dependence.And in this crucial sense Nandan is never able to transcend the blinkered racial lebenswelt of the Fiji Indian. Thus when the Fijians do invade the text, they are there as already formed texts, as racial stereotypes such as the comic village chief and the screaming brothers of the Fijian girl framed, finally, in an essentially scatological discourse. It is informative at this point to recall the way in which the entire tradition of the carnivaleque and scatology is so much more powerfully deployed by another Pacific writer Epeli Hau'ofa in his hilarious Kisses in the Nederends (Auckland,1987). Here we get an ethnographic narrative that uses the oral traditions of the culture of the informants and grafts them upon a massively silenced underside of the bourgeois novel. Rabelais and the picaresque rather than the dominant discourses of realism now invade the texts of the Other as it seeks to legitimate itself through writing. In Hau'ofa one gets a reworking of the parable of the chief of the Nambakawara tribe stoically responding to Levi-Strauss's notes, his ciphers, on paper. Nandan, however, avoids any real encounter with the Fijian Other because he has no unmediated access to it (as Epeli Hau'ofa has). For both races - Indian and Fijian - the 'Other' has existed only as scattered idiomatic phrases (kai si bakola, kai Idia, magaichinamu, rakshasha, junglee, etc.). The 'Other' never became a legitimate object of knowledge in its own right. A hundred years later neither the Fijian nor the Indian understood each other's social practices. And Nandan's fiction refuses to intervene except to caricature. Throughout The Wounded Sea the generic conventions and discursive domain of comedy mediates between the irreconcilable yearnings of the rootless fragment for its past, and its desire to adapt to the new land. Humour, as any reader of Naipaul's Miguel Street would remember, is one way of bypassing censure and self-criticism. But the comic dimension is also precarious since it cannot, finally, prevent the hero from relapsing into madness: those whom the gods wish to destroy are first transformed into comedians and madmen. In one of the fables in Part II of The Wounded Sea the period of five years ('Five years have past' wrote Wordsworth) in an institution symbolises yet another banishment and typifies yet another possibility for the Fiji Indian - racial insanity. In this regard the hero's own affair with Joan is superimposed upon the fascination with things Indian, upon the 'Sitaness' of India, as it arose out of the fragment's reading of the pre-eminent text of the Hindus, the Ramayana . 'Our fate in Fiji', writes Nandan 'had echoes of the Ramayana: exile; suffering; separation; battles but no return' (p. 88). Yet this India too, through other forms of mediation, is never available to the Fiji Indian in its true, historic form. Its contradictions, its own multiplicities (linguistic, religious, cultural) are glossed over and replaced by its artificial projections, notably by Bombay Cinema. This Cinema projects a homogeneous India which is very much like the Fiji Indian fragment in that it is not fractured by linguistic, religious or caste divisions. The duplicities, the illusions of Bombay Cinema, reconstruct, for the Fiji Indians, a naive confirmation precisely of their own historical memory : Sita, the actress Nirupa Roy, the 'filmi' song 'ek ghar banaunga tere ghar ke samne'. In to this world enter the figures of Joan, the Indian expatriate, the lawyer, the politician, the priest, the magistrate, Birbal, Gautam, Ratu Reddy all of whom struggle to find a ground for their existence in a world no longer available to them in its simple colonial form. The Fiji Indian postcolonial must continue to live uneasily in a climate where the label of 'migrant race' will be periodically directed against them. As recently as 14 August 1991, Ratu Mara demonstrated the effectiveness of this label when he emphasised the need for a 'migrant race' to accept , more or less uncritically, a subservient political role in the new postcolonial world order. Out of this conjunction emerges Nandan's fictional autobiographical pieces which represent the essentially tragic world of the Fiji Indians. Its comic dimension is a social reality since it is an unconscious survival mechanism. Since tragedy is always around the corner, comedy alone can triumph over (even if momentarily) the immense rootlessness of the fragment. Satendra Nandan's tales explore a fragment society searching for concordance and a centre. Though the centre is never found, the pathos of the search continues to be played out through the comic mode: Mr Krishna Datt, another Labor minister in the Bavadra Government and the 'character' who snores heavily in the fourth part of The Wounded Sea (he has his own version of the events narrated by Nandan at this juncture) told me how comedy (of the Fiji-Indian variety) sustained them during those terrible days of political incarceration in Borron House. Behind the immense laughter and generosity of the Fiji Indian lies a trauma of almost Popol Vuh proportions. 'The Day of the Colonel' made that trauma a condition of being since the myths which were constructed to ward off certain insanity were destroyed forever. Like the tale of the Ancient Mariner, the act of writing, the act of telling, can only gesture helplessly towards the precarious unity of word and deed lost during the original banishment. For the twice-banished 'race' of the Indian diaspora generally, Satendra Nandan's writing is a cure for the return of the repressed. [This is a slightly revised version of a speech made at the launching of Satendra Nandan's The Wounded Sea (Sydney: Simon and Schuster, 1991) in Fremantle on March 6, 1991]. New: 30 December, 1996 | Now: 11 April, 2015

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When you read or hear about a condition such as Asperger’s Syndrome, it is common to come across technical and medical words that have little meaning to most people. Sometimes a common word is used in association with Asperger’s yet its relevance might not be known. A little while ago the Foundation commissioned a psychologist to do some research and as part of that process they produces a glossary of terms related to Asperger’s Syndrome. So if you are ever muddled or confused about a phrase someone has used, have a look in this glossary and hopefully we can help to straighten things out. NOTE: Like all information on this website the following is copyright to the Cloud 9 Children’s Foundation and is not to be reproduced without permission. Glossary of Terms and Information About Asperger’s Syndrome AFFECT Fluctuations of mood are frequently observed in children and adults with Asperger’s syndrome. Changes in mood can be observed in several variations: giggling or weeping for no apparent reason, absence of emotional responses or reactions to danger, excessive fearfulness or generalized anxiety. AGITATION See Psychomotor Agitation. ANXIETY As with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and panic attacks, anxiety and anxiety attacks have been argued to be a natural outgrowth from the ritualistic, perfectionist characteristics of Asperger’s. ASPERGER’S SYNDROME A condition at the more able end of the Autistic spectrum. Essential features of Asperger’s are severe and sustained impairment in social interaction and the development of restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, and activities. There are no clinically significant delays in language, cognitive development or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills, adaptive behaviour (other than in social interaction), and curiosity about the environment in childhood. Unlike people with ‘classic autism’ who often appear withdrawn and uninterested in the world around them, many people with Asperger’s syndrome try hard to be sociable and do not dislike human contact. ATYPICAL AUTISM Presentations that do not meet the criteria for Autism because of the late age of onset, unusual symptoms, or symptoms that do not meet the diagnostic criteria (see below) for diagnosis. AUDITORY INTEGRATION TRAINING (AIT) was developed in response to the theory that the sound sensitivity and consequent behavioural disturbance in autism could result from hearing disturbances. AIT involves the child/adult wearing earphones attached to a machine with a variety of auditory filters that allow the sound emitting from the machine to be modified for individuals. The machine filters and amplifies specially selected music as necessary and sends the music to each ear independently. Although not widely available, some research suggest that structure listening and AIT appears to help in reducing sound sensitivity in many, but not all, children who are sound sensitive. AIT is also called the “Tomatis Method” and “Auditory Stimulation”. AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDER A complex developmental disability that affects the way a person communicates and relates to people around them. The term autistic spectrum is often used because the condition varies from person to person; some people with the condition may also have accompanying learning disabilities, while others are much more able with average or above average intelligence. Despite the wide-ranging differences, everyone with a disorder on the spectrum has difficulty with interaction, social interaction and imagination. AUTISM The essential feature of Autism or Autistic Disorder is the presence of markedly abnormal or impaired development in social interaction, social communication and imagination, together with a very restricted range of activity and interests. BACKWARD CHAINING Many daily living skills involve children learning a sequence of actions, which are often broken down in small steps to help the child learn. Backward chaining is a process where the child is helped to complete the last step of a sequence only, at first. For example, in teaching a child how to put on a T-shirt, the T-shirt is put on, but the child is left to pull it down (initially with the physical prompt of an adult’s hand over theirs). Once the child can do this step unaided, they are gradually taught more steps until finally no help is needed. BROAD AUTISM PHENOTYPE Characteristics that are qualitatively similar, but milder than those that define autism – social and communication deficits and stereotyped, repetitive behaviours are present, but have less detrimental impact. These characteristics show familial aggregation in families with a member or members with Autism. CAUSES OF AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDERS The exact causes of Autistic spectrum disorders are still not known, but research shows that genetic factors are important. Autism is not the result of emotional deprivation or emotional stress, or parenting style. In some cases, Autistic spectrum disorders may be associated with conditions affecting brain development, such as maternal rubella, tuberous sclerosis, epilepsy and encephalitis. CHILDHOOD DISINTEGRATIVE DISORDER Also on the Autistic spectrum, this disorder is a marked regression in multiple areas of functioning following a period of at least two years of apparently normal development. CLUMSINESS Clumsy body language is sometimes seen in Autism and Asperger’s, but motor clumsiness is not a necessary part of the picture in all cases of Autism. COMMUNICATION Verbal : See Language Non-Verbal: Non-verbal communication problems you may see in Autism include: poor eye contact, posture, limited or inappropriate facial expression, clumsy body language, difficulty adjusting physical proximity and limited use of gestures. Nonverbal aspects of communication can be significantly different in Asperger’s syndrome. Non-verbal communication may be exaggerated, completely absent, or may appear to contradict verbal content. Children and adults also find it hard to understand non-verbal signals from others, including facial expressions. CONCRETENESS See mental rigidity. DAILY LIFE THERAPY (HIGASHI) Daily Life Therapy is a programme that aims to provide autistic children with a systematic education through group dynamics, modelling and physical activity. There are Higashi Schools in the UK and the USA. DEPRESSION In adolescence or early adulthood, individuals with Autism who have the intellectual capacity for insight may become isolated and depressed in response to the realisation of their serious impairment. Symptoms or signs may include significant changes in appetite (decreased or increased appetite), behaviour or sleeping patterns. People with Asperger’s often want to be sociable and are upset by the fact that they find it difficult to make friends. DESENSITISATION Some sensory integration therapists believe that it may be possible to reduce tactile defensiveness be gradually exposing the child with an Autistic disorder to touch in a way which is safe and enjoyable to them. DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA Diagnostic criteria are often used to help with diagnosing an individual within the Autistic spectrum and other conditions. All people with an Autistic spectrum condition have difficulties with social interaction, social communication and imagination. This is sometimes referred to as the triad of impairments, each of which must be present to meet the criteria for diagnosis: 1. Social interaction (difficulty with social relationships, e.g., appearing aloof and indifferent to other people). 2. Social communication (difficulty with verbal and non-verbal communication, e.g., not really understanding the meaning of gestures, facial expressions or tone of voice). 3. Imagination (difficulty in the development of play and imagination, e.g., having a limited range of imaginative activities, possibly copied and used repetitively). In addition to this triad, other diagnostic criteria include repetitive behaviour patterns and a resistance to change in routine. DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENTS Several instruments exist which were designed to assist with detecting autism, with variable reliability and validity. The most popularly used and reliable of these is the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (Schopler, Reichler & Renner, 1988) which is a 15-item structured interview and observation instrument for use with children over 24 months of age. It indicates the degree to which a child’s behaviour deviates from the age-appropriate norm, and it distinguished the degree of autism. The Parent Interview for Autism (Stone & Hogan, 1993) is designed to obtain diagnostically relevant information from parents of young children suspected of having autism. Other examples are the Autism Behaviour Checklist and the Behavioural Rating Instrument for Autistic and Other Atypical Children. DIETARY INTERVENTIONS Supporters of this type of intervention argue that certain foods or combinations of foods can have an aversive or beneficial effect on Autism. It now seems that some people with Autism may suffer a metabolic disorder causing them to be unable to completely digest certain foods. For some children, a special diet, such as eating no grain, wheat or diary products can help. Such children may be helped by going on what is known as a gluten (grain or wheat) and/or casein (diary) free diet. For others, taking vitamins, such as Vitamin B6 and magnesium is beneficial. DRUGS There is no drug that can cure Autism. However, some drugs can be used to help associated problems such as sleeping difficulties, hyperactive behavior etc. DYSPRAXIA Sometimes also called Developmental Co-ordination Disorder, Dyspraxia is often referred to as a disorder of gesture. Features of dyspraxia consist primarily of abnormal motor behavior such as difficulties with balance and co-ordination, limited gestural motor tasks, clumsiness, and difficulty with fine motor tasks. Developmental Verbal Dyspraxia refers to an intelligible or atypical speech production. Children and adults with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder often show several signs of both verbal and motor dyspraxia. Dyspraxia in children is often compared to and contrasted with adult acquired apraxia. ECHOLIA A parrot-like repetition of a word or phrase just spoken by another person. This echoing is apparently senseless and without meaning. EDUCATION This is thought to be one of the best ways of helping children with Autism and there are a number of methods of teaching that can help. Some children attend special schools where teachers are specially trained in teaching children with Autism, whereas other children attend mainstream schools. EGOCENTRICITY Egocentrism is a bias toward interpreting events from your own (ego’s) point of view without taking into consideration alternative (other people’s) perspectives. Between the ages of about 5 and 12 years a child’s tendency to be egocentric usually declines which can increase the effectiveness of communication as children are able to consider the views of others, anticipate how others will behave and develop skills at negotiating social interactions with peers. Children with Autism however, often do not experience the normal developmental decline in egocentricity, which in turn limits the above communicative and imaginative abilities. EMPATHY Empathy is the ability to understand how only people are feeling and to identify with the likely emotions. Developing empathy involves several processes: recognizing the emotional state of another person; perspective taking; having a similar emotional response; and acting on it (e.g., expressing sympathy). People with Asperger’s often have difficulty expressing or feeling empathy because of not being able to complete one or more of these processes involved in developing empathy. FACILITATED COMMUNICATION At times controversial, FC is used as an alternative means of communication for people with no, or extremely dysfunctional speech. The FC facilitator normally supports a client’s hand, wrist or arm while that person uses a communicator to spell out words, phrases or sentences. Use of FC with people with autism is centred on the notion that many of the difficulties faced are due to a movement disorder, rather than social or communication deficits. GENETICS Although the exact causes of Autistic spectrum disorders are still not known, research shows that genetic factors are important. Twin and family studies clearly support genetic factors as important in Autism, but linkage analysis studies indicate that many genes may be involved. GRAPHOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT Those fine motor skills associated with handwriting and drawing. HOLDING THERAPY An approach to behavior management which involves forcibly holding and hugging the autistic child until they stop resisting. Holding Therapy was primarily used in the 1980’s, but has since declined in popularity because of the large amount of evidence that it is extremely distressing, aversive and stressful for the child. It is now believed by a majority of people with, and working with an Autistic disorder, that the most effective management approach is a non-aversive one that does not use punishment or physical restraint, and reduces stress and anxiety. HYPERACUSIS Excessive auditory sensitivity. HYPERLEXIA A precocious ability to rote – read at an early age. Can be a common feature of the learning profile in Asperger’s syndrome. IDIOPATHIC LEARNING DISABILITY Idiopathic means a disorder of unknown cause. IMAGINATION While they often excel at learning facts and figures, people with Asperger’s find it hard to think in abstract ways. This can cause problems for children in school where they may have difficulty with certain subjects such as English or creative writing. KANNER SYNDROME Also on the Autistic spectrum. Sometimes referred to as ‘classic autism’. People with Asperger’s tend to have average or above average intelligence and so generally have fewer problems with language than classic autism. People with autism often speak fluently, although their words can sometimes sound formal or stilted. Vocal characteristics can be very different in children with Asperger’s syndrome, whose voices may sound rather flat, due to monotone, robotic phrasing and inflection patterns. Figurative Language Despite having good language skills, people with Asperger’s syndrome may sound over precise or over-literal. Jokes can cause problems as can exaggerated language and metaphors, e.g., a person with Asperger’s may be confused or frightened by a statement like “she bit my head off”. Receptive Language Although people with Asperger’s may speak very fluently, but they may not take much notice of the reaction of people listening to them; e.g., they may talk on and on regardless of the listener’s interest and may appear insensitive to other people’s feelings. Typically language is understood and used very literally, and while they often excel at learning facts and figures, Asperger’s children and adults find it hard to think in abstract ways. Pragmatic Language Pragmatic or conversational language skills are often weak because of problems with turn-taking, unsociable comments, interrupting, a tendency to revert to areas of special interest, or difficulty sustaining the “give-and-take” of conversations. Communication is sometimes described as “talking at” others, e.g., monologue on a favorite subject that continues despite attempts at others to interject comments. LOVAAS The LOVAAS method is an early intensive behaviour therapy approach for children with autism and other related disorders. It is both a clinic based and home-supported based programme, with (now) an emphasis on positively reinforcing learnt skills with food, a toy, and gradually moving through to more social and everyday reinforcers such as hugs and tickles. All skills are broken down into small tasks that are achievable and taught in a very structured manner, accompanied by lots of praise and reinforcement. MANUAL DEXTERITY This area of movement skills involves the ability to use both hands, for example – learning to dress, eat with utensils, tie shoelaces. This may also extend to the co-ordination of feet and legs as in learning to ride a bicycle. Manual dexterity can be difficult, limited or absent in Autism. MENTAL RETARDATION The relation between autism and intellectually handicap has been a source of confusion for a long time. Many have noted that the intellectual impairments in people with Autism resemble the limitations of intellectually handicapped people. Compared with intellectually handicapped people however, individuals with Autism have more intellectual strengths – which can be above average in some areas – and a wider spread between their skills and deficits. Gross motor skills of autistic children also tend to be stronger. Intellectually handicapped children however, generally have better social and communication skills in relation to their overall developmental levels. The relationship between autism and intellectual handicap has been clarified more recently with the acknowledgement that autism can and does co-exist with other disabilities – the most common of which is “mental retardation” (current estimates of co-morbidity are 70%). MENTAL RIGIDITY Thinking patterns can be very rigid in Autism. Concepts are viewed as black or white, with subtle variations very difficult to understand. For example, a specific number can be “few” in some situations, but “many” in another situation, it is all relative. This way of interpreting information is extremely challenging to individuals with Asperger’s syndrome. The egocentric features of Asperger’s also contribute to mental rigidity, as situations tend to be seen from their perspective only. MIND BLINDNESS An inability to pick up social cues and nuances (e.g., facial expressions). MONOTROPIC INTEREST SYSTEMS People with “monotropic interest systems”, including individuals with autism, have their attention fixed on isolated objects which are viewed as though through a tunnel, separate from the surrounding context. MOTOR SKILLS / MOVEMENT Motor skills can be divided into two broad categories. Fine motor skills consists of activities such as writing with a pen/pencil, doing up buttons and eating with utensils. Gross motor skills involve the coordination and development of larger activities such as kicking a ball, running, swimming and jumping. To varying degrees both fine and gross motor skill development can be impaired in children with Autism. MUSIC THERAPY Supporters of music therapy argue that music can stimulate and develop more meaningful and playful communication in people with Autism. Music therapy is led by a trained musician, and most rely on spontaneous musical improvisation, where the therapist uses percussion or tuned instruments, or their own voice, to respond creatively to the sounds produced by the child/adult, and encourage the child to create his or her own musical language. MUSICAL INTERACTION THERAPY (MIT) has been used with Autistic children at certain schools to reinforce speech-language therapy, rather than used on its own. MIT differs from music therapy in that the musical interaction therapy practitioner is not required to be a musician. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) Has been argued to sometimes be a natural outgrowth from the ritualistic, perfectionist characteristics of Asperger’s for some individuals. OPTIONS SON-RISE PROGRAMMEME This programme uses an interactive approach to early intervention – emphasizing the importance of developing a relationship and communication between the child and parents. The programme is child-centered: the child is not judged and their behaviors are not seen as good or bad, rather the child is seen to be doing the best he/she can. The Son-Rise philosophy encourages the parent (or therapist, instructor of facilitator) to “become the student of the child’s world, observing, learning, assisting and supporting the child’s development in a loving and non-judgmental environment”. Parents are trained and then set up and manage the programme in their own home. Options Son-Rise programmes are especially popular in the UK and USA> PANIC ATTACKS As with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and anxiety attacks, panic attacks have been argued to be a natural outgrowth from the ritualistic, perfectionist characteristics of Asperger’s. PERSEVERATION The tendency to repeat a certain phrase or activity despite other’s attempts to interrupt, other’s disinterest or fatigue. Perseveration can be seen in Autistic people – particularly in the routines and ritualistic behaviour that often characterizes the Autistic Spectrum Disorders. PERVASIVE DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS (PDD) Disorders characterized by severe and pervasive impairment in several areas of development: reciprocal social interaction skills, communication skills, communication skills, or the presence of stereotyped behaviour, interests and activities. Autism and Asperger’s both fall under the category of PDD as does Rett’s disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder and PDD – not otherwise specified (NOS). PERVASIVE DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER NOT OTHERWISE SPECIFIED A diagnosis of PDD-NOS (also called atypical Autism) may be made when a child does not meet the criteria for a specific diagnosis, but there is a severe and pervasive impairment in specified behaviors. PHYSIOTHERAPY Can be helpful to suggest strategies to improve gross-motor coordination. PICTURE SYMBOLS Not all children with Autism learn to speak, or they can only speak one or two words. It is therefore important to teach alternative forms of communication. One method that is increasingly being used is the Picture Exchange Communication System or PECS for short. This involves the child showing or pointing to a card with a picture. For example, if the child is thirsty, they can point to a picture of a cup. Gradually, the child learns to build up a sentence from cards, e.g., I want a drink. Alongside this, some children also learn to ask for what they want verbally. PRAGMATIC DEFICITS See Language: Pragmatic Language. PREVALENCE The prevalence of Autism is approximately 1 per 2000 people, the prevalence of Autism and Asperger’s together is 1 per 1000 people. Although it is not known why, boys are affected more than girls. For Autism the sex ratio is four males to one female, for Asperger’s syndrome, the ratio is nine males to one female. PROCESSING The ability to accurately attach meaning to stimuli. Can be impaired in some Autistic children and adults. PROSODY Often a flat or unusual tone, that can present as a ‘foreign accent’. Prosody means that there is a lack of vocal inflection, and a lack of varying pitch and volume levels, rate, rhythm and inflection. PROTO-DECLARATIVE POINTING This type of pointing is to declare an interest in something as opposed to proto-imperative pointing which is used for requesting something. Proto-declarative pointing is deficient in children with an autistic spectrum disorder. PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists can be helpful in both assessment and therapy of the autistic spectrum disorders. A psychologist may need to monitor emotional stability and provide counselling and education (information) services as needed if the child or adult becomes overwhelmed or frustrated. PSYCHOMOTOR AGITATION Excessive motor activity associated with a feeling of inner tension. The activity is usually non-productive, repetitious and consists of behaviour such as pacing, fidgeting, wringing hands, pulling of clothes and an inability to sit still. PSYCHOMOTOR RETARDATION A visible generalised slowing of movements and speech. REPETITIVE ACTIVITY / BEHAVIOUR Restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests and activities are one of the defining features of Asperger’s. These can be shown by at least one of the following: · An encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus. · Apparently inflexible adherence to specific, non-functional routines or rituals. · Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements). · Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. RETT’S SYNDROME Also on the Autistic spectrum, Rett’s syndrome is the development of multiple, specific deficits (e.g., loss of purposeful hand movements replaced with repetitive hand movements) following a period of normal functioning after birth, usually beginning between the ages of 1 and 4 years. To date, only occurs in girls. RITUALS People with Asperger’s often prefer to order their day according to a set pattern. Any enforced or perceived disruptions to their self-imposed rituals can cause anxiety or distress. ROUTINES For people with Asperger’s syndrome, any unexpected change in routine can be upsetting. Examples of routines used by Asperger’s children include: an insistence on following an identical route to school each day; a lengthy bed-time ritual; or the repetition of a sequence of odd bodily movements. Also see Repetitive Activity / Behavior. SELF INJURIOUS BEHAVIOUR Self-injurious behavior such as head banging and finger or hand biting are among the most extreme and frightening of the behaviors accompanying Autism. These occur in less than 10% of the Autistic population, but can be the most difficult to control or suggest a remedy for. SEMANTIC PRAGMATIC DISORDER Semantic Pragmatic Disorder was originally used to describe a developmental language disorder, affecting two aspects of communication: “semantics” and “pragmatics”. It belongs within the autistic spectrum and has the same underlying triad of socio-cognitive deficits as high functioning autism or Asperger’s. Partly because of the argument that “semantic pragmatic disorder” is not an appropriate diagnosis, but merely a descriptive term for the nature of communication difficulty found in verbal people with autism, the term is no longer used. SENSORY SENSITIVITIES Under- and over-responsitivity to sensory input are common in Autism; some children resist being touched while others ignore sensitivities like pain. Specific sounds or tastes fascinate many Autistic people. SLEEP PROBLEMS Problems with sleeping behavior are frequently observed in individuals with Asperger’s. Sleep problems often resolve themselves by adolescence, but can be difficult prior to then. Staying up all night is among the most difficult of the ongoing problems that parents face with young Autistic children. SOCIAL COMMUNICATION / INTERACTION Social characteristics you may see in a child with Autism include: · Communication concerns - doesn’t respond to his/her name - doesn’t point or wave goodbye - appears deaf at times - used to say a few words, now doesn’t - doesn’t follow directions - No babbling by 12 months - No gesturing by 12 months - No single words by 16 months · Social concerns - doesn’t smile socially - seems to prefer playing alone - has poor eye contact - is not interested in other children - tunes people out - is very independent - is in his/her own world - does things ‘early’ · Behavioral concerns - tantrums - hyperactive/oppositional/uncooperative - has unusual attachments to toys - is oversensitive to certain textures or sounds - has odd movement patterns SPECIAL INTERESTS People with Asperger’s often develop an almost obsessive interest in a hobby or collection. Usually their interest involves arranging or memorizing facts about a specialist subject. SPECTRUM DISORDERS Autism is a spectrum disorder which means that the symptoms and characteristics of Autism can present themselves in a wide variety of combinations from relatively mild to severe. Although Autism is defined by a certain set of behaviors, children and adults can exhibit any combination of the behaviors in any degree of severity. SPEECH LANGUAGE THERAPY (SLT) can be very useful for Autistic children with a speech impediment, limited or no speech skills. SPELL SPELL is an acronym for Structure, Positive, Empathy, Low Arousal, and Links. It is the method of intervention used by the National Autistic Society (NAS) in the United Kingdom. NAS say the SPELL approach has been refined to recognize the individuality of each child or adult with an Autistic spectrum disorder including Asperger’s. It is a holistic approach that sees every child/adult as a unique individual while acknowledging that they share similar experiences and difficulties. They say SPELL describes the necessary environment and support environment that enables the child to learn while minimizing stress. NAS’s description of the SPELL approach is as follows: · Structure: helps the child to make sense of a very confusing world. · Positive: attitudes and appropriately pitched expectations enhance the child’s self esteem and self-confidence. · Empathy: Empathy is crucial to see the world from the child’s unique viewpoint and to understand their perceptions. · Low Arousal: The child’s learning environment needs to be clear, calm and clutter free. · Links: With parents and mainstream education. STATISTICS See Prevalence. STEREOTYPED MOVEMENTS Repetitive, seemingly driven, and non-functional motor behaviour. Examples include hand shaking or waving, body rocking, head banging, mouthing of objects, self-biting, picking at skin, hitting one’s own body. Also see repetitive activity / behaviour. STIMMING Self stimulating behavior (e.g., repetitive patterns of behavior). SQUEEZE MACHINE Invented by Temple Grandin who has autism, this is essentially as the name suggests. An individual puts themselves into the machine and is ‘squeezed’ to various degrees. The squeeze machine therefore allows a person with an autistic spectrum condition to explore touch and deep pressure in a way that is completely under their control. TACTILE DEFENSIVENESS / HYPERSENSITIVITY The nervous system appears to overreact to touch, so that a ‘friendly’ touch is perceived as overwhelming and invasive. This is not true for everyone with an autistic spectrum condition, as some enjoy certain forms of active physical contact. TEACCH Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children. TEACCH provides a wide range of services to children, adults and families, has a research programmeme and provides multidisciplinary training for professionals working with autism. Their stated aim is to help to prepare people with autism to live or work more effectively at home, at school and in the community. THEORY OF MIND (ToM) Theory of Mind refers to the capacity to attribute mental states to oneself and others in an attempt to understand and explain, and to predict other’s behavior. ToM is not fully developed in children or adults with Autism. TOMATIS METHOD See Auditory Integration Training. TREATMENT An autistic spectrum disorder is a life-long disability and there is at present no one effective treatment that appears to work for everyone. However, given appropriate intervention early in life, specialized education and structured support can make a difference to a child’s life, helping to maximize their skills and achieve their full potential as adults. Although there is no documented “cure” for Autism, research suggests that it can be managed effectively using comprehensive behavioral and educational treatment programmes. Social pragmatic approaches, augmented by individualized strategies and social coaching, may be best for teaching social communication skills. Pharmacological interventions have a limited role in improving asocial communication, but may help ameliorate depression, hyperactivity and other secondary problems. For a definition and brief description of the various treatment approaches, refer to the appropriate place in this glossary. TRIAD OF IMPAIRMENTS Autistic spectrum disorders are characterized by impairments in social interaction, social communication and imagination which can occur in varying degrees of severity. This triad is generally accompanied by a limited, narrow, repetitive pattern if activities. Also see Diagnostic Criteria

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Children’s literature is a powerful genre. Everybody has a favourite childhood book that has influenced them. My favourite was Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss. Often we want our own children or the children that we teach to enjoy the same book. No other category of literature is so loaded with social, cultural, historical, ideological, educational and commercial power. This makes it an interesting subject for literary criticism and I think it is important for teachers to critically appraise the books that are used in the classroom. A significant aspect of children’s literature is that it is written by adults. Children are characters in the book but whose childhood does the book represent? Is it a real childhood or a theoretical one? When one group constructs another, then power becomes an issue. For much of children’s literature, the actual child is voiceless. Adults tell the stories and adults profit financially from book sales. Cyber spaces are becoming areas where children can have a voice in their own storytelling and I will be exploring this notion further in subsequent posts. In diverse plural societies in a globalized world, the need for multicultural literature and the examination of cross-cultural responses has become more important. Cultural authenticity is key. As children’s literature is so full of direct and indirect meaning, it’s essential that teachers critically analyze the books that we introduce into our classrooms. A critical analysis of a children’s classic Below is a full critical analysis that I made of the children’s book Tikki Tikki Tembo by Arlene Mosel. It is a favourite in school libraries and often categorized as multicultural literature. In this interpretative essay, I uncovered the truth about this book, discovering that it is far from an authentic multicultural piece of children’s literature… An analysis of the text Tikki Tikki Tembo by Arlene Mosel reveals a depth of meaning to the picture book. Tikki Tikki Tembo has been a durable text in English speaking educational environments for 40 years. It is a populist book and a text used by primary school teachers alike. Different readings and interpretations occur in light of significant theories, which focus on different aspects of the text- race, gender and class. The Foucauldian idea that power is available everywhere but depends on the discourse can be used when analyzing children’s literature. No interpretation is more meaningful yet the exploration of the postcolonial viewpoint, encompassing critical race theory and notions of a western constructed orient are particularly suited to Tikki Tikki Tembo. Ultimately how the text is read influences how children are placed in society. It is from a formalist and structural perspective that most educators would support a use of the text in classrooms. The picture book has conventional, effective patterns in the narrative and illustrations that children find enjoyable. That is not to say that the meaning is not worth studying as in a traditional formalist view (Ryan 2007) but the meaning has been diminished by criticisms of authenticity over time. The use of rhythmic alliteration “Tikki Tikki Tembo” and repetition, for example “step, step over step” and “pumped the water out of him and pushed the air into him and pumped the water out of him and pushed the air into him”, encourages students to join in with the reading. In fact, given the effective structure and audible literary features, the text is best read aloud making it useful in the ESL primary classroom. The uses of illustrations in the picture book, from a formalist perspective reflect the text congruently (Sipe 1998) and aesthetically defining characters and the setting. The signs in the illustrations follow a structural framework, with recognizable symbols of everyday life- house, water, man, mother, children. When viewing Tikki Tikki Tembo through the lens of historical knowledge, it is important to critically examine the constructed nature of the past (Jenkins 1991). Children’s literature and history are interconnected, both informing each other (Watkins 2005). History is a discourse that interprets the past, influenced by theory and power (Jenkins 1991). The historical context of a text is not a static fact, as history is not “closed” (Giroux 1991 p508). Therefore, when viewing a literary text historically, the context of the book is fluid. The purpose for the text and its values ( Sarland 1999) can be seen in different historical light depending on the view of past truth- for example as a push for multicultural awareness in a 1968 counter culture or a continuum of western obsession for controlling China. Tikki Tikki Tembo was published in 1968 in New York. From a liberal socio-historical perspective, it is part of a post World War Two American cultural interest in China and Asia in general, as United States foreign policy increasingly saw Asia as strategically important in the Cold War (Klein 2003). China was a closed Communist nation in the throws of The Cultural Revolution and the cult of Mao (Meisner 1999). Tikki Tikki Tembo satisfies the western curiosity and symbolic consumption of Asia (Klein 2003), whilst presenting a simpler and more understandable vision of China than the confusing political reality. The text, Tikki Tikki Tembo, published in the twentieth century postcolonial period harks back to a pre-colonial time. The British and French Empires from the 19th Century had fought over China for colonial rights. Bradford (2001) argues that all books written in the twentieth century were produced in the “pattern of imperial culture” (p 196). This text is therefore receptive to a postcolonial reading. Arlene Mosel wrote the book within the context of a postcolonial China, (excepting the continued colonial annex of Hong Kong in 1968) and evokes a simpler, peaceful time as evident in the illustrations. The restricted palette of the graphics to basic earthy hues of brown, blue and green emphasize simplicity. There is not just an element of “historical amnesia” (Gandhi 1998 p 7) in reminiscing of early pre-colonial times but a lack of historical accuracy from a postcolonial perspective in the text as a whole. When viewed through the critical race theory with a post-colonial perspective, Tikki Tikki Tembo could be accused of implying western superiority. As young children make generalizations about cultures (Ramsey 2009), the text could imply that Chinese people are unhappy and cold. In the text, the Chinese mother is portrayed as emotionally hardened, neglecting her second son. She is inhuman and mysterious, fulfilling a stereotype of Asians as inscrutable (Cai 1994). The adults are generally unhappy and the children enjoy a carefree life in a natural Arcadian pre-industrial environment, portrayed in active scenes, flying kites and dancing. They look like generic primitive Asian stereotypes, though not specifically Chinese. This is expressed through the naïve folk illustrations. The naivety of the depictions, especially in the unrealistic illustrations of moving bodies reinforces the primitive, simple tone. The physical stereotype is seen most prominently in the depiction of the Old Man with his long beard. Tikki Tikki Tembo is an example of cultural misrepresentation as the story is not Chinese (Kromann-Kelly & Changlu 1986). There was never a custom to give children long names and the name Tikki Tikki Tembo-no sa rembo-chari bari ruche-pip peri pembo “does not sound Chinese, ancient or modern” (Cai 1994 p 185). Translated stories have often used different character names to suit the target language and culture (Lathey 2010) yet in Tikki Tikki Tembo there is a lack of linguistic authenticity. The costumes in the illustrations are more Japanese, for example the children wear clogs and the curved roofs of Japanese architecture present in pictures of the buildings (Cai 1994). The western ‘retelling’ of a traditional Chinese folktale is misleading. The western author of Tikki Tikki Tembo, Mosel speaks for the Chinese ‘tradition’, because “According to Europeans, Europeans must describe and analyze the Orient because Orientals are not capable of describing or analyzing themselves” (Nodelman 1994 p 29). Gandhi (1998) states that sociolinguistic theory demonstrates how “discourses, or discursive formations” (p 77) are about power and by Mosel speaking for the Chinese immediately infers superiority. The authoritative tone of the narrator shows this; “ Once upon a time, a long, long time ago, it was the custom…” reinforcing that the author knows the truth. Mosel (1968) crosses a ‘fence’ (Naidoo 2010) between cultures but speaks for the other side and highlights the politics of children’s literature, “Who has the power to make the fence, alter the fence? Who is in, who is out? Who has the power of speech? Who is silenced out?” (p 76). The craft of taking a (supposedly) old tale from one culture and adapting it for another leads to inevitable “Cultural filtering” (Mo & Shen 1997). As Lathey (2010) states, interpreting foreign stories inevitably changes the values and content of the text to appeal to the culture of the child reader. Hearne (1993) questions whether “only members of an ethnic group truly represent the lore of that group?” (p34). Child readers of Tikki Tikki Tembo without any teacher led critical multicultural interpretation will accept the story as truth and will in some way influence perceptions of Chinese people. The text requires engagement with Giroux’s ‘pedagogy of difference’ (1991) and a critical analysis from a multicultural viewpoint, encouraging students “to examine the social construction of difference” (Botelho & Rudman 2009 p 17). Mosel’s text is an example of western obsession with the mystical east. It has been a trend in art and literature “a combination of admiration and appropriation” (Nikolajeva 2009 p 89) to feed western imaginations of a truly foreign place. Said further states that the creation of Orientalism was not purely a trend but a mindset that justified colonialism (Said 1979). The characters in Tikki Tikki Tembo are clearly in a far away place though not specifically anywhere, especially reinforced by the confused but generic Asian illustrations that are part Japanese, part Chinese. Indeed, the location for the book is “unmappable” (Spooner 2004). The geography of the mountainous landscape emphasizes their remoteness, “in a small mountain village” (Mosel 1968 p1). The remoteness of the geographical setting and the nondescript “long, long time ago” (Mosel 1968 p 1) intensifies the ‘othering’ of the Oriental characters, “detached in time as well as in space” (Nikolajeva 2009 p 91). Nodelman (1994) connects the construction of ‘the child’ in children’s literature with the European construction of ‘orientals’. It is the creation of ‘the other’, a notion that there are “opposite” (p29) people, unlike those in control of narratives and ultimately “not quite human” (p29). The idea of the mystical east, present in the western creation of the orient is evident in the reference to “evil spirits”. In addition, the depiction of the Old Man’s dream expresses this notion with the swirling patterns, bleeding ink stains and pictures of imperial buildings. The femininity of the orient (Nodelman 1992) is seen in the vision of the young woman in the Old Man’s dream. Nodelman (1994) highlights this ‘feminization’ of the Orient, from a power relationship between east and west, “For Europeans for whom the orient is subject to the gaze, it is therefore, metaphorically, female- and that allows Europe to represent itself and its own authority as male” (p30). Mosel chooses language which makes the Chinese characters caricatures. There is a repetition of the word “honored” or “honorable”, which does not demonstrate the Chinese contextual meaning but becomes a meaningless stereotype of how Chinese people speak. It is almost as if Mosel had written it to be read with a Chinese accent, for example avoiding the more fluent present continuous tense “The water roars”. Stereotypical Asian references are used in the oriental words “Blossom”, “fish”, “rice cakes”, “Precious Pearl”. The text lends itself to a feminist reading. The narrative creates a frame to express the oppression of the only female character, the single mother trapped in a traditional patriarchal society. She is pictured constantly in the domestic sphere at the home, unhappily performing domestic duties and is seen washing in four pictures. She is not given the nurturing characteristics of a mother. Rather she is portrayed as emotionally distant especially from her second son. As language constructs gender (Sunderland 2010), the female is represented through the language used to describe her and the words that she uses (Sunderland, J. 2012). An examination of the words used for the female character create Mosel’s notion of femininity. The mother does not possess essentialist female traits of soft nurturing motherhood. She called her child “Chang, which meant “little or nothing”. (Mosel 1968 ) demonstrating her detachment from her traditional female duty as mother. The negative words that the mother says to her sons further illustrate tension between the genders in the text e.g. “That Troublesome boy”, “Tiresome Child, what are you trying to say?”, “Unfortunate Son, surely the evil spirits have bewitched your tongue.” The fantasy woman that occurs in the Old Man’s dream represents the male creation of traditional femininity. With a psychoanalytical approach, the Old Man through age, is given decreased masculinity by the author, resulting in his need to control the woman in his dream. The fantasy woman is one that the Old Man can concoct and dominate in his dreams. She embodies traditional notions of feminine beauty with her long flowing hair and silky gown. The Old Man resists leaving his fantasy woman, “Miserable child, you disturb my dream… If I close my eyes perhaps I will again return”. The psychoanalytical perspective of the picture book focuses on the Old Man’s dream as according to Freud dreams contain the unconscious material that drives conscious thought (Ryan 2007). The Old Man regresses to his childhood in his dreams “I had floated into a purple mist and found my youth again”. The woman in the Old Man’s dreams is his mother. According to Freud and psychoanalytical theory, “full separation from the care-giver is made possible when the child acquires the ability to make mental images or representations of tits initial care-giving object” (Ryan 2007 p97) thus showing the man’s detachment and sense of self. The Marxist perspective is influenced by the historical context of the text and it’s connection with the class struggle “literature is a product of the popular historical and social formations that prevail at the time of its production” (Sarland 1999 p41). In a Marxist interpretation, Tikki Tikki Tempo is set in an emerging capitalist period. According to Marx, an existing capitalist society is essential before a socialist revolution can occur (Gandhi 1998). The Mother represents the bourgeoisie in this economic system. She uses the old well, a symbol for the means of production that are owned by the ruling class. The class struggle occurs between the Old Man, the exploited working class and the bourgeois Mother and her sons. The old man is expected to rescue the bourgeois children from the well, one that has the ostentatious name “Tikki Tikki Tembo-no sa rembo-chari bari ruche-pip peri pembo, which meant “the most wonderful thing in the whole wide world!” (Mosel 1968). The bourgeois family forces the Old Man to be available with the life-saving ladder each time the children dangerously play near the well. The use of irony in “your mother’s ‘Precious Pearl’ has fallen into the well” is the climax of class tension. Whilst the woman lives in a house in a community of other similar houses, the Old Man is depicted apart from the mainstream community, alone on a hill, under a tree. He is surrounded by nature and portrayed as an extension of the natural world. When the mother and the son summon him, disrespectful language is used in comparison to the “Most Honorable” title given to the mother. This is especially significant for a culture so rooted in filial piety and respect for age ,“Run and get the Old Man With The ladder” and “Come right away”. From a liberal humanist perspective, Tikki Tikki Tembo celebrates the feudal values of a pre-industrial rural life and the common human values of love for family and communal spirit. The idyllic landscape is an “escapist response” (Sarland 1999 p39) to the changing developed world in 1968. The Old Man helps the boys out of the well celebrating the communal spirit of a society before the evils of mechanization and urbanization. The old well represents modernity and danger. The kite, an image of a butterfly tied to earth, represents humanity and the children’s happiness. In the first picture the kite is flying in the sky, yet in the second and third pictures the kite is caught on the frame of the well and gradually falling to the ground- illustrating the affect the well is having on human happiness. The kite is seen triumphantly flying high in the sky on the last page. Interpreting the book through different perspectives highlights the different theoretical perceptions and constructed notions of the child. Rudd (1999) considers the notion of the child as central to the purpose and meaning of a text. The child characters in the book are crucial to the action of the text. They both fall down the well, creating the main source of conflict in the Marxist and feminist interpretations. Yet the children, in their action, can be perceived as vulnerable beings and therefore lacking power reflecting social hierarchy. The fact that the Mother cannot hear her sons reinforces their voiceless state, “I can not hear you”, “what are you trying to say?”. Tikki Tikki Tembo is a picture book that has received much criticism for it’s lack of cultural authenticity but endures as a text used by teachers. The various interpretations of the book through the lenses of history, structuralism, post colonialism, feminism, Marxism, psychoanalytical and liberal humanism show that the text has a wealth of ideological meaning that is imparted to children. The text does not occur in a socio-political vacuum and is infused with ideology depending on how it is read. Ultimately, literary criticism of children’s literature is an adult domain, excluding the intended readers from the discourse. Botelho, M. & Rudman, M (2009). Critical Multicultural Analysis of Children’s Literature: Mirrors, Windows, and Doors. New York: Routledge. Bradford, C. (2001). The End of Empire? Colonial and postcolonial journeys in children’s books. Children’s Literature, 29 196-218 Cai, M. (1994). Images of Chinese and Chinese Americans mirrored in picture books. Children’s Literature in Education, 25 (3) 169-191 Gandhi, L. (1998). Postcolonial Theory A Critical Introduction. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Giroux, H. (1991). Democracy and the Discourse of Cultural Difference: Towards a Politics of Border Pedagogy. British Journal of Sociology of Education 12 (4) 501-519 Hearne, B. (1993). Respect the source: reducing cultural chaos in picture books part two. School Library Journal, 8, 33-37. Jenkins, K. (1991). Re-Thinking History. London: Routledge Klein, C. (2003). Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination 1945-1961. Berkeley: University of California Press. Kromann-Kelly, I. & Changlu, L. (1986). Chinese Folktales Published in the United States. The Reading Teacher 40 (2) 225-229 Lathey, G. (2010). The Role of Translators in Children’s Literature: Invisible Storytellers. New York: Routledge. Meisner, M. (1999). Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic. New York: The Free Press. Mo, W. & Shen, W. (1997). Re examining the issue of authenticity in picture books. Children’s Literature in Education, 28 (2) 85-93 Mosel, A. (1968). Tikki Tikki Tembo. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Naidoo, B. (2010). ‘Ghosts have a way of rising: writing the past, the present and crossing the fence’ in Plastow, J. & Hillel, M. (eds.) The Sands of Time: Children’s Literature: Culture, Politics and Identity. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press. Nikolajeva, M. (2009) Power, Voice and Subjectivity in Literature for Young Readers. New York: Routledge. Nodelman, P. (1994). The Other: Orientalism, Colonialism, and Children’s Literature. Children’s Literature Association Quarterly, 17 (1) 29-35 Ramsey, P. (2009). ‘Multicultural education for young children’ in Banks, J. (ed.) The Routledge International Companion to Multicultural Education. New York: Routledge. 223-235 Rudd, D. (1999). Theorising and Theories: How does children’s literature exist? in Hunt, P. (ed.) Understanding Children’s Literature 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge. 15- 29 Ryan, M. (2007). Literary Theory: A Practical Introduction. Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Said, E. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Sarland, C. (1999). Critical tradition and ideological positioning in Hunt, P (ed.) Understanding Children’s Literature 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge. 30-49 Sipe, L. (1998). How picture books work: A semiotically framed theory of text-picture relationships. Children’s Literature in Education 29 (2) 97-107 Spooner, S. (2004). ‘Landscapes: Going Foreign’ in Arthur Ransome’s Peter Duck in Lesnik-Oberstein, K. Children’s Literature: New Approaches. New York: Routledge. 206-227 Sunderland, J. (2010). Language, Gender and Children’s Fiction. London: Continuum Sunderland, J. (2012). ‘Teaching Gender and Language’ in Ferrebe, A. & Tolan, F. Teaching Gender. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Watkins, T. (2005). ‘Space, history and culture: the setting of children’s literature’ in Hunt, P (ed.) Understanding Children’s Literature. London: Routledge. 50-72

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The California Missions This is the text for a unit on the California Missions that I student taught at a middle school in Beaverton, OR in 1999. The 7th grade social studies/language arts class was studying historical selected topics. Bolded words in the text indicate special vocabulary words needing to be discussed in class. Lesson 1: Two Very Different Cultures Remember in “Shogun” when Blackthorne first landed in Japan? He didn’t understand the language, and many things about Japanese culture were confusing and even unpleasant for him. At first, for example, he didn’t want to take a bath, expressing what he’s been taught, that “baths’ll make you foul sick.” By the end of the film, however, he’d learned to speak Japanese and adopted Japanese dress and customs. He even appeared to have adopted some Japanese beliefs. In many ways, Blackthorne was now able to live in two worlds: the English one in which he’d grown up and lived all his life and that of Japan. Because of her conversion to Christianity and her love for Blackthorne, Mariko also lived in two worlds. Sometimes those worlds conflicted, as when she prepared to commit seppuku, despite the Christian prohibition against suicide. Blackthorne and Mariko show us that, though it isn’t easy, it’s possible to understand and participate in more than one culture. Because of choice or circumstance, some of us live that way today, as our world becomes more and more multicultural. That could be a good thing – the demands of the 21st century may require that we borrow from the best in many cultures to solve our problems. Blending cultures can be difficult, especially if one culture conquers another and considers itself superior. In this unit we’re going to take a look at what happened when a European culture, an earlier version of our own in many ways, met a Native American hunter-gatherer culture. The Spaniards’ Perception of the Indians Many Spaniards, Mexicans, and Americans saw the California natives as inferior to them in culture, religion, and even intelligence. The Indians’ houses looked primitive to Europeans, and they appeared to have little art except for their baskets. Native religion appeared to them as “barbarous sorcery.” The Indians’ relative nudity and courtship and marriage customs seemed immoral, too, compared to European standards. The California Indians ate foods, like insects, the Spanish thought were disgusting. Some Spaniards described Indians as barely human and compared them to animals. Different Economic Systems How is personal property distributed in different cultures? Native Americans tend to share, value generosity, and have customs like potlatches or giveaways that result in everyone having a similar amount. In some tribes there was little or no private property. Hunter-gatherers have always lived this way, and, until relatively recently, all of us were hunter-gatherers. How did we get from the hunter-gatherer economic system to the one we have today? The development of agriculture less than 10,000 years ago started things changing. In an agricultural society there’s often a food surplus that can be fought over, guarded, and converted into wealth. These surpluses allow specialized roles and social classes to develop. In our study of feudal Europe, the Aztecs, and medieval Japan we’ve seen class systems of nobles; knights or warriors; and serfs, commoners, or peasants. Tribes or clans fought, as you did in “Warlords,” to take control of larger and larger territories. Eventually, a unified nation or state can form. If this nation-state goes on to conquer other countries, it can become an empire, like that of the Aztecs. From the 1500s to 1700s, some European countries formed colonial empires in the Americas. Spain, one of the first to do this, brought its complex economic and political system to California – to a people who had no way of understanding or fighting it. Lesson 2: Spanish Exploration and Empire Part 1: The Caribbean and Mexico Christopher Columbus’s “discovery” of the “New World” in 1492 was financed by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, so Columbus claimed the island of Hispaniola for Spain. He called the inhabitants of the island indios (Indians), thinking he’d arrived at his goal, the East Indies. On Columbus’s second voyage he brought 17 ships, 1,500 men, and large quantities of livestock, seed, and tools. Indians were made to work for the colonists, each of whom was given a grant of Indian labor called an encomienda. The encomenderos were supposed to pay the Indians wages, offer them protection, and instruct them in the Catholic faith, but these regulations were ignored more often than not, and most Indians were treated like slaves. By 1520, most of them had died from mistreatment or European diseases. Hernan Cortes, a wealthy encomendero on the island of Cuba, went to Mexico to explore and conquer a new land for Spain. He defeated the Aztec empire of central Mexico with 600 men, some horses, steel weapons, and several thousand Indian allies. A smallpox epidemic helped him take the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1521. The Spanish called Tenochtitlan “Mexico City,” and tore down the Aztec temples, replacing them with churches. The Aztecs thought the Spanish would be satisfied if they surrendered to them and paid tribute, but, unlike the Aztecs, who let conquered city-states keep their own language, gods, and customs, the Spaniards expected the Aztecs to learn Spanish, convert to Christianity, and adopt European customs. They also expected the Indians to work for them, as in Hispaniola, and over-work and epidemic diseases again took a heavy toll. Sixty years after the conquest, the Indian population of central Mexico had been reduced by almost 90%. Part 2: California In search of spices, silks, and precious metals and stones, Spain took the lead in exploring the New World and dominated it for almost 200 years. By 1531 Spain claimed the Caribbean islands, Mexico, Central America, and half of South America. There were also Spanish colonies in what are now Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and the Philippines. In 1542 a Spanish explorer landed on the southern California coast and claimed it, too, for Spain. But for more than 150 years there were no Spanish settlers there. Deserts and mountains made it difficult for people to travel overland from Mexico, and sea journeys were dangerous. Spain also needed to concentrate on protecting its ships from pirates in the late 1500s and 1600s. Spanish treasure ships carried silver from Mexico to Manila in the Philippine Islands. There, Spanish traders exchanged the silver for Chinese silks and porcelains. Knowing the richness of the Spanish ships, English pirates like Sir Francis Drake prowled the coasts of the Americas in search of them. They even started attacking the port cities of the Spanish empire, forcing Spain to build fortresses in Havana, Cuba; Veracruz, Mexico; and St. Augustine, Florida. In the late 1700s, Spain’s empire was threatened by more than pirates. Other countries had begun exploring, trading, and settling in the New World, too. Russian trappers and traders were hunting seals in San Francisco Bay, British naval forces sailed the coast, and there were British fur traders in western Canada. American whaling and trading ships had also entered the Pacific. Fearing that one of these countries might claim land in California, Spain decided to establish settlements there to show that it belonged to Spain. Lesson 3: Serra Starts Out Spain already had hundreds of missions in the New World when Franciscan Father Junipero Sierra established the first Spanish mission in California at San Diego. He had been appointed head of the Baja (Lower) California missions in 1768 and ordered to found new ones in Alta (Upper) California. It was a great and important adventure. Picture the departure of the first land expedition from Santa Maria, Mexico…With banners flying, hands waving farewell, and last words shouted to those who had come to see them off, the procession started, with Captain Fernando Rivera and 25 of his leather-jacketed soldiers in the lead. The soldiers were on horseback and armed with helmets, shields, and muskets. Following them were 40 Christian Indians with spades, pickaxes, crowbars, and machetes. Next came Father Crespi on a white mule, followed by a hundred pack mules loaded with leather sacks of food and other necessities and guided by muleteers. Bringing up the rear were 25 more soldiers, a cloud of dust behind them. Meanwhile, two ships sailed toward California, their holds full of sacks of corn, wheat, and peas and barrels of water, wine, dried beef, and chocolate. The ships also carried axes, hoes, and spades for farming and altars, bells, candles, and priests’ robes for the churches the padres planned to found. Don Gaspar de Portola and Father Serra led the second land expedition, which took 40 days to arrive in San Diego. Indian cowboys called vaqueros were in this group, driving herds of cattle and horses. On July 1, 1769, the land and sea expeditions were united at San Diego – a sad and happy meeting. Many of the sailors had died of scurvy, and many of the Christian Indians had deserted, going back to their homes in Mexico. But Father Sierra said, “God be praised!” He was already thinking about where to build the first church. The country is “pleasant and green with many fragrant herbs, wild grapes, and plenty of game,” one of the Spaniards wrote, and “the Indians are friendly and tractable.” The Spanish put up tents and started building. The Indians welcomed them, guiding them around the country and giving them food. The Spaniards give the Indians beads, the first metal knives they’d ever seen, and clothing. Lesson 4: Native Peoples of California Native Americans had been living in California for at least 10,000 years when the Spanish arrived in 1769. There were 50 tribes of 100 to 1,000 members, a total of 300,000 people speaking many different languages. To its native peoples, California wasn’t one country, but many. It included the lush rainforest of the northwest coast, the marshlands of the central valley, the wooded foothills of the Sierra Nevada, the beaches of the southern coast, and the palm-shaded springs of the desert interior. Each setting fostered a different way of life. What the California Indians had in common was the belief that each of the life forms on which they depended came to them as a gift from the spirit world, and that nothing in their environment should be taken for granted. Mount Shasta in northern California was sacred to the Modoc and Achumawi tribes. The Yurok, who lived closer to the coast, used long-handled dip nets to catch the salmon, surgeon, and steelhead that came upriver to spawn. In the wetlands of central California, the Pomo ate waterfowl and gathered tule reeds to make houses and boats. The Yokuts who lived in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada ground acorns into meal in stone mortars. Some of the biggest tribes lived along the southern California coast. One of these, the Chumash, lived in large villages of over 1,000 residents. They were skilled navigators and fishermen, traveling to offshore islands in ocean-going canoes. The Cahuilla living near the desert oasis of Palm Springs ate dates from palm trees. The original Californians were dismissed by Europeans as primitive hunter-gatherers, but they managed and improved their environment by burning, pruning, sowing seeds, weeding, irrigating, tilling, and harvesting according to sound ecological principles. In this way, California supported one of the highest concentrations of people north of Mexico. California Indians were peaceful because the land gave them plenty, and natural barriers like mountains and deserts separated many of their groups. Lightly clothed and with few possessions, the California tribes seemed to the Spanish to be inferior to the Aztec, who had developed a city-state civilization based on settled agriculture. The California tribes’ knowledge of the environment, gained over thousands of years, went unrecognized by the Europeans. Some Indians lived in houses made of brush or tule reeds, and others built houses of bark or wooden planks. The choice depended on the climate and available materials. Several families might live together in one house, and most Indian houses had a firepit in the center for cooking and warmth. There weren’t any windows – smoke from the fire went out an opening in the roof. Most villages had at least one sweathouse, in which the men made a big fire, poured water on the hot rocks around it, and sweated out impurities in the steamy heat. At the end of their sweat, the men ran outside and jumped in the cold water of the nearest ocean, river, or lake. This kept them clean and healthy. Most Indian villages also had a meetinghouse for meetings, dances, ceremonies, or storytelling sessions. Indian men hunted, fished, and trapped. Meat that wasn’t eaten right away was cut in strips and dried in the sun or over the fire, and fish were smoked. Women gathered plant foods and cooked. Many varieties of oak trees grew in California, and most tribes used their acorns as a major food source, pounding them into meal to make bread or mush. The Indians needed little clothing in California’s mild climate. If the weather turned cold, capes made of rabbit skins kept them warm, and deerskin moccasins were worn on long journeys. There were also special clothes for dances and feasts: beautiful feather capes for the men and skirts trimmed with shells for the women. Women used grasses and reeds dyed in different colors to make beautiful baskets. These baskets were used to carry babies, hold food and water, cook, and to wear as caps. California Indians are still the most skilled basket makers in the United States. Lesson 5: The Founding of the First Missions Thousands of Kumeyaay Indians lived in villages around the new Spanish settlement at San Diego. When the Spanish stopped giving them gifts, they sometimes took what they wanted from the presidio, or fort, the soldiers had built or from the wooden chapel erected by the missionaries. The Spanish saw this as stealing, evidence of the natives’ “heathen” ways that they hoped to change. In 1775, after six years of efforts by the Spanish priests, there were 500 Kumeyaay converts at the San Diego mission. Often there were problems between the Indians and the soldiers at the presidio, because the soldiers molested the Indian women and let their horses eat the crops the padres had taught the Indian men to grow. Finally, two of the Indian men organized an attack on the presidio and the mission. The attack on the presidio failed, but the mission was burned. When Father Jaime ran out to try to stop the attackers, crying, “Love God, my children!” he was killed. The other Spaniards at the mission barricaded themselves inside and scared the Indians away with their muskets. Later, the Indians said they’d tried to drive the Spanish away so they could “live as we did before.” Father Serra established a total of nine missions before he died in 1784, and his successors founded 12 more for a total of 21. The missions were built a hard day’s journey apart on what came to be called El Camino Real, the Royal Road or King’s Highway. Along with missions, the Spaniards built forts, called presidios, and towns, called pueblos. The priests tried to concentrate groups of Indians around the missions so they could control them and keep them from being influenced by unconverted tribesmen. They needed the Indians to work at the missions: to build and decorate them and to raise the crops that would feed the soldiers and settlers. Because there were so many different Indian languages in California, few of the priests made an effort to learn them. The mission Indians were expected to learn enough Spanish and church Latin to get along, but they may not have fully understood the prayers and rituals they memorized. The missionaries never taught the Indians to read or write. Lesson 6: Life at the Missions The mission Indians’ lives were ruled by the bells that rang to call them to worship, work, meals, and sleep. Their day began at sunrise when the Angelus bell called them to prayers in the mission church. An hour later, another bell announced breakfast. Each family sent someone to get its share of the atole (corn mush) the Indian women had cooked in the communal kitchen. After breakfast the work bell rang. Everyone physically able to work, including the children, had tasks to perform. Twice a day the padres gave the children over five religious instruction in Spanish or Latin. At midday the bell rang for a meal of posole, a corn and vegetable stew that sometimes had meat added to it. This was followed by an hour’s siesta. The afternoon was spent working. The Angelus bell rang at six, calling the Indians to evening prayers, followed by a supper of atole and tortillas. At 8 PM everyone was expected to be in bed. Unmarried girls and women slept in a locked dormitory, and widowers and single men, too, were often locked in at night to prevent them from leaving the mission. Indian men and boys farmed with hoes and wooden plows pulled by oxen. They grew corn, wheat, barley, beans, and peas, as well as vegetables like tomatoes, onions, garlic, and peppers; fruits such as oranges, lemons, peaches, plums, apples, and figs; and nuts (walnuts and almonds). The Indians learned to make oil from olives and wine from grapes. Indian herders cared for sheep, cattle, and horses, as well as the work animals – oxen, mules, and burros. Chickens, pigs, and goats were also raised. Indian men and boys also learned trades in the mission workshops. In the blacksmith shop tools, nails, bolts, hinges, locks, keys, bits, stirrups, and horseshoes were made out of iron brought from Mexico. In the carpentry shop doors, beams, and furniture were fashioned. Some of the most important mission products came from the hides and fat, or tallow, of the cattle. Leather was made into shoes, sandals, sacks, harnesses, saddles, and rope. Tallow was used to make soap and candles. In the pottery shop Indian workers made jars, roof and floor tiles, clay pipes, and adobe bricks. The women worked in the gardens, washed the clothes, cooked, and spun, wove, and sewed, using the sheep’s wool to make blankets. The farming and other work done by the Indians at the missions supported not only the padres and the Indians themselves, but the Spanish soldiers who guarded the missions and manned the nearby presidios. Products from the missions were also sold to settlers from Mexico who lived in neighboring towns. Some mission products, especially hides and tallow, were traded with ships from New England that stopped along the coast. In addition to food and other products from the missions, Spanish miners, farmers, and ranchers also expected the mission Indians to work for them occasionally. The work they did at the missions and elsewhere was different from what the Indians were used to. It was harder and took a lot longer than hunting and gathering. Sometimes the Indians missed their freedom and resisted the mission schedules and rules, especially the one that said they couldn’t leave. When Indians broke the rules, the padres had them whipped or locked in the stocks (a heavy wooden frame with holes for the prisoner’s wrists and ankles). Wearing leg shackles while they worked was another punishment. Why did the Indians come to the missions? First of all, it was the missions that had come to the Indians. The Spanish had purposely built missions where many Indians already lived, in order to convert them and make use of their labor. Second, the Indians were curious about the spiritual powers of the priests, the leaders of these strange new people with horses, metal, and guns. Some of the first Indians to approach the missions and agree to be baptized were actually medicine men and women trying to add to their spiritual powers. None of the Indians who came to the missions gave up their old beliefs when they started practicing Christianity. Like the Mexican Indians before them, they ended up with a mixture of the old and the new. The Indians didn’t come to the missions initially for food, because they had plenty to eat when the Spanish came. After the Spaniards had been living in their country for a while, however, many of the seed-bearing grasses and other plants the Indians depended on disappeared, eaten by the Spanish livestock and untended by the Indians who worked at the missions. Wild game became scarce as well. Thus, in later years many Indians did stay at the missions in order to have enough to eat. Lesson 7: Understanding the Spanish To understand the point of view of the Spanish soldiers and missionaries in California in the 1700s we have to go back over a thousand years when the ruler of Spain made Christianity the state religion. That meant everyone in Spain had to be a Christian, and all Christians in those days were Catholic. Two hundred years later, Muslims from North Africa conquered most of the country. The reconquest of Spain from the Muslims, called the Reconquista, took 700 years. This long fight for their territory and their religion gave the Spanish a permanent crusading spirit. Spain wasn’t really united until King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile married in 1469. In 1482 the Spanish Inquisition, famous for its cruel treatment of people suspected of heresy against the established church, began. In 1492, the year Columbus sailed west to what he hoped would be the Indies, all non-Christians (mostly Muslims and Jews) were forcibly expelled from Spain. Spanish Catholic faith was intense – today we’d probably think it close-minded. At the time, however, fervent and militant religious belief, merged with patriotism, was the Spanish frame of reference. It led them to create a vast, mighty, and extremely wealthy empire in the New World, where they were able to extend both Spanish territory and the Christian faith. Lesson 8: Indian Resistance Because they needed a constant labor supply to keep the mission system going, and because the Indian death rate from European disease was high, the padres were always looking for new converts. By the early 1800s, they were sending soldiers into the interior of California looking for new tribes to convert. Soldiers went into the mountains, rounded up Indians, brought them back to the missions, and locked them up. Indians who escaped often came back and tried to steal the Spaniards’ horses. Occasionally, the Indians revolted. In 1824 some of the Chumash, who had five missions in their territory and had suffered terrible losses from disease, got tired of working so hard and being whipped for minor rule infractions. They attacked the missions of Santa Ines, La Purisima Concepcion, and Santa Barbara. After weeks of fighting, the Indians were defeated by the soldiers, but 450 of them fled east to the San Joaquin Valley, and another 50 escaped to Santa Cruz Island. In 1795, 280 converts ran away from the San Francisco mission. Two hundred more ran away the next year. In 1798, 138 Indians left Santa Cruz, and 200 left San Juan Bautista in 1805. In general, there was growing Indian resistance to the Spanish after 1810 when the war for independence from Spain began. This may have been because supplies were no longer getting through, and because there was more pressure on the missions to supply military garrisons. Indian rebellion, flight from the missions, and horse raiding all increased. Indians living in the Sacramento, San Joaquin, and other interior valleys also fought with the Spanish soldiers who came to find fugitives and seek new converts. Lesson 9: The End of the Mission System In 1823 Mexico declared its independence from Spain. Six years later, the new government ordered the Spanish padres to leave the California missions. In 1834 Mexican officials and settlers took most of the mission lands and property, including equipment and livestock. By law the Indians were supposed to get half of everything, but they didn’t know that, and would have had no way to defend their rights anyway. The missionaries had said they were planning to give the missions to the Indians when they were ready to live independently as Hispanicized Christians. But they did little to prepare the converts for self-government, saying the Indians were too ignorant, backward, and prone to backsliding into their “heathenish” ways. In reality, many Indians had probably learned enough about Western civilization to get along in colonial society, had the colonists and padres been willing to accept them as fellow citizens. As it was, the mission Indians either tried to go back to their old life of hunting and gathering, or went to work on Mexican cattle ranches for whatever food, clothing, and shelter the rancheros were willing to give them. Most of these workers soon found themselves in debt to their patrons, according to the records the colonists kept, and were thus unable to leave. Lesson 10: The Americans Take Over in California California became a United States territory in 1847 after the Mexican War. Under the Americans, as with the Mexican rancheros, Indians were legally free, but required to work. According to a law adopted by the state’s first legislature in 1850, unemployed Indians could be arrested and hired out. Whites were also allowed to obtain Indian children as “apprentices” if they fed and clothed them. In 1860 this practice was extended to adult Indians with “no settled habitation or means of livelihood.” As many as 10,000 Indians were indentured without their consent in this way. An editorial in the Sacramento Union in 1860 said, “If this doesn’t fill the measure of the constitutional term ‘involuntary servitude,’ we shall be thankful if someone will inform us what is lacking.” The abduction and sale of Indians, especially children, was carried on as a business. White farmers, ranchers, and miners bought kidnapped Indians and used them as slaves. Some whites argued that the Indian children working for them were being “improved” or “civilized,” but an observer wrote that “these involuntary wards often die at an early age. If they attain maturity, they abscond to their native mountains.” Approximately 4,000 Indians were victimized by this practice from 1852 to 1867. A few reservations patterned after the mission system were tried in California. The Indians were to farm and learn trades, their work supporting government agents and troops. In 1857 as many as 10,000 of the estimated 50,000 California Indians were involved in this system. However, several agents were found to have pocketed money meant for the Indians. Starving, the tribes stole cattle and horses in order to survive. Angry settlers then felt justified in killing every Indian they could find. In northern California miners and ranchers banded together for the purpose of hunting and killing Indians, and as late as 1870 frontier communities paid bounties for their scalps or heads. The state’s Indian population declined from about 150,000 in 1845 to less than 30,000 in 1870. An estimated 60% of the population decline was due to disease. During the late 19th century, the majority of California Indians subsisted on the fringes of white settlements, working as farm laborers and domestic servants. During the 20th century, their material situation improved, but not to the level of the general population. In the 1960s, ’70s, and ’80s, Indian people showed a growing interest in the revival and preservation of their native cultures, some of which, tragically, had disappeared. The tribes that have been able to remain on at least a portion of their traditional lands have been the most successful in keeping their culture. The Cahuillas, for example, have been able to remain on their land in south central California during more than 200 years of white contact. Traditional foods are still eaten at ritual and social events, kin relationships remain important, precontact songs and dances continue, and traditional funeral and personal rituals are performed. In northern California, the Hupas also have a history of uninterrupted occupancy of their homeland. The Hupa language continues to be spoken, and there are efforts to perpetuate traditional beliefs and activities. Even among the tribes removed from their lands the old ways haven’t disappeared entirely. Pomo tribal leaders maintain traditional philosophical and religious principles, and schools teach ceremonial dances and songs. Several Pomo shamans still use ancient curing methods. The Achumawis have also maintained extensive knowledge and use of aboriginal medicines, foods, and rituals. Their faith in their shamans remains strong, and they still know where the traditional “power places” are in their old territory. The U.S. government returned most mission buildings and some land to the Catholic Church in the late 1850s and ’60s, but by then many of the buildings had been torn down or were in disrepair. Artists recorded the ruins in paintings and photographs, inspiring growing numbers of tourists to visit in the early 1900s. Soon wealthy individuals and groups began to campaign for the missions’ restoration, and this has now been done at practically all the old sites. Lesson 11: What Can We Conclude about the Missions? European and Native American cultures have very different – we might even say opposing – values. It was inevitable that they would meet and that when they did Native Americans would be at a disadvantage. Indians didn’t realize until it was too late that Europeans wouldn’t recognize their right to continue living as they had for thousands of years on their land. Not understanding European culture, they had no way of knowing that the newcomers would eventually want all of the land for themselves, and that they would expect Indians to assimilate. For these reasons, Native Americans didn’t unite against the intruders, or did so too late. They lacked the technology to defeat Europeans in battle, and, in the case of the California tribes, also lacked training in fighting, not having warred much with each other. By the time many California Indians decided they didn’t like the effect the Spanish and their missions were having on them, their numbers had been depleted by European diseases, and the Spanish sheep, horses, and cattle had eaten up or driven away many of the food sources they depended on. Why did 80% of the California Indians gathered into the missions die? First, they hadn’t had the opportunity to acquire immunity to European diseases, and the padres unwittingly spread these diseases by visiting Indian villages and baptizing as many infants and children as they could. Native Americans also died because of the stress of being forced to change their way of life so drastically. Their families and societies were torn apart, their workload was heavy, and their diet poor. Most of what happened as a result of the meeting of these two cultures was negative, especially for the Indians, whose culture was neither valued nor respected. Today, however, many people of European descent recognize the need to listen to Native Americans, as well as other tribal peoples around the world, whose remaining cultures have much to tell us about how to live in harmony with the earth. We’re starting to realize that we need this kind knowledge not only for our survival, but for our happiness. The missions succeeded materially, establishing the foundation for California agriculture. They’ve also given us much in the way of Hispanic culture. Today the restored missions stand as monuments to those who sought to spread what they considered to be the most valuable assets of mankind: Christianity and Western civilization. When we judge their actions today we must remember that the Spanish rulers, padres, and colonists, like all people, viewed the world according to what they’d been taught. They acted in accordance with this worldview, following the values of their particular culture and time. Perhaps we who study their history can benefit from it, learning to better respect and appreciate different cultural viewpoints, and using them to solve some of the problems we all share.

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Guess what, y’all. That paper I was working on so hard for class turned out awesome. The Virgin’s Coffin: Snow White, the Brothers Grimm, and Appropriation In the tradition of early Christian martyrdom, “virginity could be the equal of any martyr’s death, signalling one of the most persistent themes in female spirituality” (Rubin, 156). All a woman had to do to be considered a martyr was 1- be Christian, 2- be a virgin, and 3- die. Snow white became a martyr when the Brothers Grimm turned her into one. They took fragments of secular and pagan stories passed down through the oral tradition, fused them together with additions of their own invention, and created a seamless narrative of a virgin’s persecution, temptation, death, and resurrection. The story remains so embedded in our cultural consciousness that even two hundred years later we continue to reinvent and reclaim Snow White, taking a passive Christian martyr and re-appropriating her into a secular hero martyr. From the Grimms to Disney to contemporary filmmakers, the way we choose to tell the story of “Snow White” becomes a reflection of our own cultural narrative. 1. The Brothers Grimm The Brothers Grimm did not, of course, invent the story of Snow White nor any of the others in their collection of fairy tales, the Kinder- und Hausmärchen (KHM) or Children’s and Household Tales. Born in 1785 and 1786 respectively, Jacob and Wilhelm were born in the Hesse region of Germany and grew up to study philology, linguistics, law, and folklore. This was a critical time in Germany, which underwent political upheaval in the early nineteenth century with the overthrow of Napoleon’s forces and the struggle for democracy and identity as a new nation-state. This was also the era of the great German thinkers such as Goethe, Schiller, Kant, and Hegel, “that great and formative age for the development of modern German thought, culture, and education: the last four decades of the eighteenth century and the first decade of the nineteenth” (Smith, 126-7). Romanticism was “a middle-class, pan-European reaction against the ideas of the Enlightenment” (Paradiž, 19) which emphasized a revitalization of the spirit of the past, native language and history, and an idealization of the simple Volk (folk). “Native folklore was to be the ‘healing power’ for the nation, a remedy for spiritual recovery and creative strength” (Kamenetsky, 25). This idealism of the past and the purity of the Volk were a crucial aspect of the Grimms’ personal motivation for the decades of work that went into the KHM. “Broadly speaking, the Grimms sought to preserve all kinds of ancient relics as if they were sacred and precious gems that originated naturally from the soil. In their minds, the tales, myths, songs, fables, legends, epics, riddles, and other narratives that emanated from the voices of the common people contained deeper meanings than so-called educated people realized” (Zipes, xix). The Grimms saw their work as not just a cultural but a spiritual duty. The majority of Germans belonged to either the Protestant or Reformed Church, and the culture was steeped in the ideals of Martin Luther. In his book The Owl, the Raven & the Dove: The Religious Meaning of the Grimms’ Magic Fairy Tales, Ronald G. Murphy examines the personal spirituality of the Grimms in great detail. The brothers Grimm thought of fairy tales as remnant of ancient faith expressed in poetry. Through all the revisions of their collections of tales, their preface always begins with a description of gleaning, a biblical image recalling the command that the poor are not to be prevented from gathering the remnants that survive the harvest or the storm, nor the grain that has grown unnoticed by the hedgerow or the roadside… The brothers stated that their book consists of stories which are precious crumbs of ancient faith, gleaned wheat, made into bread, and that they wished to place it only into benevolent hands which have the power to bless, hoping that these “breadcrumbs of poetry” will never come to the attention of those who would withhold them from the poor. (Murphy, 3) The irony here is that the Grimms never actually worked with the Volk in the process of collecting these tales, so any representative voice of the poor is absent in their work. The poor are supposed to be the ones gleaning the forgotten wheat, but the brothers took that responsibility upon themselves, middle-class and educated young men, trying represent the interests of a population to which they did not belong and which they did not include. Even more popular than the myth of the Grimms as the original authors of the tales “is the long-standing myth of the brothers’ travels through the countryside, village to village, transcribing stories told to them by farmers and peasants,” writes Valerie Paradiž. Jacob and Wilhelm are themselves responsible, at least in part, for perpetuating that image. Though they never directly claimed to have worked in this fashion, they unwittingly created a romantic conceit about their process by hiding the identities of their most crucial collaborators … These contributors were neither commoners nor peasants … they were educated ladies. (xi) The Grimms started by writing down the stories they remembered from their own childhoods, then proceeded to collect stories from their family and friends, mainly the ladies of the Wild and Hassenpflug families. Storytelling was not only a common pastime for these women, but a crucial tool for exploring their place in the world. Folktales told of rites of passage, showed the types of villains one might encounter, and warned what would happen to those who transgress against the rules. “Indeed, many of the Grimms’ fairy tales dole out pedantic lessons in feminine virtue and appropriateness. The means of enforcement are often astonishingly violent” (Paradiž, 53). The story of “Snow White” in particular “silently points to the conditions of women’s socialization, to the cultural context which frames that very process of development, defining and legitimizing it, while simultaneously setting stifling boundaries for it … The Grimm version … is grounded in the nineteenth-century European dominant discourse about women and the bourgeois cult of domesticity” (Bacchilega, 3). Understandably, many modern scholars have interpreted the Grimms’ fairy tales as anti-feminist, but this is a simplistic view that does not take into account the women who were the major proliferators of oral folktales. They used storytelling as a covert instruction manual for behavior in order to survive in patriarchal nineteenth-century Europe. The contributions of these women, unfortunately, went unsung. “When volume one of the Children’s and Household Fairy Taleswas published in 1812, Jacob and Wilhelm didn’t credit their female sources by name. Instead, they celebrated, in the foreword to the anthology, the nameless, poetic soul of German culture and its legions of ‘simple folk’ who had passed the tales down through the ages” (Paradiž, xiv). In sum, women contributed to the process but received no credit, while the poor Volk received credit but made no contribution. After collection, the Grimms proceeded to stamp the tales with their own voices, especially Wilhelm, who was chiefly responsible for the editing process. The stories in the KHM underwent vast changes, both from source to manuscript and from the first edition (1812) to the seventh (1857, now considered the standard). The project was inspired by a collaboration with Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim, to which the Grimms contributed only a few folk songs. Although the brothers disapproved of the poetic license Brentano appeared to be taking in his adaptations, they, too, would alter, especially in later editions of the fairy tales, the transcriptions they had collected from their women friends. But though they edited and cultivated the stories, to use Jacob’s words, to suit the tastes of modern, educated readers in the nineteenth century, they nonetheless continued to perpetuate the myth of accurately preserving the past by keeping the narrative style simple and the language folksy. (Paradiž, 61-2) Some of the stories remained fairly constant from edition to edition with only minor changes. Others, including the tale of Schneewittchen (Snow White), had more drastic alterations. This earned the Grimms serious criticism from some modern folklorists, especially John Ellis in his book One Fairy Story Too Many: The Brothers Grimm and Their Tales. He casts himself in the role of dutiful whistleblower exposing a pair of charlatans. Ellis claims, “It is very hard to imagine that they could have been unaware of the discrepancy between their insistence on authenticity, on the one hand, and their disregard for it in these actions, on the other” (93). Jack Zipes, another Grimms expert and translator of the tales into English, disagrees: The Grimms thought that the “slight” changes they made in the tales did not make much of a difference … Due to their extensive work as philologists, they firmly believed that they could cobble variants together to bring out the profound essence of the tales … Yet the Grimms were somewhat ingenuous in thinking that their changes did not alter the meanings of the tales, and that their high German could simulate the dialects and reinvigorate the blunt and colorful styles of diverse storytellers. (xxvii) Zipes concludes that the Grimms could have better defended themselves from critics if they had acknowledged that their stories were actually new tales, continuing the tradition of storytelling through the medium of print. The wide discrepancy between the Grimms’ ideals and their practice can be explained by the fact that their sense of loyalty to their work was based in what they considered the “essence” of the stories, rather than their exact wording (Kamenetsky, 163). The brothers saw their changes as harmless because there was no author of either oral or written stories who could claim ownership of any tale. “The general public did not distinguish between oral narrator and tale writer and regarded published stories as common property free for anyone to change” (Dégh, 69-70), therefore the Grimms would have felt no qualms about altering their material, even those they took from previously printed sources. Faith also played a role in the Grimms’ editing process. “The challenge which Wilhelm faced was how to revive the religious feelings in fragmented ancient pagan stories in such a way that they would elicit a religious reaction of the heart of Christian contemporaries” (Murphy, 7), which he happily did. Wilhelm saw the changes he made as not just harmless but necessary. As previously discussed, strong patriarchal themes were already present in the tales, but the Grimms, whether consciously or not, enhanced them. In Grimms’ Bad Girls and Bold Boys; The Moral and Social Vision of the Tales, Ruth Bottigheimer illustrates how “male protagonists usually got away with devious behavior, such as lying, cheating, and stealing (as did Bruder Lustig), yet the female protagonists were caught in their dishonesty and literally ‘ended up in nail-studded barrels.’ She felt that, with few exceptions, the Grimms’ folktales portrayed women as mute and passive victims dominated by circumstance, a perverted one-sided system of justice, or a powerful male figure (king, prince, or father)” (Kamenetsky, 281). The Grimms also used their own moral outlook in widening the disparity of how good and evil characters are treated in the stories: “the innocent are treated more gently, but the evil or guilty are punished even more brutally” (Ellis, 79). Like all artists, the Grimms stamped their work with their own personal and cultural biases. Despite modern criticisms, many folklorists still praise the Grimms for their innovation and devotion to preserving these relics of the past. In my research, I have come to see the Grimms neither as pure loyalists to tradition nor as unscrupulous frauds but as flawed human men, enthusiastic but oblivious. They are the picture of unexamined privilege: male, white, Christian, middle class, and well educated. It would never have occurred to them to stop and wonder what the implications and long-terms effects of the changes might be. What the Grimms saw as the “essence” of a story may have been completely different than those of the women who supplied the it or the poor Volk whom the Grimms claimed to represent. Nothing is known of how they might have objected to the brothers’ appropriations. For better or worse, the changes were made, the stories were published, and the KHM went on to sell second only to the Bible in the Western world. 2. Snow White “Snow White” is among the stories in the KHMthat the Grimms changed dramatically from the original sources (Ellis, 74). This is partly because the several variations of the tale that the brothers collected were so disparate that there was no way to select one as “authentic” or “original.” Instead, the Grimms patched together their favorite bits, added some of their own inventions, and ended up with a tidy Christian fable. One of the major changes the Grimms brought to the final version was the substitution of stepmother for mother. In the first edition, it was Snow White’s biological mother who is envious of her daughter’s beauty, which tells an entirely different thematic story than the one we are used to. Ellis describes it as a dramatic version of mother-daughter rivalry and sexual jealousy, in which the older woman, at first identifying with the flesh of her flesh, later sees herself eclipsed by a younger woman who is really a separate person and thus a rival. The daughter’s active participation in the rivalry is more than hinted at; for it is at her wedding—the celebration of her own beauty and sexuality—that her mother is put to death in grisly fashion, being forced to dance in red-hot shoes until she drops dead. Thus, she is destroyed at the very celebration of her daughter’s sexual power. (74) This theme of rivalry is especially true in the first edition, before the change was made, because it is Snow White’s father, not the prince, who rescues her, thus reinforcing the “competition for the affection of the father/husband” (Ellis, 76). By replacing the mother with a stepmother, the Grimms turned the story of a child’s self-actualization to one of Good vs. Evil: “In masculine psychology the stepmother is a symbol of the unconscious in its destructive role—of its disturbing and devouring character” (von Franz, 120). The story of “Hansel and Gretel” suffered an identical change, indicating that the Grimms were bowing to the social pressures of their time and culture, which held motherhood as sacred (Murphy, 124). Turning the wicked mothers into wicked stepmothers provided an acceptable distance between the heroes and their villains. The story opens with the vivid imagery of three colors: the good queen wishes for a child as red as blood, as white as snow, and as black as ebony. These colors crop up in similar stories of initiation around the world: “Historians of religion and anthropologists tell us that white, red, and black are the colors which accompany initiation, the process of becoming a whole human being, and the child is given the parts of white, red, and black to mark her potential” (Bacchilega, 4). In earlier versions of the story, the Grimms explicitly listed these as physical qualities—lips/cheeks, skin, and eyes/hair. In the seventh edition, these physical traits were not mentioned, the ambiguity indicating that these colors are both literal and metaphorical. They represent the personal qualities that the queen desires in her child: red, warm and loving; white, innocent and faithful; black, humble and connected to the dark earth and mortality (Murphy, 123). The colors become the first indicator that the story has been given a decidedly Christian flavor; Snow White’s true beauty is not in her physical appearance but in her soul. Snow White is driven out by her vain and jealous stepmother, who tells the huntsman to kill the child and bring back her liver and lungs for the queen to eat (Grimm, 197). Because Snow White is so beautiful (and therefore pure of soul), the huntsman cannot bring himself to kill her. This is another Grimm addition to the story, but “the episode of the huntsman is reminiscent of similar themes of the ‘compassionate executioner’” (Girardot, 289) found not only in other fairy tales but the stories of saints and martyrs. Snow White flees into the forest, the traditional setting in fairy tales for the testing grounds where trials are faced (Murphy, 126). The gatekeepers to this realm are the seven dwarves, monk-like in their compassion, industriousness, hermitic celibacy, and morality (Murphy, 128). They take in Snow White if she agrees to keep house for them, and they serve as the voice of reason in repeatedly warning her to beware of her stepmother. In a story that is now no longer a coming-of-age but one of Good vs. Evil, the wicked queen has become Lucifer, who fell from Heaven “because of his infatuation with his own beauty and his refusal to accept that anyone else was ‘the most beautiful in the land’ … Lucifer tempts human beings out of jealousy… and he always tempts with some form of the same temptation to self-infatuation to which he himself succumbed” (Murphy, 126). So too does the stepmother tempt Snow White with beauty and vanity: first with colorful corset stays, then with a beautiful comb, and finally with the iconic poisoned apple, which, like Snow White herself, is beautiful and “white with red cheeks” (Grimm, 201). “In the three ordeals the stepmother sequentially attacks the white (breath), black (hair), and red (apple-blood) elements of Snow White’s nature” (Girardot, 291), the virtues of her soul that set her apart from stepmother who sees her own worth as purely physical. There is also the parallel “of the apple with the fruit of earthly desires in the Biblical garden of paradise which brings death into the world but at the same time makes Adam and Eve aware of their sexuality and godlike power to create new life” (292). Snow White’s temptation is not a mere apple, but all the apple represents—beauty and sexuality (and therefore vanity and lust). Snow White succumbs to temptation in all three trials—not out of perversity or unquenchable female curiosity, like Bluebeard’s wife in another Grimm tale, but out of her naive belief in the goodness of people; the simple peasant woman offering her these gifts could not be evil (Murphy, 127). Because of her innocence and purity of faith, Snow White is not cruelly punished like many fairy tale “bad girls” but merely falls into a sleep-like death that will eventually be lifted. In further evidence of the religious tone of the story, the dwarfs wash Snow White’s body with water and wine, and all work stops for three days while they mourn (Murphy, 128). Here it is helpful to examine the symbolism present in the illustration (medium unknown, but most likely an etching) by Ludwig Emil Grimm, one of the younger brothers of Jacob and Wilhelm, for the 1825 “Little Edition” of the KHM. The image shows Snow White in the glass coffin that the dwarfs have fashioned for her, placed on top of a mountain, and guarded by one of the dwarfs and three birds: an owl, a raven, and a dove. Upon her death, Snow White is only seven years old (another detail added by the Grimms). When she begins to display the troubling tendency of giving in to temptation, she is put safely away until the danger is over. “The implication is that as Snow White lay deathlike in the crystal coffin for a ‘long, long time,’ she was of marriageable age at the end of the story—that is, she was around fourteen years old, or seven years beyond the age of seven” (Girardot, 283). If glass is a symbol of virginity (Faur, 27 Oct 2014), Snow White’s identity as a virgin is imposed upon her in the form of the glass coffin. She is trapped—literally by the glass coffin and figuratively by her identity as a virgin—until the dangerous time of adolescence has passed. In example after example of Christian female martyrs, their “purity” is lauded as their most important virtue: Saint Lucy, Saint Agnes, Saint Agatha, the Virgin of Antioch (no name needed, apparently; her virginity is her identity), Saint Apollonia, Saint Margaret, and Saint Christina. It is a disturbing trend that the purity of these women’s faith is conflated with the purity of their bodies: “that the blessed virgin Lucy possessed the beauty of virginity without trace of corruption; that she radiated charity without any impure love; her progress toward God was straight and without deviation” (de Voragine, 27). So too is Snow White pure in body and soul, remaining true to the colors that define her: red/loving, white/innocent, and black/humble. In death, Snow White’s body remains whole, pure and beautiful, suffering from no decay, which is consistent with other female Christian martyrs: “By the early modern period, incorruptibility of the whole cadaver or of a part (that is, remaining lifelike, supple, and without decay for decades after burial) was reported for almost every woman proposed for canonization” (Bynum, 70). Because Snow White is a virgin and pure of heart, her body remains whole in order to be ready for resurrection. The dwarfs take turns watching over the body of Snow White, but she is also guarded by three surprising figures: an owl, a raven, and a dove. The symbolism here is threefold. First, it is a repetition of the three colors that represent the virtues of Snow White’s soul: the reddish-brown owl, the black raven, and the white dove. Second, they are a nod to Wilhelm Grimm’s belief in the universal truths found in pre-Christian religions: the owl for Athena and the classic beliefs, the raven for the old Norse-Germanic beliefs, and the dove for Christianity. Third, they are the ever-present Holy Spirit that stay with Snow White until the arrival of the Son and Father (Murphy, 131). The final and perhaps most important addition by the Grimms is Snow White’s rescue and resurrection by the prince. Because Walt Disney’s adaptation of the story is so deeply lodged in our minds, most people are surprised to discover that in the Grimms’ final version Snow White is not awoken by the prince’s kiss. When the prince’s servants carry the coffin away, one stumbles, and the bite of poisoned apple falls from Snow White’s mouth. In Disney’s version, the prince and Snow White have already met and fallen in love. In the Grimms’ version, the prince sees Snow White for the first time when she is dead in her coffin; if the prince is merely a mortal man, the story wanders into the dangerously gruesome realm of implied necrophilia. Wilhelm Grimm wanted to stir the hearts, not chill the blood, of his readers. The Christ-like prince finds Snow White preserved in her virginal state, sees the worthiness of her beauty/soul, and enables her resurrection, telling her that he will take her to “my father’s castle” to “be my wife” (Grimm, 204). According to medieval writers, “a death to sexual reproductive life was inverted into a life in Christ as his special bride, and the late medieval authors likened the choice of a life of virginity to a death and rebirth as Christ’s bride” (Rubin, 156). If the prince were an ordinary man, Snow White would not have retained her purity in marriage. Instead, like a nun, she has become the bride of Christ. Throughout the various editions of the KHM, the manner of the wicked queen’s death in “Snow White” remains the same. At the wedding of Snow White and the prince, the queen is made to put on red-hot iron shoes and “dance until she fell down dead” (Grimm, 204). This “recalls folk practices of destroying a witch through the magic agency of iron. There are also associations of slippers and shoes with the female sexual organs which, as expressive of the egocentric overestimation of the physical dimension of human nature, represent the root of the stepmother’s evil” (Girardot, 297). True to fairy tale style and the Grimms’ polarized views in doling out justice, the villain suffers a grisly death and the heroine claims her Happily Ever After. 3. Beyond the Grimms: Contemporary Re-appropriation The fairy tale collection of the Brothers Grimm has remained hugely influential in the Western world for the past two hundred years. Adaptations appear in every conceivable medium, and “their success attests that the popular audience has internalized these formulas” (Dégh, 84-5). These retellings, often branching off into various subgenres and straying far from the “original” versions, have prompted certain critics to mourn the loss of the alleged purity of the Grimms’ collection. In his article “Yours, Mine, or Ours? Perrault, the Brothers Grimm, and the Ownership of Fairy Tales,” Donald Haase tackles the question of the ownership of fairy tales, debunking two popular myths in the process: nationalism and universalism. The Grimms’ tales are not purely German, for their sources can be traced back to French, Norse, and other European roots (385-6). The stories also cannot truly be called universal in nature, since the Grimms unconsciously wove in their own moral outlook. What psychologist Bruno Bettelheim (author of the renowned book The Uses of Enchantment) saw as universal truths were in fact the authoritarian, patriarchal values of Europe at the time of the Grimms—very similar, in fact, to Bettelheim’s own personal values (392). So if the Grimm fairy tales are neither national nor universal, to whom do they belong? “To be blunt: I do. And you do … We claim fairy tales in every individual act of telling and reading” (395). Fairy tales have no pure, original, incorruptible source. They have been undergoing a process of individual appropriation since the words “glass” and “coffin” were first put together. The Grimms’ tales are not holy texts to be preserved from sacrilege. Some scholars have attempted to do so, but this results in a sterile picture devoid of meaning. It is through this process of individual reclamation and appropriation that fairy tales regain their meaning—the meaning we give them. This is exactly what Western culture has done over and over again. The 1937 film adaptation by Walt Disney might almost be more deeply imbedded in modern American psyches than the Grimm version. Countless advertising and merchandising dollars over the past century ensured that Disney’s version not only became but stayed the new dominant narrative, the ultimate authority on Snow White. But Walt Disney was no less a product of his time than the Grimms. He downplayed the Christian symbolism in the story, but it is still present, especially in the final shot when the prince’s castle appears “not on the horizon as one might expect in a Disney film, but high above and ahead of the prince and his bride, radiant in the sky … like a golden city made of sunlight” (Murphy, 4). Disney gave us the sweetness of a happily ever after romance, a narrative produced and consumed en masse in Depression-era cinema. Since then, however, we have not been content with Snow White as the docile and demure damsel in distress. Modern feminism demands more of its heroines, as seen in the influx of Snow White retellings in the past few years. In the ABC series Once Upon a Time (2011-present), this new Snow White is “spunky yet vulnerable” (Tatar), armed with a bow and a complicated backstory. Another example is the 2012 film Snow White and the Huntsman, “reconceived to appeal to an audience partial to high-decibel special effects … Like all fairy-tale adaptations, it also operates like a magnet, picking up relevant bits and pieces of the culture that is recycling the tale” (Tatar). Once again we see a Snow White who is strong and inspiring, who “channels Joan of Arc” (Fricke; Tatar) and leads an army to reclaim her kingdom. A lesser-known version is another film in 2012 called Mirror Mirror, in which Snow White avoids death altogether by seeing through the poisoned-apple trick and outsmarting the wicked queen. In most contemporary adaptations, the powerful fairy tale images remain—the magic mirror, the poisoned apple, the glass coffin, and the resurrection by true love’s kiss. But Snow White is no longer the Grimms’ one-dimensional archetype nor Disney’s vapid and saccharine maiden. We have given her what the Grimms never did: a personality, a purpose, and a weapon. The Brothers Grimm were another link in this endless chain, creating their own adaptation for their own purposes. Their failure, however, was in being oblivious to the larger implications of the choices they made. No fairy tale adaptation exists in a vacuum. Every story or piece of art is part of the greater narrative of how we represent martyrs, women, and other oppressed peoples. The artist has a responsibility to the truth as they see it, but the work will inevitably be colored by their own socio-historical context. We can—and should—continue to re-appropriate fairy tales, using old stories to find new meaning, but we must be conscious of our accountability and intentional in our choices. Every martyrdom narrative has consequences, but when the martyr is fictional, her voice is our voice; we use her story to tell our own. Snow White is still our martyr; she can be a martyr for each one of us. Bacchilega, Cristina. “Cracking the Mirror: Three Re-Visions of ‘Snow White.’” boundary 2, Duke University Press.15.3 and 16.1 (Spring – Autumn, 1988): 1-25. JSTOR. Web. 13 Bynum, Caroline Walker. “Bodily Miracles and the Resurrection of the Body in the High Middle Ages.” Belief in History: Innovative Approaches to European and American Religion. Ed. Thomas Kselman. London: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991. PDF. Dégh, Linda. “What did the Grimm Brothers Give to and Take from the Folk?” The Brothers Grimm and Folktale. Ed. James M. McGlathery. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988. Print. Ellis, John M. One Fairy Story Too Many: The Brothers Grimm and Their Tales. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983. Print. von Franz, Marie-Louise. The Interpretation of Fairy Tales. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc, 1996. Print. Faur, Amjad. The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA. 27 Oct 2014. Lecture. Fricke, Cate. “Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall: Who Has the Most Girl-Power of Them All?” Something to Read for the Train.Pub. 20 Jun, 2012. WordPress.com. Web. 13 Nov, Girardot, N. J. “Initiation and Meaning in the Tale of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.” The Journal of American Folklore90.357 (1977): 274-300. JSTOR. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm. The Complete Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm. Translated by Jack Zipes. New York: Bantam Books, Inc, 1987. Print. Grimm, Ludwig Emil. Medium unknown. Haase, Donald. “Yours, Mine, or Ours? Perrault, the Brothers Grimm, and the Ownership of Fairy Tales.” Merveilles & Contes 7.2 (1993): 383-402. JSTOR. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. Kamenetsky, Christa. The Brothers Grimm and Their Critics: Folktales and the Quest for Meaning. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1992. Print. Murphy, G. Ronald. The Owl, the Raven & the Dove: The Religious Meaning of the Grimms’ Magic Fairy Tales. New York: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. Paradiž, Valerie. Clever Maids: The Secret History of the Grimm Fairy Tales. New York: Basic Books, 2005. Print. Rubin, Miri. “Choosing Death? Experiences of Martyrdom in Late Medieval Europe.” Martyrs and Martyrologies: Papers Read at the 1992 Summer Meeting and the 1993 Winter Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society. Ed. Diana Wood. Oxford: Published for the Ecclesiastical History Society by Blackwell Publishers, 1993. PDF. Smith, Leonard S. Religion and the Rise of History: Martin Luther and the Cultural Revolution in Germany, 1760-1810. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co, 2009. Print. Tatar, Maria. “Snow White: Beauty is Power” The New Yorker. Pub. 8 Jun, 2012. Web. 13 Nov, de Voragine, Jacobus. The Golden Legend: Readings on the Saints. Translated by William Granger Ryan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. PDF. Zipes, Jack. The Golden Age of Folk and Fairy Tales: From the Brothers Grimm to Andrew Lang. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett, 2013. Print.

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For other uses, see Ghost Dance (disambiguation). The Ghost Dance (Caddo: Nanissáanah, also called the Ghost Dance of 1890) was a new religious movement incorporated into numerous American Indian belief systems. According to the teachings of the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka (renamed Jack Wilson), proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, bring the spirits of the dead to fight on their behalf, make the white colonists leave, and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Native American peoples throughout the region. The basis for the Ghost Dance, the circle dance, is a traditional form that has been used by many Native American peoples since prehistoric times, but this new ceremony was first practiced among the NevadaPaiute in 1889. The practice swept throughout much of the Western United States, quickly reaching areas of California and Oklahoma. As the Ghost Dance spread from its original source, Indian tribes synthesized selective aspects of the ritual with their own beliefs. The Ghost Dance was associated with Wilson's (Wovoka's) prophecy of an end to white expansion while preaching goals of clean living, an honest life, and cross-cultural cooperation by Indians. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance to assimilation under the Dawes Act. In the Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890, United States Army forces killed at least 153 Miniconjou and Hunkpapa from the Lakota people. The Lakota variation on the Ghost Dance tended towards millenarianism, an innovation that distinguished the Lakota interpretation from Jack Wilson's original teachings. The Caddo still practice the Ghost Dance today. The Northern Paiutes living in Mason Valley, in what is now the U.S. state of Nevada, were known collectively as the Tövusi-dökadö (Tövusi-: "Cyperus bulb" and dökadö: "eaters") at the time of European contact. The Northern Paiute community at this time was thriving upon a subsistence pattern of fishing, hunting wild game, and foraging for pine nuts and roots such as Cyperus esculentus. The Tövusi-dökadö during this period lacked any permanent political organisation or officials, and tended to follow various spiritual leaders and community organizers. Community events centered on the observance of seasonal ceremonies such as harvests or hunting. In 1869, Hawthorne Wodziwob, a Paiute man, organized a series of community dances to announce a vision. He spoke of a journey to the land of the dead and of promises made to him by the souls of the recently deceased. They promised to return to their loved ones within a period of three to four years. Wodziwob's peers accepted this vision, likely due to his reputable status as a healer. He urged the populace to dance the common circle dance as was customary during a time of celebration. He continued preaching this message for three years with the help of a local "weather doctor" named Tavibo, father of Jack Wilson. Prior to Wodziwob's religious movement, a devastating typhoid fever epidemic struck in 1867. This and other European diseases killed approximately one-tenth of the total population, resulting in widespread psychological and emotional trauma. The disruption brought disorder to the economic system and society. Many families were prevented from continuing their nomadic lifestyle. Round dance influence A "round dance" is a circular community dance held, usually around an individual who leads the ceremony. Round dances may be ceremonial or purely social. Usually the dancers are accompanied by a group of singers who may also play hand drums in unison. The dancers join hands to form a large circle. The dancers move to their left with a side-shuffle step to reflect the long-short pattern of the drum beat, bending their knees to emphasize the pattern. During his studies of the Pacific Northwest tribes the anthropologistLeslie Spier used the term "prophet dances" to describe ceremonial round dances where the participants seek trance, exhortations and prophecy. Spier studied peoples of the Columbia plateau (a region including Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of western Montana). By the time of his studies the only dances he was allowed to witness were social dances or ones that had already incorporated Christian elements, making investigation of the round dance's origin complicated. Jack Wilson, the prophet otherwise known as Wovoka, was believed to have had a vision during a solar eclipse on January 1, 1889. It was reportedly not his first time experiencing a vision; but as a young adult, he claimed that he was then better equipped, spiritually, to handle this message. Jack had received training from an experienced holy man under his parents' guidance after they realized that he was having difficulty interpreting his previous visions. Jack was also training to be a "weather doctor", following in his father's footsteps. He was known throughout Mason Valley as a gifted and blessed young leader. Preaching a message of universal love, he often presided over circle dances, which symbolized the sun's heavenly path across the sky. AnthropologistJames Mooney conducted an interview with Wilson prior to 1892. Mooney confirmed that his message matched that given to his fellow Indians. This study compared letters between tribes. According to Mooney, Wilson's letter said he stood before God in heaven and had seen many of his ancestors engaged in their favorite pastimes, and that God showed Wilson a beautiful land filled with wild game and instructed him to return home to tell his people that they must love each other and not fight. He also stated that Jesus was being reincarnated on earth in 1892, that the people must work, not steal or lie, and that they must not engage in the old practices of war or the traditional self-mutilation practices connected with mourning the dead. He said that if his people abided by these rules, they would be united with their friends and family in the other world, and in God's presence, there would be no sickness, disease, or old age. Mooney writes that Wilson was given the Ghost Dance and commanded to take it back to his people. He preached that if the five-day dance was performed in the proper intervals, the performers would secure their happiness and hasten the reunion of the living and deceased. Wilson said that the Creator gave him powers over the weather and that he would be the deputy in charge of affairs in the western United States, leaving current President Harrison as God's deputy in the East. Jack claims that he was then told to return home and preach God's message. Jack Wilson claimed to have left the presence of God convinced that if every Indian in the West danced the new dance to "hasten the event", all evil in the world would be swept away, leaving a renewed Earth filled with food, love, and faith. Quickly accepted by his Paiute brethren, the new religion was termed "Dance In A Circle". Because the first European contact with the practice came by way of the Lakota, their expression "Spirit Dance" was adopted as a descriptive title for all such practices. This was subsequently translated as "Ghost Dance". Spread of the prophet's message Through Indians and some white settlers, Wilson's message spread across much of the western portion of the United States. Early in the religious movement, many tribes sent members to investigate the self-proclaimed prophet, while other communities sent delegates only to be cordial. Regardless of their initial motivations, many left as believers and returned to their homeland preaching his message. The Ghost Dance was also investigated by many Mormons from Utah, for whom the concepts of the Indian prophet were familiar and often accepted. While many followers of the Ghost Dance believed Wovoka to be a teacher of pacifism and peace, others did not. An elaboration of the Ghost Dance concept was the development of ghost shirts, which were special clothing that warriors could wear. They were rumored to repel bullets through spiritual power. It is uncertain where this belief originated. Scholars believe that in 1890 chief Kicking Bear introduced the concept to his people, the Lakota, while James Mooney argued that the most likely source is the Mormontemple garment (which Mormons believe protect the pious wearer from evil). The Lakota interpretation drew from their traditional idea of a "renewed Earth" in which "all evil is washed away". This Lakota interpretation included the removal of all European Americans from their lands. In February 1890, the United States government broke a Lakota treaty by adjusting the Great Sioux Reservation of South Dakota (an area that formerly encompassed the majority of the state) and breaking it up into five smaller reservations. The government was accommodating white homesteaders from the eastern United States; in addition, it intended to "break up tribal relationships" and "conform Indians to the white man's ways, peaceably if they will, or forcibly if they must". On the reduced reservations, the government allocated family units on 320-acre (1.3 km2) plots for individual households. The Lakota were expected to farm and raise livestock, and to send their children to boarding schools. With the goal of assimilation, the schools taught English and Christianity, as well as American cultural practices. Generally, they forbade inclusion of Indian traditional culture and language. To help support the Lakota during the period of transition, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was to supplement the Lakota with food and to hire white farmers as teachers for the people. The farming plan failed to take into account the difficulty that Lakota farmers would have in trying to cultivate crops in the semi-arid region of South Dakota. By the end of the 1890 growing season, a time of intense heat and low rainfall, it was clear that the land was unable to produce substantial agricultural yields. Unfortunately, this was also the time when the government's patience with supporting the so-called "lazy Indians" ran out. They cut rations for the Lakota in half. With the bison having been virtually eradicated a few years earlier, the Lakota were at risk of starvation. The people turned to the Ghost Dance ritual, which frightened the supervising agents of the BIA. Those who had been residing in the area for a long time recognized that the ritual was often held shortly before battle was to occur. Kicking Bear was forced to leave Standing Rock, but when the dances continued unabated, Agent James McLaughlin asked for more troops. He claimed the Hunkpapa spiritual leader Sitting Bull was the real leader of the movement. A former agent, Valentine McGillycuddy, saw nothing extraordinary in the dances and ridiculed the panic that seemed to have overcome the agencies, saying: "The coming of the troops has frightened the Indians. If the Seventh-Day Adventists prepare the ascension robes for the Second Coming of the Savior, the United States Army is not put in motion to prevent them. Why should not the Indians have the same privilege? If the troops remain, trouble is sure to come." Nonetheless, thousands of additional U.S. Army troops were deployed to the reservation. On December 15, 1890, Sitting Bull was arrested for failing to stop his people from practicing the Ghost Dance. During the incident, one of Sitting Bull's men, Catch the Bear, fired at Lieutenant "Bull Head", striking his right side. He instantly wheeled and shot Sitting Bull, hitting him in the left side, between the tenth and eleventh ribs; this exchange resulted in deaths on both sides, including that of Sitting Bull. Main articles: Wounded Knee Massacre and Ghost Dance War December 29, 1890 - Spotted Elk (Lakota: Unpan Glešká – also known as Big Foot) was a Miniconjou leader on the U.S. Army's list of 'trouble-making' Indians. He was stopped while en route to convene with the remaining Lakota chiefs. U.S. Army officers forced him to relocate with his people to a small camp close to the Pine Ridge Agency. Here the soldiers could more closely watch the old chief. That evening, December 28, the small band of Lakota erected their tipis on the banks of Wounded Knee Creek. The following day, during an attempt by the officers to collect weapons from the band, one young, deaf Lakota warrior refused to relinquish his arms. A struggle followed in which somebody's weapon discharged into the air. One U.S. officer gave the command to open fire, and the Lakota responded by taking up previously confiscated weapons; the U.S. forces responded with carbine firearms and several rapid-fire light-artillery (Hotchkiss) guns mounted on the overlooking hill. When the fighting had concluded, 25 U.S. soldiers lay dead, many killed by friendly fire. Among the 153 dead Lakota, most were women and children. Following the massacre, chief Kicking Bear officially surrendered his weapon to General Nelson A. Miles. Outrage in the eastern United States emerged as the public learned about the murders. The U.S. government had insisted on numerous occasions that the Indian had already been successfully pacified. Many Americans felt the U.S. Army actions were unduly harsh; some related the massacre at Wounded Knee Creek to the "ungentlemanly act of kicking a man when he is already down". Public uproar played a role in the reinstatement of the previous treaty's terms, including full rations and more monetary compensation for lands taken away. Twenty U.S. soldiers received Medals of Honor for their actions (some sources state the number as 18 or 23). American Indian and human rights activists have referred to these as "Medals of Dis-Honor" and called for the awards to be rescinded, but none of them have ever been revoked. Following the Wounded Knee Massacre, interest and participation in the Ghost Dance movement dropped dramatically for fear of continued violence against practitioners. Like most Indian ceremonies, it became clandestine rather than dying out completely. Despite the widespread acceptance of the Ghost Dance movement, Navajo leaders described the Ghost Dance as "worthless words" in 1890. Three years later, James Mooney arrived at the Navajo reservation in northern Arizona during his study of the Ghost Dance movement and found the Navajo never incorporated the ritual into their society. Kehoe believed the movement did not gain traction with the tribe due to the Navajo's higher levels of social and economic satisfaction at the time. Another factor was cultural norms among the Navajo, which inculcated a fear of ghosts and spirits, based on religious beliefs. The Ghost Dance today The Wounded Knee massacre was not the end of the Ghost Dance religious movement. Instead, it went underground. Wovoka continued to spread its message, along with Kicking Bear, Short Bull and other holy men. During the Wounded Knee incident of 1973, Lakota men and women including Mary Crow Dog, the wife of Leonard Crow Dog, ghost danced on the site where their ancestors had been killed. In her book, Ms. Crow Dog indicated that ghost dances continue as private ceremonies. Ghost dancing is portrayed in the 1992 film Thunderheart which takes place near the Wounded Knee Memorial. Scriptwriter John Fusco believed it was necessary to show a few seconds of a traditional ghost dance, which protagonist Ray Levoi would perceive as dreams or visions. The 2004 film Hidalgo, also written by Fusco, also portrayed ghost dancers and the Wounded Knee massacre. Fusco consulted Lakota historians and elders and had Ghost Dancers enact the ceremony in both films. Patti Smith recorded a song, "Ghost Dance", about or inspired by the ceremony on Easter (1978). Rapper Magneto Dayo and The Lakota Medicine Men did a tribute song called "The Journey" referencing the "Ghost Dance" (2016) on the album Royalty of the UnderWorld. - ^Edmonds, Randlett. Nusht'uhti?ti? Hasinay: Caddo Phrasebook. Richardson, TX: Various Indian Peoples Publishing, 2003: 19. ISBN 1-884655-00-9. - ^ abcd*Mooney, James. The Ghost Dance Religion and Wounded Knee. New York: Dover Publications; 1896 - ^Utley, Robert, The Last Days of the Sioux Nation, Yale University Press, 1964 - ^Cross, Phil. "Caddo Songs and Dances"Archived 2010-08-24 at the Wayback Machine.. Caddo Legacy from Caddo People. Retrieved December 9, 2009. - ^ abKehoe, Alice Beck (1989). The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization. Washington, DC: Thompson Publishing. pp. 32–33. - ^Kehoe, The Ghost Dance, p. 33. - ^"Ghost Dance – The Messiah Letter from Wovoka". www.ghostdance.us. - ^Kehoe, The Ghost Dance, p. 5. - ^Kehoe, The Ghost Dance, p. 13. - ^Hittman, Michael, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, pp. 84-88, University of Nebraska Press, 1997 ISBN 0-8032-7308-8. - ^Kehoe, The Ghost Dance, p. 15. - ^Wallace, Anthony F. C. "Revitalization Movements: Some Theoretical Considerations for Their Comparative Study", American Anthropologist n.s. 58(2):264-81. 1956 - ^Boyd, James (1891). Recent Indian Wars. [Philadelphia] Publishers Union. - ^Brands, H.W. (2002). The Reckless Decade: America in the 1890s. University of Chicago Press. p. 18. - ^Kehoe, The Ghost Dance, p. 20. - ^"Sitting Bull: Biography". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2012-05-25. Retrieved 2012-05-15. - ^ abKehoe, The Ghost Dance, p. 24. - ^ abGreen, Jerry (1994). "The Medals of Wounded Knee"(PDF). Nebraska History. Nebraska State Historical Society. 75: 207. Retrieved September 22, 2011. - ^"Indian Wars Period". Medal of Honor Recipients. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved September 22, 2011. - ^"Support the Action to Revoke the Congressional Medals of Honor to the Soldiers of the 7th Cavalry at Wounded Knee"(PDF). National Congress of American Indians. November 30, 2001. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 28, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2011. - ^Winter Rabbit (February 9, 2011). "Action: Rescind Wounded Knee Medals of Dis Honor". Daily Kos. Retrieved September 22, 2011. - ^Paul, Daniel N. (ed.). "Massacre: Wounded Knee, South Dakota, USA, December 29, 1890". We Were Not the Savages: First Nation History. Retrieved September 22, 2011. - ^Renee Sansom Flood, Lost Bird of Wounded Knee (Scribner, 2014). - ^Mary Crow Dog with Richard Erdoes, Lakota Woman (Grove Weidenfeld, 1990). - ^Elizabeth Roetman, Straight From the Horse’s Mouth: Hopkins, Hidalgo, and Hollywood. Quotes from Fusco's interviews where he explained how he located descendants of Wounded Knee survivors to ghost-dance for both films. - ^Wendell, Eric (2014). Patti Smith: America's Punk Rock Rhapsodist, p.54. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780810886919. "The 'Ghost Dance' in question may refer to the Native American practice, a holy tradition meant to reunite the living with the spirits of the departed." - ^Johnstone, Nick (2012). Patti Smith: A Biography, unpaginated. Omnibus. ISBN 9780857127785. "The title referred to the Native American Indian ritual of the ghost dance...This was another song about different modes of communicating with God and parallel planes of existence." - ^Dethier, Brock (2003). From Dylan to Donne: Bridging English and Music, p.38. Boynton/Cook. ISBN 9780867095326. "Patti Smith's 'Ghost Dance', for instance, can spark discussions of cultural appropriation, treatment of the sacred, and of course the genocide of Native Americans." - Andersson, Rani-Henrik. The Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8032-1073-8. - Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West. New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8050-6669-2. - Du Bois, Cora. The 1870 Ghost Dance. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8032-6662-9. - Kehoe, Alice Beck. The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-57766-453-6. - Osterreich, Shelley Anne. The American Indian Ghost Dance, 1870 and 1890. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-313-27469-5. - Stannard, David E.American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0. For my project, I researched two different Lakota dance rituals, the Ghost dance and the Sun dance. We learned about the Sun dance from Celinda’s article, but I wanted to learn more. The purpose of the sun dance is to reunite and reconnect with the earth and the spirits. It calls for a renewal of life and a prayer for life. A large part of the sun dance is sacrifice. Men are required to partake in “piercing,” when two cuts are made on each side of the dancer’s chest where wooden pegs are inserted. It acts as a form of self-abasement so that the spirits will respond to his sacrifice and give him power and strength to finish the sun dance. Sacrifice also allows for the dancer to give up a piece of his body for this good of his people. The sun dance was outlawed in the 1880s and reintroduced in the 1930s. Sun Dance (Youtube video) The Ghost dance was a religious movement that began in 1870 and developed into a pan-Indian movement by 1890. Wovoka spread the movement because of his vision of the dance and preached the qualities of non-violence and a peaceful doctrine along with the dance. The Ghost dance is similar to the Sun dance in that the government intervened because they saw the Ghost dance movement as a largely subversive response to the settlement of Indian lands. The government failed to accept the Ghost dance movement and aggressively intervened with the famous massacre at Wounded Knee. The purpose of the Ghost dance is to reject negative things of the western culture (war, guns, alcohol), and accept the positive things (wage, labor, clothes, tools). The dance is for the regeneration of the earth and allows for the contact with the deceased. The people join hands and dance around in a circle until they fall down and are then able to connect with the spirits of their ancestors. “The Father had commanded all the world to dance, and we gave the dance to the people as we had been bidden. When they danced they fell dead and went to the spirit-camp and saw those who had died, those whom they had loved…” (Short Bull) Ghost Dance (Youtube video) Anela, Haley, and I compared the different dance rituals that we researched and found many common themes between them. The similarities that we found between the Hoop dance, Hawaiian Hula, Maori Poi balls, and the Lakota Ghost and Sun dances were that they all contained the symbol of the circle, consisted of some type of storytelling, conveyed a certain point, acted as a way of passing down information and tradition from generation to generation, and had the mediation of the government at one point in time. Dance can be seen as a ritual in many different ways. It can be tied to a religion of Native tradition, or it can be a ritual of repetition, such as in Martha Graham’s modern dance style. Considering a dance to be ritual or not depends on the individual’s definition of ritual.

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Acrostic: A poem or other form of writing in which the first or last letter, syllable or word of each line or paragraph, when arranged one after the other, form a word. Action: An event or series of events (real or fictional), that make the subject of a literary piece of work. Actions along with dialogs of the character shape the plot of a narrative poem, prose, novel, story or a play. Allegory: This term acts as an extended metaphor in which, objects, characters or actions are used to denote something other than their literal meaning. They are used to symbolize qualities of social, religious or political significance and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas like charity, kindness, greed or jealousy. In other words, through allegory, authors use elements of the narrative, to stress upon broader ideas that may not be explicitly mentioned in the narrative. Alliteration: Alliteration is a literary or rhetorical stylistic device in which, consonant sounds are repeated (usually at the beginning) of a number of words in close succession. However, the repetitive sound can come inside the words as well. Allusion: In literary work, allusion is a reference to some person, place or event in history or in another work of literature. Allusions are often used to convey broad complex ideas with a quick reference to well-known events or characters. Analogy: Using an instance somewhat similar (not the same) to the one being talked about, in order to highlight the important features of the instance in question, through comparison of the two. Antagonist: A character in prose or poetry that deceives, frustrates, works against or tries to harm the main character who is known as the protagonist. The antagonist need not be a live character. It could be any quality as well. Also, the antagonist needn’t be always bad. In fact, an antagonist can be a virtue which acts against a protagonist, who in this case would be evil. Anthology: A collection of poetry, drama or verse. Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of identical or similar vowels (specially in stressed syllables), in words that occur in close sequence. Atmosphere or Ambiance: The emotional tone prevalent throughout a literary work or a section of it, that helps the reader to anticipate and relate to the course of events, whether happy or sad. Alternatively, the terms mood or ambiance (French word) are also used for atmosphere. Autobiography: A non-fictional work by a subject, about his or her own life. Every account of the author’s life is true. Ballad: A narrative folk song or poem that tells a story and is passed orally through tradition. Ballads cannot be traced to a particular author. Characteristically, ballads are dramatic and impersonal narratives. Beat: Beat is a heavy stress or accent in a line of poetry. Usually it is the number of syllables in a line. The meter of a line is determined by the number of beats in it. Biography: A complete account of a particular person’s life that attempts to portray the character, temperament as well as the experiences of the individual. Blank Verse: A verse in iambic pentameter that does not have any rhyme scheme, hence the name ‘blank’. It was popularly used in verse drama of the sixteenth century by Shakespeare and later by Milton and Wordsworth for poetry. Catastrophe: Catastrophe refers to the final action that results in the unfolding of the plot in a play, especially in a tragedy. Character: The embodiment of a person in a drama or narrative through verbal representation or actions. It is the person, or people, or personalities (character can be an animal) in the story. It is who is in the story. Characterization: Use of description, dialogs, dialect and actions to create the emotional, intellectual and moral dimension of a character is called characterization. Besides enabling the reader to understand the personality of a character, characterization may also give clues about the social, cultural and geographic background of a character as well. Climax: A point in the play or any form of literary work at which crisis or conflict reaches its maximum intensity and then is resolved. Close Reading: Bit by bit analysis of every word and literary devices used to understand their significance, inter-relationship and ambiguity (multiple meanings). Conflict: Depiction of struggle in literary work, be it between two ideas, characters or groups of people. The conflict can also be internal, that is the protagonist struggling with psychological tendencies. Forms include Person versus Self (Internal Conflict), Person versus Person, Person versus Nature, Person versus Society, and Person versus God. Connotation: While denotation is the main meaning or defintion of a word, connotation means the associated, implied, or secondary significance of a word. Connotation is the understood meaning that is not part of the actual definition. Crisis: A moment of uncertainty and tension that results from earlier conflicts in a plot. During crisis, it is unclear if a protagonist will fail or succeed in his struggle. Criticism: Literary criticism is the overall term for study, analysis, defining, interpreting and evaluating works of literature. The different types of criticisms are practical criticism or applied criticism, impressionistic criticism and judicial criticism. Cynicism: Having a negative view of others and their motivations. Denotation: The strict meaning or definition of a word as found in the dictionary, without any reference to its implications or associations. The literal meaning. Also see connotation. Dialog: The lines spoken by characters in a play, novel or essay. It is through dialogs that characters converse with each other. Dialogs help in characterization and helps the plot to advance. Drama: A composition in prose or verse that is designed to be presented on stage. In this, actors take the role of characters. Through their dialogs and actions, the characters advance the plot. An individual work of drama is called a play. Dystopia: A work of fiction which presents a very grim picture of the social, political and technological aspects of a society that is characterized by poverty, disease, oppression, war, violence, violation of human rights and widespread unhappiness. Epic: A genre of classical poetry that is a long narrative verse written on a serious subject, usually about the ideals and cultural values of a race, a nation or a group of people upheld by a hero or a demi God. The exploits of this central character is written in high elevated language. An epic is set over a vast geographical area and involves Gods and supernatural beings taking part in it. Epilogue: A conclusion (known as the final chapter) written at the end of a novel, play or a long poem. It is usually a long speech, delivered either by the (or one of the) central character or by the writer himself, where the speaker speaks to the audience directly. Euphemism: The use of a mild and comparatively less negative word instead of a blunt or harsh word. Extended Metaphor: An extended metaphor or a conceit is a metaphor that extends into the next line. It is also found frequently throughout the work. They are highly applicable or effective in poems and fiction. Fable: A fable is a short story that essentially has a moral. Fables are written and told to induce certain morals without instructions. There is mostly a use of animals and other imaginary creatures. Fantasy: Fantasy is also closely related with fancy. However, fantasy is imagination which is vivid and unrestrained. Fantasy is, ordinarily, extravagant and not having any specific relation with reality. It is mostly an exaggerated vision of a desire. Fiction: Fiction is an aspect of literature that deals with the imagination and the contrafactual events (events that are not true while writing, but may be true in the future). It can also mean to be an imaginary event that has been made to make a certain point clear. Figurative Language: Figurative language is one that goes beyond its literary meaning to have a deeper, more effective bearing. Figurative language uses figures of speech. Figure of Speech: Figures of speech are words or phrases that are used to express a meaning that is not confined to its literary meaning. Figures of speech are used very often in prose as well as poetry to make the point clear and apparent. Flashback: Flashback is remembering or reviewing past events. Flashbacks are often used in dramatics, poetry and prose to allow the reader or the audience to visualize an event that took place in the past. Foil: Foil is that character in the play (or any other literary work), who brings out/highlights the qualities of the protagonist and also emphasizes on the moral factor of the story. The foil is mostly in contrast to the protagonist. Folklore: Folklores are the unwritten stories, poetry, phrases and morals of a certain culture. Folklores are, ordinarily, passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth in the form of stories, poems, songs and phrases. Folklore are known to have a major impact on the mindset of the audience. Folk Tale: Folk tales are stories that are used to show a certain moral. These folk tales are ordinarily unwritten and passed down from parent to child. Folk tales exist in all cultures and play a big role in maintaining the values of the culture. Foreshadowing: Foreshadowing is a tool used to give the reader or audience a hint of what may happen ahead. It consists of subtle hints that would make the audience “get intuitive” of an event and anticipate it. When that event does occur, the impact is stronger and the feedback is positive. Free Verse: A free verse is verse or poetry that does not abide by the rules of rhyming. However, it can be interpreted as poetry due to the style it is written in. The general flow of thoughts, use of words and form can help in perceiving it as a poem. Genre: Genre is a literary term that is, ordinarily, used only with reference to art and literature. Genre means a certain class or category of artistic endeavor having a particular form, content or technique. A few examples would be, genre of story writing or genre of music. Hero: A hero is an unavoidable aspect of literature. The literary term often refers to the lead character (main protagonist) or the one of distinguished courage or ability, admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities. Homily: A homily is a literary term that refers to a commentary that, ordinarily, follows the reading of a scripture. It is often considered synonymous to a sermon. Hyperbole: Hyperbole is a part of speech that is used, both in prose and poetry, to express a certain emotion by the use of exaggeration. Idiom: An idiom is a word, phrase or sentence that is specific to a language or culture, but does not have a literal meaning. For instance, the phrase a little birdie told me, does not mean that a bird came and actually told a person something, rather it is used when someone does not want others to know where he/she got the information from. Imagery: Imagery is one of the most important terms in literary criticism. The term imagery may suggest only visual pictures or images found in a piece of literature. However, on the other hand, it includes all the other human sensations including smell, actions, feelings and tastes. When a poem, novel or play uses descriptive language along with figurative speech to explain things like nature, a particular place or situation, etc., it is said to be a work of imagery, where the reader gets the minutest details of what is exactly happening in the scene. Implied Meaning: A meaning that has been suggested without ever being explicitly stated. The meaning requires interpretation based on other knowledge not contained in the statements. (What the speaker or writer does.) Inferred Meaning: A meaning that was arrived at after thought and consideration, because the meaning was not obvious in the statements themselves. (What the reader or listener does.) Internal Rhyme: Internal rhyme is where a poem has rhyming words in the same sentence. One word would be in the middle of the line while the rhyming word would be at the end of the line. Here is an example of internal rhyming from the poem The Raven by Edgar Allen Poe – While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping. Irony: Irony is a literary device where the reality is totally different from what is actually portrayed or expected. Sarcasm can also be said to be a form of irony, where it may appear that a person is praising someone, but actually is doing just the opposite. In dramatic irony, though the character does not understand the cause of the situations that he is experiencing, the reader or the audience knows perfectly about why certain situations have taken place. It is often used to describe situations where the outcome is the opposite of what was planned or expected, especially when that unexpected outcome proves to be humorous or meaningful. Examples of Irony Legend: Legend is often confused with myth, however, both have different meanings. Unlike myth which is based on stories of the supernatural, a legend is a story that tells the tale of a human being and his accomplishments. Though there may not be any proof about the various details mentioned in the legends, the characters and locations surely must have existed in reality. Literal Meaning: The meaning only as stated without interpretation, based on the face value of exactly what has been said. Literature: Though works that have scientific as well as technical subject matter can be called literature, most often works that include creative writing are referred to as literature. Drama, novels (fiction and non-fiction), poetry, etc., are part of what is known as literature. Lyric: Lyric is a short poem written in first person, where a single speaker expresses his emotions and personal feelings. These poems usually do not go beyond sixty lines and can also be sung in the song form. The different forms of lyric include sonnets, elegies, hymns, odes, etc. Metaphor: Metaphor is a figure of speech where two distinctly different things are compared without using adverbs of comparison, ‘as’, ‘like’, etc. A metaphor is used to lay emphasis and bring out certain qualities of the object or person which may not be noticeable in normal situations. For instance, Shakespeare’s metaphor in the play, As You Like It, all the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players…. where actually the writer is trying to make the audience understand that there is no difference between life and theater, and human beings are merely playing parts allotted to them, just as the actors are doing on the stage. Meter: Meter refers to the varying, nevertheless recognizable pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that occur in regular units in the lines of a verse. Monologue: Monologue refers to long and uninterrupted dialog by a character in the play, where he expresses all his thoughts and emotions in front of the audience or any other character on the stage. Motivation: What characters want, and the reason for their behavior. It is why characters make the choices they make. It is why the story takes place at all. Mood: The feeling and emotions associated with a story, poem, or scene. See also Atmosphere. Myth: The term myth refers to stories that talk about the creation and evolution of the world. Myths are usually attached to religion and have a deep cultural significance too. Most of the mythological stories involve Gods, ancestral heroes, supernatural beings, etc. Narration: The act of telling a sequence of events to an audience. It also refers to a story that involves situations, characters, action, etc. Narrator: The speaker or the voice, who is narrating the story. Near Rhyme: A type of rhyme form, where the rhythmic pattern of the words is similar but not exactly alike. These rhymes either have matching vowel segments or matching consonant segments. These rhymes are also known as inexact rhymes or slant rhymes. Novel: A long fictional narrative of 50,000 words or more originated in the late seventeenth century. Novels focus on the lives of a few primary complex characters, but also involve several secondary characters Omniscient Narrator: Also known as third person narrative or outside speaker, it is the literary technique employed, where the story is narrated by a person who is separated from the characters in the story. He is party to all the happenings in the story and different perspectives of the characters in the same. Onomatopoiea: Words that sound like the sound they are describing. Examples include bang, buzz, and clatter. Opposition: The stand that is taken against the protagonist in literature. Oxymoron: A literary device in which two words that contradict each other in meaning are used together to form a paradox. For example, “And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.” from Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. Palindrome: A word or a sentence, that reads the same, when read forwards or backwards. Palindromes date back at least to 79 A.D., as the palindromic Latin word square “Sator Arepo Tenet Opera Rotas” was found as a graffito. Parable: Parable is a literary term used for a short story or narrative, that uses allegory and real life occurrences, to give out messages about religion, values and morals. Paradox: A sentence that seems contradictory in the context but if inspected closely makes sense and is a description of a truth. Paraphrase: A technique in which a writer, rewrites in one’s own words, a part or the whole of a literary work. Parody: An imitation of the work of an author with the intention of ridiculing the ideas in the work. Usually involves humor. Personification: A figure of speech in which animals, ideas and inanimate objects are shown to have human traits and characteristics. Plot: The effect of the structure and relationship of the actions, events and characters in a fictional work. It is what happens in the story. Poetic License: The freedom that a poet possesses to depart from normalcy, where reality, historical facts and common discourse is concerned, in order to convey a certain idea to the reader. Poetic Justice: A term coined by Thomas Rhymer in the seventeenth century, according to which, every narrative or drama should end with proper moral resolution for all the characters. Poetry: A genre which is characterized by the use of rhythm and patterns like meter, rhyme, figures of speech, etc. Point of View: It is a narrative method which determines the manner in which and the position from where, a story is told. Forms include 1st Person (story told by one of the characters, often the protagonist), 3rd Person Limited (told by someone outside the story who has incomplete information, and can usually only see the mind and/or actions of one character), and 3rd Person Omniscient (outside the story but teller can see the thoughts and/or actions of multiple characters). Prequel: A literary work which is often written after the success of an author’s work but is set before the occurrence of events in the earlier work. It has the same characters. Prologue: A section of introductory material, before the start of the main literary work. Prose: Any literary work that is not written in a rhythmic pattern. Protagonist: The main character in a literary work, on which a majority of the narrative focuses. Refrain: Refrain is a line or a set of lines that appear at the end of every stanza in a poem. When refrain appears in the end of the stanzas in a song, it is often referred to as chorus. These lines can either be similar in each stanza or may appear with slight variations. Rhetoric: Rhetoric can be explained as an art of writing or speaking in a manner that would aid in persuading the reader or the audience. Aristotle in his ‘Rhetorics’ has mentioned the ways in which an orator can persuade the audience in accepting his point of view. Rhyme: When two similar sounding words are repeated in a stanza of a poem, it is known as a rhyme. Rhymes that appear on the end of the lines are called end rhyme which is the most common type of rhyme in poetry. There is also internal rhyme where rhyming words appear in the same line. Rhyme Scheme: Rhyme scheme refers to the pattern in which the rhyming words appear in a poem. The rhyme scheme may be similar in all the stanzas throughout the poem, or it may also vary. In the olden days, when poems were passed along as songs, rhyme scheme helped people to memorize the songs. The most commonly used rhyme schemes found in English poetry include aa, bb, cc, dd, ee and abab, cdcd. Romantic Comedy: Romantic comedy is a literary genre which became popular during the Elizabethan Era. Romantic comedy plays revolve around two young lovers who have to face lot of problems and hardships before they unite at the end of the play. Mistaken identities, misunderstandings, disapproving parents, etc., are some of the themes that can be commonly found in romantic comedy plays. Saga: In contemporary times, saga refers to a work of literature that narrates the exploits of a hero or the accomplishments of a family through several generations. A good example of a recent saga is Mario Puzo’s The Godfather. Sarcasm: Sarcasm is another name for verbal irony in which the speaker means something very different from what he speaks. It is usually used to hurt someone, say for example, through false praise. It is often saying the opposite of what you mean for the purpose of humor and criticism. Satire: Satire is a literary device that is used by an author to express disapproval of vices and imperfections in individuals or human beings in general. He may use ridicule, derision, irony or other methods to meet this end. Although, on the surface a satire seems to be funny, its purpose isn’t to amuse the reader. In fact, the writer cleverly uses wit to criticize follies or shortcomings he doesn’t agree with, with the aim of arousing contempt in the reader. Setting: Setting refers to the time, place and social circumstances in which a literary work occurs. Dystopia, fantasy world, imaginary world, mythical place, parallel universe, virtual reality and utopia are some of the different types of settings. It is where and when the story takes place. Short Story: A short story is a fictional narrative that centers around one main event and aims at developing a single character only. Simile: Simile is a figure of speech in which two objects are compared using adverbs such as “like” and “as”. For example, the courage of an individual can be emphasized by using the simile He was as brave as a lion in the battlefront. Soliloquy: A literary device most commonly used in drama in which a character reveals his thoughts and feelings, audible only to the audience and not to the other characters in the play. Stanza: A stanza forms a unit of division of a poem. It may consist from 2 to 8 lines that have a distinct pattern of meter and rhyme. A two line stanza is called a couplet. A stanza consisting of three, four, five, six, seven and eight lines are called tercet, quatrain, quintain, sextain, septet and octet. Ballad stanza, Burns stanza or Scottish stanza and sestet are some other common stanza names. Static Character: A character that does not undergo any change in personality throughout the course of a narrative is called a static character. In case an author provides little characterization of a static character, such a character is called a flat character. As opposed to static character, a dynamic character evolves in his personality over time. Stereotype: A stereotype is a character that is so simple and ordinary in its personality that it seems to be a representation of a specific social group or types of people. Subplot: A subplot is a minor secondary plot that runs simultaneously with the main plot and is auxiliary to it. A subplot involves the deuteragonist or any character other than the protagonist or the antagonist. The subplot may comment directly or indirectly on the main plot or may highlight the idea being projected by the main plot by contrasting with it. Sometimes, there may be more than one subplot in a piece of fiction that may join with the main storyline in time, place or in thematic significance. Suspense: As a plot progresses, readers or audience establish a bond with the characters and understand the plot. Suspense refers to the anxious anticipation that readers or audience experience with respect to the future course of events or what will happen to the characters in the narrative. The aim of suspense is to maintain the interest of readers throughout its course. Symbol: A character (symbolic character), object, place, image or event with a deeper, more abstract meaning than the literal one. Symbols help in conveying complex ideas without going into painstakingly elaborate descriptions. Conventional symbols like the Star of David express meaning that is understood throughout a particular culture. However, literary or contextual symbols express meanings that are specific only to the particular piece of literary work. For instance, the white whale in Moby Dick has several symbolic meanings. Use of symbols is referred to as symbolism. Syntax: Syntax refers to the standard order in which words are arranged so that they form a meaningful sentence. Tale: A tale is a simple narrative in which the main focus is on the course and outcome of events. Fairy tale, folk tale, fable, tall tale and urban legend are some of the different types of tales. Theme: Theme denotes the central idea, message or lesson that is conveyed by a piece of literary work. Besides plot, character, style and setting, theme is the other main component of a work of fiction. Tone: Tone refers to the attitude that a writer takes towards his subject, characters and readers. The words and details used in a piece of literary work denotes its tone. Tragedy: Tragedy is a serious play in which the protagonist suffers a series of misfortunes that leads to conclusion which is disastrous for the protagonist. Tragic Flaw: It is the error or mistake in choice of action that a tragic hero commits that leads to his downfall in a tragedy. Aristotle termed this “mistake in judgment” as hamartia. Tragic Hero: Tragic hero is the protagonist in a tragedy who meets his doom due to the mistakes he makes in his choice of actions. Understatement: Understatement is a literary device that stands completely opposite to the figure of speech, hyperbole. An understatement is when an issue or situation is expressed in a much lesser magnitude than it actually is. Understatement usually creates an ironic effect and sometimes is also used to create humor. Unintrusive Narrator: Unintrusive narrator is someone who is completely different to an intrusive narrator. An unintrusive narrator is one who does not give away his opinions or judgments on a character or situation while narrating a novel. Unreliable Narrator: An unreliable narrator is a narrator who interprets the events in the novel according to his opinions, rather than that of the author. Unreliable narrators are deceptive as they are influenced by personal bias, psychological instability, faulty perception and limited understanding, while narrating a particular event or situation. A novel narrated by an unreliable narrator would have some hints by the author so that the reader recognizes the unreliability of the narrator’s interpretations. Verbal Irony: Verbal irony is a kind of irony, where the character says something that he actually does not mean, which the reader would understand immediately, but the other character would fail or take time to comprehend. Verse: Any line, stanza or composition which follows some kind of meter and rhythm is called a verse. Poems can be found in rhymed verse, free verse as well as in blank verse. Villain: The term ‘villain’ is derived from the old French word, vilein and refers to a character in the play who is evil and performs cruel and malicious deeds on other people. A villain is an antagonist who is pitted against the protagonist or the hero and plots against him. Voice: Voice refers to a distinct style of the author which reflects in the way he creates a piece of work. The voice of the author is influenced by various factors including his personality, way of thinking, attitude, character, etc. Voice can also be referred to as the persona of the author.

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Some people think of science as learning facts about the world around us. Others think of science and other ways of knowing as “the having of wonderful ideas” (Duckworth, 1987). This latter view of science and ways of knowing match the characteristics of young children as learners. Young children are naturally curious and passionate about learning (Raffini, 1993). In their pursuit of knowledge, they’re prone to poking, pulling, tasting, pounding, shaking, and experimenting. “From birth, children want to learn and they naturally seek out problems to solve” (Lind, 1999, p. 79). Such attitudes and actions on the part of young children indicate that they engage in scientific thinking and actions long before they enter a classroom (Zeece, 1999). Unfortunately, when science education is introduced in a formal setting, it often reflects the understanding of science as the learning of facts. This approach has led some educators to suggest that “most science learning that takes place in formal settings is not true science” (Zeece, 1999, p. 161).This article will discuss the benefits of active, hands-on learning, goals for early childhood science programs, and suggestions for fostering scientific learning in the early childhood classroom. Science as Active Exploration While it is appropriate to introduce older students to science history and expect them to learn facts discovered by others, young children should learn science (and all other areas of study) through active involvement – that is, through first-hand, investigative experiences. Young children should be involved in “sciencing” versus the learning of scientific facts presented by others (Kilmer & Hofman, 1995; Mayesky, 1998; Zeece, 1999). Sciencing is a verb and suggests active involvement. Such involvement should be both hands-on and minds-on in nature. Thus, children should be engaged both physically and mentally in investigating and manipulating elements in their environment (Chaille & Britain, 2003; Kilmer & Hofman, 1995). To be developmentally appropriate and to be in compliance with national guidelines for the teaching of science, science education at the preschool and primary level must be “an active enterprise” (Lind, 1999, p. 73). Both the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993) call for an action-oriented and inquiry-based approach to science with young children. As articulated by Lind (1999), “the best way to learn science is to do science” (p. 74). Therefore, science for young children should involve asking questions, probing for answers, conducting investigations, and collecting data. Science, rather than being viewed as the memorization of facts, becomes a way of thinking and trying to understand the world. This approach allows children to become engaged in the investigative nature of science (Kilmer & Hofman, 1995; Lind, 1999) and to experience the joy of having wonderful ideas (Duckworth, 1987). Teachers can’t give children “wonderful ideas”; children need to discover or construct their own ideas. Developing new concepts or ideas is an active process and usually begins with child-centered inquiry, which focuses on the asking of questions relevant to the child. While inquiry involves a number of science-related activities and skills, “the focus is on the active search for knowledge or understanding to satisfy students’ curiosity” (Lind, 1999, p. 79). Knowing the right answer, then, is not one of the primary objectives of science in the early childhood curriculum. Duckworth (1987) refers to “knowing the right answer” as a passive virtue and discusses some of its limitations. “Knowing the right answer,” she says, “requires no decisions, carries no risks, and makes no demands. It is automatic. It is thoughtless” (p. 64). A far more important objective is to help children realize that answers about the world can be discovered through their own investigations. Sciencing, for example, involves coming up with ideas of one’s own. Developing these ideas and submitting them to someone else’s scrutiny is, according to Duckworth (1987), “a virtue in itself—unrelated to the rightness of the idea” (p. 68). Developing ideas of one’s own add breadth and depth to learning. This is so, even if the child’s initial ideas are inaccurate views of the world. Duckworth (1987) explains: “Any wrong idea that is corrected provides far more depth than if one never had a wrong idea to begin with. You master the idea much more thoroughly if you have considered alternatives, tried to work it out in areas where it didn’t work, and figured out why it was that it didn’t work, all of which takes time” (pp. 71-72). Desired goals of science in the early childhood curriculum include what we hope children will attain or achieve in three different areas: content, processes, and attitudes or dispositions. Content refers to the body of knowledge representing what we know about the world. Children’s body of knowledge develops and increases over time, and their desire to communicate and represent their knowledge should be acknowledged and supported. The processes, or process skills, represent the active component of science and include such activities as predicting, observing, classifying, hypothesizing, experimenting, and communicating. Adults should support children in practicing and applying these skills in a variety of activities throughout the day. This can be done by showing a sincere interest in children’s observations and predictions and by providing a variety of materials and settings that invite experimentation. Certain attitudes or dispositions are also central to scientific inquiry and discovery. These include curiosity, a drive to experiment, and a desire to challenge theories and to share new ideas (Conezio & French, 2002). Teachers should value these attitudes or dispositions, be aware of how they are manifested in young children, and find ways to acknowledge and nurture their presence. Productive Questions to Foster Scientific Thinking* Type of Question Calls attention to significant details What is it doing? How does it feel? Measuring & counting Generates more precise information Fosters analysis and classification How are they alike? Encourages exploration of properties and events; also encourages predictions Supports planning & trying solutions to problems How could we…? Encourages reflection on experiences & construction of new ideas Why do you think? Can you explain that? *Adapted from Martens, 1999, p. 26 Science in the Early Childhood Classroom Science is often sadly neglected in the early childhood classroom (Johnson, 1999). Perhaps this is because science is “perceived and presented as too formal, too abstract, and too theoretical – in short, too hard for very young children and their teachers” (Johnson, 1999, p. 19). Perhaps this neglect is also due to the mistaken idea that the “constructivist” approach to education is incompatible with science education (Johnson, 1999). A constructivist approach to education is based on the understanding that knowledge is constructed by children versus being given or transmitted to them. In this approach, children are viewed as “intellectual explorers” (Lind, 1999) and “theory builders” (Chaille & Britain, 2003).This approach assumes that as they interact with the world around them, young children develop their own complex and varying theories about this world. Teachers working from a constructivist approach provide a supportive environment where young children are encouraged to go about testing and revising their original theories. Key ingredients for a supportive environment include: a) a variety of interesting materials for children to explore and manipulate, b) unstructured time for children to develop and test their own ideas, and c) a social climate that tells the children that questions and experimentation are as valuable as knowing the right answers. Productive questions posed by the teacher at just the right time are also critically important to helping children construct their own understandings. Productive questions are, in fact, one of the most effective tools for supporting constructivist learning (Martens, 1999). Most children have difficulty constructing understanding simply by engaging in an activity – that is, they “fail to make connections necessary to arrive at a desired understanding” (Martens, 1999, p. 25). Productive questions provide a bridge between what the children already know and what they experience through an activity. Productive questions thus “take a student forward in his or her thinking; they enable a teacher to provide scaffolding for students beginning to build their own understandings” (Martens, 1999, p. 25). As outlined by Martens (1999) and presented on page 32, there are six different types of productive questions that work well with the constructivist approach to teaching and learning. These questions also support the science curriculum goals in an early childhood classroom. Used strategically, these questions allow teachers to meet students where they are in their thinking and provide the type of scaffolding needed at any given moment (Martens, 1999).The teacher’s choice as to what type of question to use is based on what the teacher hears and sees as the children engage in an activity. The constructivist approach places the child at the center of the educational process. The teacher’s role in this approach is to serve as observer and facilitator rather than instructor (Chaille & Britain, 2003; Martens, 1999). Science education, however, has long been teacher-centered, with the teacher as the authority figure and the one with all the right answers. Without doubt, such a traditional science program – involving authority-based, teacher-directed instruction – is inappropriate for young children (Johnson, 1999). While best practices in science education at all levels call for a more hands-on, inquiry-based approach, the image of teacher-as-authority persists (Johnson, 1999). This image needs to change, so that young children can reap the benefits of a stimulating science curriculum that nurtures their curiosity and their on-going intellectual development. Through such a curriculum, children will experience the joy of having wonderful ideas – that is, the joy of finding out. Science and Young Children: Comparing Approaches · Science viewed as already-discovered knowledge · Teacher viewed as authority · Areas of study set by teacher · Large group instruction and investigations · Evaluation based on right answers · Content not connected to children’s experiences · Predetermined parameters around areas of study · Prescribed ways to collect and record data · Science viewed as separate area of the curriculum · Science viewed as active exploration · Teacher viewed as facilitator · Areas of study set by child interest · Individual and small group investigations · Evaluation based on multiple criteria · Content connected to children’s experiences · Content of study open-ended · Multiple ways to collect and record data · Science integrated with other curricular areas Fostering Scientific Thinking One of the primary goals of the early childhood science curriculum is the development of scientific thinking in young children. Scientific thinking differs from the learning of scientific facts in that scientific thinking involves children in the process of finding out. Instead of learning what other people have discovered, scientific thinking leads children to make their own discoveries. Scientific thinking is manifest as young children ask questions, conduct investigations, collect data, and search for answers. Scientific thinking is evident, for example, when Jake puts one snowball in an empty bucket while he puts another snowball of about the same size in the water table. “I want to see which one lasts the longest,” he says. Chaille and Britain (2003), inThe Young Children as Scientist, present a constructivist curriculum model for science and emphasize the importance of scientific thinking. They clearly debunk the notion that the constructivist approach is incompatible with science education. They describe young children as “actively inquiring natural scientists” (p. 20) and learning as “the process of theory building” (p. 5). This view of young children and how they learn is supported elsewhere in the literature where young children are described as being naturally curious and “biologically prepared to learn about the world around them” (Conezio & French, 2002, p. 12). In the above example, Jake knew that snow melts when exposed to warm temperatures. He wasn’t sure, however, if water at room temperature would make any difference in how quickly snow melted. His self-selected experiment was designed to help him find out. To foster scientific thinking, teachers should view young children as active learners (versus recipients of knowledge) and give them varied opportunities to explore and experiment. Such opportunities will allow children to construct meaning and develop understandings that are not only valid but also valuable to their on-going intellectual development. The teacher, in response to Jake’s experiment, could extend – or scaffold – his learning by posing several productive questions (as presented on page 32) at opportune times. A measuring question would be a good place to start. How many minutes will it take before the snowball in the bucket melts? How many minutes for the snowball in the water table? Action questions and reasoning questions could follow: What would happen if we broke the snowball into smaller pieces? Why do you think the snowball in the water table melted first? Can you invent a rule about how things melt? An environment that fosters scientific thinking is one that gives young children the time, space, and materials to exercise their curiosity. It also gives them the freedom to engage in child-centered explorations, experimentations, and explanations. Note that in the questions posed in relation to Jake’s experiment, the teacher avoided giving facts or stating rules. The questions posed invited more reflective thinking and further experimentation on Jake’s part. The experiment and the related findings were his, not the teacher’s or someone else’s. To become engaged in scientific thinking, children need access to materials that they can take apart and the tools to assist them in doing so. They need places where they can dig in the dirt and dip water from a pond. They also need magnifying glasses, measuring tools, buckets, and frequent access to the natural world. Teachers should take advantage of the different ways science can be naturally integrated into a play-centered curriculum. Science should not be viewed as an “add on” or a separate part of the early childhood program. Sciencing occurs, in many cases, in what children already do and how they think about what they do. As a child experiments with a mixture of oil and water, for example, she is making observations and predictions. The child is also building theories and testing those theories. These physical and mental manipulations represent the essence of what science is all about. Children’s construction of knowledge can be enhanced through social interactions—that is, by sharing their observations and ideas with each other. Children should be encouraged to work together “in building theories, testing those theories, and then evaluating what worked, what didn’t, and why” (Conezio & French, 2002, p. 13). Shared inquiry where children work together can be especially beneficial in fostering curiosity and stimulating new ideas (Chaille & Britain, 2003). One way to involve children in shared inquiry is through solving problems that focus on a specific situation: How can we move this heavy box? or How do we find out what our turtle likes to eat? Shared inquiry generates a number of diverse ideas about the problem and challenges children to communicate the reasoning behind their ideas. There’s no doubt that “problem solving and reflective thinking play an important role in children’s science learning” (Lind, 1999, p. 80). Science should be integrated into all the other curricular areas. Math, literacy, social studies, and art can all be linked to science. For literacy, it’s easy to introduce and/or reinforce scientific thinking through poetry, storytelling, and non-fiction children’s literature. The benefits of such integration, as outlined by Zeece (1999), include: - providing accurate information in understandable and interesting language; - offering topical information from varied viewpoints; - helping children develop inquiring minds and a scientific approach to solving problems in increasingly sophisticated ways; - presenting models of scientific methods of observation, hypothesis formulation, data gathering, experimentation, and evaluation; and - fostering an appreciation, understanding, and respect for living things. Science-based literature should be chosen carefully with attention to both literacy and science concerns in mind. As expressed by Zeece (1999), “Criteria for selection of natural science-based children’s literature ideally parallel those used for other high-quality literary resources” (p. 161). Additional considerations, however, relate to how elements of the natural world are represented and presented. With these considerations in mind, Zeece (1999) recommends choosing books with the following criteria in mind: - current, factual content; - clear and simple explanations; - depth and complexity of subject matter closely matched to the developmental and interest level of children in the group; - beautifully presented illustrations and narrative; - content consistent with overarching philosophy of the program; and - completeness and ease of use allowing children to answer questions and/or explore ideas effectively. Science Concepts Typically Taught During the Preschool Years* Systems (groups or collections having some influence on one another) e.g.: parts of the human body; ecosystems (where animals and plants live interdependently) Models (representations of real objects or phenomenon) e.g.: word descriptions or drawings; physical models Constancy and Change (how things change over time) e.g.: seed to plant; different seasons; growth and decay Scale (focusing on characteristics and comparisons) e.g.: size; distance; quantity; weight Patterns and Relationships (structure and organization of matter) e.g.: properties of materials; alike and different comparisons; patterns in nature Cause and Effect (explanations for phenomena) e.g.: shadows; freezing/melting; gravity Structure and Function (relationship between characteristic and action) e.g.: makeup of plants and animals; tools; eating utensils Variations (discontinuous and continuous properties) e.g.: sounds; colors Diversity (variety of types) e.g.: seeds; leaves; living organisms *Adapted from Kilmer & Hofman (1995) From this discussion, it should be clear that the science curriculum in an early childhood program should include both teacher planned activities and “spontaneous sciencing.” Teachers should certainly plan a variety of interesting and challenging situations which invite young children to observe, explore, and experiment (Chaille & Britain, 2003). Examples of such situations include teacher-led explorations of the properties of water, characteristics of animals and their habitats, life cycles of plants, and patterns found in nature (seasons, light and shadows, day and night).Many rich opportunities for sciencing, however, occur on a daily basis during unplanned events in the classroom and on the playground. These opportunities invite spontaneous sciencing and can lead to the “having of wonderful ideas.” “Spontaneous sciencing occurs whenever a child (or a teacher) sees something of interest and wonders about it” (Kilmer & Hofman, 1995, p. 55). A constructivist teacher recognizes such moments and pauses to observe, reflect, and explore with the children. The occasion may be icicles hanging from the roof, a bird building a nest, or ants at the base of a tree. By stopping to observe and reflect, teachers give children the opportunity to grow in appreciation and understanding of the world around them. Children are naturally curious about the world and want to find out as much as they can. They want to know what makes the wind blow, how trees grow, why fish have fins, and where turtles go in the winter. But they don’t want adults to give them the answers. They want to be the discoverers, the experimenters, and the theory builders. They don’t want science to be something that is imparted to them; they want it to be something that they do. They want to be scientists; not just consumers of science. They want to ask their own questions, collect their own data, and arrive at new and wonderful ideas. These “wants” should shape the foundation of an early childhood science curriculum. Ruth Wilson, Ph.D., is a Professor Emeritus of Special Education at Bowling Green State University in Ohio. Dr. Wilson has focused much of her research and program development efforts on early childhood environmental education. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993).Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Chaille, C. & Britain, L. (2003).The young child as scientist (3rd ed.).Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Conezio, K, & French, L. (2002, September). Science in the preschool classroom: capitalizing on children’s fascination with the everyday world to foster language and literacy development. Young Children, pp. 12-18. Duckworth, E. (1987).‘The Having of Wonderful Ideas’ and Other Essays on Teaching and Learning. New York: Teachers College Press. Johnson, J.R. (1999). The forum on early childhood science, mathematics, and technology education. In American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).Dialogue on Early Childhood Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education. Washington, DC: AAAS, pp. 14-25. Kilmer, S.J., & Hofman, H. (1995). Transforming science curriculum. In S. Bredekamp & Rosegrant, T. (Eds.).Reaching potentials: Transforming early childhood curriculum and assessment, Vol. 2. Washington, DC: NAEYC, pp. 43-63. Lind, K.K. (1999).Science in early childhood: developing and acquiring fundamental concepts and skills. In American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).Dialogue on early childhood science, mathematics, and technology education. Washington, DC: AAAS, pp. 73-83. Martens, M.L. (1999, May).Productive questions: tools for supporting constructivist learning.Science and Children, pp. 24-27, 53. Mayesky, M. (1998).Creative activities for young children (6th ed.).Albany, NY: Delmar. National Research Council (1996).National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Raffini, J.P. (1993).Winners without losers: Structures and strategies for increasing student motivation to learn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Zeece, P.D. (1999). Things of nature and the nature of things: Natural science-based literature for young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 26(3), 161-166.

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4 Tidy Data via tidyr In Subsection 2.2.1 we introduced the concept of a data frame: a rectangular spreadsheet-like representation of data in R where the rows correspond to observations and the columns correspond to variables describing each observation. In Section 2.4, we started explorations of our first data frame flights included in the nycflights13 package. In Chapter 3 we made graphics using data contained in flights and other data frames. In this chapter, we extend some of these ideas by discussing a type of data formatting called “tidy” data. You will see that having data stored in “tidy” format is about more than what the colloquial definition of the term “tidy” might suggest of having your data “neatly organized” in a spreadsheet. Instead, we define the term “tidy” in a more rigorous fashion, outlining a set of rules by which data can be stored and the implications of these rules on analyses. Although knowledge of this type of data formatting was not necessary in our treatment of data visualization in Chapter 3 since all the data was already in tidy format, we’ll see going forward that having tidy data will allow you to more easily create data visualizations in a wide range of settings. Furthermore, it will also help you with data wrangling in Chapter 5 and in all subsequent chapters in this book when we cover regression and discuss statistical inference. Let’s load all the packages needed for this chapter (this assumes you’ve already installed them). If needed, read Section 2.3 for information on how to install and load R packages. library(dplyr) library(ggplot2) library(nycflights13) library(tidyr) library(readr) Our approach to introducing the concept of “tidy” data is aligned with the approach taken in Alison Hill’s DataCamp course “Working with Data in the Tidyverse,” a course where students learn to work with data using tools from the tidyverse in R. If you’re interested in complementing your learning below in an interactive online environment, click on the image below to access the course. The relevant chapter is Chapter 3 “Tidy your data.” 4.1 What is tidy data? You have surely heard the word “tidy” in your life: - “Tidy up your room!” - “Please write your homework in a tidy way so that it is easier to grade and to provide feedback.” - Marie Kondo’s best-selling book The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up: The Japanese Art of Decluttering and Organizing - “I am not by any stretch of the imagination a tidy person, and the piles of unread books on the coffee table and by my bed have a plaintive, pleading quality to me - ‘Read me, please!’” - Linda Grant What does it mean for your data to be “tidy”? Beyond just being organized, in the context of this book having “tidy” data means that your data follows a standardized format. This makes it easier for you and others to visualize your data, to wrangle/transform your data, and to model your data. We will follow Hadley Wickham’s definition of tidy data here (Wickham 2014): A dataset is a collection of values, usually either numbers (if quantitative) or strings AKA text data (if qualitative). Values are organised in two ways. Every value belongs to a variable and an observation. A variable contains all values that measure the same underlying attribute (like height, temperature, duration) across units. An observation contains all values measured on the same unit (like a person, or a day, or a city) across attributes. Tidy data is a standard way of mapping the meaning of a dataset to its structure. A dataset is messy or tidy depending on how rows, columns and tables are matched up with observations, variables and types. In tidy data: - Each variable forms a column. - Each observation forms a row. - Each type of observational unit forms a table. For example, say the following table consists of stock prices: |Date||Boeing Stock Price||Amazon Stock Price||Google Stock Price| Although the data are neatly organized in a spreadsheet-type format, they are not in tidy format since there are three variables corresponding to three unique pieces of information (Date, Stock Name, and Stock Price), but there are not three columns. In tidy data format each variable should be its own column, as shown below. Notice that both tables present the same information, but in different formats. |Date||Stock Name||Stock Price| However, consider the following table In this case, even though the variable “Boeing Price” occurs again, the data is tidy since there are three variables corresponding to three unique pieces of information (Date, Boeing stock price, and the weather that particular day). In this book, we will work mostly with datasets that are already in tidy format even though a lot of the world’s data isn’t always in this nice format that the tidyverse gets its name from. Data that is in wide format can be converted to “tidy” format by using the gather() function in the tidyr package (Wickham and Henry 2018) in the tidyverse; we’ll show an example of this in Section 4.4. For other examples of converting a dataset into “tidy” format, check out the different functions available for data tidying and a case study using data from the World Health Organization in R for Data Science (Grolemund and Wickham 2016). (LC4.1) Consider the following data frame of average number of servings of beer, spirits, and wine consumption in three countries as reported in the FiveThirtyEight article Dear Mona Followup: Where Do People Drink The Most Beer, Wine And Spirits? # A tibble: 3 x 4 country beer_servings spirit_servings wine_servings <chr> <int> <int> <int> 1 Canada 240 122 100 2 South Korea 140 16 9 3 USA 249 158 84 This data frame is not in tidy format. What would it look like if it were? 4.2 Back to nycflights13 nycflights13 package with data about all domestic flights departing from New York City in 2013 that we introduced in Section 2.4 and used extensively in Chapter 3 to create visualizations. In particular, let’s revisit the flights data frame by running View(flights) in your console. We see that flights has a rectangular shape with each row corresponding to a different flight and each column corresponding to a characteristic of that flight. This matches exactly with how Hadley Wickham defined tidy data: - Each variable forms a column. - Each observation forms a row. But what about the third property? - Each type of observational unit forms a table. 4.2.1 Observational units We identified earlier that the observational unit in the flights dataset is an individual flight. And we have shown that this dataset consists of 336,776 flights with 19 variables. In other words, rows of this dataset don’t refer to a measurement on an airline or on an airport; they refer to characteristics/measurements on a given flight from New York City in 2013. Also included in the nycflights13 package are datasets with different observational units (Wickham 2018): airlines: translation between two letter IATA carrier codes and names (16 in total) planes: construction information about each of 3,322 planes used weather: hourly meteorological data (about 8705 observations) for each of the three NYC airports airports: airport names and locations The organization of this data follows the third “tidy” data property: observations corresponding to the same observational unit should be saved in the same table/data frame. Another example involves a spreadsheet of all students enrolled in a university along with information about them, such as name, gender, and date of birth. Each row represents an individual student, which is the observational unit in question. 4.2.2 Identification vs measurement variables There is a subtle difference between the kinds of variables that you will encounter in data frames: measurement variables and identification variables. The airports data frame you worked with above contains both these types of variables. Recall that in airports the observational unit is an airport, and thus each row corresponds to one particular airport. Let’s pull them apart using the Observations: 1,458 Variables: 8 $ faa <chr> "04G", "06A", "06C", "06N", "09J", "0A9", "0G6", "0G7", "0P2"... $ name <chr> "Lansdowne Airport", "Moton Field Municipal Airport", "Schaum... $ lat <dbl> 41.13047, 32.46057, 41.98934, 41.43191, 31.07447, 36.37122, 4... $ lon <dbl> -80.61958, -85.68003, -88.10124, -74.39156, -81.42778, -82.17... $ alt <int> 1044, 264, 801, 523, 11, 1593, 730, 492, 1000, 108, 409, 875,... $ tz <dbl> -5, -6, -6, -5, -5, -5, -5, -5, -5, -8, -5, -6, -5, -5, -5, -... $ dst <chr> "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "U", "A", "A", "U", "... $ tzone <chr> "America/New_York", "America/Chicago", "America/Chicago", "Am... name are what we will call identification variables: variables that uniquely identify each observational unit. They are mainly used to provide a unique name to each observational unit, thereby allowing us to uniquely identify them. faa gives the unique code provided by the FAA for that airport, while the name variable gives the longer more natural name of the airport. The remaining variables ( tzone) are often called measurement or characteristic variables: variables that describe properties of each observational unit, in other words each observation in each row. For example, long describe the latitude and longitude of each airport. So in our above example of a spreadsheet of all students enrolled at a university, email address could be treated as an identical variable since it uniquely identifies each observational unit i.e. each student, while date of birth could not since it is possible (and highly probable) that two students share the same birthday. Furthermore, sometimes a single variable might not be enough to uniquely identify each observational unit: combinations of variables might be needed (see Learning Check below). While it is not an absolute rule, for organizational purposes it is considered good practice to have your identification variables in the far left-most columns of your data frame. (LC4.2) What properties of the observational unit do each of tzone describe for the airports data frame? Note that you may want to use ?airports to get more information. (LC4.3) Provide the names of variables in a data frame with at least three variables in which one of them is an identification variable and the other two are not. In other words, create your own tidy dataset that matches these conditions. 4.3 Importing spreadsheets into R Up to this point, we’ve used data either stored inside of an R package or we’ve manually created the data such as the fruits_counted data in Subsection 3.8. Another common way to get data into R is by reading in data from a spreadsheet file either on your computer or online. Spreadsheet data is often saved in one of two formats: - A Comma Separated Values .csvfile. You can think of a CSV file as a bare-bones spreadsheet where: - Each line in the file corresponds to one row of data/one observation. - Values for each line are separated with commas. In other words, the values of different variables are separated by commas. - The first line is often, but not always, a header row indicating the names of the columns/variables. - An Excel .xlsxfile. This format is based on Microsoft’s proprietary Excel software. As opposed to a bare-bones .xlsxExcel files contain a lot of metadata, or put more simply, data about the data. Examples include the use of bold and italic fonts, colored cells, different column widths, and formula macros etc. Google Sheets allows you to download your data in both comma separated values .csv and Excel .xlsx formats: Go to the Google Sheets menu bar -> File -> Download as -> Select “Microsoft Excel” or “Comma-separated values”. We’ll cover two methods for importing data in R: one using the R console and the other using RStudio’s graphical interface. 4.3.1 Method 1: From the console First, let’s download a Comma Separated Values (CSV) file of ratings of the level of democracy in different countries spanning 1952 to 1992: https://moderndive.com/data/dem_score.csv. We use the read_csv() function from the readr package to read it off the web and then take a look. library(readr) dem_score <- read_csv("https://moderndive.com/data/dem_score.csv") dem_score # A tibble: 96 x 10 country `1952` `1957` `1962` `1967` `1972` `1977` `1982` `1987` `1992` <chr> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> 1 Albania -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 5 2 Argentina -9 -1 -1 -9 -9 -9 -8 8 7 3 Armenia -9 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 7 4 Australia 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 Austria 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 6 Azerbaijan -9 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 1 7 Belarus -9 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7 7 8 Belgium 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 Bhutan -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 10 Bolivia -4 -3 -3 -4 -7 -7 8 9 9 # ... with 86 more rows dem_score data frame, the minimum value of -10 corresponds to a highly autocratic nation whereas a value of 10 corresponds to a highly democratic nation. 4.3.2 Method 2: Using RStudio’s interface Let’s read in the same data saved in Excel format this time at https://moderndive.com/data/dem_score.xlsx, but using RStudio’s graphical interface instead of via the R console. First download the Excel file, then go to the Files pane of RStudio -> Navigate to the directory where your downloaded dem_score.xlsx is saved -> Click on dem_score.xlsx -> Click “Import Dataset…” -> Click “Import Dataset…” At this point you should see an image like in After clicking on the “Import” button on the bottom right RStudio save this spreadsheet’s data in a data frame called dem_score and display its contents in the spreadsheet viewer. Furthermore you’ll see the code that read in your data in the console; you can copy and paste this code to reload your data again later instead of repeating the above manual process. 4.4 Converting to “tidy” data format In this Section, we’ll show you how to convert a dataset that isn’t in “tidy” format i.e. “wide” format, to a dataset that is in “tidy” format i.e. “long/narrow” format. Let’s use the dem_score data frame we loaded from a spreadsheet in the previous Section but focus on only data corresponding to the country of Guatemala. guat_dem <- dem_score %>% filter(country == "Guatemala") guat_dem # A tibble: 1 x 10 country `1952` `1957` `1962` `1967` `1972` `1977` `1982` `1987` `1992` <chr> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> 1 Guatemala 2 -6 -5 3 1 -3 -7 3 3 Now let’s produce a plot showing how the democracy scores have changed over the 40 years from 1952 to 1992 for Guatemala. Let’s start by laying out how we would map our aesthetics to variables in the data frame: data = guat_dem What are the names of the variables to plot? We’d like to see how the democracy score has changed over the years. Now we are stuck in a predicament. We see that we have a variable named country but its only value is "Guatemala". We have other variables denoted by different year values. Unfortunately, we’ve run into a dataset that is not in the appropriate format to apply the Grammar of Graphics and ggplot2. Remember that ggplot2 is a package in the tidyverse and, thus, needs data to be in a tidy format. We’d like to finish off our mapping of aesthetics to variables by doing something like aesthetic mapping is set by aes(x = year, y = democracy_score) but this is not possible with our wide-formatted data. We need to take the values of the current column names in guat_dem (aside from country) and convert them into a new variable that will act as a key called year. Then, we’d like to take the numbers on the inside of the table and turn them into a column that will act as values called democracy_score. Our resulting data frame will have three columns: gather() function in the tidyr package can complete this task for us. The first argument to gather(), just as with ggplot2(), is the data argument where we specify which data frame we would like to tidy. The next two arguments to value, which specify what we’d like to call the new columns that convert our wide data into long format. Lastly, we include a specification for variables we’d like to NOT include in this tidying process using a guat_tidy <- gather(data = guat_dem, key = year, value = democracy_score, - country) guat_tidy # A tibble: 9 x 3 country year democracy_score <chr> <chr> <int> 1 Guatemala 1952 2 2 Guatemala 1957 -6 3 Guatemala 1962 -5 4 Guatemala 1967 3 5 Guatemala 1972 1 6 Guatemala 1977 -3 7 Guatemala 1982 -7 8 Guatemala 1987 3 9 Guatemala 1992 3 We can now create the plot to show how the democracy score of Guatemala changed from 1952 to 1992 using a linegraph and ggplot(data = guat_tidy, mapping = aes(x = year, y = democracy_score)) + geom_line() geom_path: Each group consists of only one observation. Do you need to adjust the group aesthetic? Observe that the year variable in guat_tidy is stored as a character vector since we had to circumvent the naming rules in R by adding backticks around the different year columns in guat_dem. This is leading to ggplot not knowing exactly how to plot a line using a categorical variable. We can fix this by using the parse_number() function in the readr package and then specify the horizontal axis label to be ggplot(data = guat_tidy, mapping = aes(x = parse_number(year), y = democracy_score)) + geom_line() + labs(x = "year") We’ll see in Chapter 5 how we could use the mutate() function to change year to be a numeric variable instead after we have done our tidying. Notice now that the mappings of aesthetics to variables make sense in Figure 4.2: data = dem_score aesthetic is mapped to aesthetic is mapped to geom_etry chosen is (LC4.4) Convert the dem_score data frame into a tidy data frame and assign the name of dem_score_tidy to the resulting long-formatted data frame. (LC4.5) Read in the life expectancy data stored at https://moderndive.com/data/le_mess.csv and convert it to a tidy data frame. 4.5 Optional: Normal forms of data The datasets included in the nycflights13 package are in a form that minimizes redundancy of data. We will see that there are ways to merge (or join) the different tables together easily. We are capable of doing so because each of the tables have keys in common to relate one to another. This is an important property of normal forms of data. The process of decomposing data frames into less redundant tables without losing information is called normalization. More information is available on Wikipedia. We saw an example of this above with the airlines dataset. While the flights data frame could also include a column with the names of the airlines instead of the carrier code, this would be repetitive since there is a unique mapping of the carrier code to the name of the airline/carrier. Below an example is given showing how to join the airlines data frame together with the flights data frame by linking together the two datasets via a common key of "carrier". Note that this “joined” data frame is assigned to a new data frame called joined_flights. The key variable that we frequently join by is one of the identification variables mentioned above. library(dplyr) joined_flights <- inner_join(x = flights, y = airlines, by = "carrier") View this dataset, we see a new variable has been created called name. (We will see in Subsection 5.9.2 ways to change name to a more descriptive variable name.) More discussion about joining data frames together will be given in Chapter 5. We will see there that the names of the columns to be linked need not match as they did here with (LC4.6) What are common characteristics of “tidy” datasets? (LC4.7) What makes “tidy” datasets useful for organizing data? (LC4.8) What are some advantages of data in normal forms? What are some disadvantages? 4.6.1 Review questions Review questions have been designed using the fivethirtyeight R package (Kim, Ismay, and Chunn 2018) with links to the corresponding FiveThirtyEight.com articles in our free DataCamp course Effective Data Storytelling using the tidyverse. The material in this chapter is covered in the Tidy Data chapter of the DataCamp course available here. 4.6.2 What’s to come? In Chapter 5, we’ll further explore data in tidy format by grouping our data, creating summaries based on those groupings, filtering our data to match conditions, and performing other wranglings with our data including defining new columns/variables. These data wrangling procedures will go hand-in-hand with the data visualizations you’ve produced in Chapter 3. 4.6.3 Script of R code An R script file of all R code used in this chapter is available here.

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Writing Lessons and Activities for Every Grade * W.R.I.T.E. = Write, Revise, Inform, Think, and Edit How do you help your students overcome their fear of the blank page? How can you make writing an exercise in personal expression, not drudgery? One key to better writing is better writing assignments -- and the Internet has them. Let's tour a few of the finest writing activities that the Web has to offer. Ray Saitz, a teacher/librarian and facilitator of information technology at Clarke High School in Newcastle, Ontario, put his 15 years of English teaching experience to work in creating a haven of resources for educators like himself. He is becoming a "wired librarian," and his Web site, Outta Ray's Head, is his niche and offering to the educational community at large. "Essentially, I became frustrated at finding endless ideas on the Internet but no lessons with tips on evaluation and with original handouts for the class," Saitz told Education World. "Most of the sites that I came across were mainly elementary, and I wanted secondary school lessons." Several terrific tried-and-true Writing Lessons are featured on the site. Saitz explained that two of his favorite and most successful activities are The Biography Assignment and Review of Anything. In the biography activity, students work in groups of four to create six good interview questions. Each student conducts an interview with a partner and then the two exchange roles. Their grade is determined by their performance in creating interview questions, writing the biography of their partner, and designing a cover for a book or a magazine article based on the interview. The review writing lesson involves studying and creating a review of any object, person, or thing other than a book or a film. Students combine the characteristics of the informal essay and the review to write and share an oral presentation that has a thesis and incorporates techniques presented during class. Another activity that hasn't yet made it to the pages of Saitz's site has students writing the end to a short story. "The gist of the lesson is to take a murder/mystery/suspense short story of about two or three pages and copy it," he explained, "but omit the final important last paragraph. You can make up some story about how the story was discovered in an old trunk and the end was rotted off. Read the story with the lights out and make a big deal of acting it up to build suspense. Just when it nearly ends, stop and ask the students to complete the ending using the same style as the writer. "The students all write pages and pages," added Saitz, "and then a few days later, you can come into the class with the original ending. I say it was found just that day and was in the newspaper. Then they compare their endings to the author's." Saitz hopes that his site and its lessons provide a resource of ideas that will help teachers extend their repertoire. "I think that I learned the most when I was a student teacher and I saw other teachers teaching," he said. "When we graduate and start teaching, we can stop growing and learning. I hope that the lessons on the site help other teachers realize new possibilities or open new avenues of discovery." These writing lessons and activities will allow the young authors in your classroom to shine! Paragraph Writing. Many elementary teachers lose heart as they read short, choppy paragraphs from their students that contain little variation in sentence structure. Successful Paragraphs is a lesson plan with a unique approach to improving student writing. Students list three material things they wish for, three happenings that would make them happy, and three places they would like to visit. They follow a specific pattern to create a paragraph that tells what it would be like for them to enjoy all those things. Using the template helps them see how variation in structure makes for more interesting reading! Terrific Topics. Often the most difficult part of writing is getting started, and this problem is frequently related to the quest for the perfect topic. A good topic is the well from which ideas flow, so it needs to be plenty deep! If you too are having difficulty coming up with assignments that will bring forth the wonderful stories your students have to tell, visit Writing Topics. This page, from the Write Source, suggests several topics for papers your students will love to write, and all grade levels are addressed. Be sure to bookmark or print this resource from The Write Source, a development house of educational materials. Story Boxes. Creativity and language flourish in Story Boxes, an activity included on the Pizzaz Web site. You can collect objects for the story boxes, or you can have your students fill the boxes with objects and words written on pieces of paper or sticks. As the students draw objects from the box, a story unfolds. Use the plan as an oral storytelling activity or a written composition. This is not the only excellent lesson in the collection, so visit the homepage for more gems. Best of all, permission to print and copy the handouts is granted for classroom use! Free Activities. Each month, Zaner-Bloser: Writing offers new, free activities on-line for use with students in grades 3 and up. The activities may be printed and shared with students to exercise their writing skills. A recent issue of activities addressed descriptive writing. Don't miss this opportunity to glean a few excellent handouts and ideas from these experts in the field. More Free Activities.Scholastic.com: Writing also provides free activities to download and print. (To access these documents, you will need the free Adobe Acrobat Reader.) Some activities take a few minutes to load, but they are worth the wait. Sample activities include two types of stationery for student letters and a handout that encourages students to contemplate and write about their plans for the future. Pop-Up Cards. There is an art to writing a good greeting card and an art to making it pleasing to the eye and unusual. Pop-up cards are definitely unique! Your students will be amazed when they follow the card-making directions at How to Make a Pop-Up from Joan Irvine: the Pop-Up Lady. When the work is complete, your students will have a lovely pop-up animal card that is ready for their own special sentimental touch -- the right verse! Heroic Efforts. Have you noticed that in all epic tales -- Great Expectations, The Odyssey, Star Wars -- there seems to be a prevailing pattern in the story? This site explores the progression of the hero throughout these tales based on observations contained in The Hero With a Thousand Faces, by Joseph Campbell. Visitors to The Hero's Journey can examine the steps in a hero's story and read examples from ancient stories or present-day movies that illustrate the concepts. As a final project, students can follow the guidelines of the site to create their own hero stories in this pattern. Essay Writing. What could be easier than writing a simple essay? Writing one with assistance from the Guide to Writing a Basic Essay! This site takes students through choosing a topic, organizing ideas, composing a thesis, writing the body of the paper, creating an introduction and a conclusion, and adding the finishing touches. With this on-line guide, there is no excuse for a poorly constructed essay. Writing Worksheets. High-school English teachers have been waiting for a source like this! At OWL Handouts, the Purdue University Online Writing Lab has collected and published handouts for students that address everything from writing research papers to spelling and punctuation. Choose from an extensive group of straightforward guides to complement writing assignments in your classroom. Your students will thank you! Teach your students to create great friendly letters and give them a reason to learn how! First, introduce the topic of the friendly letter and compare it to the business letter with the examples at Letter Formats. Next, have your students make their own stationery or print one of the cute selections at Friendly Stationery from Jan Brett. You might have your students write to famous authors, political figures, or even celebrities. You'll find addresses for many well-known actors, actresses, and musical performers online. (Do a Google search for "celebrity addresses." You'll want to supervise student selections if you allow them to use this site.) Add an element of fun by calling the assignment "Dear John Letters" and having the students write to famous people who have John as a part of their names. Don't forget Elton John, Olivia Newton-John, and Pope John Paul II! Is a business letter more what you had in mind? Then Parts of a Business Letter will help you prepare your students for the business world. Give your students some pointers in writing business communications, and then have them write letters to organizations. They could write to support the efforts of a charity or to complain about a problem with a product or a service. You might even have them write to an address in the book Free Stuff for Kids (published by Meadowbrook Press) and request free materials. Anyone who writes knows how daunting the empty page can be! Graphic organizers help students overcome the blank sheet and help them put their thoughts in a logical order. Kathy Baxter and David Leahy of Greenway Elementary School in Beaverton, Oregon, created graphic organizers and placed them on the school Web site for all to see. Setting and Events are designed to be used in writing personal narratives, and Persuasive helps students create persuasive pieces by forcing them to state an opinion, support it with three points, give examples, and summarize their belief in a conclusion. Writing Plans from The Teacher's Desk Put one of these great writing activities to good use in your classroom. Choices include a list of assignments for fifth- and sixth-grade students to write a paragraph a week for two years! A+ Research and Writing for High School and College Students Designed for upper-level students, this guide helps kids write research papers without going nuts! The site explains how to write a research paper, tells how to locate information on the Internet, and advises students about what material is best found in the library, not on the Web. Article by Cara Bafile Copyright © 2010 Education World Last updated 08/04/2011 Efficient Ways to Improve Student Writing Strategies, Ideas, and Recommendations from the faculty Development Literature - View the improvement of students’ writing as your responsibility. Teaching writing is not only the job of the English department alone. Writing is an essential tool for learning a discipline and helping students improve their writing skills is a responsibility for all faculty. - Let students know that you value good writing. Stress the importance of clear, thoughtful writing. Faculty who tell students that good writing will be rewarded and poor writing will be penalized receive better essays than instructors who don't make such demands. In the syllabus, on the first day, and throughout the term, remind students that they must make their best effort in expressing themselves on paper. Back up your statements with comments on early assignments that show you really mean it, and your students will respond. - Regularly assign brief writing exercises in your classes. To vary the pace of a lecture course, ask students to write a few minutes during class. Some mixture of in-class writing, outside writing assignments, and exams with open-ended questions will give students the practice they need to improve their skills. - Provide guidance throughout the writing process. After you have made the assignment, discuss the value of outlines and notes, explain how to select and narrow a topic, and critique the first draft, define plagiarism as well. - Don't feel as though you have to read and grade every piece of your students' writing. Ask students to analyze each other's work during class, or ask them to critique their work in small groups. Students will learn that they are writing in order to think more clearly, not obtain a grade. Keep in mind, you can collect students' papers and skim their work. - Find other faculty members who are trying to use writing more effectively in their courses. Pool ideas about ways in which writing can help students learn more about the subject matter. See if there is sufficient interest in your discipline to warrant drawing up guidelines. Students welcome handouts that give them specific instructions on how to write papers for a particular course or in a particular subject area. Teaching Writing When You Are Not an English Teacher - Remind students that writing is a process that helps us clarify ideas. Tell students that writing is a way of learning, not an end in itself. Also let them know that writing is a complicated, messy, nonlinear process filled with false starts. Help them to identify the writer's key activities: - Developing ideas - Finding a focus and a thesis - Composing a draft - Getting feedback and comments from others - Revising the draft by expanding ideas, clarifying meaning, reorganizing - Presenting the finished work to readers - Explain that writing is hard work. Share with your class your own struggles in grappling with difficult topics. If they know that writing takes effort, they won't be discouraged by their own pace or progress. One faculty member shared with students their notebook that contained the chronology of one of his published articles: first ideas, successive drafts, submitted manuscript, reviewers' suggested changes, revised version, galley proofs, and published article. - Give students opportunities to talk about their writing. Students need to talk about papers in progress so that they can formulate their thoughts, generate ideas, and focus their topics. Take five or ten minutes of class time for students to read their writing to each other in small groups or pairs. It's important for students to hear what their peers have written. - Encourage students to revise their work. Provide formal steps for revision by asking students to submit first drafts of papers for your review or for peer critique. You can also give your students the option of revising and rewriting one assignment during the semester for a higher grade. Faculty report that 10 to 40 percent of the students take advantage of this option. - Explain thesis statements. A thesis statement makes an assertion about some issue. A common student problem is to write papers that present overviews of facts with no thesis statement or that have a diffuse thesis statement. - Stress clarity and specificity. The more the abstract and difficult the topic, the more concrete the student's language should be. Inflated language and academic jargon camouflage rather than clarify their point. - Explain the importance of grammar and sentence structure, as well as content. Students shouldn't think that English teachers are the only judges of grammar and style. Tell your students that you will be looking at both quality of their writing and the content. - Distribute bibliographies and tip sheets on good writing practices. Check with your English department or writing center to identify materials that can be easily distributed to students. Consider giving your students a bibliography of writing guides, for example: Crews, F.C. Random House Handbook. (6th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992. A classic comprehensive textbook for college students. Well written and well worth reading. Lanham, R.A. Revising Prose. (3rd ed.) New York: Scribner's, 1991. Techniques for eliminating bureaucratese and restoring energy to tired prose. Tollefson, S. K. Grammar Grams and Grammar Grams II. New York: HarperCollins, 1989, 1992. Two short, witty guides that answer common questions about grammar, style, and usage. Both are fun to read. - Science and Engineering Barrass, R. Scientists Must Write. New York: Chapman and Hall, 1978. Biddle, A. W., and Bean, D. J. Writer's Guide: Life Sciences. Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1987. - Arts and Humanities Barnet, S. A Short Guide to Writing About Art. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989. Goldman, B. Reading and Writing in the Arts. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1978. - Social Sciences Biddle, A. W., Fulwiler, T., and Holland, K.M. Writer's Guide: Psychology. Lexington, Mass,: McCloskey, D. N. The Writing of Economics. New York: Macmillan, 1987. - Ask a composition instructor to give a presentation to your students. Invite a guest speaker from the composition department or student learning center to talk to your students about effective writing and common writing problems. Faculty who have invited these experts report that such presentations reinforce the values of the importance of writing. - Let students know about available tutoring services. Individual or group tutoring in writing is available on most campuses. Ask someone from the tutoring center to give a demonstration in your class. - Use computers to help students write better. Locally developed and commercially available software are now being used by faculty to help students plan, write, and revise their written work. Some software available allows instructors to monitor students' work in progress and lets students collaborate with their classmates. Assigning In-Class Writing Activities - Ask students to write what they know about a topic before you discuss it. Ask your students to write a brief summary of what they already know or what opinions they hold regarding the subject you are about to discuss. The purpose of this is to focus the students' attention, there is no need to collect the summaries. - Ask students to respond in writing to questions you pose during class. Prior to class starting, list two or three short-answer questions on the board and ask your students to write down their responses. Your questions might call for a review of material you have already discussed or recalling information from assigned readings. - Ask students to write from a pro or con position. When presenting an argument, stop and ask your students to write down all the reasons and evidence they can think of that supports one side or the other. These statements can be used as the basis for discussion. - During class, pause for a three-minute write. Periodically ask students to write freely for three minutes on a specific question or topic. They should write whatever pops into their mind without worrying about grammar, spelling, phrasing, or organization. This kind of free writing, according to writing experts, helps students synthesize diverse ideas and identify points they may not understand. There is no need to collect these exercises. - Have students write a brief summary at the end of class. At the end of the class period, give your students index cards to jot down the key themes, major points, or general principles of the day's discussion. You can easily collect the index cards and review them to see whether the class understood the discussion. - Have one student keep minutes to be read at the next class meeting. By taking minutes, students get a chance to develop their listening, synthesizing, and writing skills. Boris (1983) suggests the following: - Prepare your students by having everyone take careful notes for the class period, go home and rework them into minutes, and hand them in for comments. It can be the students' discretion whether the minutes are in outline or narrative form. - Decide on one to two good models to read or distribute to the class. - At the beginning of each of the following classes, assign one student to take minutes for the period. - Give a piece of carbon paper to the student who is taking minutes so that you can have a rough copy. The student then takes the original home and revises it in time to read it aloud at the next class meeting. - After the student has read their minutes, ask other students to comment on their accuracy and quality. If necessary, the student will revise the minutes and turn in two copies, one for grading and one for your files. - Structure small group discussion around a writing task. For example, have your students pick three words that are of major importance to the day's session. Ask your class to write freely for two to three minutes on just one of the words. Next, give the students five to ten minutes to meet in groups to share what they have written and generate questions to ask in class. - Use peer response groups. Divide your class into groups of three or four, no larger. Ask your students to bring to class enough copies of a rough draft of a paper for each person in their group. Give your students guidelines for critiquing the drafts. In any response task, the most important step is for the reader to note the part of the paper that is the strongest and describe to the writer why it worked so well. The following instructions can also be given to the reader: - State the main point of the paper in a single sentence - List the major subtopics - Identify confusing sections of the paper - Decide whether each section of the paper has enough detail, evidence, and information - Indicate whether the paper's points follow one another in sequence - Judge the appropriateness of the opening and concluding paragraphs - Identify the strengths of the paper Written critiques done as homework are likely to be more thoughtful, but critiques may also be done during the class period. - Use read-around groups. Read-around groups are a technique used with short assignments (two to four pages) which allows everyone to read everyone else's paper. Divide the class into groups no larger than four students and divide the papers (coded for anonymity) into as many sets as there are groups. Give each group a set and ask the students to read each paper silently and decide on the best paper in the set. Each group should discuss their choices and come to a consensus on the best paper. The paper's code number is recorded by the group, and the same process is repeated with a new set of papers. After all the groups have read all the sets of papers, someone from each group writes on the board the code number from the best paper in each set. The recurring numbers are circled. Generally, one to three papers stand out. - Ask students to identify the characteristics of effective writing. After completing the read-around activity, ask your students to reconsider those papers which were voted as excellent by the entire class and to write down features that made each paper outstanding. Write their comments on the board, asking for elaboration and probing vague generalities. In pairs, the students discuss the comments on the board and try to put them into categories such as organization, awareness of audience, thoroughness of detail, etc. You might need to help your students arrange the characteristics into meaningful categories. The Strategies, Ideas and Recommendations Here Come Primarily From: Gross Davis, B. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1993. And These Additional Sources… Boris, E. Z. "Classroom Minutes: A Valuable Teaching Device." Improving College and UniversityTeaching, 1983,31(2), 70-73. Elbow, P. "Using Writing to Teach Something Else." Unpublished paper, 1987. Hawisher, G. E., and Selfe, C. L. (eds.).Critical Perspectives on Computers and Composition Instruction. New York: Teachers College Press, 1989. Holdstein, D. H., and Selfe, C. L. (eds.). Computers and Writing: Theory, Research, Practice. New York: Modern Language Association, 1990. Lowman, J. Mastering the Techniques of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984. Petersen, B. T. "Additional Resources in the Practice of Writing Across the Disciplines." In C. W. Griffin (ed.), Teaching Writing in All Disciplines. New Directions in Teaching and Learning, no. 12. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982. Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education. Bright Idea Network, 1989. (For information contact David Graf, Iowa State University, Ames.) Pytlik, B. P. "Teaching Teachers of Writing: Workshops on Writing as a Collaborative Process." College Teaching, 1989, 37(1), 12-14. Tollefson, S. K. Encouraging Student Writing. Berkeley: Office of Educational Development, University of California, 1988. Walvoord, B. F. Helping Students Write Well: A Guide for Teachers in All Disciplines. (2nd ed.) New York: Modern Language Association, 1986. Watkins, B. T. "More and More Professors in Many Academic Disciplines Routinely Require Students to Do Extensive Writing."Chronicle of Higher Education, 1990, 36(44), pp. A13-14, A16.

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Students are asked to write literary analysis essays because this type of assignment encourages you to think about how and why a poem, short story, novel, or play was written. To successfully analyze literature, you’ll need to remember that authors make specific choices for particular reasons. Your essay should point out the author’s choices and attempt to explain their significance. Another way to look at a literary analysis is to consider a piece of literature from your own perspective. Rather than thinking about the author’s intentions, you can develop an argument based on any single term (or combination of terms) listed below. You’ll just need to use the original text to defend and explain your argument to the reader. Allegory - narrative form in which the characters are representative of some larger humanistic trait (i.e. greed, vanity, or bravery) and attempt to convey some larger lesson or meaning to life. Although allegory was originally and traditionally character based, modern allegories tend to parallel story and theme. - William Faulkner’s A Rose for Emily- the decline of the Old South - Robert Louis Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde- man’s struggle to contain his inner primal instincts - District 9- South African Apartheid - X Men- the evils of prejudice - Harry Potter- the dangers of seeking “racial purity” Character - representation of a person, place, or thing performing traditionally human activities or functions in a work of fiction - Protagonist - The character the story revolves around. - Antagonist - A character or force that opposes the protagonist. - Minor character - Often provides support and illuminates the protagonist. - Static character - A character that remains the same. - Dynamic character - A character that changes in some important way. - Characterization - The choices an author makes to reveal a character’s personality, such as appearance, actions, dialogue, and motivations. Look for: Connections, links, and clues between and about characters. Ask yourself what the function and significance of each character is. Make this determination based upon the character's history, what the reader is told (and not told), and what other characters say about themselves and others. Connotation - implied meaning of word. BEWARE! Connotations can change over time. - confidence/ arrogance - mouse/ rat - cautious/ scared - curious/ nosey - frugal/ cheap Denotation - dictionary definition of a word Diction - word choice that both conveys and emphasizes the meaning or theme of a poem through distinctions in sound, look, rhythm, syllable, letters, and definition Figurative language - the use of words to express meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words themselves - Metaphor - contrasting to seemingly unalike things to enhance the meaning of a situation or theme without using like or as - You are the sunshine of my life. - Simile - contrasting to seemingly unalike things to enhance the meaning of a situation or theme using like or as - What happens to a dream deferred, does it dry up like a raisin in the sun - Hyperbole - exaggeration - I have a million things to do today. - Personification - giving non-human objects human characteristics - America has thrown her hat into the ring, and will be joining forces with the British. Foot - grouping of stressed and unstressed syllables used in line or poem - Iamb - unstressed syllable followed by stressed - Made famous by the Shakespearian sonnet, closest to the natural rhythm of human speech - How do I love thee? Let me count the ways - Spondee - stressed stressed - Used to add emphasis and break up monotonous rhythm - Blood boil, mind-meld, well- loved - Trochee - stressed unstressed - Often used in children’s rhymes and to help with memorization, gives poem a hurried feeling - While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, - Anapest - unstressed unstressed stressed - Often used in longer poems or “rhymed stories” - Twas the night before Christmas and all through the house - Dactyls - stressed unstressed unstressed - Often used in classical Greek or Latin text, later revived by the Romantics, then again by the Beatles, often thought to create a heartbeat or pulse in a poem - Picture yourself in a boat on a river, With tangerine trees and marmalade skies. The iamb stumbles through my books; trochees rush and tumble; while anapest runs like a hurrying brook; dactyls are stately and classical. Imagery - the author’s attempt to create a mental picture (or reference point) in the mind of the reader. Remember, though the most immediate forms of imagery are visual, strong and effective imagery can be used to invoke an emotional, sensational (taste, touch, smell etc) or even physical response. Meter - measure or structuring of rhythm in a poem Plot - the arrangement of ideas and/or incidents that make up a story - Foreshadowing - When the writer clues the reader in to something that will eventually occur in the story; it may be explicit (obvious) or implied (disguised). - Suspense - The tension that the author uses to create a feeling of discomfort about the unknown - Conflict - Struggle between opposing forces. - Exposition - Background information regarding the setting, characters, plot. - Rising Action - The process the story follows as it builds to its main conflict - Crisis - A significant turning point in the story that determines how it must end - Resolution/Denouement - The way the story turns out. Point of View - pertains to who tells the story and how it is told. The point of view of a story can sometimes indirectly establish the author's intentions. - Narrator - The person telling the story who may or may not be a character in the story. - First-person - Narrator participates in action but sometimes has limited knowledge/vision. - Second person - Narrator addresses the reader directly as though she is part of the story. (i.e. “You walk into your bedroom. You see clutter everywhere and…”) - Third Person (Objective) - Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached observer). Does not assume character's perspective and is not a character in the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply the meaning. - Omniscient - All-knowing narrator (multiple perspectives). The narrator knows what each character is thinking and feeling, not just what they are doing throughout the story. This type of narrator usually jumps around within the text, following one character for a few pages or chapters, and then switching to another character for a few pages, chapters, etc. Omniscient narrators also sometimes step out of a particular character’s mind to evaluate him or her in some meaningful way. Rhythm - often thought of as a poem’s timing. Rhythm is the juxtaposition of stressed and unstressed beats in a poem, and is often used to give the reader a lens through which to move through the work. (See meter and foot) Setting - the place or location of the action. The setting provides the historical and cultural context for characters. It often can symbolize the emotional state of characters. Example – In Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher, the crumbling old mansion reflects the decaying state of both the family and the narrator’s mind. We also see this type of emphasis on setting in Thomas Mann’s Death in Venice. Speaker - the person delivering the poem. Remember, a poem does not have to have a speaker, and the speaker and the poet are not necessarily one in the same. Structure (fiction) - The way that the writer arranges the plot of a story. Look for: Repeated elements in action, gesture, dialogue, description, as well as shifts in direction, focus, time, place, etc. Structure(poetry) - The pattern of organization of a poem. For example, a Shakespearean sonnet is a 14-line poem written in iambic pentameter. Because the sonnet is strictly constrained, it is considered a closed or fixed form. An open or free form poem has looser form, or perhaps one of the author’s invention, but it is important to remember that these poems are not necessarily formless. Symbolism - when an object is meant to be representative of something or an idea greater than the object itself. - Cross - representative of Christ or Christianity - Bald Eagle - America or Patriotism - Owl - wisdom or knowledge - Yellow - implies cowardice or rot Tone - the implied attitude towards the subject of the poem. Is it hopeful, pessimistic, dreary, worried? A poet conveys tone by combining all of the elements listed above to create a precise impression on the reader. "To explicate" something is, in the most general sense of the term, to spell out its implications. Thus the noun "explication," in the corresponding sense, is, in the first instance, the process of spelling out the implications of something. And derived from this, in turn, is the sense of "explication" that refers to the product of this process: some account of what the implications of something are. Explication, in other words, is a kind of explanation (note 1). But usually the thing whose implications are being explicated is a text, or something that is being treated as a text. Thus we say that a lawyer tries to persuade a judge that his opponent's explication of some previous decision is mistaken -- the implications of the previous case, for the case the judge must decide today, are different from what opposing counsel represents them to be. Or we might note that theologians, historically, have disagreed on how to explicate this or that passage of the Bible. But in ordinary usage we probably would say, of a doctor who manages to diagnose a patient's symptoms, that he has explained them, rather than that he has "explicated" them (though we could sensically stretch the term "explicate" to cover this if we wanted to and there was some special reason for doing so). "Explication" in a literary critical sense often refers to nothing more than this: spelling out the implications of the text -- this bit, or that bit, on whatever occasion may arise. In this sense, any time one draws an inference from any explicit detail of the work, one is "doing explication." From a gesture or remark, in some social context, one "sees" this or that motive at work. From the phrasing of a narrator's or character's remarks, one understands that the speaker is being ironic. From the realization that two characters (or two settings or whatever) stand in the relation of foil, or of equivalent ("double") to one another, one notices something unstated about the one on the basis of what has noticed (stated or unstated) about the other. It may be that this interpretive activity is embedded in an essay whose overall organization is some form of logical hierarchy of claims; but whenever one is drawing out implications, one is doing explication in this broad, general sense. But there is another sense of the term that has arisen in literary critical discourse, that is much more specific, and that takes into account the organization of the interpretive activity, or at least of its presentation. In this more specific sense of the term, "explication" involves going through the explicit text, from beginning to end (as a whole, or within a section), and systematically spelling out what the given string of explicit details, or events, or episodes, or scenes, or stanzas, brings to mind to an appropriately engaged reader's mind. When this is done, the resulting interpretation, the interpretive discourse (whether oral or written) will be organized chronologically rather than logically. That is, the organization of an explication, considered as a particular type of critical discourse, is taken over from the work under discussion. And if we are dealing with fiction, plays, films, and most poems, the order of explicit details, events, episodes, that constitutes them is typically going to be temporal. The reason for this is that time is the mode of experience, and works of literature are generally designed, first and foremost, to convey some experience. If we then undertake to unpack "on the fly" the unfolding of the implicit dimensions of that unfolding experience, the order of our own observations will be dictated by the order of the facts as presented in the work that is seeking to sponsor or convey that experience. This is something that we do lots in class, though our doing of it is typically confined to a passage, rather than carried through over the entire text. But it is not what will be asked for in most of the writing you will be called upon to do in our course. Here, the job will be something that, for lack of a better term, we will call "analysis." If the fiction writer's task (or the dramatist's or film-maker's or poet's) is to afford us some clarifiable, intelligible experience, our task (unless you are definitely told otherwise) will be to clarify some particular aspect of the significance of that experience. The internal grammatical structure of these phrases is instructive. In the first, the direct object of the verb is "experience," and the concepts "clarifiable" and "intelligible" are adjectives that modify (are subordinate to) that notion. Writers select and arrange the details that, together, constitute the experience they want to convey in such a manner as to suggest what the significance of it is, or may be supposed to be. But because they are interested in getting us vicariously to undergo that experience, the overall organizational framework within which these details will be presented will be chronological (even if interrupted by flashbacks, flashforwards, or commentary), because the mode of experience is temporal. That is, what we call experience is something that by its very nature flows from moment to moment. We might say that, here, the order of events is the dog, and the implications / inferences / ideas to which they logically give rise are the tail. Except in very special circumstances (note 2), for a fiction writer to organize the text as an argument or exposition, rather than as a narrative, is to be at cross-purposes with himself. Like a carpenter trying to drive nails with a saw, this would be to pick the wrong tool for the job. Or (to return to the metaphor we began with): it is to make the tail wag the dog. In the second, the verbal concept "clarify" governs the direct object, "some particular aspect of the significance of that experience." And within that phrase, in turn, the concept "experience" appears as part of the adjectival prepositional phrase that is subordinate to "significance." Between "significance" and "experience" here, in other words, it is "significance" that is the dog, and "experience" that is the tail. Now significance is constituted by a network of implications. And if we want systematically to clarify some particular aspect of that significance, what will concern us will be some discernable hierarchy of implications that fall under that aspect. And since the relationships that constitute a hierarchy of implications will be logical, the organizational strategy appropriate to clarifying them will be expository-argumentative rather than narrative. Of course, we will constantly need to be referring to the explicit facts of the story, but when we do, we will be taking them up as evidence for our interpretive claims. And it is the logical relationships among these interpretive inferences, and between them and the evidence for them -- not the original order of the events referred to as evidence for them -- that governs our moving from one to the other. So: if we are trying to clarify some particular aspect of the significance of a literary work, we will be working at cross-purposes with ourselves if we organize the body of our essay around the plot or story-sequence of the work we are analyzing. Like a carpenter trying to cut a board with a claw hammer, we are taking up the wrong tool for the job. If we are doing analysis, for us to adopt the organizational framework of the work we are analyzing is to let what is for us the tail wag what is for us the dog. For useful pointers on devising an essay organized around a logically integrated hierarchy of claims, see Craig Waddell's "Threads of Thought: Thesis Development in Analytical Writing." This memo discusses how to define, focus, and develop a thesis, and explains the important difference between a tentative (provisional) and definitive (final) thesis. (This is one of a number of helpful handouts on-line at the Rensselaer Writing Center at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.) Or consult Chuck Guilford's Paradigm Online Writing Assistant on "Writing Thesis/Support Essays" and "Writing Argumentative Essays" (which are a special subcategory of thesis/support essays). On the minimal requirements for a logical framework of organization in an analytical paper, see "Developing an Outline," which is one of over a hundred handouts -- Resources for Writers -- made available at the Purdue University On-Line Writing Lab. There is also good advice on "Organizing Your Writing" on the Paradigm Online Writing Assistant. For an excellent set of pointers by an obviously experienced reader of undergraduate papers, see the memo "Writing Pages of Literary Analysis" by Seamus Cooney at the University of Northern Michigan. (Unfortunately, you may have to content yourself with reading this on line: I have not had success in getting it to print out.) If you would like to consult a "handbook" on points of grammar and style, check out the one provided by Jack Lynch of the University of Pennsylvania. (For a rich page of links to various kinds of writing resources all over the Web, you might want to bookmark Jack Lynch's "Resources for Writers and Writing Instructors." This is worth exploring someday when you have a little time on your hands. [Hm.]) Finally, on our own site there is a checklist of criteria for evaluating exams, which applies both to out-of-class essays and to shorter essay-type answers on in-class exams. Why our assignments call for analysis rather than explication. In our assignments, youll want to move beyond the "parasitic narrative structure" characteristic of explication. There is a powerful reason for this. If you will insist on coming up with an appropriate expository/argumentative strategy, you will force yourself to discover insights that will elude you if you confine yourself to more passive description. This is because the organizational framework of an expository/argumentative essay will be based on logical and causal relationships implicit in the material under discussion, rather than a chronologytaken over from the story. It is these logical and causal relationships that should govern the order in which you present the successive points that, together, make up your analysis as a whole. And it is these that show up in the transitions that you craft to point to the rationale for taking the turns that constitute the "trip" on which you are conducting the reader. But before you can build an edifice on the basis of such implicit logical and causal relationships, you have to arrive at a clear awareness of them yourself. In other words, going beyond retelling the story pushes you into a deeper understanding of the significance of the story. See also Critical Concepts: Criticism and Critical Analysis See also An explication of a sample student essay in critical analysis Note 1. The etymology of "explicit" and "implicit" is worth noting. In contemporary English, these convey abstract concepts. Both come from Latin, where they originated in quite vivid concrete metaphors. The root plic- means "bend" or "fold," and by extension "layer." (In fact the English word fold like the modern German word Falten ("wrinkles") are Germanic cousins to this Latin morpheme.) One or another of these notions is at work, under different spellings, in a number of words with which you are quite familiar: complex, comply, complicit; ply wood, plexiglass; multiplication, multiply, multiple; duplex, double, duple, simple ("one-fold"); replication, reply; supplication, supply; etc.. Something that is implicit, then, is something "folded up inside" something (often, inside "itself"). Though present, it is not "out in plain view." Something that is explicit is something that is "folded out," so that (for example) it is disclosed, visible, evident. To explicate something (something already explicit) is to lay out what is folded up in (or layered behind) it. We begin with what is already explicit, exposed to view, openly said and bring to that condition what, in the text, is conveyed only indirectly, by means of the explicit. If we want a more specific concrete image still to remind us of all this, we can think of a bud on a stem as an example of something that is mostly "implicit": only the outer leaf is "explicit." When the bud blossoms, it performs a kind of "self-explication." If we want to see what's inside before this comes about, our "explication" of it would have to take the form of dissection. Return. Note 2. An example of a fiction that is organized as exposition is Stanislaw Lem's "De Impossibilitate Vitae and De Impossibilitate Prognoscendi," which is a pretended review of two (non-existent) philosophical treatises. An example of a fiction that is organized as an argument is Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal," which is a pretended pamphlet putting forward a solution to a pressing social problem. One approach open to us in analyzing these works as fiction is to treat them as dramatic monologues. As it happens, this will turn out to be more profitable with "A Modest Proposal" than with Lem's "story." One approach that promises to be worthwhile with Lem's piece is to consider it in the light of the author's own "review" of the collection of works (all of them reviews of non-existent books) within which it was published. Another is to consider the implications of the theories "under review" for the sensicality of traditional narrative practices. In either case, though, the basic point about the difference between explication and analysis, as genres of discourse, remains valid. If we explicate these, we follow the order of details (sentences, rhetorical gestures, arguments) in the work under discussion. If we analyze them, we develop an expository-argumentative structure appropriate to the insights to which we are devoting our essay. In this case, the organization of the original will be argumentative (in Swift's work) or expository (in Lem's), and the organization of an analysis of either will be argumentative or expository or both -- some hierarchy of claims. But the heirarchy of claims that constitues the analysis will not be the same as the hierarchy of claims that constitutes the original. Why? Because the two essays (original and analysis of the original) will not be devoted to developing the same thesis. Return. Suggestions are welcome. Please send your comments to email@example.com . Contents copyright © 1999 by Lyman A. Baker. Permission is granted for non-commercial educational use; all other rights reserved. 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The culture of Africa is varied and manifold, consisting of a mixture of countries with various tribes that each have their own unique characteristics. It is a product of the diverse populations that today inhabit the continent of Africa and the African Diaspora. African culture is expressed in its arts and crafts, folklore and religion, clothing, cuisine, music and languages. Expressions of culture are abundant within Africa, with large amounts of cultural diversity being found not only across different countries but also within single countries. Even though African cultures are widely diverse, it is also, when closely studied, seen to have many similarities. For example, the morals they uphold, their love and respect for their culture as well as the strong respect they hold for the aged and the important i.e. Kings and Chiefs. Africa has influenced and been influenced by other continents. This can be portrayed in the willingness to adapt to the ever-changing modern world rather than staying rooted to their static culture. The Westernized few, persuaded by European culture and Christianity, first denied African traditional culture, but with the increase of African nationalism, a cultural recovery occurred. The governments of most African nations encourage national dance and music groups, museums, and to a lower degree, artists and writers. Africa is divided into a great number of ethnic cultures. The continent's cultural regeneration has also been an integral aspect of post-independence nation-building on the continent, with a recognition of the need to harness the cultural resources of Africa to enrich the process of education, requiring the creation of an enabling environment in a number of ways. In recent times, the call for a much greater emphasis on the cultural dimension in all aspects of development has become increasingly vocal. During the Roman colonization of North Africa,(parts of Algeria, Libya, Egypt and the whole of Tunisia) provinces such as Tripolitania became major producers of food for the republic and the empire, this generated much wealth in these places for their 400 years of occupation. During colonialism in Africa, Europeans possessed attitudes of superiority and a sense of mission. The French were able to accept an African as French if that person gave up their African culture and adopted French ways. Knowledge of the Portuguese language and culture and abandonment of traditional African ways defined one as civilized.Kenyan social commentator Mwiti Mugambi argues that the future of Africa can only be forged from accepting and mending the sociocultural present. For Mugambi, colonial cultural hangovers, pervasive Western cultural inundation, and aid-giving arm-twisting donors are, he argues, here to stay and no amount of looking into Africa's past will make them go away. However, Maulana Karenga states: Our culture provides us with an ethos we must honor in both thought and practice. By ethos, we mean a people's self-understanding as well as its self-presentation in the world through its thought and practice in the other six areas of culture. It is above all a cultural challenge. For culture is here defined as the totality of thought and practice by which a people creates itself, celebrates, sustains and develops itself and introduces itself to history and humanity — Maulana Karenga, African Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Excellence African arts and crafts Main article: African art Africa has a rich tradition of arts and crafts. African arts and crafts find expression in a variety of woodcarvings, brass and leather art works. African arts and crafts also include sculpture, paintings, pottery, ceremonial and religiousheadgear and dress. Maulana Karenga states that in African art, the object was not as important as the soul force behind the creation of the object. He also states that All art must be revolutionary and in being revolutionary it must be collective, committing, and functional. Certain African cultures have always placed emphasis on personal appearance and jewelry has remained an important personal accessory. Many pieces of such jewelry are made of cowry shells and similar materials. Similarly, masks are made with elaborate designs and are an important part of some cultures in Africa. Masks are used in various ceremonies depicting ancestors and spirits, mythological characters and deities. In many traditional arts and craft traditions in Africa, certain themes significant to those particular cultures recur, including a couple, a woman with a child, a male with a weapon or animal, and an outsider or a stranger. Couples may represent ancestors, community founder, married couple or twins. The couple theme rarely exhibit intimacy of men and women. The mother with the child or children reveals intense desire of the women to have children. The theme is also representative of mother mars and the people as her children. The man with the weapon or animal theme symbolizes honor and power. A stranger may be from some other tribe or someone from a different country, and more distorted portrayal of the stranger indicates proportionately greater gap from the stranger. (HI) Folklore and religion See also: African traditional religions and Religion in Africa Like all human cultures, African folklore and religion represents a variety of social facets of the various cultures in Africa. Like almost all civilizations and cultures, flood myths have been circulating in different parts of Africa. Culture and religion share space and are deeply intertwined in African cultures. In Ethiopia, Christianity and Islam form the core aspects of Ethiopian culture and inform dietary customs as well as rituals and rites. According to a Pygmy myth, Chameleon, hearing a strange noise in a tree, cut open its trunk and water came out in a great flood that spread all over the land. Folktales also play an important role in many African cultures. Stories reflect a group cultural identity and preserving the stories of Africa will help preserve an entire culture. Storytelling affirms pride and identity in a culture. In Africa, stories are created by and for the ethnic group telling them. Different ethnic groups in Africa have different rituals or ceremonies for storytelling, which creates a sense of belonging to a cultural group. To outsiders hearing an ethnic group's stories, it provides an insight into the community's beliefs, views, and customs. For people within the community, it allows them to encompass their group's uniqueness. They show the human desires and fears of a group, such as love, marriage, and death. Folktales are also seen as a tool for education and entertainment. They provide a way for children to understand the material and social environment. Every story has a moral to teach people, such as good will prevail over evil. For entertainment, stories are set in fantastic, non-human worlds. Often, the main character of the story would be a talking animal or something unnatural would happen to human character. Even though folktales are for entertainment, they bring a sense of belonging and pride to communities in Africa. There are different types of African stories: animal tales and day-to-day tales. Animal tales more oriented towards entertainment, but still have morals and lessons to them. Animal tales are normally divided into trickster tales and ogre tales. In the animal tales, a certain animal would always have the same character or role in each story so the audience does not have to worry about characterization. The Hare was always the trickster, clever and cunning, while the Hyena was always being tricked by the Hare. Ogres are always cruel, greedy monsters. The messengers in all the stories were the Birds. Day-to-Day tales are the most serious tales, never including humor, that explained the everyday life and struggles of an African community. These tales take on matters such as famine, escape from death, courtship, and family matters, using a song form when the climax of the story was being told. African stories all have a certain structure to them. Villagers would gather around a common meeting place at the end of the day to listen and tell their stories. Storytellers had certain commands to start and end the stories, "Ugai Itha" to get the audience's attention and begin the story, and "Rukirika" to signal the end of a tale. Each scene of a story is depicted with two characters at a time, so the audience does not get overwhelmed. In each story, victims are able to overcome their predators and take justice out on the culprit. Certain tools were used in African folktales. For example, idiophones, such as drums, were used to make the sounds of different animals. Repetition and call-back techniques in the form of prose or poem were also used to get the audience involved in the stories. Main article: Clothing in Africa Women's traditional clothes in Ethiopia are made from cloth called shemma and are used to make habesha kemis. The latter garment is basically cotton cloth, about 90 cm wide, woven in long strips which are then sewn together. Sometimes shiny threads are woven into the fabric for an elegant effect. Men wear pants and a knee-length shirt with a white collar, and perhaps a sweater. Men often wear knee-high socks, while women might not wear socks at all. Men as well as women wear shawls, the netela. Zulus wear a variety of attire, both traditional for ceremonial or culturally celebratory occasions, and modern westernised clothing for everyday use. Traditional male clothing is usually light, consisting of a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the genitals and buttocks. The front piece is called the umutsha (pronounced Zulu pronunciation: [umtifash]), and is usually made of springbok or other animal hide twisted into different bands which cover the genitals. The rear piece, called the ibheshu[ibeːʃu], is made of a single piece of springbok or cattle hide, and its length is usually used as an indicator of age and social position; longer amabheshu (plural of ibheshu) are worn by older men. Married men will usually also wear a headband, called the umqhele[umǃʰɛle], which is usually also made of springbok hide, or leopard hide by men of higher social status, such as chiefs. Zulu men will also wear cow tails as bracelets and anklets called imishokobezi[imiʃoɠoɓɛːzi] during ceremonies and rituals, such as weddings or dances. In the Muslim parts of Africa, daily attire also often reflects Islamic tradition. Main article: African cuisine The various cuisines of Africa use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd and whey products. In much of tropical Africa, however, cow's milk is rare and cannot be produced locally (owing to various diseases that affect livestock). The continent's diverse demographic makeup is reflected in the many different eating and drinking habits, dishes, and preparation techniques of its manifold populations. In Central Africa, the basic ingredients are plantains and cassava. Fufu-like starchy foods (usually made from fermented cassava roots) are served with grilled meat and sauces. A variety of local ingredients are used while preparing other dishes like spinach stew, cooked with tomato, peppers, chillis, onions, and peanut butter. Cassava plants are also consumed as cooked greens. Groundnut (peanut) stew is also prepared, containing chicken, okra, ginger, and other spices. Another favorite is Bambara, a porridge of rice, peanut butter and sugar. Beef and chicken are favorite meat dishes, but game meat preparations containing crocodile, monkey, antelope and warthog are also served occasionally. The cuisine of the African Great Lakes region varies from area to area. In the inland savannah, the traditional cuisine of cattle-keeping peoples is distinctive in that meat products are generally absent. Cattle, sheep and goats were regarded as a form of currency and a store of wealth, and are not generally consumed as food. In some areas, traditional peoples consume the milk and blood of cattle, but rarely the meat. Elsewhere, other peoples are farmers who grow a variety of grains and vegetables. Maize (corn) is the basis of ugali, the East African version of West Africa's fufu. Ugali is a starch dish eaten with meats or stews. In Uganda, steamed, green bananas called matoke provide the starch filler of many meals. In the Horn of Africa, the main traditional dishes in Ethiopian cuisine and Eritrean cuisine are tsebhis (stews) served with injera (flatbread made from teff,wheat, or sorghum), and hilbet (paste made from legumes, mainly lentil, faba beans). Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine (especially in the northern half) are very similar, given the shared history of the two countries. The related Somali cuisine consists of an exotic fusion of diverse culinary influences. Varieties of bariis (rice), the most popular probably being basmati, usually serve as the main dish. Xalwo (halwo) or halva is a popular confection served during special occasions such as Eid celebrations or wedding receptions. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using frankincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a dabqaad. All food is served halal. The roots of North African cuisine can be traced back to the ancient empires of North Africa, particularly in Egypt where many of the country's dishes and culinary traditions date back to ancient Egypt. Over several centuries traders, travelers, invaders, migrants and immigrants all have influenced the cuisine of North Africa. Most of the North African countries today have several similar dishes, sometimes almost the same dish with a different name (the Moroccan tangia and the Tunisian coucha are both essentially the same dish: a meat stew prepared in an urn and cooked overnight in a public oven), sometimes with a slight change in ingredients and cooking style. To add to the confusion, two completely different dishes may also share the same name (for example, a "tajine" dish is a slow-cooked stew in Morocco, whereas the Tunisian "tajine" is a baked omelette/quiche-like dish). There are noticeable differences between the cooking styles of different nations – there's the sophisticated, full-bodied flavours of Moroccan palace cookery, the fiery dishes of Tunisian cuisine, and the humbler, simpler cuisines of Egypt and Algeria. The cooking of Southern Africa is sometimes called 'rainbow cuisine', as the food in this region is a blend of many culinary traditions, including those of the Khoisan, Bantu, European and Asian populations. Basic ingredients include seafood, meat products (including wild game), poultry, as well as grains, fresh fruits and vegetables. Fruits include apples, grapes, mangoes, bananas and papayas, avocado, oranges, peaches and apricots. Desserts may simply be fruit. However, there are some more western style puddings, such as the Angolan Cocada amarela, which was inspired by Portuguese cuisine. Meat products include lamb, as well as game like venison, ostrich, and impala. The seafood includes a wide variety such as crayfish, prawns, tuna, mussels, oysters, calamari, mackerel, and lobster. There are also several types of traditional and modern alcoholic beverages including many European-style beers. A typical West African meal is heavy with starchy items, meat, spices and flavors. A wide array of staples are eaten across the region, including those of Fufu, Banku and Kenkey (originating from Ghana), Foutou, Couscous, Tô, and Garri, which are served alongside soups and stews. Fufu is often made from starchy root vegetables such as yams, cocoyams, or cassava, but also from cereal grains like millet, sorghum or plantains. The staple grain or starch varies region to region and ethnic group to ethnic group, although corn has gained significant ground as it is cheap, swells to greater volumes and creates a beautiful white final product that is greatly desired. Banku and Kenkey are maize dough staples, and Gari is made from dried grated cassavas. Rice-dishes are also widely eaten in the region, especially in the dry Sahel belt inland. Examples of these include Benachin from The Gambia and Jollof rice, a pan-West African rice dish similar to Arab kabsah. See also: African popular music and Music of Africa Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various populations. The common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered on the drums, and indeed, a large part of Sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan languages, is rhythmic and centered on the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspects of Sub-Saharan music were transferred to the new world by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as Samba, Jazz, Rhythm and Blues, Rock & Roll, Salsa, and Rap music. Other African musical traditions also involve strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from the eastern Sahel and along the Nile, among the Nilo-Saharan, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork. Among the Khoisans extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork. Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influenced by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.). Popular styles include Mbalax in Senegal and Gambia, Highlife in Ghana, Zoblazo in Côte d'Ivoire, Makossa in Cameroon, Soukous in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kizomba in Angola, and Mbaqanga in South Africa. New World styles like Salsa, R&B/Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity. Like the musical genres of the Nile Valley and the Horn of Africa, North African music has close ties with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes (maqamat). It has a considerable range, from the music of ancient Egypt to the Berber and the Tuareg music of the desert nomads. The region's art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabic and Andalusian classical music. Its popular contemporary genres include the AlgerianRaï. Somali music is typically pentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. In Ethiopia, the music of the highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet, of which there are four main modes: tezeta, bati, ambassel, and anchihoy. Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor. Some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. Main article: Languages of Africa The main ethno-linguistic divisions in Africa are Afro-Asiatic (North Africa, Horn of Africa), Niger–Congo (including speakers from the Bantu branch) in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Nilo-Saharan in parts of the Sahara and the Sahel and parts of Eastern Africa, and Khoisan (indigenous minorities of Southern Africa). The continent of Africa speaks hundreds of languages, and if dialects spoken by various ethnic groups are also included, the number is much higher. These languages and dialects do not have the same importance: some are spoken by only few hundred people, others are spoken by millions. Among the most prominent languages spoken are Arabic, Swahili and Hausa. Very few countries of Africa use any single language and for this reason several official languages coexist, African and European. Some Africans speak various European languages such as English, Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, German and Dutch. - ^"African Culture and People". About.com Travel. Retrieved 2016-01-29. - ^Khair El-Din Haseeb et al., The Future of the Arab Nation: Challenges and Options, 1 edition (Routledge: 1991), p.54 - ^Halim Barakat, The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State, (University of California Press: 1993), p.80 - ^Tajudeen Abdul Raheem, ed., Pan Africanism: Politics, Economy and Social Change in the Twenty First Century, Pluto Press, London, 1996. - ^"Education And Culture In Africa'S Quest For Development"(PDF). Retrieved 2015-10-14. - ^Khapoya, op. cit. p. 126f - ^African culture and the ongoing quest for excellence: dialog, principles, practice.: An article from: The Black Collegian : Maulana Karenga - ^Richard Pankhurst, 1997, `History of the Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History, Lawrenceville, New Jersey. - ^Florence, Namulundah. The Bukusu of Kenya: Folktales, Culture and Social Identities. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic, 2011. Print. - ^Mwangi, Rose. Kikuyu Folktales. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1970. Print. - ^Strong, Polly, and Rodney Wimer. African Tales: Folklore of the Central African Republic. Mogadore, OH: Telcraft, 1992. Print. - ^Bea Sandler (1993). The African Cookbook. Diane and Leo Dillon (Illust.). Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1398-5. Retrieved 2008-12-18. - ^ ab"Eritrean Food Practices."Webcitation.org. Accessed July 2011. - ^Barlin Ali, Somali Cuisine, (AuthorHouse: 2007), p.79 - ^Wolfert, Paula. "The Foods of North Africa". National Association for the Specialty Food Trade, Inc. Archived from the original on 2007-10-21. - ^Bowden, Rob(2007). Africa South of the Sahara. Coughlan Publishing: p. 40, ISBN 1-4034-9910-1. - ^Christopher Ehret, (2002). The Civilizations of Africa. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, p. 103, ISBN 0-8139-2085-X. - ^ abAbdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001). Culture and customs of Somalia. Greenwood. pp. 170–171. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2. - ^Hoppenstand, Gary (2007). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Popular Culture, Volume 4. Greenwood Press. p. 205. ISBN 9780313332555. - ^ abShelemay, Kay Kaufman (2001). Sadie, Stanley; Tyrrell, John, eds. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. viii (2 ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 356. - ^Abatte Barihun, liner notes of the album Ras Deshen, 200. - ^Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University. Essay about The Culture of African Cuisine 966 Words4 Pages The forest not only hides man's enemies but it’s full of man's medicine, healing power and food. ~African Proverb. Africa is a continent that is rich and diverse in terms of culture and traditions. The continent is also considered to be the agricultural hub in the world. Due to this, most of African culture is ultimately intertwined with the foodstuffs that the land has to offer. In general, most of the inhabitants of Africa live within the rural areas and rely on subsistent farming to meet their day to day food needs. Fast food restaurants and supermarkets where processed and packaged food is sold are usually frowned upon and considered a waste of money and resources (AIG, 2011). CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN FOOD African foods are…show more content… Beans, cassava, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes and sweet potatoes thus were introduced to Africa as a direct cause of the European exploring of the American continent. Asian seasonings like pepper, cinnamon, clove, curry and nutmeg were introduced as well. More often than not, the ingredients used to prepare an African dish are fresh, very cheap and easily used to make a quick meal. Common vegetables include kale, spinach, cabbage, tomatoes, beans, potatoes, avocados and other leafy greens, while beef and goat meat are the common meats served in an African meal. Fish, chicken, and mutton are also available but are more expensive (AIG, 2011). Meat is often used merely as one of a number of flavorings, rather than as a main ingredient in cooking. Tropical fruits such as mangoes, oranges, pineapples, bananas, papaws, and pears are cheap, plentiful and popular among the people of Africa, because they are not available all year round and are dictated by seasons. Other ingredients used in typical dishes include rice, corn meal or maize, wheat and millet flour. Yams, plantains, green bananas and cassava are the essential staples in Africa. These vegetables are grown and used all over the continent, either on their own or combined with others. Cassava is an important source of dietary carbohydrates in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world, with its roots providing food for over 500 million

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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Genre (from French genre, meaning 'kind, sort') is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time. Genre is most popularly known as a category of literature, music, or other forms of art or entertainment, whether written or spoken, audio or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria, yet genres can be aesthetic, rhetorical, communicative, or functional. Genres form by conventions that change over time as cultures invent new genres and discontinue the use of old ones. Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand-alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed-upon or socially inferred conventions. Some genres may have rigid, strictly adhered-to guidelines, while others may show great flexibility. Genre began as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry (odes, epics, etc.), prose, and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best. In later periods[when?] genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre became a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a social state, in that people write/paint/sing/dance about what they know about, the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized and to weigh works on their unique merit. It has been suggested[by whom?] that genres resonate with people because of the familiarity, the shorthand communication, as well as because of the tendency of genres to shift with public mores and to reflect the zeitgeist. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated[by whom?] as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, admiration has grown. Proponents[who?] argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes. The term genre is much used in the history and criticism of visual art, but in art history has meanings that overlap rather confusingly. Genre painting is a term for paintings where the main subject features human figures to whom no specific identity attaches – in other words, figures are not portraits, characters from a story, or allegorical personifications. These are distinguished from staffage: incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting. Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the "hierarchy of genres" was a powerful one in artistic theory, especially between the 17th and 19th centuries. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a central role in academic art. The genres in hierarchical order are: - History painting, including narrative religious mythological and allegorical subjects - Portrait painting - Genre painting or scenes of everyday life - Landscape (landscapists were the "common footmen in the Army of Art" according to the Dutch theorist Samuel van Hoogstraten) and cityscape - Animal painting - Still life |History and lists| A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young adult, or children's. They also must not be confused with format, such as graphic novel or picture book. The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups. The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, novel, and short story. They can all be in the genres prose or poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Additionally, a genre such as satire might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they were composed. In popular fiction, which is especially divided by genres, genre fiction is the more usual term. In literature, genre has been known as an intangible taxonomy. This taxonomy implies a concept of containment or that an idea will be stable forever.The earliest recorded systems of genre in Western history can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle. Gérard Genette, a French literary theorist and author of The Architext, describes Plato as creating three Imitational genres: dramatic dialogue, pure narrative, and epic (a mixture of dialogue and narrative). Lyric poetry, the fourth and final type of Greek literature, was excluded by Plato as a non-mimetic mode. Aristotle later revised Plato's system by eliminating the pure narrative as a viable mode and distinguishing by two additional criteria: the object to be imitated, as objects could be either superior or inferior, and the medium of presentation such as words, gestures or verse. Essentially, the three categories of mode, object, and medium can be visualized along an XYZ axis. Excluding the criteria of medium, Aristotle's system distinguished four types of classical genres: tragedy (superior-dramatic dialogue), epic (superior-mixed narrative), comedy (inferior-dramatic dialogue), and parody (inferior-mixed narrative). Genette continues by explaining the later integration of lyric poetry into the classical system during the romantic period, replacing the now removed pure narrative mode. Lyric poetry, once considered non-mimetic, was deemed to imitate feelings, becoming the third leg of a new tripartite system: lyrical, epical, and dramatic dialogue. This system, which came to "dominate all the literary theory of German romanticism (and therefore well beyond)…" (38), has seen numerous attempts at expansion or revision. However, more ambitious efforts to expand the tripartite system resulted in new taxonomic systems of increasing scope and complexity. Genette reflects upon these various systems, comparing them to the original tripartite arrangement: "its structure is somewhat superior to…those that have come after, fundamentally flawed as they are by their inclusive and hierarchical taxonomy, which each time immediately brings the whole game to a standstill and produces an impasse" (74). Taxonomy allows for a structured classification system of genre, as opposed to a more contemporary rhetorical model of genre. The basic genres of film can be regarded as drama, in the feature film and most cartoons, and documentary. Most dramatic feature films, especially from Hollywood fall fairly comfortably into one of a long list of film genres such as the Western, war film, horror film, romantic comedy film, musical, crime film, and many others. Many of these genres have a number of subgenres, for example by setting or subject, or a distinctive national style, for example in the Indian Bollywood musical. A music genre is a conventional category that identifies pieces of music as belonging to a shared tradition or set of conventions. It is to be distinguished from musical form and musical style, although in practice these terms are sometimes used interchangeably. There are numerous genres in Western classical music and popular music, as well as musical theatre and the music of non-Western cultures. The term is now perhaps over-used to describe relatively small differences in musical style in modern rock music, that also may reflect sociological differences in their audiences. Timothy Laurie suggests that in the context of rock and pop music studies, the "appeal of genre criticism is that it makes narratives out of musical worlds that often seem to lack them". Music can be divided into different genres in several ways. The artistic nature of music means that these classifications are often arbitrary and controversial, and some genres may overlap. There are several academic approaches to genres. In his book Form in Tonal Music, Douglass M. Green lists madrigal, motet, canzona, ricercar, and dance as examples of genres from the Renaissance period. According to Green, "Beethoven's Op. 61 and Mendelssohn's Op. 64 are identical in genre – both are violin concertos – but different in form. However, Mozart's Rondo for Piano, K. 511, and the Agnus Dei from his Mass, K. 317 are quite different in genre but happen to be similar in form." Some, like Peter van der Merwe, treat the terms genre and style as the same, saying that genre should be defined as pieces of music that share a certain style or "basic musical language". Others, such as Allan F. Moore, state that genre and style are two separate terms, and that secondary characteristics such as subject matter can also differentiate between genres. A music genre or subgenre may be defined by the musical techniques, the styles, the context, and content and spirit of the themes. Geographical origin is sometimes used to identify a music genre, though a single geographical category will often include a wide variety of subgenres. Several music scholars have criticised the priority accorded to genre-based communities and listening practices. For example, Laurie argues that "music genres do not belong to isolated, self-sufficient communities. People constantly move between environments where diverse forms of music are heard, advertised and accessorised with distinctive iconographies, narratives and celebrity identities that also touch on non-musical worlds." Popular culture and other media This section does not cite any sources. (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The concept of genre is often applied, sometimes rather loosely, to other media with an artistic element, such as video game genres. Genre, and numerous minutely divided subgenres, affect popular culture very significantly, not least as they are used to classify it for publicity purposes. The vastly increased output of popular culture in the age of electronic media encourages dividing cultural products by genre to simplify the search for products by consumers, a trend the Internet has only intensified. In philosophy of language, genre figures prominently in the works of philosopher and literary scholar Mikhail Bakhtin. Bakhtin's basic observations were of "speech genres" (the idea of heteroglossia), modes of speaking or writing that people learn to mimic, weave together, and manipulate (such as "formal letter" and "grocery list", or "university lecture" and "personal anecdote"). In this sense, genres are socially specified: recognized and defined (often informally) by a particular culture or community. The work of Georg Lukács also touches on the nature of literary genres, appearing separately but around the same time (1920s–1930s) as Bakhtin. Norman Fairclough has a similar concept of genre that emphasizes the social context of the text: Genres are "different ways of (inter)acting discoursally" (Fairclough, 2003: 26). A text's genre may be determined by its: - Linguistic function. - Formal traits. - Textual organization. - Relation of communicative situation to formal and organizational traits of the text (Charaudeau and Maingueneau, 2002:278–280). In the field of rhetoric, genre theorists usually understand genres as types of actions rather than types or forms of texts. On this perspective, texts are channels through which genres are enacted. Carolyn Miller's work has been especially important for this perspective. Drawing on Lloyd Bitzer's concept of rhetorical situation, Miller reasons that recurring rhetorical problems tend to elicit recurring responses; drawing on Alfred Schütz, she reasons that these recurring responses become "typified" – that is, socially constructed as recognizable types. Miller argues that these "typified rhetorical actions" (p. 151) are properly understood as genres. Building off of Miller, Charles Bazerman and Clay Spinuzzi have argued that genres understood as actions derive their meaning from other genres – that is, other actions. Bazerman therefore proposes that we analyze genres in terms of "genre systems", while Spinuzzi prefers the closely related concept of "genre ecologies". This tradition has had implications for the teaching of writing in American colleges and universities. Combining rhetorical genre theory with activity theory, David Russell has proposed that standard English composition courses are ill-suited to teach the genres that students will write in other contexts across the university and beyond. Elizabeth Wardle contends that standard composition courses do teach genres, but that these are inauthentic "mutt genres" that are often of little use outside of composition courses. This concept of genre originated from the classification systems created by Plato. Plato divided literature into the three classic genres accepted in Ancient Greece: poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry is further subdivided into epic, lyric, and drama. The divisions are recognized as being set by Aristotle and Plato; however, they were not the only ones. Many genre theorists added to these accepted forms of poetry. Classical and Romance genre theory The earliest recorded systems of genre in Western history can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle. Gérard Genette explains his interpretation of the history of genre in "The Architext". He described Plato as the creator of three imitational, mimetic genres distinguished by mode of imitation rather than content. These three imitational genres include dramatic dialogue, the drama; pure narrative, the dithyramb; and a mixture of the two, the epic. Plato excluded lyric poetry as a non-mimetic, imitational mode. Genette further discussed how Aristotle revised Plato's system by first eliminating the pure narrative as a viable mode. He then uses two additional criteria to distinguish the system. The first of the criteria is the object to be imitated, whether superior or inferior. The second criterion is the medium of presentation: words, gestures, or verse. Essentially, the three categories of mode, object, and medium can be visualized along an XYZ axis. Excluding the criteria of medium, Aristotle's system distinguished four types of classical genres: tragedy, epic, comedy, and parody. Genette explained the integration of lyric poetry into the classical system by replacing the removed pure narrative mode. Lyric poetry, once considered non-mimetic, was deemed to imitate feelings, becoming the third "Architext", a term coined by Gennette, of a new long-enduring tripartite system: lyrical; epical, the mixed narrative; and dramatic, the dialogue. This new system that came to "dominate all the literary theory of German romanticism" (Genette 38) has seen numerous attempts at expansion and revision. Such attempts include Friedrich Schlegel's triad of subjective form, the lyric; objective form, the dramatic; and subjective-objective form, the epic. However, more ambitious efforts to expand the tripartite system resulted in new taxonomic systems of increasing complexity. Gennette reflected upon these various systems, comparing them to the original tripartite arrangement: "its structure is somewhat superior to most of those that have come after, fundamentally flawed as they are by their inclusive and hierarchical taxonomy, which each time immediately brings the whole game to a standstill and produces an impasse". Genre is embedded in culture but may clash with it at times. There are occasions in which a cultural group may not be inclined to keep within the set structures of a genre. Anthony Pare's studied Inuit social workers in "Genre and Identity: Individuals, Institutions and Ideology". In this study, Pare described the conflict between the genre of Inuit social workers' record keeping forms and the cultural values that prohibited them from fully being able to fulfill the expectations of this genre. Amy Devitt further expands on the concept of culture in her 2004 essay, "A Theory of Genre" by adding "culture defines what situations and genres are likely or possible" (Devitt 24). Genre not only coexists with culture but also defines its very components. Genres abound in daily life and people often work within them unconsciously; people often take for granted their prominence and ever present residence in society. Devitt touches on Miller's idea of situation, but expands on it and adds that the relationship with genre and situation is reciprocal. Individuals may find themselves shaping the rhetorical situations, which in turn affect the rhetorical responses that arise out of the situation. Because the social workers worked closely with different families, they did not want to disclose many of the details that are standard in the genre of record keeping related to this field. Giving out such information would violate close cultural ties with the members of their community. Although genres are not always precisely definable, genre considerations are one of the most important factors in determining what a person will see or read. The classification properties of genre can attract or repel potential users depending on the individual's understanding of a genre. Genre creates an expectation in that expectation is met or not. Many genres have built-in audiences and corresponding publications that support them, such as magazines and websites. Inversely, audiences may call out for change in an antecedent genre and create an entirely new genre. The term may be used in categorizing web pages, like "news page" and "fan page", with both very different layout, audience, and intention (Rosso, 2008). Some search engines like Vivísimo try to group found web pages into automated categories in an attempt to show various genres the search hits might fit. A subgenre is a subordinate within a genre. Two stories being the same genre can still sometimes differ in subgenre. For example, if a fantasy story has darker and more frightening elements of fantasy, it would belong in the subgenre of dark fantasy; whereas another fantasy story that features magic swords and wizards would belong to the subgenre of sword and sorcery. - Bakhtin 1983, p. 3. - Samson, Jim. "Genre". In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Accessed March 4, 2012. - Laurie, Timothy (2014). "Music Genre As Method". Cultural Studies Review. 20 (2), pp. 283-292. - Green, Douglass M. (1965). Form in Tonal Music. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. p. 1. ISBN 0-03-020286-8. - van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-19-316121-4. - Moore, Allan F. "Categorical Conventions in Music Discourse: Style and Genre". Music & Letters, Vol. 82, No. 3 (Aug. 2001), pp. 432–442. - Bawarshi, A. S., & Mary Jo Reiff. (2010). Genre: An Introduction to History, Theory, Research, and Pedagogy. chs. 5 and 6 - Miller, C. R. (1984). Genre as social action. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 70(2), 151–167. - Bitzer, L. F. (1968). The Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1(1), 1–14. - Schutz, A., & Luckmann, T. (1973). The Structures of the Life-World. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. - Bazerman, C. (1994). Systems of Genre and the Enactment of Social Intentions. In Genre and the New Rhetoric (pp. 79–101). London/Bristol: Taylor & Francis. - Spinuzzi, C., & Zachry, M. (2000). Genre Ecologies : An Open-System Approach to Understanding and Constructing Documentation. ACM Journal of Computer Documentation, 24(3), 169–181. - Russell, D. R. (1995). Activity theory and its implications for writing instruction. In J. Petraglia (Ed.), Reconceiving writing, rethinking writing instruction (pp. 51–78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. - Wardle, E. (2009). "Mutt Genres" and the Goal of FYC: Can we Help Students Write the Genres of the University? College Composition and Communication, 60(4), 765–789. - "subgenre". dictionary.com. - "Subgenre". The Free Dictionary. Farlex. - Bakhtin, Mikhail M. (1983). "Epic and Novel". In Holquist, Michael. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71527-7. - Charaudeau, P.; Maingueneau, D. and Adam, J. Dictionnaire d'analyse du discours Seuil, 2002. - Devitt, Amy J. "A Theory of Genre". Writing Genres. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. 1–32. - Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research Routledge, 2003. - Genette, Gérard. The Architext: An Introduction. 1979. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. - Jamieson, Kathleen M. "Antecedent Genre as Rhetorical Constraint". Quarterly Journal of Speech 61 (1975): 406–415. - Killoran, John B. "The Gnome In The Front Yard and Other Public Figurations: Genres of Self-Presentation on Personal Home Pages". Biography 26.1 (2003): 66–83. - Коробова А.Г. Теория жанров в музыкальной науке: история и современность. Москва: Московская гос. консерватория, 2007 - LaCapra, Dominick. "History and Genre: Comment". New Literary History 17.2 (1986): 219–221. - Miller, Carolyn. "Genre as Social Action". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 70 (1984): 151–67. - Rosso, Mark. "User-based Identification of Web Genres". Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 59 (2008): 1053–1072. - Pare, Anthony. "Genre and Identity". The Rhetoric and Ideology of Genre: Strategies for Stability and Change. Eds. Richard M. Coe, Lorelei Lingard, and Tatiana Teslenko. Creskill, N.J. Hampton Press, 2002. - Sullivan, Ceri (2007) "Disposable elements? Indications of genre in early modern titles", Modern Language Review 102.3, pp. 641–53 |Look up genre in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikidata has the property: |Library resources about |

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Afghanistan in Brief • Name: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan • Area: 652,864 sq. km. (249,935 sq. mi.) • Capital: Kabul • Provinces: 34 • Population: 29.2 Million (2015-2016 CSO) • Natural resources: Natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones • Land use: Arable land 12% Permanent pastures 46% Forests and woodland 3% Other 39% • Literacy rate: 40% (Afghanistan Ministry of Education, 2016) Afghanistan’s history spans five thousand years and the Afghan people have contributed to the emergence of many Central Asian empires. The ancient centers of culture and civilization were influenced by diverse outsiders such as Greece, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, India, and China. The borders of Afghanistan were established in 1893 through negotiations with the British, and provincial governments emerged, taking the place of clan rule. In 1919, Afghanistan gained independence from British occupying forces. From 1919-1973 Afghanistan modernized and built extensive infrastructure with the assistance of the international community. This period of relative stability ended in 1973. In 1978 and 1979, a number of coups brought to power a communist government that drifted increasingly toward the USSR, ending with a Soviet puppet government in Kabul and an invasion of Soviet forces. Throughout the 80s, an indigenous Afghan resistance movement fought against the invading Soviet forces. On February 15, 1989, the last Soviet soldier retreated across Afghanistan’s northern border. As hostilities ceased, more than a million Afghans lay dead and 6.2 million people, over half the world’s refugee population, had fled the country. The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 weakened the then communist government which later demised in 1992. An interim government was established by the Mujahideen Council in 1992 and was followed by the country’s Islamic political movement. The government remained unstable and unable to form a national consensus amongst its various factions. This instability was exploited by a group of Islamic fighters called the Taliban (‘Talib’ means ‘religious student’ or ‘seeker of knowledge’). With the assistance of foreign governments, organizations, and resources, the Taliban seized Kandahar and in September 1998 entered Kabul. Taliban rulers became infamous for their repression of women and dissidents as well as their destruction of the country’s cultural heritage. Showing little interest in trying to govern and rebuild Afghanistan, they instead played host to the radical Al-Qaeda terrorist network. Following Al-Qaeda’s 2001 attacks, the United States and its allies began military operations and quickly overthrew the Taliban. An interim government was installed. In December of 2001, Afghan and world leaders met in Bonn, Germany under United Nations auspices to design an ambitious agenda that would guide Afghanistan toward “national reconciliation, a lasting peace, stability, and respect for human rights,” culminating in the establishment of a fully representative government. Many political and civil institutions were established with the Bonn Agreement, such as the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, the Judicial Commission, Counter- Narcotics Directorate, and the constitutional commission. Progress on the political front has been rapid, with elections leading to an elected parliament and president as well as a national constitution. With international assistance, the new government of Afghanistan is developing a stable political infrastructure and security apparatus. ISAF was created in accordance with the Bonn Conference, in December 2001. NATO took over command and coordination of ISAF in August 2003. ISAF currently numbers about 9,700 troops from 37 NATO and non-NATO troop-contributing countries. The Alliance is expanding its presence in Southern Afghanistan. The London Conference on Afghanistan in January 2006 aimed to launch the Afghanistan Compact to present the interim Afghanistan National Development Strategy, and to ensure the Government of Afghanistan has adequate resources to meet its domestic ambitions. The Afghanistan Compact marks the formal end of the Bonn Process, with the completion of the Parliamentary and Provincial elections, and represents a framework for co-operation for five years. The Interim Afghanistan National Development Strategy (I-ANDS) is the product of twelve months of intensive consultations within the Afghan government and with a wide array of stakeholders including community representatives, the ulama, the private sector, NGOs, and the international community. The document outlines the government’s policy objectives and analyzes the obstacles to their achievement. Afghanistan is located in the Heart of Asia, Roundabouts for Asia and Europe. It is a landlocked mountainous country located within South Asia and Central Asia. The country is the 40th largest in the world in size. Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, located in the Kabul Province. The other biggest cities in the country are Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, Nangarhar, Kandahar, and Kunduz. Afghanistan is completely landlocked, bordered by Iran to the west (925 kilometers), by the Central Asian States of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan to the north and northeast (2,380 kilometers), by China at the easternmost top of the Wakhan Corridor (96 kilometers), and by Pakistan to the east and south (2,432 kilometers). Afghanistan may be described as semi-arid for the most part but regional variations and climate contrasts according to levels of elevation. Annual rainfall is low, but the high mountains contain sources for many streams and rivers which supply water for cultivation. Afghanistan is cold in winter. Snow falls in the central northern and northern east provinces. Eastern provinces are very warm in the summer but pleasant in winter. In general, Afghanistan has a pleasant weather in summer and specifically its spring has been celebrated warmly throughout the nation. It rains a lot in the spring where the rain level in the summer is quite low. According to the survey made by Central statistics office (CSO), the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, the total population of the country is 29.2 Million. 14.9 Million Population consists of Male and 14.2 Million consists of Female. 20.7 Million Population is living in the suburbs and 6.9 Million are living in the cities. People and Religions For centuries, Afghanistan has been a mosaic of people with diverse cultures, religions, and languages. Afghanistan’s ethnically and linguistically rich and mixed population reflects its location at the crossroads of Central, South and Southwest Asia. Communities with separate religions, languages, and ethnic backgrounds have lived side by side for generations. Afghanistan still remains a country of dynamic diversity. The main ethnic groups are Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen, Aimaq, Baluch, Nuristani, Pahashaye, Barhawe, Arab, Gujar, Pamiriyan, and Kizilbash. Pashto and Dari are Afghanistan’s official languages. Afghanistan’s Constitution stipulates that all other languages are “official” in the areas in which they are spoken by a majority of the population. Afghanistan is an Islamic country. An estimated 80% of the population is Sunni, following the Hanafi School of jurisprudence. The remainder of the population is predominantly Shi’a. Religious minorities of the country include Hindus, Sikhs, and a small community of Jews who have left the country during the decades of war. Artistic activity in Afghanistan can be traced back as early as 18,000 BC. For centuries Afghanistan linked the civilizations of Iran, India, and China. In the Islamic Era, the Ghaznavid rulers of the 10th to 12th centuries and the Ghorids fostered artistic development. Continuing through the Timurid dynasty, Afghanistan’s cultural life prospered and flourished through the rulers’ high regard for men of learning and artists. The descendants of Timur turned the city of Herat into a center of cultural activity enticing artists such as Abdul Rahman Jami, Abdulhay, and Kamal al-Din Bihzad to create finely illustrated books and exquisite buildings. Folklore and legends told through song and storytelling are a centuries-old tradition in Afghanistan and continue to thrive today. Afghanistan has a rich literary tradition as well. During the medieval period, literature was written in Dari, Pashto, Turkic, and Arabic. The royal courts of regional empires such as the Samanids, the Ghaznavids, the Timurids, and the Mughals, were great patrons of Persian literature supporting literary geniuses like Rumi, Rudaki, Abdullah Ansari, Ferdowsi, and Jami. One of the most important works of this period was the Dari epic poem Shah Nameh (The Book of Kings), completed in 1010 by Firdawsi and comprising 60,000 rhyming couplets. Another famous poet, Jalalaluddin Rumi Balkhi (1207-1273, also known as Rumi) from Balkhi, is considered one of the greatest Sufi poets. Much of his writings have been translated from Farsi into English. In the 16th-18th centuries, many literary figures originated from Afghanistan but due to the partition of the region between Safavid Persia and the Mughal Empire, famous poets moved to literary centers. Khushal Khan Khattak, a 17th Century Pashtun poet and warrior, lived in the Hindu Kush foothills. He used verse to express the tribal code. By the late 19th century Pashto sung poetry had been formalized at the royal court into the classical genre known as ghazal, in recognition of the fact that music can be a powerful way to deliver great poetry. While Afghan literature can be split into Persian, Turkic, and Pashto, there is a shared tradition and heritage that unites the consciousness of all Afghans and is reflected in the literature. For example, a tradition of military prowess and invincibility presents itself in the literature, whether it is a product of Khyber Pass Pashtuns, Uzbek Central Asians, or Tajik mountain ghazis. In the 20th century, Kabul became the center of publishing. Mahmud Tarzi (1865-1933), a reformer and editor of Kabul’s first literary publication, Seraj ul-Akhbar, was instrumental in developing a modern literary community. Afghanistan has produced several literary figures including Khalillulah Khalili (1907-1987) and Sayed Buhaniddin Majruh. A neo-classicist poet, prose writer, poet laureate, and ambassador, Khalili defined the Afghan Renaissance man. Ancient and modern architecture in Afghanistan combines elements from Iran, India, and Byzantium. Afghanistan is filled with architectural gems. Mosques, fortresses, and minarets reveal the artistic glory of past empires. The best sites to view architectural masterpieces are Herat, Bamiyan, Mazar-e Sharif, Balkh, Ghazni; however, architectural sites are spread throughout the country. Efforts are currently being made to preserve Afghanistan’s many historical sites. Tragically, some of Afghanistan’s greatest cultural treasures, such as the Bamiyan giant Buddha statues, were destroyed by the Taliban. Other cultural heritage sites, such as the Heart mosque with its intricate ceramic tile designs, the hauntingly hidden Minaret of Jam, and the imposing Mazar-i-Sharif mosque have been preserved. The Kabul Museum is also undergoing extensive renovation. The museum, which once housed the most comprehensive record of Central Asian history, was bombed numerous times throughout the nineties, causing extensive damage to the collection. Despite efforts by the United Nations and devoted museum staff to protect the remaining collection, thousands of antiquities were plundered for the illegal antiquities trade. Today, many of these items are being recovered, as efforts to restore and preserve Afghanistan’s rich cultural heritage continue. Buddhas of Bamiyan Etched into the dappled sandstone of the Bamiyan Mountains are the faint remains of the once colossal Buddha statues that silently watched over the Bamiyan Valley for 1500 years. The Taliban’s destruction of the 174-feet and 115-feet tall monuments caused an uproar in March 2001. Recent efforts in the region hope to restore their magnitude and reintroduce their cultural significance. The statues, which took Buddhist monks several decades to construct, date back to the 3rd and 4th century. Composed of mud-and-straw plaster and stucco, the Buddhas also harbored a variety of frescoes that decorated the walls in their vicinity. Until the 9th century, Bamiyan was a thriving Buddhist metropolis. Lying along the Silk Road, the area was frequented by many travelers who traversed the famous trade route linking China, Central Asia, and Europe. Bamiyan’s beauty and the majestic presence of the buddhas have recounted in several ancient texts. The structures, though over 1,500 years old, were remarkably resilient to demolition. The Taliban required several weeks of bombings to finally crumble the monuments, which they deemed idolatrous and un-Islamic. In 2003, in the wake of the Taliban destruction, UNESCO declared Bamiyan a World Heritage Site. Beneath the shards of detonated bombs and rubble, archaeologists and other experts are attempting to gather and reassemble parts of the statues. Some hope that recovery of the fragments will lead to preservation and more importantly, reconstruction of the Buddhas. Due to a lack of detailed photography, it is increasingly difficult to match fragments to their corresponding statue, but modern technology allows geologists to “fingerprint” pieces of the statues, which will later be scanned into computers and used to assemble the fragments. However, many Afghans and cultural experts believe that the statues should not be rebuilt and that their absence is a stark reminder of the cultural destruction of the Taliban era. Recently, archaeologists, engineers, and architects have flocked to the Bamiyan Valley to search for buried Buddhist monasteries as well as a legendary 1,000-foot long reclining Buddha statue. Zemaryalai Tarzi, an Afghan archaeologist, believes another giant Buddha may be hidden deep beneath the earth in the Bamiyan valley. A Chinese visitor in 632 described a reclining figure 1,000 feet long – if the account is accurate, the reclining Buddha is as wide as the Eiffel Tower is long. Tarzi’s recent excavations have unearthed one of the 10 monasteries that he says existed in Bamiyan. While the monastery did not yield any signs of the sought-after statue, the discovery was nonetheless an important step in reclaiming the cultural heritage and history that diminished with the demise of the two Giant Buddhas. Gallery for Historic sites The modern educational system was introduced at the end of the 19th century by the Afghan government and combined traditional Islamic learning with a modern curriculum. In 1935, education was declared universal, compulsory and free. With its expansion, the secular system came to be regarded as the principle medium for creating a national ideology and emphasized productive skills. By the 1960s, technical education assumed critical importance as a result of Afghanistan’s development drive. The Afghan educational system is currently experiencing a period of rehabilitation and reconstruction. Twenty years of conflict caused the exodus of many teachers and qualified instructors and caused literacy rates to plummet. Violence throughout the country during the Soviet invasion, the Civil War, and the Taliban period made the existence of primary and secondary schools near impossible. Schools still existed during these times, but they had little access to resources or qualified professionals. Today, starting at age seven, children attend six years of primary school, three years of middle school and three years of secondary school. Afghanistan’s Ministry of Education provides a specialized curriculum and textbooks that have been developed with the assistance of Afghanistan’s international partners. Today, more than 8 million students are enrolled in school, including more than 2.5 million girls, while the total number of students enrolled in 2002 was less than one million. Traditional religious schools, found in towns and villages, teach children basic moral values and ritual knowledge through the study of the Qoran, the Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet Mohammad), and popular edited religious texts. Herat, Kunduz, Ghazni, Kandahar, and Kabul have become important centers for religious scholars. Higher education also suffered during the 1980s and 90s, the Afghan government is striving to recruit foreign professors, computerize the universities, and train young Afghans to be qualified professionals in today’s competitive market. Currently, there are universities in Afghanistan educating 400,000 students (19% women, 81% men), a tenfold increase from the 4,000 enrolled in 2002. Since 2002, the government has made considerable progress in increasing access to health care services. Afghanistan’s healthcare sector has faced many challenges in the past four years, but the Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) continues to move Afghanistan forward. Some achievements have included: • Reform and restructuring of the health system which has a public-private mix orientation; • Development of health policy and strategies; • Expanded Basic Package of Health Services (BPHS); • Developed capacity at the Central MOPH for coordinating and managing donor funds. In Kabul, state of the art hospitals have opened and clinics have been built and staffed all over the country. However, there is much left to be done. The new system has improved the health and life expectancy of Afghans from 42 years in 2002 to 64 years in 2012. In 2014, 57% have access to a health facility less than one hour from their home. In this period, more than 600 health facilities, which serve one million people per month, are built. Currently, besides government sector healthcare facilities, there are various health care centers and hospital operating through private sector as well. The access to health services has been quite changed rather than before. Afghanistan saw a revolution of Technology in a very shorter period of time. Mobile and internet services covered the entire country is a way, which was not even expected. People who were traveling from villages to cities aiming to make a phone call in the year 2002 are now having access to the modern technology used worldwide. Central statistics office of Afghanistan (CSO) says, in the year 2016, 6678 towers communication services coverage have been installed across the country which covers all most all the provinces in the country. It also indicates that the number of Mobile and landline phones and internet users are increasing day to other. Most of the users are youth, who strive to get access to internet services. Technology has helped a historic rise of Media in the country. Access to social media, news channels and information has developed the information technology scenario in the country. The media coverage in the country is at its peak and every second countryman has access to Radio/Television/Social Media/Mobile Phone and etc… 14 Feb Tue Liberation Day 21 Mar Tue Nowroz (New Year) 28 Apr Fri Victory Day 27 May Sat Awal Ramadan (Start of Ramadan) * 25 Jun Sun Eid ul Fitr (End of Ramadan) * 26 Jun Mon Eid ul Fitr (End of Ramadan) * 27 Jun Tue Eid ul Fitr (End of Ramadan) * 19 Aug Sat Jeshen (Independence Day) 31 Aug Thu Arafat 1 Sep Fri Eid ul Adha (Feast of Sacrifice) * 2 Sep Sat Eid ul Adha (Feast of Sacrifice) * 3 Sep Sun Eid ul Adha (Feast of Sacrifice) * 30 Sep Sat Tenth of Moharam, Ashora 30 Nov Thu Mawleed al-Nabi /The Prophet’s Birthday People in Afghanistan are celebrating the first Day of New Year (Persian New Year) as per its historical value. They congratulate the day with happy year wishes to each other. Two other Festivals, Eid ul Fitr and Eid ul Adha are religious festivals. Eid ul Fitr is celebrated after the Holy month of Ramadan. Eid ul Adha is celebrated two months after the Ramadan and people sacrifices Goats, Buffalos, sheep, and cows. Ashura is a religious festival, relating to the Death of Imam Husain, the Grandsons of Mohammad (BEUH). Shia and Sunni Muslims celebrate this day in Masjid with the recitation of Holy Quran and distribution of food. Meelad ul Nabi is another religious festival. The Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) got birth in this day. Sunni and Shia Muslims celebrate this festival with the recitation of Holy Quran and distribution of food. The executive branch of the Afghan National Unity Government consists of a powerful and popularly elected President, two Vice Presidents and a Chief Executive Office. A National Assembly consisting of two Houses, the House of People (Wolesi Jirga) with 249 seats, and the House of Elders (Meshrano Jirga) with 102 seats from the Legislative Branch. There is an independent Judiciary branch consisting of the Supreme Court (Stera Mahkama), High Courts and Appeal Courts. The President appoints the nine members of the Supreme Court with the approval of the Wolesi Jirga.

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An effort to develop a scale measuring coaches’ unethical behaviors included two phases. In the first, factor and reliability analyses were made of potential survey items meant to gather data from athletes describing coaches’ behavior. In the second, select items were incorporated in a survey randomly administered to 221 male and female taekwondo competitors at a national competition in 2006, for comparison of behaviors by coach gender, age, and education. Behavior was not found to differ significantly by gender (n = 219, t = 1.71, p > .05), age (n = 216, t = 1.13, p > .05), or education (n = 217, t = 1.60, p > .05). A New Scale Measuring Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors for Comparison by Gender, Age, and Education Level of Coach In coaching, a code of ethics is a tool providing a minimum standard of conduct and behavior expected of the coach as he or she develops into a professional. Many other professions, including medicine and law, also expect members to adhere to a behavior code requiring them to do their best and maintain professional standards (Ring, 1992). Codes established for coaches provide common values and guidelines for performing one’s job. It has been suggested that there is a sensitive relationship between physical education and moral education. Stoll (1995), who is with the University of Idaho Center for Ethical Theory and Honor in Competitive Sports, emphasized that “physical education and athletic programs could be harmonious in promoting the development of sportsmanlike behaviors, ethical decision-making skills, and a total curriculum for moral character development.” Many studies by philosophers of sport concern the relationship of moral education and competition concepts; many conclude that a completed sports education involving both competition and development of an understanding of fair play effects a moral education (i.e., an education in moral values such as honesty, equality, justice, and respect) (Bergmann, 2000; Carr, 1998; Priest, Krause, & Beach, 1999; Singleton, 2003; Spencer, 1993). Sabock (1985) argued that sports provide students an important opportunity to develop ethical behaviors including honesty and fairness. Bergmann (2000) noted a logical relationship between physical education and moral education, one based on students’ understanding of the concept of success and their acceptance of the importance of competitions. Bergmann added that, through competition, students have opportunities to compare their skills and talents to those of others, which motivates them to gain practical knowledge meeting certain standards. As role models for athletes, coaches can help them develop fair and ethical behavior by demonstrating how these can be applied in sports. Coaches have the capacity to teach and reinforce ethical behavior by athletes and indeed are central to value development in young people, since they are role models of institutional norms (Wandzilak, 1985). Today, however, unethical behavior exhibited in the course of coaching is decreasing respect for coaches and for sports. Too many coaches approach their duties without adequate regard for values such as honesty, objectivity, and justice. This is so despite the fact that many sports organizations and communities have published codes of ethics that coaches are expected to uphold (American National Youth Sports Coaches Association, n.d.; American Psychological Association, 1992; Australian Sports Commission, n.d.; British Institute of Sports Coaches, n.d.; Canadian Professional Coaches Association, 2003; International Coaches Federation, 2003; Sports Medicine Australia, n.d.; Sports Coach, n.d.). Figure 1 presents a summary of the standards set out by these codes of conduct, classifying them as either a responsibility of coaches or a form of respect coaches are expected to demonstrate. |1. A coach should provide a healthy environment for competition and practice.2. A coach should always work toward personal development, in order to continuously improve his or her job performance. 3. A coach should provide the media and members of the public with correct information. 4. A coach should direct injured athletes to medical treatment and act in accord with medical professionals’ instructions and suggestions. 5. A coach should help athletes with their personal and family problems. 6. A coach’s support should extend to athletes in need, whether or not they are his or her own athletes. 7. A coach should work cooperatively with any expert who might contribute to the development of athletes. 8. A coach should inform athletes of how they should behave during media interviews. 9. A coach should not use training techniques that are harmful to athletes. 10. A coach should select equipment carefully to ensure athletes’ safety. 11. A coach should have the injured athlete’s well-being in mind when deciding whether to permit a return to competition and should never permit return ahead of complete recovery. 12. A coach should assign athletes appropriate responsibilities in order to contribute to their development. 13. A coach should take a protective stance toward athletes when it comes to harmful drugs, by informing athletes about drugs’ dangers. 14. A coach of nonprofessional athletes should schedule practice and competitions that do not interfere with athletes’ need to develop academically. 15. A coach should develop effective ways of communicating to athletes and their families their rights and responsibilities as part of the team. 16. A coach should emphasize education’s importance to athletes, as well as sports’ importance. 17. A coach should instill in athletes the idea that winning results from good team work. 18. A coach should always ensure that athletes receive an explanation of the objectives of training. 19. A coach who disciplines an athlete through punishment should not, in so doing, harm the athlete’s personality. 20. A coach should always explain for athletes the objectives of any rule that will be applied. |1. A coach should have respect for each athlete’s being.2. A coach should avoid behavior that is likely to diminish the respect afforded him or her by the society. 3. A coach should not exaggerate his or her capabilities. 4. A coach should encourage fair play and sportsmanlike behavior. 5. A coach should keep confidential all personal information on athletes (e.g., personal problems, family problems) and all information about the coach’s job (e.g., budget, recruitment policy), unless disclosure is required by law. 6. A coach should emphasize honesty in competition. 7. A coach should respect the rules of competition. 8. A coach should respect written and unwritten rules of fair play. 9. A coach should respect decisions of referees during competitions. 10. A coach should not encourage athletes or spectators to disrespect referees. 11. A coach should always have his or her behavior under control. 12. A coach should not use negative words to criticize other coaches or organizations. 13. A coach should take responsibility in areas in which he or she feels confident. 14. A coach should not criticize athletes publicly or act to hurt them. Figure 1. Summary of coaching behaviors mandated by various organizational codes of ethics. When such standards are ignored, unethical coaching behaviors typically fall into four main categories, according to the United States Olympic Committee (DeSensi & Rosenberg, 1996). They are (a) offending athletes verbally or physically, (b) treating athletes inhumanely, (c) encouraging athletes’ use of performance-enhancing drugs; and (d) ignoring the athletic program’s educational goals. In its various forms, unethical behavior in coaching is becoming an important topic in the physical education literature. The present study’s purpose was to develop a valid and reliable scale measuring the extent of unethical behavior by coaches and then to test whether their unethical behavior was associated with gender, age, or educational level. Sampling and Research Design The study collected data in 2006 from 221 competitors in a national taekwondo championship, 86 of whom were female (38.9%) and 135 of whom were male (61.1%). The majority of the sample (76.9%) were ages 17 to 23 years. The mean length of their experience in taekwondo was 7 ± 3 years. The average age at which they began high-performance training (attending training camps and national and international competitions regularly) was 8 ± 2 years. Instruments and Data Collection The instrument was developed in three phases. First, from a review of the codes of ethics of the American National Youth Sports Coaches Association (n.d.), American Psychological Association (1992), British Institute of Sports Coaches (n.d.), Canadian Professional Coaches Association (n.d.), International Coach Federation (n.d.), Sports Medicine Australia (n.d.), Sports Coach (n.d.), and several Olympic committees, a pool of 48 survey items was created and subsequently analyzed. Second, with the 48 items providing a basis, an instrument was developed that used a 5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) to assess perceived ethical or unethical nature of coaching behaviors (see Table 1). This instrument was administered to a group of 18 taekwondo coaches, taekwondo players, and faculty members or instructors knowledgeable of the sport. They read each item on the instrument and circled a response. The 18 participants unanimously assigned a score of 5 to 35 of the items, so these 35 were accepted by the researcher as describing unethical behaviors (Balci, 1993). The scale was dubbed the Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors Scale, or CUBS. Score Levels Reflected in 5-Point Likert-Type Scale In the third phase, the final CUBS instrument of 35 items (with 5-point Likert-type response categories) was administered to the 221 taekwondo contestants. Each item posed a scenario involving coaching behavior; respondents circled the numeral indicating how strongly they agreed that they had experienced their coaches demonstrating the unethical behavior. The construct validity of CUBS was evaluated using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). EFA seeks to identify a factor or factors based on relationships among variables (Kline, 1994; Stevens, 1996; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The reliability of CUBS was assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and Spearman-Brown (split-half) correlation. In order to test whether coaches’ unethical behaviors change with gender, age, and educational level, a t test and one-way ANOVA analysis were applied. Factor Structure of CUBS: Construct Validity Results of exploratory factor analysis assessing CUBS’ validity showed 11 of the 35 items to have a factor loading below .45. These 11 were extracted, and the analysis was repeated with the remaining 24 items. Of these, 14 could be classified as pertaining to coaches’ responsibility for athletes, for rules, and for the integrity of the coaching profession; the 14 became Factor 1. The remaining 10 could be classified as forms of respect coaches are charged with upholding (for example, respect for individuals, personalities, gender, and health). These became Factor 2. For Factor 1, factor loading ranged from .562 to .847, while for Factor 2 it ranged from .561 to .782. Factor 1 accounted for 50.34% of variance, and Factor 2 accounted for 11.31%, so together the factors accounted for 61.65% of total variance (see Table 2). |Item||Factor 1||Factor 2||Communalities Variance| The reliability of CUBS was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the Spearman-Brown correlation. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients indicate internal consistency; for the two CUBS subscales administered to the 221 athletes, Cronbach’s alpha was .78 for Factor 1 and .77 for Factor 2. The total internal consistency for the scale was .76. The Spearman-Brown correlation yielded .98 for Factor 1 and .93 for Factor 2. Total correlation for CUBS was thus .92. Corrected item total correlations, which ranged from .63 to .87, are shown in Table 3, along with t-test scores for the items in CUBS. Statistical significance at a level of p < .01 was attained for each item’s mean score. Corrected Item Total Correlations and t Scores for Items in CUBS |Item||Factor 1||Factor 2||t||p| Unethical Behaviors of Coaches Using the data from the surveyed taekwondo competitors, coaches’ unethical behaviors were measured with descriptive statistics (see Table 4). As Table 4 illustrates, the athletes reported they had observed in the behavior of their coaches the 24 unethical behaviors reflected in CUBS, although the values measured for these behaviors were low. Observed unethical behavior did not, according to t-test results, appear significantly dependent on gender (n = 219, t = 1.71, p > .05), age (n = 216, t = 1.13, p > .05), or education level (n = 217, t = 1.60 p > .05). Mean, Standard Deviation, and Percentages for Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors as Indicated by CUBS Respondents |1. The coach does not deal honestly with athletes.||1.56||1.01||5.50| |2. The coach does not inform athletes about harmful effects of drugs (drug abuse).||1.75||1.14||12.70| |3. The coach does not build respectful, effective communication with athletes.||1.60||0.95||4.10| |4. The coach encourages athletes’ weight loss via means that may harm their health.||1.75||1.02||7.30| |5. The coach does not provide athletes necessary information about training.||1.61||0.98||7.70| |6. The coach does not continuously improve his or her professional knowledge and skills.||1.72||1.16||10.90| |7. The coach does not care about honesty in competition.||1.80||1.17||10.40| |8. The coach does not know the legal regulations relevant to his or her sport.||1.53||1.00||5.00| |9. The coach does not have sufficient knowledge of training science.||1.73||1.16||13.6| |10. The coach abuses his or her authority as a coach.||1.61||0.99||6.80| |11. The coach is not honest about the finances of competition.||1.62||1.04||5.90| |12. The coach does not prepare effective training programs reflecting athletes’ ability levels.||1.84||1.11||7.20| |13. The coach does not evaluate athletes’ performances as they reflect established goals.||1.66||1.00||5.90| |14. The coach does not provide athletes with feedback about their performances.||1.68||0.99||7.20| |1. The coach does not treat athletes respectfully.||1.39||0.95||5.90| |2. The coach discriminates among athletes based on gender, religion, or language.||1.44||0.82||3.20| |3. The coach curses or uses street language.||1.41||0.77||9.00| |4. The coach does not respect the being of the athletes.||1.42||0.76||3.60| |5. The coach is not careful to avoid harming athletes’ personalities when using punishment to discipline them.||1.56||0.89||5.50| |6. The coach causes athletes physical harm in the course of using punishment to discipline them.||1.61||0.95||7.70| |7. The coach discriminates among athletes based on reasons other than individual merit.||1.97||1.22||15.00| |8. The coach degrades athletes with insults.||1.52||0.87||6.40| |9. The coach becomes publicly angry and displays violence after a defeat in competition.||1.62||1.02||8.60| |10. The coach does not respect rules and referees.||1.67||1.04||6.80| Discussion and Results The present study’s purpose was to develop a valid and reliable scale measuring the extent of unethical behavior by coaches and then to test whether their unethical behavior was associated with gender, age, or educational level. CUBS is such a scale, according to the results of factor and reliability analysis (Kline, 1994; Stevens, 1996; Tabachick & Fidell, 2001). Data obtained with CUBS were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis that suggested the three most frequent unethical behaviors in coaching are discrimination among athletes based on reasons other than individual merit; lack of technical knowledge; and failure to offer athletes facts about harmful drug use. Coaches’ unethical behaviors did not change to a significant degree with changes in gender, age, or education level, according to ANOVA and t-test results. Addressing ethical issues is becoming a standard part of a coach’s duties. Increasingly, sports coaches must be able to teach and model fair play, respect for officials, paramount concern for athletes’ well-being (rather than the win-loss record), and the wise and legitimate use of power. At the same time, they must steer athletes away from harmful drug use, cheating, bullying, harassment, and eating disorders. The coach’s position on these issues, reflected in his or her coaching behaviors, has enormous impact on athletes, shaping their enjoyment of sports, their attitudes toward their peers in a sport, their self-esteem, and their continued involvement in sports. The sports ethicist’s basic goal is to see individuals in sports accept a pertinent ethical code (Wuest & Bucher, 1987) and embody that code in their behavior patterns. The aim for the profession of coaching is each coach’s acceptance of an ethical code for his or her sport, exhibited in daily behavior. A scale like CUBS can not only indicate the level of unethical behaviors coaches engage in, it can point the way to the most urgently needed additions to coach education and development programs. Knowledge and skills are vital to a profession, but appropriate attitudes and behaviors—professional ethics—are just as important. Professional ethics involve written codes containing rules tailored to specific professions and founded in general moral values like honesty, equality, justice, and respect (Fain, 1992; Pritchard, 1998). Unlike in the past, a workforce today is likely to include people of various races, ages, religions, educational levels, and socioeconomic statuses. They are likely to possess divergent values (Lankard, 1991; Frederick, Post, & Davis, 1988). Inculcating a set of professional ethics ensures that, although they are very different people, members of a profession together espouse common standards and rules designed to protect both themselves and the people they serve. The changing nature of the business world has increased the need for professional ethics, the most important characteristic of which is the need for systems, structures, and management that can secure compliance. A common understanding of sports is that they consist of various activities people pursue that lead to competition (Penney & Chandler, 2000). In fact, sports is a multidimensional phenomenon. It involves social structures (an indispensable part of human life), and it is based on long-established ethical and value systems (Whitehead, 1998). A number of sports organizations want to see the essential ethical nature of sports brought home to spectators and the society by developing athletes’ and coaches’ ethics (Wuest & Bucher, 1987). Concern for ethics (or the lack of concern) will have an important role in how sports continues to develop; much of the related work will fall to coaches, who are expected to do their jobs honestly, objectively, openly, and with respect and a sense of justice, tying their work to universal values and principles (Wuest & Bucher, 1999). Coaches who may be held responsible for demonstrating ethical behaviors need, first of all, to understand their sports’ particular ethical codes. The present study was the very first research conducted in Turkey into unethical behaviors exhibited in coaching. Moreover, to date the literature worldwide has offered few studies on coaches’ unethical behaviors. For this reason, further research employing various designs, with various samples, is likely to contribute to understanding of the topic. American National Youth Sports Coaches Association. (n.d.). Coaches’ code of ethics. Retrieved March 22, 2004, from http://www.nays.org American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 47(12), 1597–1611. Australian Sports Commission (n.d.). Ethics in sports: Code of behavior. Retrieved August 31, 2007, from http://www.ausport.gov.au/ethics Balci, A. (1993). Research in social science: Method, technique and principles. Ankara: Öncü. Bergmann, D. S. (2000). The logical connection between moral education and physical education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 32(4), 561–573. British Institute of Sports Coaches. (n.d.). Code of ethics and conduct for sport coaches. Retrieved April 26, 2002, from http://www.brianmac.co.uk/ethics.htm Canadian Professional Coaches Association (n.d.). Coaches of Canada coaching code of ethics: Principles and ethical standards. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from http://coach.ca/eng/certification/documents/REP_CodeofEthics_01042006.pdf Carr, D. (1998). What moral educational significance has physical education? A question in need of disambiguation. In M. J. McNamee & S. J. Parry (Eds.), Ethics and sport (pp. 119–133). London: E & FN Spon. DeSensi, J. T., & Rosenberg, D. (1996). Ethics in sports management. Morgantown, WV: Fıtness Information Technology. Fain, G. S. (1992). Ethics in health, physical education, recreation and dance. (Report No. ED342775 1992-04-00). Washington, DC: ERIC Digest. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED342775) International Coach Federation (n.d.). The ICF code of ethics. Retrieved December 18, 2008, from http://www.coachfederation.org/ICF/For+Current+Members/Ethical+Guidelines/ Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. New York: Routledge. Lankard, B. A. (1991). Resolving ethical dilemmas in the workplace: A new focus for career development. (Report No. ED334468 1991-00-00). Washington, DC: ERIC Digest. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED334468) Penney, D., & Chandler, T. (2000). Physical education: What future(s)? Sport, Education and Society, 5(1), 71–87. Priest, R. F., Krause, J. V., & Beach, J. (1999). Four-year changes in college athletes: Ethical value choices in sports situations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 170–178. Ring, J. J. (1992). An alliance to excellence: To preserve medical professionalism. Vital Speeches of the Day, 58(12), 367–368. Sabock, R. (1985). Coach (3rd ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Singleton, E. C. (2003). Rules? relationships?: A feminist analysis of competition and fair play in physical education. Quest, 55, 495–209. Spencer, A. F. (1996). Ethics in physical education and sport education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 67(7), 37–39. Sports Medicine Australia. (n.d.). Sports Medicine Australia sports first-aider/sports trainer code of ethics. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from http://www.sma.org.au/sportstrainers/ethics.asp Stevens, J. P. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Stoll, S. K. (1995). Should we teach morality?: The issue of moral education. In A. E. Jewett, L. L. Bain, & C. D. Ennis (Eds.), The curriculum process in physical education (2nd ed.), 334. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Sports Coach (n.d.). Code of ethics and conduct for sports coaches. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from http://www.brianmac.co.uk/ethics.htm Wandzilak, T. (1985). Values development through physical education and athletics. Quest, 37, 176–185. Whitehead, M. E. (1998). Sport ethics and education. Sport, Education and Society, 3(2), 239–241. Frederick, W. C., Post, J. E., & Davis, K. (1988). Business and society: Corporate strategy, public policy, ethics (6th ed.). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill. Wuest, D. A., & Bucher, C. A. (1986). Foundations of physical education and sport (10th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/Mosby. Wuest, D. A., & Bucher, C. A. (Eds.). (1999). Foundations of physical education and sport (13th ed.). New York: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

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CBSE Class 10 History Ch-8 Novels, Society and History LAQ CBSE Class 10 Novels, Society and History LAQ Social Sciences Q.1. Mention some important reasons for the popularity of the novels. [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2011] Explain, how did novels become a popular medium of entertainment among the middle class during the late nineteenth century in India. [CBSE 2010 (D), Sept. 2013] Why were the novels widely read and become popular very quickly ? [CBSE Sept. 2011, 2012] How did novels become popular among masses ? (CBSE 2013) Assess the reasons for the popularity of the novel in Europe ? [CBSE 2012] Ans. (i) Cheap : Novels were very cheap as compared to manuscript. These circulated among few people. In contrast, because of being printed, novels were widely read and became popular very quickly. (ii) Novels catered to the need of common people : Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing. As more and more people could now read, they wanted to see their own lives, experiences, emotions and relationships reflected in what they read. Novels, ideally catered to this need. It soon acquired distinctively Indian forms and styles. For readers, it opened up new worlds of experience, and gave a vivid sense of the diversity of human lives. (iii) New Readers : The novel first took firm root in England and France. Novels began to be written from the seventeenth century, but they really flowered from the eighteenth century. New groups of lower-middle-class people such as shopkeepers and clerks, along with the traditional aristocratic and gentlemanly classes in England and France now formed the new readership for novels. (iv) Hiring novels : Technological improvements in printing brought down the price of books and innovations in marketing led to expanded sales. In France, publishers found that they could make super profits by hiring out novels by the hour. The novel was one of the first mass-produced items to be sold. (v) New absorbing and believable world : The worlds created by novels were absorbing and believable, and seemingly real. While reading novels, the reader was transported to another person’s world, and began looking at life as it was experienced by the characters of the novel. Besides, novels allowed individuals the pleasure of reading in private, as well as the joy of publicly reading or discussing stories with friends or relatives. In rural areas people would collect to hear one of them reading a novel aloud, often becoming deeply involved in the lives of the characters. Q.2. How did Charles Dickens focus on the life of the industrial workers and the terrible conditions of urban life in his novels ? Explain with examples. [CBSE 2008 (O)] Explain the themes and issues of the . novels of Charles Dickens with examples. [CBSE Sept. 2010] Elaborate upon the contribution of Charles Dickens in the field of novel writing. [CBSE-2012] Novels of Charles Dickens deal with which changes of the 19th century Britain ? Mention any three such changes. [CBSE-2013] Which type of problems were highlighted by the novelist, Charles Dickens through his novel? Explain from any of his two novels. [CBSE-2013] Explain any three aspects highlighted by Charles Dickens in his novel “Hard Times”. [CBSE-2012] Ans. Charles Dickens was the foremost English novelist of the Victorian era. He wrote about the terrible effects of industrialisation on people’s lives and characters. His novels Hard Times and Oliver Twist became world famous, (i) Hard Times : His novel Hard Times (1854) describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple and buildings that all looked the same. Here workers are known as ‘hands’, as if they had no identity other than as operators of machines. Dickens criticised not just the greed for profits but also the ideas that reduced human beings into simple instruments of production. (ii) Oliver Twist : In other novels too, Dickens focused on the terrible conditions of urban . life under industrial capitalism. His Oliver Twist (1838) is the tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and beggars. Brought up in a cruel workhouse, Oliver was finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after. Q.3. Novels had explained and focussed on the terrible conditions of urban life under industrial capitalism. Justify. Ans. (i) Industrialisation and Charles Dickens : In the nineteenth century, Europe entered the industrial age. Factories came up, business profits increased and the economy grew. But at the same time, workers faced problems. Cities expanded in an unregulated way and were filled with overworked and underpaid workers. The unemployed poor roamed the streets for jobs, and the homeless were forced to seek shelter in workhouses. The growth of industry was accompanied by an economic philosophy which celebrated the pursuit of profit and undervalued the lives of workers. Deeply critical of these developments, novelists such as Charles Dickens wrote about the terrible effects of industrialisation on people’s lives and characters. His novel Hard Times (1854) describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple and buildings that all looked the same. Here workers are known as ‘hands’, as if they had no identity other than as operators of machines. Dickens criticised not just the greed for profits but also the ideas that reduced human beings into simple instruments of production. In other novels too, Dickens focused on the terrible conditions of urban life under industrial capitalism. His Oliver Twist (1838) is the tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and beggars. Brought up in a cruel workhouse Oliver was finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after. But not all novels about the lives of the poor gave readers the comfort of a happy ending. (ii) Emile Zola’s : Germinal (1885) on the life of a young miner in France explores in harsh detail the grim conditions of miners’ lives. It ends on a note of despair: the strike the hero leads fails, his co-workers turn against him, and hopes are shattered. (iii) Writings of Thomas Hardy : Thomas Hardy the 19th century British novelist wrote extensively about traditional rural communities of England that were fast vanishing. Q.4. Who was Jane Austen ? How do her novels give us a glimpse of the world of women in the general rural society in the early 19th century Britain ? How did Jane Austen portray the women of 19th century in her novel ? [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2012] Ans. Jane Austen was an English novelist who gives us a glimpse of the world of women in the general rural society in the early 19th century. Her novels make us think about a society which encouraged women to look for ‘good’ marriages, and find wealthy or propertied husbands. The first sentence of Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) Pride and Prejudice states : ‘It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.’ This observation allows us to see the behaviour of the protagonists, who are preoccupied with marriage and money, as typifying Austen’s society. Q.5. How did novels promote colonialism ? Explain with an example of a novel. [CBSE Sept. 2010] What kind of novels were written for young boys in the 19th century ? Explain. [CBSE Sept. 2010] How did novels make themselves relevant to young boys ? [CBSE Sept. 2011] Explain any five features of novels written for the young in the last stage of 19 th century. [CBSE 2012] Ans. (i) New type of man : Novels for young boys idealised a new type of man : Someone who was powerful, assertive, independent and daring. Most of these novels were full of adventure set in places remote from Europe. (ii) Colonisers as hero and honourable : The colonisers appear heroic and honourable-Books like R.L. Stevenson’s’ Treasure Island (1883) or Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book (1894) became great hits. (iii) English Courage : G.A. Henty’s historical adventure novels for boys were also widely popular during the height of the British empire. They aroused the excitement and adventure of conquering strange lands. They were always about young boys who witness grand historical events, get involved in some military action, and show what they called the ‘English’ courage. (Iv) Love stories and the young : Love stories written for adolescent girls also first became popular in this period, especially in the United States, notably Ramona (1884) by Helen Hunt Jackson and a series entitles What Katy Did (1872) by Sarah Chauncey Woolsey, who wrote under the pen-name Susan Coolidge. Q.6. Explain the history of growth of novels in India. [CBSE 2014] Explain briefly the history of Hindi novel from starting to excellence. [CBSE 2011 ] Ans. (i) Beginning of the novels:- The modern novel form developed in India in the nineteenth century, as Indians became familiar with the Western novel. The development of the vernaculars, print and a reading public helped in this process. (ii) Earliest Novels : Some of the earliest Indian novels were written in Bengali and Marathi. The earliest novel in Marathi was Baba Padmanji’s Yamuna Paryatan (1857), which used a simple style of storytelling to speak about the plight of widows. This was followed by Lakshman Moreshwar Halbe’s Muktamala (1861). This was not a realistic novel; it presented an imaginary ‘romance’ narrative with a moral purpose. (iii) Colonial period and novels : Novels began appearing in south Indian languages during the period of colonial rule. Quite a few early novels came out of attempts to translate English novels into Indian languages. For example, 0. Chandu Menon, a subjudge from Malabar, tried to translate an English novel called Henrietta Temple written by Benjamin Disraeli into Malayalam. But he quickly realised that his readers in Kerala were not familiar with the way in which the characters in English novels lived. So, he gave up this idea and wrote a delightful novel called Indulekha, which published in 1889 and, was the first modem novel in Malayalam. (iv) First Hindi novel : Many novels were actually translated and adapted from English and Bengali, but the first proper modern novel i.e. Pariksha Guru was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. Q.7. Explain briefly the history of Hindi novel. [CBSE. Sep 2010, 12] Ans. (i) Pioneer of modem Hindi literature : In the north, Bharatendu Harishchandra, the pioneer of modern Hindi literature, encouraged many members of his circle of poets and writers to recreate and translate novels from other languages. Many novels were actually translated and adapted from English and Bengali under his influence, but the first proper modem novel was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. (ii) Writings of Srinivas Das : Srinivas Das’s novel, Published in 1882, reflected the inner and outer world of the newly emerging middle class. (iii) Writings of Devaki Nandan Khatri : The writings of Devaki Nandan Khatri created a novel-reading public in Hindi. His best-seller, Chandrakanta – a romance with dazzling elements of fantasy – is believed to have contributed immensely in popularising the Hindi language and the Nagari script among the educated classes of those times. Although it was apparently written purely for the ‘pleasure of reading’, this novel also gives some interesting insights into the fears and desires of its reading public. (iv) Munshi Premchand : It was with the writing of Premchand that the Hindi novel achieved excellence. He began writing in Urdu and then shifted to Hindi, remaining an immensely influential writer in both languages. He drew on the traditional art of kissa-goi (storytelling). Many critics think that his novel Sewasadan (The Abode of Service), published in 1916, lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralising and simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary people and social issues. Sewasadan deals mainly with the poor condition of women in society. Issues like child marriage and dowry. Q.8. How had the different novelists of the colonial period taken up the task of modernisation of the Indians ? Explain. Ans. (i) Chandu Menon portrayed Indulekha, as a woman of breathtaking beauty, high intellectual abilities and artistic talent with an education in English and Sanskrit. (ii) Madhavan, the hero of the novel, was also presented in ideal colours. He was a member of the newly English-educated class of Nayars from the University of Madras, presently known as Chennai. (iii) The hero was also a ‘first-rate Sanskrit scholar’. He was dressed in Western clothes. But, at the same time, he kept a long tuft of hair, according to the Nayar customs. (iv) The heroes and heroines in most of the novels were people who lived in the modern world. Thus, they were different from the ideal or mythological characters of the earlier poetic literature of India. (v) Characters like Indulekha arid Madhavan showed readers how Indian and foreign lifestyles could be brought together in an ideal combination. Q.9. Write about some of the important characteristics of the Hindi novels. [CBSE Sept. 2010] How did the Hindi novels reflect the true picture of the Indian society of the 19th century ? Explain the teachings given by Srinivas Das in his novel ‘Pariksha Guru’. [CBSE 2010 (F), 2014] In what ways did novels help to give the people a vision of being ideal characters without losing one’s identity ? Explain. [CBSE 2012] Ans. (i) Pariksha Guru reflects the inner and the outer world of the newly emerging middle classes. The characters in the novel are caught in the difficulty of adapting to the colonised society, and at the same time preserving their own cultural identity. The world of colonial modernity seems to be both frightening and irresistible to the characters. In the novel, we see the characters attempting to bridge two different worlds through their actions: they take to new agricultural technology, modernise trading practices, change the use of Indian language, making them capable of transmitting both Western sciences and Indian wisdom. But the novel emphasises that all this must be achieved without sacrificing the traditional values of the middle class household. (ii) Munshi Premchand’s novel Sewasadan (The Abode of Service), published in 1916, lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralism and simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary people and social issues. Sewasadan deals mainly with the poor condition of women . in the society. Premchand wrote on the realistic issues of the day, i.e., communalism, corruption, zamindari, debt, poverty, colonialism, etc. It also tells us about the ways in which the Indian upper classes used the space created by partial self-governance allowed under the colonial rule. Godan another novel written by Munshi Prem chand is an epic of the Indian peasantry. The novel tells the moving story of Hori and his wife Dhania, a peasant couple. Landlords, moneylenders, priests and colonial bureaucrats-all those who hold power in society-form a network of oppression, rob their land and make them into landless labourers. Ye Hori and Dhania retain their dignity to the end. Q.10. What was the importance of novels ? In what ways was the novel in colonial India useful for both the colonisers as well as the nationalists ? [CBSE 2009 (O), Sept. 2010, 2011, 2012] “Novels were useful for both the colonial administrators and Indians in colonial India.” Support the statement with example. [CBSE 2010 (O)] What Were the various uses of novels from the Indian point of view ? [CBSE Sept. 2010] Ans. (i) Source of Information : Colonial administrators found the ‘vernacular’ novels a valuable source of information on native life and customs. Such information was useful for them in governing Indian society, with its large and a variety of communities and castes. As outsiders, the British knew little about life inside Indian households. The novels in Indian languages often had descriptions of domestic life. (ii) Novels and colonialism : The novel originated in Europe at a time when it was colonizing the rest of the world. The early novel contributed to colonialism by marking the readers feel they were part of a superior community of fellow colonialists. (iii) The novel and nation making : The history written by colonial historians tended to depict Indians as weak, divided, and dependent on the British. These histories could not satisfy the tastes of the new Indian administrators and intellectuals. Nor did the traditional Puranic stories of the past- peopled by gods and demons, filled with the fantastic and the supernatural- seem convincing to those educated and working under the English system. Such minds wanted a new view of the past that would show that Indians could be independent minded and had been so in history. The novel provided a solution. In it, the nation could be imagined in a past that also featured historical characters, places, events and dates. (iv) Novels and struggle for freedom : The imagined nation of the novel was so powerful that it could inspire actual political movements. Banking’s Anandamath (1882) is-a novel about a secret Hindu militia that fights Muslims to establish a Hindu Kingdom. It was a novel that inspired many kinds of freedom fighters. (v) Novels and common sharing novelists included : Various classes in the novel in such a way that they could be seen to belong to a shared world. Premchand’s novels, for instance, are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels of society. In his novels you meet aristocrats and landlords, middle level peasants and landless labourers, middle class professionals and people from the margins of society. The women characters are strong individuals, especially those who come from the lower classes and are not modernised. Q.11. Who was Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer? Mention some features of his writing. [CBSE Sept. 2012] Ans: Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer (1908-96) was one of the early Muslim writers to gain a wide popularity as a novelist in Malayalam.Basheer had little formal education. Most of his works were based on his own rich personal experience rather than on books from the past. When he was in class five at school, Basheer left home to take part in the Salt Satyagraha. Later, he spent years wandering in different parts of India, and travelling even to Arabia, working in a ship, living with sufis and Hindu sanyasis, and training as a wrestler. Basheer’s short novels and stories were written in the ordinary language of conversation. With wonderful humour, Basheer’s novels spoke about details from the everyday life of Muslim households. He also brought into the Malayalam writing themes which were considered very unusual at that time – poverty, insanity and life in prisons. Q.12. Discuss how the issue of caste was included in the novels in India. [CBSE Sept. 2011] Describe, the theme of the novel . ‘Saraswativijayam’ written by Potheri Kunjambu. Who is the author of novel “Saraswati vijayam” ? Describe the theme of it. How does ‘Saraswativijayam’ lay stress upon the importance of education for the upliftment of the lower castes ? [CBSE 2012] How did authors from so called low castes gain recognition in the world of literature? Explain with examples of any two such authors. [CBSE 2012] Ans. (i) Novels like Indirabai and Indulekha were written by members of the upper castes, and were primarily about the uppercaste characters. But all novels were not of this kind. (ii) Potheri Kunjambu, a ‘lower-caste’ writer from north Kerala, wrote a novel called Saraswativijayam in 1892, mounting a strong blow on caste oppression. This novel shows a young man from an ‘untouchable’ caste, leaving his village to escape the cruelty of his Brahmin landlord. He converted himself to Christianity, obtained modem education and returned as the judge in the local court. Saraswativijayam stressed the importance of education for the upliftment of’the lower castes. (iii) From the 1920s, in Bengal too a new kind of novel emerged that depicted the lives of peasants and ‘low’ castes. Advaita Malla Burmaris (1914-51) Titash Ekti Nadir Naam (1956) is an epic about the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in the river, Titash. (iv) While novelists before Advaita Malla had featured ‘low castes’ as their main character, Titash is special because the author is himself a ‘low caste’. (v) The central character of Munshi Premchand’s novel Rangboomi, Surdas is. a visually impaired beggar from a so-called ‘untouchable caste.’ Q.13. Describe the reasons of the popularity of novels among the women. [CBSE 2013, 2014] Ans. (i) World of women : The most exciting element of the novel was the involvement of women. The eighteenth century saw the middle classes become more prosperous. Women got more leisure to read as well as write novels. And novels began exploring the world of women – their emotions and identities, their experiences and problems. Many novels were about domestic life – a theme about which women ‘Were allowed to speak with authority. They drew upon their experience, wrote about family life and earned public recognition. The novels of Jane Austen give us a glimpse of the world of women. (ii) Women character as independent and assertive : But women novelists did not simply popularise the domestic role of women. Often their novels dealt with women who broke established norms of society before adjusting to them. Such stories allowed women readers to sympathise with rebellious actions. In Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre, published in 1847, young Jane is shown as independent and assertive. While girls of her time were expected to be quiet and well behaved, Jane at the age of ten protests against the hypocrisy of her elders with startling bluntness. (iii) New conception of womanhood : Another reason for the popularity of novels among women was that it allowed for a new conception of womanhood. Stories of love – which was a staple theme of many novels – showed women who could choose or refuse their partners and relationships. It showed women who could to some extent control their lives. Some women authors also wrote about women who changed the world of both men and women. (iv) Women novelist : There were many women novelist who wrote about family life, autobiographies their personal experiences as women and earned public recognisation. Jane Austen, Charlotte Bronte, Rokeya Hossein, Rashsundari Devi all wrote exclusively on women. Q.14. What did the novels in the nineteenth- century India mean to : What was the attitude of people in India in the 19th century towards women reading ? How did women responded to this ? [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2011] Ans. (i) Many people got worried about the effects of the novel on readers who were taken away from their real surroundings into an imaginary world where anything could happen. Women and children were advised not to read novels as they were seen as easily corruptible. (ii) Some parents kept novels in the lofts of their houses, out of their children’s reach. Young people often read them in secret. This passion was not limited only to the youth. Older women-some of whom could not read— listened with fascinated attention to popular Tamil novels read out to them by their grandchildren. (iii) But women did not remain mere readers of stories written by men. Soon they also began to write novels. (iv) A reason for the popularity of novels among women was that it allowed for a new conception of womanhood. Stories of love-which was a staple theme of many novels-showed women who could choose or refuse their partners and relationships. Some women authors also wrote about women who changed the world of both men and women. . (v) Rokeya Hossein (1880-1932) in Sultana’s Dream (1905) showed a topsyturvy world in which women take the place of men. Her novel, Padmarag also showed the need for women to reform their condition by their own actions. (vi) Hannah Mullens, a Christian missionary and the author of Karunao Phulmonir Bibaran (1852), reputedly the first novel in Bengali, tells her readers that she wrote in secret. (vii) In the twentieth century, Sailabala Ghosh Jaya, a popular novelist, could only write because her husband protected her. As we have seen in the case of the south, women and girls were often discouraged from reading novels. Q.15. Why were children prevented from reading novels ? Explain. (CBSE-2012) Ans. (i) Children would get carried away from their real surroundings into an imaginary world. (ii) It was feared that children would stay away from normal, disciplined life and would become rebels. . (iii) The novel would have immoral influences on children and they would become corrupt. (iv) Women and children were seen as easily corruptible, so they were advised to stay away from novels. Q.16. Who is the author of novel “Titash Ekti Nadir Naam”? Why is it considered a special novel ? Explain any four reasons. [CBSE 2013, 2014] Who is the author of novel “Titash Ekti Nadir Naam”? Describe the theme of this novel. [CBSE 2012] Ans. Advaita Malla Burman. (i) This book is an epic about the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk in the river Titash. (ii) The novel is about three generations of the Mallas. (iii) It describes the community life of Mallas their religious traditions, festivals and relationship. (iv) It discusses circumstances due to which slowly they broke up. (v) Their end comes together, as the river dries up. This is special because the author is himself from a low caste fisherfolk community. Q.17. Describe the ways in which the novels in India attempted to create a sense of pan- Indian belonging. [CBSE Sept. 2011, 2014] “Leading Indian novelists of the 19th century wrote for a National cause”. Do you agree with the statement ? Justify your answer. [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2011] How did novels fulfill the task of nation building in India ? Explain. [CBSE 2012] Or How did the novels in India encourage nationalism ? Explain any three points. [CBSE 2010] Ans. (i) To create a sense of equality : Colonial rulers regarded the contemporary culture of India as inferior, On the other hand, Indian novelist wrote to develop a modern literature of the country that could produce a sense of national belonging and cultural equality with their colonial masters. (ii) To protect values of India’s tradition and culture : Many novelist like that of Srinivas Das had expressed their fear and anger about the intermining of Indian and Western culture. The world of colonial modernity seems to be both frightening and irresistible to the characters. The novel tries to teach the reader the ‘right way’ to live and expects all ‘sensible men’ to be worldly- wise and practical, to remain rooted in the values of their own tradition and culture, and to live with dignity and honour. (iii) Women novelists : But women did not remain mere readers of stories written by men; soon they also began to write novels. In some languages, the early creations of women were poems, essays or autobiographical pieces. In the early decades of the twentieth century, women in south India also began writing novels and short stories. A reason for the popularity of novels among women was that it allowed for a new conception of womanhood. Stories of love – which was a staple theme of many novels – showed women who could choose or refuse their partners and relationships. It showed women who could to some extent control their lives. Some women authors also wrote about women who changed the world of both men and women. (iv) Novels for low castes and peasants : From the 1920s, in Bengal too a new kind of novel emerged that depicted the lives of peasants and ‘low’ castes. Advaita Malla Burman’s (1914-51) Titash Ekti Nadir Naam (1956) is an epic about the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in the river Titash. The novel is about three generations of the Mallas, about their recurring tragedies and the story of Ananta, a child born of parents who were tragically separated after their wedding night. Ananta leaves the community to get educated in the city. The novel describes the community life of the Mallas in great detail, their Holi and Kali Puja festivals, boat races, bhatiali songs, their relationships of friendship and animosity with the peasants and the oppression of the upper castes. (v) The novel and nation making : Many novelists wrote about Marathas and Rajputs. These novels produced sense of a pan Indian belonging. The imagined nation of the novel was so powerful that it could inspire actual political movements. Bankim’s Anandamath (1882) is a novel about a secret Hindu militia that fights Muslims to establish a Hindu kingdom. It was a novel that inspired many kinds of freedom fighters. Q.18. Explain the contribution of Premchand in Hindi novels. [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2011, 2013] Which is the most popular novel written by Premchand ? When was it published ? Write its theme. [CBSE 2008 (O)] “It was with the writings of Premchand that Hindi novel achieved excellence.” Justify the statement. [CBSE 2013] Ans. (i) Munshi Premchand was one of the greatest literary figures of the modern Hindi and Urdu literature. It was with the writing of Premchand that the Hindi novel matured into greatness. (ii) He began writing in Urdu, and then shifted to Hindi. Premchand drew on the traditional art of kissa-goi (story telling). (iii) Before Munshi Premchand, the Hindi literature was confined to the tales, the stories of magical powers and other such escapist fantasies. His novel, Sewasadan (The Abode of Service), published in 1916, lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy. Sewasadan deals mainly with the poor condition of women in the society. (iv) Premchand wrote on the realistic issues of the day, i.e., communalism, corruption, zamindari, debt, poverty, colonialism, etc., Q.19. “Premchand’s novels are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels of the society.” Support the statement by giving suitable examples. [CBSE 2009 (D), Sept. 2012] Why is Godan considered an epic on Indian peasantry ? Explain. [CBSE Sept. 2010] Briefly explain the theme of the novel ‘Godan’ written by Munshi Premchand. [CBSE Sept. 2010] Drawn from various strata of society, Prem Chand’s characters create a community based on democratic value(s), substantiate the above statement with examples from any of his novels. [CBSE Sept. 2011] Ans. (i) Sewasadan : In his novel Sewasadan, Munshi Premchand deals mainly with the poor condition of the Indian women in the society. He also exposes the double standards of the upper class of the era. (ii) Rangbhoomi : His novel, Rangbhoomi centring around the exploitation of peasants of India during the British rule brings out the suffering of ordinary farmers and depicts the inhumanity of the colonial rule. The novel is not only valuable for its literary worth but also for the representation of the social and economic conditions of the underprivileged sections of the society. He has chosen Surdas, a visually impaired beggar from a so-called ‘untouchable’ caste as his hero which is very significant. While dealing with the pain and agony of common people under foreign rule, it focuses attention on the powerful current of nationalism which eventually shook the foundation of the British empire and brought us our independence. (iii) Godan : Godan (The gift of cow), published in 1936, is considered the greatest Hindi novel of modern Indian literature. The novel’s theme revolves around the socio-economic condition of the Indian peasantry. Landlords, moneylenders, priests and colonial bureaucrats – all those who hold power in society form a network of oppression to exploit the poor peasants. The protagonist, Hori, a poor peasant, desperately longs for a cow, a symbol of wealth and prestige in rural India. Hori gets a cow but pays with his life for it. After his death, the village priests demand a cow from his widow to bring his soul to peace. Q.20. Explain how the writings of Munshi Premchand promoted the sense of nationalism among the Indians. How did the novels of Munshi Premchand promote the feeling of nationalism ? Explain. [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2011] Ans. (i) Munshi Premchand’s novels are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels of the society. In his novels, one can meet aristocrats and landlords, middle- level peasants and landless labourers, middle-class professionals, and people from all the sections of the society. (ii) The women characters are strong individuals, especially those who come from the lower classes, and are not modernised. (iii) Premchand’s novels look towards the future without forgetting the importance of the past. (iv) Drawn from various stratas of the society, Premchand’s characters create a community based on democratic values. The central character of his novel Rangbhoomi (The Arena), Surdas, is a visually impaired beggar from a so-called ‘untouchable’ caste. One can see Surdas struggling against the forcible takeover of his land for establishing a tobacco factory. (v) Godan (The Gift of Cow), published in 1936, remains Premchand’s best-known work. It is an epic of the Indian peasantry. The novel tells the moving story of Hori, and his wife, Dhania, a peasant couple, who fought against landlords, moneylenders, priests and the colonial bureaucrats. Q.21. What are the main features of novel ‘Sewasadan’ written by Munshi Premchand? Mention any three. [CBSE 2012] Ans. (i) The Sewasadan (The Abode of Service), published in 1916, lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralising and simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary people and social issues. (ii) Sewasadan deals mainly with the poor condition of women in society. (iii) Issues like child marriage and dowry are woven into the story of the novel. (iv) It also tells us about the ways in which the Indian upper classes used whatever little opportunities they got from colonial authorities to govern themselves.

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Main Article Content The aim of this action research was to investigate the effects of digital storytelling in improving the writing skills of third grade students enrolled in rural primary schools. The writing performances of the students were measured before and after the teaching procedures of digital storytelling. Then, the process of narrative writing with digital storytelling was profoundly and carefully explored through observation and field notes, interviews, audio and video records, student diaries and documents, and student products. The results indicated that digital storytelling enhanced students’ ideas, organization, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions in terms of writing quality. Similarly, the digital storytelling improved story elements and word counts in stories. In terms of the quality of students’ digital stories, the results demonstrated a steady progress in the elements of digital stories, and the technology literacy and competency of students throughout the process. Besides, the digital storytelling modified the process of narrative writing, and emerged as a beneficial tool to overcome the digital divide by developing students’ new literacy perception, competency, and skills. The digital storytelling also created learning community by improving interactions among students in the classroom, and increased their motivation to write. Arıcı, A.F., & Ungan, S. (2008). İlköğretim ikinci kademe öğrencilerinin yazılı anlatım çalışmalarının bazı yönlerden değerlendirilmesi [An evaluation of secondary school students’ writing mistakes with respect to some points]. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 20, 317-320. Banaszewski, T. (2002). Digital storytelling finds its place in the classroom. Information Today. Retrieved 2014 from http://www.udel.edu/present/aaron/digitalstory /Readings/Digital%20Storytelling%20Finds%20Its%20Place%20in%20the%20Classroom.pdf. Barnard, R., & Campbell, L. (2005). Sociocultural theory and the teaching of process writing: The scaffolding of learning in a university context, The TESOLANZ Journal, 13, 76-88. Barrett, H. (2006). Researching and evaluating digital storytelling as a deep learning tool. In C. Crawford, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2006 (pp. 647–654). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written expression. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum. Bimber, B. (2000). Measuring the gender gap on the internet. Social Science Quarterly, 81(3), 868-876. Bogard, J. M., & McMackin, M. C. (2012). Combining traditional and new literacies in a 21st. century writing workshop. The Reading Teacher, 65(5), 313-323. Bromley, K. (2006). Technology and writing. 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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Mime, the very word conjures up images that make me smile. Physical humor has always been a favorite of mine. A person could tell a joke and I’d laugh. Have that person add the physical component and I’d roar with laughter. As a child I loved to watch Dick Van Dyke trip over a hassock or Lucille Ball work on an assembly line. When I was older I was fortunate to see Marcel Marceau perform. I found that I not only laughed, but could also be brought to tears through his silent gestures. Something wonderful happens when a person uses their body to the fullest of their ability. In my unit I will explore the use of mime through the following: - Present an overview of the history of mime, describing some of the basic components. - State the objectives for using mime with my present population. - Give strategies in aiding the process which will become a range of improvisations without words. I thought it would be very difficult to express what mime is in words. That in itself is a contradiction. As I researched this subject I found a wealth of information. The following historical account, except where noted is drawn from: - 1. A social studies teacher might use the story of the early man hunting or the Zuni Indian Story. These two pantomimes will be addressed later and could enhance any applicable unit. - 2. A literature teacher may want to use the information with students to further study mime. A creative writing unit may result from a mime experience—or possibly to delve deeper and create research papers, gaining even more information and understanding of this course of study. - 3. Science teachers may want to look at nature’s natural pantomimes. The great crested grebes have a complex courtship ritual which consists of a variety of movements. Many animals and insects use pantomime to convey a message on their own level.1 Pantomime or mime, the two words cause quite a dilemma for those who try to explain them. Some feel pantomime alludes to a performance, while mime represents the performer. Others feel that a pantomime is a comedy and a mime is a serious drama. There are many theories, but for the most part, the words are now interchangeable. I will use both terms within the context of this unit. - All About Mime Understanding and Performing the Expressive Silence, Loeschke pgs. 2-23. - Pantomime the Silent Theate. Hunt pgs. 7-15, 40-46. - Mime—A Playbook of Silent Fantasy, Hamblin pgs. 16, 17. - Mimes on Miming, Rolfe pgs. 3-8. Mime/Pantomime is self-expression without words. It is a silent form of communication. When performing, your body becomes your instrument. Modern mime is a form of the theatre, but its roots go back a very long way. Mime is one of the earliest modes of communication,—an expression of self. Man has used mime to express many things in a dramatic way. The first cave people acted out their daily experiences through pantomime. The adventure of the hunt made for an exciting drama, though the excitement of the drama was not the objective. Primitive people used mime to influence their environment. They believed in pantomiming a successful hunt even if that day’s hunt had been poor. By doing this they felt it would bring good luck for the next day’s hunt.3 Mime was used in religious ceremonies. Man expressed his myths and traditions through mime. The Zuni Indians tell a story of ten corn maidens. These corn maidens were entrusted with the care of different types of corn. Whenever these maidens felt threatened by the god of butterflies, the god of music, or the god of flowers, they would hide. Then it became essential for the people to get help from other gods. They needed to coax the maidens out of hiding so the corn crops would grow. This story was portrayed for the most part, in mime. It was performed every four years not to celebrate but to bring rain for the corn crops. It is still performed by the American Southwest Indians, but as a ceremony to entertain tourists, not to influence nature.3 Some primitive pantomimes were performed strictly for amusement, while others gave examples of a great event in the past of a particular tribe. Illustrations of these may be found in Kari and Douglas Hunt’s Pantomime: The Silent Theater. It was in the Orient that mime was first used in organized theatre. In fact, since the inception of the national theatres of Japan and China, mime has had an active role. The Greeks and the Romans used mime to perform a sketch. The Greeks were probably the first to use mime as a pure art form. Many times masks were used to interpret a certain scene/dialogue. They were then called pantomimes and were very strongly connected with dance. The Greeks had many festivals and pantomime always had a place in these celebrations. The Romans broadened the use of mime into a very popular show that was frequently risque. Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period, the expression ‘dumb shows’ was used to describe a silent play. The Middle Ages brought the jester. He traveled about bringing his improvisations to many people. Most likely, he was the example of our solo comic mime of present day. With the exception of the jester, most of the performance of mime during this time period had a religious connection. The miracle plays used mime, within the church, to express the mysteries and morales of that time. During the sixteenth century mime was brought back for pure entertainment. This was the beginning of the Italian School of Mime, which is still active today. The Italian Commedia Dell’Arte was extremely popular. It centered on the fool, Pierrot, who was an engaging clown. The French were influenced by this form of pantomime. The established Italian characters of Pierrot and Columbine were brought to France by traveling jesters from Italy. There they developed another type of mime in reaction against the Italian school. By the 1800’s mime was recognized in many countries as an entertaining art form. Three schools of mime developed a certain individualized style. These schools were from: These schools had and continue to have a specific technique and structure. The above descriptions are brief. The schools continue to influence the present mime performer. Despite cultural differences all mime is either a reflection of or a reaction to one or more of these unique styles. - The Orient—this is the oldest school. They use simple plots and sets, elaborate make-up and costumes. The mime has a sense of a spirit that comes from within. - Italy—this style is mostly comic, with broad, exaggerated movements. Slapstick prevails. There are many examples of Italian mime, presently. The work of Red Skelton is one. - France—the youngest of the schools. It combines the French ballet with the Italian characters mentioned above. They create very believable, well-developed characters. Their movements are very precise, creating an illusion of reality. Some aspects of the Italian school will be used with my students. The characters of the Italian school react in a big way. All of their actions are big and are usually stereotypical, but very human. The techniques are much less specific than those of the other schools. I feel these views will influence my classes, especially in the beginning activities. As my students become more comfortable with these mode of expression, I hope to use some of the components of the French school. Their moves will become more subtle. They will work like an actor, concentrating on what motivates their character ”n a given situation, and thus creating a more realistic drama, which is one of the objectives of the French school. This curriculum unit has been created for my dance and drama classes. I teach kindergarten through sixth grade at an integrated city school. My students come from varying backgrounds culturally and economically. These variances have enriched the interactions within my classes. I see twenty-four different classes a week. Each class runs thirty-five to forty-five minutes long, once a week. Depending on the pace of each class, this curriculum unit is designed to last eight weeks or longer. I plan to use this unit with my third, fourth and fifth grades. I’ve chosen these particular grades for a couple of reasons. One, I feel they will be open to and enjoy this type of unit. Two, my fourth and fifth graders seem to have become self-conscious, regarding their bodies. I believe this unit can be applied to most grade levels. I envision this unit being taught in grades one through six with some minor modifications, in the delivery, according to grade level. As I’ve observed my students performing in school assemblies, I’ve noticed many of them having difficulty making the connection between what they are saying and their bodies. They are concentrating so hard on remembering their lines and forgetting to feel, move and express. In the using of mime with my students, words will be taken away and they will develop their skills in a non-verbal drama. In so doing my objectives and goals are as follows: As I begin this drama unit with my students I will stress the rules of the room. The rules are: - 1. For my students to become aware of the expressiveness of their bodies. - 2. For my students to become less self-conscious around this expression and feel more comfortable within their bodies. - 3. To broaden their awareness of how we speak with our bodies in everyday life. - 4. To understand body language, which will help my students to interact and communicate much more effortlessly. - 5. My students will be introduced to a new way of communication through the use of mime. - 6. My students will gain self-esteem by accomplishing a given activity where there is no right or wrong way of completing it. - 7. My students will learn to focus on a given task, tuning out all distractions. This will enable them to increase their abilities to concentrate. - 8. My students will increase their attention span. - 9. My students will learn tolerance and patience by the structure of the class. No one is judged and everyone is seen. - 10. My students will gain confidence and increase their performance abilities and stage presence. I always have my students sit in a circle. I use a moderate sized space which contains no furniture. This may be adapted to your classroom by moving furniture. We normally sit on the floor but again you may use chairs if necessary. - 1. Respect for each other and themselves. - 2. No one is to negatively criticize another’s response to a drama activity. - 3. One person speaks at a time; the rest of us listen to what is being said. - 4. Any questions or comments about a given activity are to be asked at the beginning or end of the lesson. Once the drama has begun those not involved directly will watch and wait until it is completed before questioning. As the director of each drama activity I have certain cues to take us out of the drama when needed. Any one of these cues is effective when explained to students before the activity. These cues become part of the drama class, to be used many times. - 1. I ring a bell which means: stop, look at me, and listen to what I will say. - 2. I say the word “freeze,” which means just that. Whatever position my students were in when I said that word, they stay in, until I say “melt.” This doesn’t mean they will melt to the floor. They are to resume normal posture and look at me and listen for direction. - 3. I clap my hands three times for Stop, Look and Listen. If there is a problem with behavior, I say ask a student to leave the circle. They are told this before the activity begins. I give them all two warnings, the third time I have to speak with one of them, that person will leave the circle for a time. That student may earn their way back into the circle after sitting out quietly for a period of time (to be decided by the teachers). All of this is used to create a safe space for my students so they will feel comfortable expressing themselves. They will realize that inappropriate behavior is not acceptable. If they want to participate in the activities they will have to demonstrate the appropriate behavior. As the director of any of these activities I may choose to stay out of the activity or at times be part of the drama. I am free to move in and out of the activity whichever will be most productive. The following activities will be broken down into a weekly plan. As stated previously, I see each class once a week. A lot depends on the pace of the individual class. The length of activities will take the whole period thirty-five to forty-five minutes. Any activity may be repeated as a warm-up or main activity the following week. I will begin with a variation of the name game. We are all seated in a circle on the floor. I will say my name and then do a particular movement. The person sitting to my right will say my name do my movement and then say their name and do their own original movement. This continues all around the circle. The person to my left will be the last. They have the challenge of saying everyone’s name and doing everyone’s movement as well as creating their own movement. This exercise helps with: focusing, concentration, memory and spontaneity. Two variations of this warm-up activity are as follows: - 1. Children are to say their name and show on their face how they are feeling. - 2. I will give my students an emotion such as: anger, boredom, happiness. They are to demonstrate this emotion without words, using their face and upper body. I will encourage large movements and exaggerated expression as indicated in the Italian school of mime. These warm-ups may be used as a whole lesson or as a start to a main activity. The next exercise I plan to use is mirroring. I pair the students with the person sitting next to them. They are to remain sitting, facing each other. I demonstrate this in the center of the circle with a volunteer. Once everyone has seen my partner and I, we will begin. We start with the hands. One person who has already been designated the leader will start to move slowly so that their partners can follow along. The non-leader moves with the leader during the same movement at the same time. They are never to touch each other but their hands can be close to each other, palms facing inward toward their partner. I will give them a few minutes and then I will say switch. Now the non-leader becomes the leader. We continue with this exercise for some time. I may say switch three or four more times. As my students become more comfortable I will encourage them to move their upper body then stand and move their whole body. I would also suggest using facial expressions. Eventually the pairs are moving as one. This exercise helps students to take direction from their peers, focusing and concentrating. Also, it is starting to move the body with the rhythm of others. At this time this exercise is to be used as a warm-up stopping the activity with the hand movements only. Now, still in pairs we will begin a sculpting exercise. Again, I present this in the center of the circle, with a volunteer. My volunteer is now a piece of clay and I am the sculptor. I direct my piece of clay to remain very still and relaxed but to conform to any way I put their body. They are then to hold that position. At this point I direct my comments to the circle. Emphasizing how important it is to treat your clay gently and with respect. The sculptors are very careful, at all times, when molding their clay. Sculptors must be considerate when placing their clay in position, remembering that clay has to hold that position for some time. I will advise my students that they may want to create a statue, shape or action with their clay. I will designate who is clay and who are the sculptor first. Then we will reverse and sculptors become clay and clay becomes sculptors. This activity assists students in working together, cooperatively. It also gives their bodies the experience of being moved and shaped in many different ways. They are starting to create messages with their bodies. I will start with a warm-up mirroring variation. Using hands first and moving on to the whole body. Refer back to Week One. Next we will continue to work with sculpting in another way. Seated in the circle, I will ask for two volunteers. One to be clay and one to be the sculptor. The sculptor will begin to mold clay into position. I will then say “Freeze” and now the sculptor is part of the clay. One by one the outer circle will come in to mold the clay. If I say “Freeze” they become part of the sculpture. If I say “Thank you” they sit down after shaping the clay in some way. After everyone has had a turn sitting in the circle will join me in walking around the sculpture. These children will be thinking of a title for our work of art. To dismantle the sculpture I will take “magic dust” from my pocket and say “When I sprinkle my magic dust on clay, you will become boys and girls again and take your seat in the circle.” We will then hear the different titles for our sculpture. This activity further aids my students in working together, increases attention span, focusing on task, increasing body awareness and strength. They are becoming aware of a quick end of a movement. They also work with developing a concept around an improvised sculpture. We will start with everyone sitting in a circle facing the back of the person in front of you. One head will be in back of the other. A designated student will be instructed to make a face and turn around and show it to the person behind them, then, return to normal. That person now makes the same face and passes it on accordingly. This continues around the circle until it reaches the person who created it. This person then shows the group the ending face. Hopefully it’s the same face that we began with. If not, we can try again! The moves in this activity should be quick and precise. This reflects the French school of mime. The next few activities are on the move. One or more may be used this week, if time allows. If not they may be used at another time. Detective Walk is an activity that will encourage students to move in space and interact. I will have everyone begin to walk around the room in any direction they choose. I will then direct them to walk as slow as possible—without touching anyone. That rule holds true for the whole exercise. After a few minutes I will direct them to walk at a normal pace. If I see students clustered together I will say, “When you see an empty space, fill it.” I will then direct my students to walk as fast as they can without running, walking at a normal pace. Now they are to pick someone out that they aren’t good friends with and keep that person insight at all times. The trick is that they can’t let that person know they are watching and they have to keep moving at all times. The next walking exercise will help students to gain strength in their legs and to feel weight shifts. I will ask my students to pretend they are walking on ice. I will guide them through these exercises by doing it with them. First, we will put all our weight on one foot, then we will pick up the empty foot and put it down slowly feeling the foot as it touches the floor in front of us. This requires shifting their weight from one foot to the other. Another way to do this is by thinking of peeling your foot off of the floor one section at a time and putting that same foot down the opposite way you peeled it off. Example: If you took your toes off last, (started with the heel), then you would put your toes down first when taking the step, shifting your weight as each section of your foot touches the floor. Remember ice breaks easily! Now as we are walking in water that is up to our hips. I will then ask them to answer my following questions by showing me:. Next you are walking with a globe on top of your head. Be careful, you do not want it to roll off. All of these walking exercises help students to focus on how their bodies move in a particular situation. They are done as a group so no one will be self-conscious. Everyone will be concentrating on doing their move. - How do you move in deep water? - Is it cold? - Is it warm? - Is it pleasant? - Can you move quickly - How does your upper body help you to move? - How are your hips and legs moving? - Show me!!! The next exercise will help individuals to perform before a group—a solo. It will also encourage my students to imagine, visualize, pretend in a pantomime. I will use two sticks, possibly dowels around three feet long and then like pointers. As usual we are sitting on the floor in a circle. I will begin the activity. I will use the sticks in an activity or as an object like playing the violin, walking on stilts, or looking in binoculars. I will act this out, with the sticks and without words. My students will then guess what I am doing and what the sticks have become. We will go around the circle, continuing in this manner until everyone has a turn. I may choose to go around again suggesting that this time two or more people may work together to create a scene. The preceding activities will have helped my students to be comfortable with holding positions, moving and pretending in silence. By Week Five we have participated in a pantomime. This exposure will enable my students to take a more active role in the next mime-drama improvisations. I will not direct as actively as in the previous exercises. Most modern mimes perform solo or in a duet. It is rare to see a group of twenty-seven mimes performing at once. Therefore the following lesson plans will be geared toward performing solo and in small groups. The next lessons are a bit more complex as my students will be given imaginary objects, ideas or actions to interpret. They will have to work together in small groups and make decisions within that group. My original objectives as stated earlier will be fulfilled by Lesson Three. Those three lessons will constitute weeks, six, seven, and eight. Cat, Window, Puddle Time 20-40 minutes Objectives To create a scene with imaginary objects. To communicate actions with designated matter. Description Group is seated in a circle. The stage is center of the circle. The circle becomes the audience as individual prayers come into the center to perform. Four imaginary objects are given. They are: a cat, a window, a door and a puddle. All of these objects must be used within a player will go to the center of the circle and use these imaginary props to create a scene. That player will then ask the audience “what happened?” This will help to evaluate the non-verbal communication. Next another player will enter the circle and create a different scene using the same imaginary props. Continue as above remembering players may not repeat earlier performances. All those in the audience will have a turn to be a player. Materials Slips of paper with objects and actions written on them. Examples: A flying airplane, filling a glass with water, drying and breaking a dish, a clown performing, etc. There should be enough slips of paper for everyone in class. Time 15-30 minutes Objectives For students to become an object/character in a given scene, through showing, not telling. To think and act quickly. Description Students will be split into two equal teams. Each team will face each other in parallel lines. Example 24 students, 12 on each team, Team A makes two parallel lines of 6. Each student is facing another—the persons they are facing are their partners. Team B does the same. Each student in one line on each team will receive a slip of paper. They may look at what is written on the paper but will say nothing. There will be a designated beginning to the lines. The two teams will begin at the same time—on signal. The first pair on each team will start. The person holding the paper will pantomime what is written. The partner will then interpret the mime until the correct response is given. Once the appropriate response is given the pair of partners sit down and the next pair continue. We have winners when one team is all sitting. The teacher is to keep a close eye on the performers and to keep the activity from becomlng a guessing game. Variation Students may not look at the slip of paper until it is their time to perform. 1. Remind students to become what they are trying to convey. - 2. Remind partners that they are to watch what is being performed then interpret, not just guess randomly. Materials Students may use simple props—such as chairs, tables, desks. This is optional—the teacher may choose to have no props or set a limit. Time 35-45 minutes. Objectives To create a scene, interacting with peers. To share responsibility with peers. To convey a dramatic improvisation without words. Description Students are broken into four or five groups—depending on the size of the class. There should be five or six in each group. Students are given examples of an activity that would involve a group, such as a baseball game, a tour bus and guide, a shopping trip, etc. Each group will then go to a designated area of the room to discuss what they are going to do. They may not use any of the examples that were given and of course, they may not use words in the drama. After a set amount of time, such as five minutes, the groups will reassemble in a circle. Each group will have an opportunity to perform their scene. After each performance the audience will speculate as to what was going on. Variations Give a category, such as television shows, movies, sporting events, etc. The body techniques that are needed to proceed with mime are just touched upon in this unit. I encourage the reader to look at the following books: These books, listed in my bibliography give excellent illustrations and directions to guide you through body movements. - Mime: A Playbook of Silent Fantasy - Exploring Mime - Be a Frog, A Bird, or a Tree My goal is not for my students to become professional mimes, but to feel comfortable with themselves in performing a drama without words. I feel this will be achieved. - 1. Douglas and Kari Hunt, Pantomime The Silent Theater (Atheneum, New York, 1964), pgs. 11 & 12. - 2. Hunt, Op. cit. pgs 12, 14. - 3. Hunt, Op. cit. pgs. 14, 15. - 4. Maravene Sheppard Loeschke, All About Mime (Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey 1982), pgs. 5, 22-23. This book contains a section on pantomime plays which will give ideas to new performers. Teachers may want to look at this too! Carlson, Bernice Wells, Do It Yourself! Tricks Stunts & Skits, New York: Abingdon Press, 1952. Silent stunts pgs 87-89. Examples for children to make shadow pictures and mime through Nursery Rhymes. DePaola, Tomie, The Clown of God, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1978. A story of a traveling player, set in the time period of Colombina. De Paola, Tomie, Sing, Pierrot Sing, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1983. A picture book in mime. The traditional characters of Pierrot and Columbine are featured in this story without words. Krementz, Jill, A Very Young Dancer, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1976. A story of a young dancer who takes lessons and performs with The School of American Ballet. It is a good example of the discipline that is required to become a professional dancer/performer. Lynch-Wilson, Janet, The Shadow Puppet Box, New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1980. This book has information on making and performing puppet shows. This can aid children in getting ideas for sets, for a mime performance. Sorine, Stephanie Riva, Imagine That! It’s Modern Dance, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981. Pictoral examples of how children can create objects, shapes and actions using their bodies. This book would also be beneficial for teachers to use for instruction. This is a book of creative Yoga postures. A fine example of how children can strengthen their bodies with fun, imaginative exercises. The prose are geared toward children. The pictures and ideas will help teachers to instruct. Furness, Pauline, Ph.D., Role-Play in the Elementary School, New York: Hart Publishing Co., Inc., 1976. Ideas as to the incorporation of drama within the classroom. Pgs. 30-32 give examples for pantomimes. There are fifty-two lesson plans that deal with ethics, social skills, behavior and much more. Grenough, Marshall, McGuire, O’Rourke, Spector, Bananas, New Haven: 1979-80, Title VII Arts Pilot Staff. Written by New Haven teachers—a collection of drama games and activities. Hall, Sweeny & Esser, Until the Whistle Blows, Santa Monica, California: Goodyear Publishing Co., Inc., 1977. A manual of movement games and activities. Hamblin, Kay, Mime, a Playbook of Silent Fantasy, San Francisco, California: The Headlines Press, Inc., 1978. An entertaining and informative book on mime. Gives a brief history and a creative and enjoyable way to begin mime through pictures and written instruction. Hunt, Douglas and Kari, Pantomime: The Silent Theater, Hartford, Connecticut: Connecticut Printers, 1964. An extensive history of mime, from its roots to the television mimes of the 1950’s and early 1960’s. Loeschke, Maravene Sheppard, All About Mime, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982. An examination of mime/pantomime, comparing, explaining, summerizing the history of the schools of mime, the different types of mime and giving instruction for the beginner. There are some good examples of mime walks. McCaslin, Nellie, Act Now! Plays and Ways to Make Them, New York: S.G. Phillips, Inc., 1975. Gives ideas for drama games and activities. Also playwriting and dramatizing stories and ideas. Pgs. 44-45 tell of the commedia dell ‘arte troups. Rolfe, Bari, Ed., Mimes on Miming, Los Angeles, CA: Panjandrum Books, A history of mime as it developed throughout the centuries. Excerpts from many great mime performers discussing their art form. Spolin, Viola, Theater Games for the Classroom. A Teacher’s Handbook, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1986. A wonderful manual, clearly stated lessons for utilizing drama in the classroom. Many games can be applied to a unit on mime. Stolzenberg, Mark, Exploring Mime, New York, Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1979. A manual for beginning mime with clear pictures and written instructions. Wagner, Betty Jane, Dorothy Heathcote, Drama As a Learning Medium, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association of the United States, 1976. For those teachers who are interested in taking drama further as an educational tool. Way, Brian, Development Through Drama, Atlantic Highland, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1973. Another book for those who would like to encorporate drama in their classrooms. Gives many examples and approaches of drama/movement to begin with and develop further. Contents of 1990 Volume II | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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Native American, also called American Indian, Amerindian, Amerind, Indian, aboriginal American, or First Nation person, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, although the term often connotes only those groups whose original territories were in present-day Canada and the United States. Pre-Columbian Americans used technology and material culture that included fire and the fire drill; the domesticated dog; stone implements of many kinds; the spear-thrower (atlatl), harpoon, and bow and arrow; and cordage, netting, basketry, and, in some places, pottery. Many indigenous American groups were hunting-and-gathering cultures, while others were agricultural peoples. American Indians domesticated a variety of plants and animals, including corn (maize), beans, squash, potatoes and other tubers, turkeys, llamas, and alpacas, as well as a variety of semidomesticated species of nut- and seed-bearing plants. These and other resources were used to support communities ranging from small hamlets to cities such as Cahokia, with an estimated population of 10,000 to 20,000 individuals, and Teotihuacán, with some 125,000 to 200,000 residents. At the dawn of the 16th century ce, as the European conquest of the Americas began, indigenous peoples resided throughout the Western Hemisphere. They were soon decimated by the effects of epidemic disease, military conquest, and enslavement, and, as with other colonized peoples, they were subject to discriminatory political and legal policies well into the 20th, and even the 21st, century. Nonetheless, they have been among the most active and successful native peoples in effecting political change and regaining their autonomy in areas such as education, land ownership, religious freedom, the law, and the revitalization of traditional culture. Culturally, the indigenous peoples of the Americas are usually recognized as constituting two broad groupings, American Indians and Arctic peoples. American Indians are often further grouped by area of residence: Northern America (present-day United States and Canada), Middle America (present-day Mexico and Central America; sometimes called Mesoamerica), and South America. This article is a survey of the culture areas, prehistories, histories, and recent developments of the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States and Canada. Some of the terminology used in reference to indigenous Americans is explained in Sidebar: Tribal Nomenclature: American Indian, Native American, and First Nation; Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band; and Sidebar: Native American Self-Names. An overview of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas is presented in American Indian; discussions of various aspects of indigenous American cultures may also be found in the articles pre-Columbian civilizations; Middle American Indian; South American Indian; Arctic: The people; American Indian languages; Native American religions; and Native American arts. Native American culture areas Comparative studies are an essential component of all scholarly analyses, whether the topic under study is human society, fine art, paleontology, or chemistry; the similarities and differences found in the entities under consideration help to organize and direct research programs and exegeses. The comparative study of cultures falls largely in the domain of anthropology, which often uses a typology known as the culture area approach to organize comparisons across cultures. The culture area approach was delineated at the turn of the 20th century and continued to frame discussions of peoples and cultures into the 21st century. A culture area is a geographic region where certain cultural traits have generally co-occurred; for instance, in North America between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Northwest Coast culture area was characterized by traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, large villages or towns, and hierarchical social organization. The specific number of culture areas delineated for Native America has been somewhat variable because regions are sometimes subdivided or conjoined. The 10 culture areas discussed below are among the most commonly used—the Arctic, the Subarctic, the Northeast, the Southeast, the Plains, the Southwest, the Great Basin, California, the Northwest Coast, and the Plateau. Notably, some scholars prefer to combine the Northeast and Southeast into one Eastern Woodlands culture area or the Plateau and Great Basin into a single Intermontane culture area. Each section below considers the location, climate, environment, languages, tribes, and common cultural characteristics of the area before it was heavily colonized. Prehistoric and post-Columbian Native American cultures are discussed in subsequent sections of this article. A discussion of the indigenous peoples of the Americas as a whole is found in American Indian. This region lies near and above the Arctic Circle and includes the northernmost parts of present-day Alaska and Canada. The topography is relatively flat, and the climate is characterized by very cold temperatures for most of the year. The region’s extreme northerly location alters the diurnal cycle; on winter days the sun may peek above the horizon for only an hour or two, while the proportion of night to day is reversed during the summer months (see midnight sun). The indigenous peoples of the North American Arctic include the Eskimo (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleut; their traditional languages are in the Eskimo-Aleut family. Many Alaskan groups prefer to be called Native Alaskans rather than Native Americans; Canada’s Arctic peoples generally prefer the referent Inuit. The Arctic peoples of North America relied upon hunting and gathering. Winters were harsh, but the long hours of summer sunlight supported an explosion of vegetation that in turn drew large herds of caribou and other animals to the inland North. On the coasts, sea mammals and fish formed the bulk of the diet. Small mobile bands were the predominant form of social organization; band membership was generally based on kinship and marriage (see also Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band). Dome-shaped houses were common; they were sometimes made of snow and other times of timber covered with earth. Fur clothing, dog sleds, and vivid folklore, mythology, and storytelling traditions were also important aspects of Arctic cultures. See also Arctic: The people. This region lies south of the Arctic and encompasses most of present-day Alaska and most of Canada, excluding the Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island), which are part of the Northeast culture area. The topography is relatively flat, the climate is cool, and the ecosystem is characterized by a swampy and coniferous boreal forest (taiga) ecosystem. Prominent tribes include the Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi), Cree, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, Beaver, Slave, Carrier, Gwich’in, Tanaina, and Deg Xinag (Ingalik). Their traditional languages are in the Athabaskan and Algonquian families. Small kin-based bands were the predominant form of social organization, although seasonal gatherings of larger groups occurred at favoured fishing locales. Moose, caribou, beavers, waterfowl, and fish were taken, and plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap were gathered. In winter people generally resided in snug semisubterranean houses built to withstand extreme weather; summer allowed for more mobility and the use of tents or lean-tos. Snowshoes, toboggans, and fur clothing were other common forms of material culture. See also American Subarctic peoples. This culture area reaches from the present-day Canadian provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and the Maritimes (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) south to the Ohio River valley (inland) and to North Carolina (on the Atlantic Coast). The topography is generally rolling, although the Appalachian Mountains include some relatively steep slopes. The climate is temperate, precipitation is moderate, and the predominant ecosystem is the deciduous forest. There is also extensive coastline and an abundance of rivers and lakes. Prominent tribes include the Algonquin, Iroquois, Huron, Wampanoag, Mohican, Mohegan, Ojibwa, Ho-chunk (Winnebago), Sauk, Fox, and Illinois. The traditional languages of the Northeast are largely of the Iroquoian and Algonquian language families. Most Northeastern peoples engaged in agriculture, and for them the village of a few dozen to a few hundred persons was the most important social and economic unit in daily life. Groups that had access to reliably plentiful wild foods such as wild rice, salmon, or shellfish generally preferred to live in dispersed hamlets of extended families. Several villages or hamlets formed a tribe, and groups of tribes sometimes organized into powerful confederacies. These alliances were often very complex political organizations and generally took their name from the most powerful member tribe, as with the Iroquois Confederacy. Cultivated corn (maize), beans, squash, and weedy seed-bearing plants such as Chenopodium formed the economic base for farming groups. All northeastern peoples took animals including deer, elk, moose, waterfowl, turkeys, and fish. Houses were wickiups (wigwams) or longhouses; both house types were constructed of a sapling framework that was covered with rush matting or sheets of bark. Other common aspects of culture included dugouts made of the trunks of whole trees, birchbark canoes, clothing made of pelts and deerskins, and a variety of medicine societies. See also Northeast Indian. This region reaches from the southern edge of the Northeast culture area to the Gulf of Mexico; from east to west it stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to somewhat west of the Mississippi valley. The climate is warm temperate in the north and grades to subtropical in the south. The topography includes coastal plains, rolling uplands known as the Piedmont, and a portion of the Appalachian Mountains; of these, the Piedmont was most densely populated. The predominant ecosystems were coastal scrub, wetlands, and deciduous forests. Perhaps the best-known indigenous peoples originally from this region are the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole, sometimes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes. Other prominent tribes included the Natchez, Caddo, Apalachee, Timucua, and Guale. Traditionally, most tribes in the Southeast spoke Muskogean languages; there were also some Siouan language speakers and one Iroquoian-speaking group, the Cherokee. The region’s economy was primarily agricultural and often supported social stratification; as chiefdoms, most cultures were structured around hereditary classes of elites and commoners, although some groups used hierarchical systems that had additional status levels. Most people were commoners and lived in hamlets located along waterways. Each hamlet was home to an extended family and typically included a few houses and auxiliary structures such as granaries and summer kitchens; these were surrounded by agricultural plots or fields. Hamlets were usually associated with a town that served as the area’s ceremonial and market centre. Towns often included large earthen mounds on which religious structures and the homes of the ruling classes or families were placed. Together, each town and its associated hamlets constituted an autonomous political entity. In times of need these could unite into confederacies, such as those of the Creek and Choctaw. People grew corn, beans, squash, tobacco, and other crops; they also gathered wild plant foods and shellfish, hunted deer and other animals, and fished. House forms varied extensively across the region, including wickiups (wigwams), earth-berm dwellings, and, in the 19th century, chickees (thatched roofs with open walls). The Southeast was also known for its religious iconography, which often included bird themes, and for the use of the “black drink,” an emetic used in ritual contexts. See also Southeast Indian. The Plains lie in the centre of the continent, spanning the area between the western mountains and the Mississippi River valley and from the southern edge of the Subarctic to the Rio Grande in present-day Texas. The climate is of the continental type, with warm summers and cold winters. Relatively flat short-grass prairies with little precipitation are found west of the Missouri River and rolling tallgrass prairies with more moisture are found to its east. Tree-lined river valleys form a series of linear oases throughout the region. The indigenous peoples of the Plains include speakers of Siouan, Algonquian, Uto-Aztecan, Caddoan, Athabaskan, Kiowa-Tanoan, and Michif languages. Plains peoples also invented a sign language to represent common objects or concepts such as “buffalo” or “exchange.” Earth-lodge villages were the only settlements on the Plains until the late 16th century; they were found along major waterways that provided fertile soil for growing corn, beans, squash, sunflowers, and tobacco. The groups who built these communities divided their time between village-based crop production and hunting expeditions, which often lasted for several weeks and involved travel over a considerable area. Plains villagers include the Mandan, Hidatsa, Omaha, Pawnee, and Arikara. By 1750 horses from the Spanish colonies in present-day New Mexico had become common in the Plains and had revolutionized the hunting of bison. This new economic opportunity caused some local villagers to become dedicated nomads, as with the Crow (who retained close ties with their Hidatsa kin), and also drew agricultural tribes from surrounding areas into a nomadic lifestyle, including the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Arapaho, and Kiowa. Groups throughout the region had in common several forms of material culture, including the tepee, tailored leather clothing, a variety of battle regalia (such as feathered headdresses), and large drums used in ritual contexts. The Sun Dance, a ritual that demanded a high degree of piety and self-sacrifice from its participants, was also found throughout most of the Plains. The Plains is perhaps the culture area in which tribal and band classifications were most conflated. Depictions of indigenous Americans in popular culture have often been loosely based on Plains peoples, encouraging many to view them as the “typical” American Indians. See also Plains Indian. This culture area lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Mexican Sierra Madre, mostly in present-day Arizona and New Mexico. The topography includes plateaus, basins, and ranges. The climate on the Colorado Plateau is temperate, while it is semitropical in most of the basin and range systems; there is little precipitation and the major ecosystem is desert. The landscape includes several major river systems, notably those of the Colorado and the Rio Grande, that create linear oases in the region. The Southwest is home to speakers of Hokan, Uto-Aztecan, Tanoan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Penutian, and Athabaskan languages. The region was the home of both agricultural and hunting and gathering peoples, although the most common lifeway combined these two economic strategies. Best known among the agriculturists are the Pueblo Indians, including the Zuni and Hopi. The Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham (Papago) engaged in both farming and foraging, relying on each to the extent the environment would allow. The Navajo and the many Apache groups usually engaged in some combination of agriculture, foraging, and the raiding of other groups. The major agricultural products were corn, beans, squash, and cotton. Wild plant foods, deer, other game, and fish (for those groups living near rivers) were the primary foraged foods. The Pueblo peoples built architecturally remarkable apartment houses of adobe and stone masonry (see pueblo architecture) and were known for their complex kinship structures, kachina (katsina) dances and dolls, and fine pottery, textiles, and kiva and sand paintings. The Navajo built round houses (“hogans”) and were known for their complex clan system, healing rituals, and fine textiles and jewelry. The Apaches, Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham generally built thatched houses or brush shelters and focused their expressive culture on oral traditions. Stone channels and check dams (low walls that slowed the runoff from the sporadic but heavy rains) were common throughout the Southwest, as were basketry and digging sticks. See also Southwest Indian. The Great Basin The Great Basin culture area is centred in the intermontane deserts of present-day Nevada and includes adjacent areas in California, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. It is so named because the surrounding mountains create a bowl-like landscape that prevented water from flowing out of the region. The most common topographic features are basin and range systems; these gradually transition to high intermontane plateaus in the north. The climate is temperate in the north and becomes subtropical to the south. Higher elevations tend to receive ample moisture but other areas average as little as 2 inches (50 mm) per year. Much of the region’s surface water, such as the Great Salt Lake, is brackish. The predominant ecosystem is desert. The Great Basin is home to the Washoe, speakers of a Hokan language, and a number of tribes speaking Numic languages (a division of the Uto-Aztecan language family). These include the Mono, Paiute, Bannock, Shoshone, Ute, and Gosiute. The peoples of this region were hunters and gatherers and generally organized themselves in mobile, kin-based bands. Seeds, piñon nuts, and small game formed the bulk of the diet for most groups, although those occupying northern and eastern locales readily adopted horses and equestrian bison hunting after Spanish mounts became available. Some of these latter groups also replaced wickiups and brush shelters, the common house forms until that time, with Plains-style tepees; peoples in the west and south, however, continued to use traditional house forms well into the 19th century. Other common forms of material culture included digging sticks, nets, basketry, grinding stones for processing seeds, and rock art. See also Great Basin Indian. This culture area approximates the present states of California (U.S.) and northern Baja (Mexico). Other than the Pacific coast, the region’s dominant topographic features are the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada; these north-south ranges are interspersed with high plateaus and basins. An extraordinary diversity of local conditions created microenvironments such as coasts, tidewaters, coastal redwood forests, grasslands, wetlands, high deserts, and mountains. California includes representatives of some 20 language families, including Uto-Aztecan, Penutian, Yokutsan, and Athabaskan; American linguist Edward Sapir described California’s languages as being more diverse than those found in all of Europe. Prominent tribes, many with a language named for them, include the Hupa, Yurok, Pomo, Yuki, Wintun, Maidu, and Yana. Many California peoples eschewed centralized political structures and instead organized themselves into tribelets, groups of a few hundred to a few thousand people that recognized cultural ties with others but maintained their political independence. Some tribelets comprised just one village and others included several villages; in the latter cases, one village was usually recognized as more important than the others. The relatively few groups that lived in areas with sparse natural resources preferred to live in small mobile bands. Agriculture was practiced only along the Colorado River; elsewhere hunting and gathering provided a relatively easy living. Acorns were the most important of the wild food sources; California peoples devised a method of leaching the toxins from acorn pulp and converting it into flour, thus ensuring abundant and constant food. Fishing, hunting, and gathering shellfish and other wild foods were also highly productive. Housing varied from wood-framed single-family dwellings to communal apartment-style buildings; ceremonial structures were very important and could often hold several hundred people. The California peoples were also known for their fine basketry, ritualized trade fairs, and the Kuksu and Toloache religions. See also California Indian. The Northwest Coast This culture area is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the east by the Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Rocky Mountains; it reaches from the area around Yakutat Bay in the north to the Klamath River area in the south. It includes the coasts of present-day Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, much of southern Alaska, and a small area of northern California. The topography is steep and in many places the coastal hills or mountains fall abruptly to a beach or riverbank. There is an abundance of precipitation—in many areas more than 160 inches (406 cm) annually, but rarely less than 30 inches (76 cm). The predominant ecosystems are temperate rainforests, intertidal zones, and the ocean. This culture area is home to peoples speaking Athabaskan, Tshimshianic, Salishan, and other languages. Prominent tribes include the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka), Coast Salish, and Chinook. The peoples of the Northwest Coast had abundant and reliable supplies of salmon and other fish, sea mammals, shellfish, birds, and a variety of wild food plants. The resource base was so rich that they are unique among nonagricultural peoples in having created highly stratified societies of hereditary elites, commoners, and slaves. Tribes often organized themselves into corporate “houses”—groups of a few dozen to 100 or more related people that held in common the rights to particular resources. As with the house societies of medieval Japan and Europe, social stratification operated at every level of many Northwest Coast societies; villages, houses, and house members each had their designated rank, which was reflected in nearly every social interaction. Most groups built villages near waterways or the coast; each village also had rights to an upland territory from which the residents could obtain terrestrial foods. Dwellings were rectilinear structures built of timbers or planks and were usually quite large, as the members of a corporate “house” typically lived together in one building. Northwest Coast cultures are known for their fine wood and stone carvings, large and seaworthy watercraft, memorial or totem poles, and basketry. The potlatch, a feast associated with the bestowal of lavish gifts, was also characteristic of this culture area. See also Northwest Coast Indian. Lying at the crossroads of five culture areas (the Subarctic, Plains, Great Basin, California, and Northwest Coast), the Plateau is surrounded by mountains and drained by two great river systems, the Fraser and the Columbia. It is located in present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Topographically, the area is characterized by rolling hills, high flatlands, gorges, and mountain slopes. The climate is temperate, although milder than the adjacent Plains because the surrounding mountain systems provide protection from continental air masses. The mountains also create a substantial rain shadow; most precipitation in this region falls at higher elevations, leaving other areas rather dry. The predominant ecosystems are grassland and high desert, although substantial forested areas are found at altitude. Most of the languages spoken in this culture area belong to the Salishan, Sahaptin, Kutenai, and Modoc and Klamath families. Tribes include the Salish, Flathead, Nez Percé, Yakama, Kutenai, Modoc and Klamath, Spokan, Kalispel, Pend d’Oreille, Coeur d’Alene, Walla Walla, and Umatilla. “Flathead” is incorrectly used in some early works to denote all Salishan-speaking peoples, only some of whom molded infants’ heads so as to achieve a uniform slope from brow to crown; notably, the people presently referred to as the Flathead did not engage in this practice (see head flattening). The primary political unit was the village; among some groups a sense of larger tribal and cultural unity led to the creation of representative governments, tribal chieftainships, and confederations of tribes. This was possible in part because the Columbia and Fraser rivers provided enough salmon and other fish to support a relatively dense population; however, this region was never as heavily populated or as rigidly stratified as the Northwest Coast. Efficient hunters and gatherers, Plateau groups supplemented fish with terrestrial animals and wild plant foods, especially certain varieties of camas (Camassia). Most groups resided in permanent riverside villages and traveled to upland locales during fair-weather foraging excursions; however, horses were readily adopted once available and some groups subsequently shifted to nomadic buffalo hunting. These groups quickly adopted tepees and many other Plains cultural forms; they became particularly respected for their equine breeding programs and fine herds (see Appaloosa). Plateau fishing villages were characterized by their multifamily A-frame dwellings, while smaller conical structures were used in the uplands; both house forms were covered with grass, although canvas became a popular covering once available. In terms of portable culture, the Plateau peoples were most characterized by the wide variety of substances and technologies they used; continuously exposed to new items and ideas through trade with surrounding culture areas, they excelled at material innovation and at adapting others’ technologies to their own purposes. See also Plateau Indian. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: United States: Native AmericansNative Americans form an ethnic group only in a very general sense. In the East, centuries of coexistence with whites has led to some degree of intermarriage and assimilation and to various patterns of stable adjustment. In the West the hasty expansion of… Canada: Indian affairsIn consultations with the government in 1968–69, Canada’s Indians sought special rights and settlement of their outstanding treaty claims. However, the Trudeau government rejected most of the Indian demands and sought instead to abolish the Indian Act and eliminate Indian status. Indian groups… North America: The North American Indian heritageThe date of the arrival in North America of the initial wave of peoples from whom the American Indians (or Native Americans) emerged is still a matter of considerable uncertainty. According to prevailing thought, it is relatively certain that they were… jewelry: North AmericanThe diverse forms taken by personal ornamentation are related to the type of life led by the numerous ethnic and tribal groups scattered throughout the vast American territory. Some tribes, whose social organization permitted them to settle in one place for long periods… Native American art: Regional style: North AmericaThe aesthetic products of North American prehistory are perhaps the least well known to the non-Indian public. This is partly because these early people left few spectacular architectural ruins as compared with their Latin American cousins. This is not to say that architectural… More About Native American97 references found in Britannica articles - American Indians - burial mounds - In burial mound - Canadian rights issues - colonial education in Québec - contribution to Genographic Project - eschatology and nativistic movements - hunting and gathering cultures - land policy in United States

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|Part of a series on| Islamic culture and Muslim culture refer to cultural practices common to historically Islamic people. The early forms of Muslim culture, from the Rashidun Caliphate to early Umayyad perioud, were predominantly Arab, Byzantine, Persian and Levantine. With the rapid expansion of the Islamic empires, Muslim culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Persian, Egyptian, Caucasian, Turkic, Mongol, South Asian, Malay, Somali, Berber, Indonesian, and Moro cultures. Islamic culture generally includes all the practices which have developed around the religion of Islam. There are variations in the application of Islamic beliefs in different cultures and traditions. - 1 Language and literature - 2 Art - 3 Architecture - 4 Theatre - 5 Dance - 6 Music - 7 Family life - 8 Etiquette and diet - 9 Martial arts in Muslim countries/cultures - 10 See also - 11 Notes and references - 12 Further reading - 13 External links Language and literature Arabic literature (Arabic: الأدب العربي / ALA-LC: al-Adab al-‘Arabī) is the writing, both prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is "Adab", which is derived from a meaning of etiquette, and which implies politeness, culture and enrichment. Arabic literature emerged in the 5th century with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. The Qur'an, widely regarded by people as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language, would have the greatest lasting effect on Arabic culture and its literature. Arabic literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age, but has remained vibrant to the present day, with poets and prose-writers across the Arab world, as well as rest of the world, achieving increasing success. Persian literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Persian language and it is one of the world's oldest literatures. It spans over two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been within Greater Iran including present-day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, the Caucasus, and Turkey, regions of Central Asia (such as Tajikistan) and South Asia where the Persian language has historically been either the native or official language. For instance, Rumi, one of best-loved Persian poets born in Balkh (in what is now the modern-day Afghanistan) or Vakhsh (in what is now the modern-day Tajikistan), wrote in Persian and lived in Konya, then the capital of the Seljuks in Anatolia. The Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. There is thus Persian literature from Iran, Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan, the wider Caucasus, Turkey, western parts of Pakistan, India, Tajikistan and other parts of Central Asia. Not all Persian literature is written in Persian, as some consider works written by ethnic Persians in other languages, such as Greek and Arabic, to be included. At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians, as Turkic, Caucasian, and Indic poets and writers have also used the Persian language in the environment of Persianate cultures. Described as one of the great literatures of humanity, including Goethe's assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature, Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of Middle Persian and Old Persian, the latter of which date back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscription, the Behistun Inscription. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the Arab conquest of Persia c. 650 CE. After the Abbasids came to power (750 CE), the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Arab empire and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties such as the Tahirids and Samanids being based in Khorasan. Perso-Indian and Indian For a thousand years, since the invasion of India by the Ghaznavids, the Persian-Islamic culture of the eastern half of the Islamic world started to dominate the Indian culture. Persian was the official language of most Indian empires such as the Ghaznavids, the Delhi Sultanate, the Bengal Sultanate, the Deccan Sultanates (such as the Qutb Shahi dynasty) and the Mughal Empire. Persian artistic forms in literature and poetry such as ghazals have come to significantly affect Urdu and other Indian literature. More Persian literature was produced in India than in the Iranian world. As late as the 20th century, Allama Iqbal chose Persian for some of his major poetic works. The first Persian language newspaper was also published in India, given that printing machines were first implemented in India. During the early 14th century, the liberal poet Kazi Nazrul Islam espoused intense spiritual rebellion against oppression, fascism and religious fundamentalism; and also wrote a highly acclaimed collection of Bengali ghazals. Sultana's Dream by Begum Rokeya, an Islamic feminist, is one earliest works of feminist science fiction. From the 11th century, there was a growing body of Islamic literature in the Turkic languages. However, for centuries to come the official language in Turkish-speaking areas would remain Persian. In Anatolia, with the advent of the Seljuks, the practise and usage of Persian in the region would be strongly revived. A branch of the Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum, took Russian language, art and letters to Anatolia. They adopted Persian language as the official language of the empire. The Ottomans, which can "roughly" be seen as their eventual successors, took this tradition over. Persian was the official court language of the empire, and for some time, the official language of the empire, though the lingua franca amongst common people from the 15th/16th century would become Turkish as well as having laid an active "foundation" for the Turkic language as early as the 4th century (see Turkification). After a period of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish (which was highly Arabo-Persianised itself) had developed towards a fully accepted language of literature, which was even able to satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation. However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%. However, Turkish was proclaimed the official language of the Karamanids in the 17th century, though it didn't manage to become the official language in a wider area or larger empire until the advent of the Ottomans. With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Turkish (a highly Arabo-Persianised version of Oghuz Turkic) grew in importance in both poetry and prose becoming, by the beginning of the 18th century, the official language of the Empire. Unlike India, where Persian remained the official and principal literary language of both Muslim and Hindu states until the 19th century. Public Islamic art is traditionally non-representational, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spiralling arabesque. These are often combined with Islamic calligraphy, geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling on the outside and inside of large buildings, including mosques. However, there is a long tradition in Islamic art of the depiction of human and animal figures, especially in painting and small anonymous relief figures as part of a decorative scheme. Almost all Persian miniatures (as opposed to decorative illuminations) include figures, often in large numbers, as do their equivalents in Arab, Mughal and Ottoman miniatures. But miniatures in books or muraqqa albums were private works owned by the elite. Larger figures in monumental sculpture are exceptionally rare until recent times, and portraiture showing realistic representations of individuals (and animals) did not develop until the late 16th century in miniature painting, especially Mughal miniatures. Manuscripts of the Qur'an and other sacred texts have always been strictly kept free of such figures, but there is a long tradition of the depiction of Muhammad and other religious figures in books of history and poetry; since the 20th century Muhammad has mostly been shown as though wearing a veil hiding his face, and many earlier miniatures were overpainted to use this convention. Depiction of animate beings Some interpretations of Islam include a ban of depiction of animate beings, also known as aniconism. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that creation of living forms is God's prerogative. Although the Quran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of any living being, it uses the word musawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the Day of Judgment. Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in different ways in different times and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns. However, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face concealed) and other religious figures are found in some manuscripts from lands to the east of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images as forbidden. In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs. Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, based upon the alphabet in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. It includes Arabic Calligraphy, Ottoman, and Persian calligraphy. It is known in Arabic as khatt Islami (خط اسلامي), meaning Islamic line, design, or construction. The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Qur'an; chapters and excerpts from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. Like all Islamic art, it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts. The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam. It is noteworthy, for instance, that the Prophet Muhammad is related to have said: "The first thing God created was the pen." Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Islamic calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti. Islamic architecture is the range of architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to the Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. The fortress-palace of Alhambra, built in the 11th century, is a large monument and a popular tourist attraction. Elements of Islamic style Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque built by Muhammad in Medina, as well as from other pre-Islamic features adapted from churches and synagogues. - Large courtyards often merged with a central prayer hall (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi). - Minarets or towers (which were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers for example in the Great Mosque of Damascus; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur, meaning "light"). The oldest standing minaret in the world is the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia); erected between the 2nd and the 3rd century, it is a majestic square tower consisting of three superimposed tiers of gradual size and decor. - A mihrab or niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to Mecca. This may have been derived from previous uses of niches for the setting of the torah scrolls in Jewish synagogues or Mehrab (Persian: مِهراب) of Persian Mitraism culture or the wikt:haikal of Coptic churches. - Domes (the earliest Islamic use of which was in the 8th-century mosque of Medina). - Use of iwans to intermediate between different sections. - Use of geometric shapes and repetitive art (arabesque). - Use of decorative Arabic calligraphy. - Use of symmetry. - Ablution fountains. - Use of bright colour. - Focus on the interior space of a building rather than the exterior. The most popular forms of theatre in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Live secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'zieh theatre. One of the oldest, and most enduring, forms of puppet theatre is the Wayang of Indonesia. Although it narrates primarily pre-Islamic legends, it is also an important stage for Islamic epics such as the adventures of Amir Hamzah (pictured). Islamic Wayang is known as Wayang Sadat or Wayang Menak. Karagoz, the Turkish Shadow Theatre has influenced puppetry widely in the region. It is thought to have passed from China by way of India. Later it was taken by the Mongols from the Chinese and transmitted to the Turkish peoples of Central Russia. Thus the art of Shadow Theatre was brought to Anatolia by the Turkish people emigrating from Central Asia. Other scholars claim that shadow theatre came to Anatolia in the 16th century from Egypt. The advocates of this view claim that when Yavuz Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517, he saw shadow theatre performed during an extacy party put on in his honour. Yavuz Sultan Selim was so impressed with it that he took the puppeteer back to his palace in Istanbul. There his 47-year-old son, later Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, developed an interest in the plays and watched them a great deal. Thus shadow theatre found its way into the Ottoman palaces. In other areas the style of shadow puppetry known as khayal al-zill – an intentionally metaphorical term whose meaning is best translated as ‘shadows of the imagination’ or ‘shadow of fancy' survives. This is a shadow play with live music ..”the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also...“special effects” – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience" In Iran puppets are known to have existed much earlier than 1000, but initially only glove and string puppets were popular in Iran. Other genres of puppetry emerged during the Qajar era (18th–19th century) as influences from Turkey spread to the region. Kheimeh Shab-Bazi is a Persian traditional puppet show which is performed in a small chamber by a musical performer and a storyteller called a morshed or naghal. These shows often take place alongside storytelling in traditional tea and coffee-houses (Ghahve-Khave). The dialogue takes place between the morshed and the puppets. Puppetry remains very popular in Iran, the touring opera Rostam and Sohrab puppet opera being a recent example. Many forms of dancing arts are practised in Muslim cultures, both in religious and secular contexts (such as folk and tribal dances, court dances, dances of celebration during weddings and festivals, belly dancing, etc.). Some scholars of Islamic fiqh pronounced gender based rulings on dance, making it permissible for women within a female only environment, as is often performed at celebrations, but discouraging men to engage in it. Other classical authorities including Al-Ghazzali and Al-Nawawi allow it without this distinction, but criticised dancing which is "languid" or excites carnal lusts. Most of the religious orders (tariqa) which dominate traditional Muslim religious life practice ritualised forms of dance in the context of dhikr ceremonies. Dhikr, "recollection" (of God) is a meditative form of worship different from ritual prayer where the seeker focuses all of his senses and thoughts on God in the hope of attaining maarifat (experiential knowledge of God) and triggering mystic states within him- or herself. Dhikr can be performed individually or with like-minded followers under the direction of a sheikh, and can involve silent meditation or repetition and visualisation of sacred words such as the 99 names of God or Quranic phrases, and may be done at rest or with rhythmic movements and controlling one's breath. Traditional Islamic orders have developed varied dhikr exercises including sometimes highly elaborate ritual dances accompanied by Sufi poetry and classical music. Al-Ghazzali discussed the use of music and dancing in dhikr and the mystical states it induces in worshippers, as well as regulating the etiquette attached to these ceremonies, in his short treatise on Islamic spirituality The Alchemy of Happiness and in his highly influential work The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Al-Ghazzali emphasized how the practices of music and dance are beneficial to religious seekers, as long as their hearts are pure before engaging in these practices. Notable examples include the Mevlevi Order founded by Jalaluddin Rumi, which was the main Sunni order of the Ottoman empire, and its sama ritual (known in the West as "the whirling dervishes"). The Mevlevi order, its rituals and Ottoman classical music has been banned in Turkey through much of the 20th century as part of the country's drive towards secular "modernisation", and the order's properties have been expropriated and the country's mosques put out of its control, which has radically diminished its influence in modern Turkey. In 2008, UNESCO confirmed the "Mevlevi Sama Ceremony" of Turkey as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and the practice is now regaining interest. The Chishti order, traditionally the dominant Islamic institution in Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent and the most ancient of the major Sufi orders, also practices forms of sama similar to the Mevlevis, as well as other forms of devotional dance such as dhamaal. The order is strongly associated with the development of Hindustani classical music and semi-classical devotional genres such as qawwali through famed pioneer figures such as Amir Khusrow. The Chishti order remains one of the largest and strongest Muslim religious orders in the world by far, retaining a vast influence on the spirituality and culture of around 500 million Muslims living in the Indian subcontinent. Other examples of devotional dance are found in the Maghreb where it is associated with gnawa music, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia. The Naqshbandi order, predominant among Iran's Sunni minority, is a notable exception in that they do not use music and dancing in the context of dhikr. In addition to these strictly religious forms of dance, colourful dancing processions traditionally take place in Muslim communities during weddings and public celebrations such as Mawlid, Eid el-Adha, and so on. Many Islamic cultures have also developed classical forms of dance in the context for instance of Mughal, Ottoman, Persian and Javanese court cultures, as well as innumerable local folk and tribal dances (for instance amongst Bedouin, Tuareg and Pashto peoples), and other forms of dance used for entertainment or sometimes healing such as belly dancing (principally associated with Egyptian culture). Although tariqas and their rituals have been an omnipresent part of Muslim life for most of Islam's history and were largely responsible for the spread of Islam throughout the world, their following and influence has sharply declined since the late 19th century, having been vigorously opposed and combated in turns by the French and British colonial administrations and by Muslim modernists and secularists like Kemal Ataturk, and in recent decades have been the target of vocal opposition by the fundamentalist Wahhabi sect promoted by Saudi Arabia (where most of the heritage associated with Sufism and tariqa was physically destroyed by the state in the 1930s). Wahhabi militant groups such as ISIS and the Taliban are repeatedly targeting dhikr ceremonies in terrorist attacks, notably in Egypt and Pakistan. Many Muslims are very familiar to listening to music. The classic heartland of Islam is Arabia as well as other parts of the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia. Because Islam is a multicultural religion, the musical expression of its adherents is diverse. The Seljuk Turks, a nomadic tribe that converted to Islam, conquered Anatolia (now Turkey), and held the Caliphate as the Ottoman Empire, also had a strong influence on Islamic music. See Turkish classical music. Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and the Malay Archipelago also have large Muslim populations, but these areas have had less influence than the heartland on the various traditions of Islamic music. For South India, see: Mappila Songs, Duff Muttu. All these regions were connected by trade long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century and later, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can only speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a great influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs, and facilitated trade between distant lands. Certainly the Sufis, brotherhoods of Muslim mystics, spread their music far and wide. In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan is pronounced in the right ear of the child. In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor. Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children. Marriage, which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears. Certain religious rites are performed during and after the death of a Muslim. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the Shahada as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is appropriately bathed by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment called kafan. Placing the body on a bier, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial. Etiquette and diet Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu 'alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food. Martial arts in Muslim countries/cultures - Pahlavani – Turkey - Yağlı güreş – Turkey - Kurash – Central Asia - Istunka – Somalia - Nuba fighting – Sudan - Tahtib – Egypt - Laamb Wrestling – Senegal - Dambe – Nigeria - Boli Khela – Bangladesh - Lathi Khela – Bangladesh - Sqay – Pakistan - Pencak silat – Indonesia - Bakti Negara – Indonesia - Perisai Diri – Indonesia - Kuntao – Indonesia - Tarung Derajat – Indonesia - Silat – Indonesia - Silat Melayu – Malaysia - Seni Gayung Fatani – Malaysia - Seni Gayong – Malaysia - Tomoi – Malaysia - Lian padukan – Malaysia - Furusiyya – West Asian Notes and references - "Minds unmade" – via The Economist. - Jones, p. ix. - Spooner, Brian (1994). "Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki". In Marashi, Mehdi (ed.). Persian Studies in North America: Studies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Leiden: Brill. pp. 177–178. - Spooner, Brian (2012). "Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki". In Schiffman, Harold (ed.). Language policy and language conflict in Afghanistan and its neighbors: the changing politics of language choice. Leiden: Brill. p. 94. - Campbell, George L.; King, Gareth, eds. (2013). "Persian". Compendium of the World's Languages (3rd ed.). Routledge. p. 1339. - Arthur John Arberry, The Legacy of Persia, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, ISBN 0-19-821905-9, p. 200. - Von David Levinson; Karen Christensen, Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002, vol. 4, p. 480 - Frye, R. N., "Darī", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill Publications, CD version. - C. A. (Charles Ambrose) Storey and Franço de Blois (2004), "Persian Literature - A Biobibliographical Survey: Volume V Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period", RoutledgeCurzon; 2nd revised edition (June 21, 2004). p. 363: "Nizami Ganja’i, whose personal name was Ilyas, is the most celebrated native poet of the Persians after Firdausi. His nisbah designates him as a native of Ganja (Elizavetpol, Kirovabad) in Azerbaijan, then still a country with an Iranian population, and he spent the whole of his life in Transcaucasia; the verse in some of his poetic works which makes him a native of the hinterland of Qom is a spurious interpolation." - Franklin Lewis, Rumi Past and Present, East and West, Oneworld Publications, 2000. How is it that a Persian boy born almost eight hundred years ago in Khorasan, the northeastern province of greater Iran, in a region that we identify today as Central Asia, but was considered in those days as part of the Greater Persian cultural sphere, wound up in Central Anatolia on the receding edge of the Byzantine cultural sphere, in which is now Turkey, some 1500 miles to the west? (p. 9) - Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. ISBN 9231028138 p 734 - Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 ISBN 1438110251 p 322 - Doris Wastl-Walter. The Ashgate Research Companion to Border Studies Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011 ISBN 0754674061 p 409 - Bertold Spuler. Persian Historiography & Geography Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd ISBN 9971774887 p 69 - Sheila R. Canby (2005). Islamic Art in Detail. Harvard University Press. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-0-674-02390-1. - Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 14-15. - "Figural Representation in Islamic Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. - Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The art and architecture of Islam : 1250–1800 (Reprinted with corrections ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06465-9. - Chapman, Caroline (2012). Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture, ISBN 978-979-099-631-1 - Julia Kaestle (10 July 2010). "Arabic calligraphy as a typographic exercise". - Blair, Sheila S. (Spring 2003). "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field". The Art Bulletin. 85: 152–184 – via JSTOR. - Allen, Terry (1988). Five Essays on Islamic Art. Sebastopol, CA: Solipsist Press. pp. 17–37. ISBN 0944940005. - Roxburgh, David J. (2008). ""The Eye is Favored for Seeing the Writing's Form": On the Sensual and the Sensuous in Islamic Calligraphy". Muqarnas. 25: 275–298 – via JSTOR. - Krautheimer, Richard. Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, Penguin Books Ltd., 1965, p. 285. - Fletcher, Banister A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method 4th Edition, London, p. 476. - Copplestone, p.149 - "A Tour of Architecture in Islamic Cities". Archived from the original on 2007-03-17. Retrieved 2018-12-10. - Hans Kng (2006). Tracing The Way: Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions. A&C Black. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-8264-9423-8. - "Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya". Muslim Heritage. Retrieved 2014-03-16. - Titus Burckhardt, ''Art of Islam, Language and Meaning : Commemorative Edition''. World Wisdom. 2009. p. 128. Books.google.fr. Retrieved 2014-03-16. - Linda Kay Davidson and David Martin Gitlitz, ''Pilgrimage: from the Ganges to Graceland : an encyclopedia'', Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. 2002. p. 302. Books.google.fr. Retrieved 2014-03-16. - Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 807. ISBN 0-415-96691-4. - Moreh, Shmuel (1986), "Live Theatre in Medieval Islam", in David Ayalon, Moshe Sharon (ed.), Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, Brill Publishers, pp. 565–601, ISBN 965-264-014-X - Tradition Folk The Site by Hayali Mustafa Mutlu - Article Saudi Aramco World 1999/John Feeney - The History of Theatre in Iran: Willem Floor:ISBN 0-934211-29-9: Mage 2005 - Glassé, Cyril (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman Altamira. p. 403. ISBN 0-7591-0190-6. - Mack, Beverly B. (2004). Muslim Women Sing: Hausa Popular Song. Indiana University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-253-21729-6. - Cahill, Lisa Sowle; Farley, Margaret A. (1995). Embodiment, Morality, and Medicine. Springer. p. 43. ISBN 0-7923-3342-X. - Al-Ghazzali. The Alchemy of Happiness (Chapter 5: Concerning Music and Dancing as Aids to the Religious Life). - Reliance of the Traveller (Umdat ul-Salik); Section r40.4 on "Dancing", p. 794 (PDF). - Ghazzālī, and Claud Field. The Alchemy of Happiness. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1991. - Friedlander, Shems; Uzel, Nezih (1992). The Whirling Dervishes. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-1155-9. - The Mevlevi Sama Ceremony UNESCO. - Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. - Nigosian, S.A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4. - Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. - Eaton, Gai (2000). Remembering God: Reflections on Islam. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0946621842. - Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0. - Quran 5:5 - Curtis (2005, p. 164) - Esposito (2002b, p. 111) - Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine - Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws Archived 2007-05-02 at the Wayback Machine - Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine - Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. - Rosenthal, Franz (1977). The Classical Heritage in Islam, in series, Arabic Thought and Culture. Trans. from the German by Emilie and Jenny Marmorstein. [Pbk. ed.]. London: Routledge, 1992. xx, 298 p., sparsely ill. N.B.: "First published in English in 1975 by Routledge & Kegan, Paul" in the hardcover ed. ISBN 0-415-07693-5 - Media related to Muslim culture at Wikimedia Commons

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Grade Level: Spanish II or higher with modification Subject Areas: Spanish Time Required: 6 weeks (or 4 weeks if not including Extended Learning component) Prepared by: Kate Hoin; Troy, Michigan Keywords: History, historia, Oral History, historias orales, Braceros, Detroit, Spanish Language, El español, Advanced Spanish, Intermediate Spanish, Texas History (Spanish), la historia de Tejas, Preterite/Imperfect tense, Past Tense, el pasado Kate Hoin is from Troy, Michigan, and teaches Spanish at various levels in high school as well as community college and for adult learners. After attending the University of Michigan, she studied in Sevilla, Spain, for one year, lived in Texas for seven years, received her MA in Spanish Language and Linguistics from the University of Houston/University of Salamanca, and travels as often as possible to Spanish-speaking countries. Katie is an avid reader, aspiring writer, chef-in-training, and sometimes-actress. In Lisa Loomer’s play “Bocón”, the title character Miguel, a child migrant from Central America, is told on page 25 by the Voice Keeper when his voice is taken away that “No, no hermano! You don’t want your voice. They’re nothing but trouble!” And it seems in this play, Miguel’s voice is in fact trouble - questioning, crying out, demanding a space to be heard in this world. And in fact, that is what our entire NEH institute on “Tales of the Chihuahuan Desert” has been about - that our voices make up the stories which make up the histories of this borderland, and they deserve to be heard. In the course of this institute we have heard from Border Patrol Agents to residents from the oldest barrio in El Paso to scholars and community activists of the Ciudad Juárez/El Paso Metroplex and we have learned that everyone has a story to tell, and that in the long run these stories will define the course of our history as a nation, or as binational, bilingual neighboring nations. This unit, “Somos nuestros cuentos: Leyendas, historias orales, e historias personales que forman nuestra identidad en el mundo” speaks to this purpose. In studying the voices and the stories of the border, we can come closer to understanding this fluid, blended, intertwined region, and hopefully come to understand that its story, its history is a complex one, not so easily explained away in legislature, or defined by Washington rhetoric. In Yolanda Levya’s testimony regarding her recent fight to save to the Duranguito neighborhood of El Paso, she states that a protestor commented “When you see maps, I see people” and indeed, in this lesson I invite you and your students to see the people behind the maps. In each of the digital “ThingLink” maps, you are connected to stories, histories, places, songs, videos, photographs that I hope will make you question these arbitrary borders that surround our country. I hope that you will study these stories, and that you and your students will read and empathize with the children migrants in the final part of the lesson to think about what it means to come to this country with no one to help you, and with a voice that is silenced at every turn. These voices and stories deserve to be heard, for more than our standardized political history, they make up our collective personal history. And that it is a history that is more than black and white, right or wrong; it is one that deserves to be preserved and remembered and told. 1. How do stories make us who we are? 2. How does history shape our stories? 3. How do maps, movements, borders, and places shape our stories? 4. How do official laws and policies affect our personal stories? 5. How do our stories shape history? 6. How does immigration affect children and families? 7. What are the motivations for crossing borders and migrating? 8. How are children migrants affected by the U.S.-Mexico border? How is their experience different than that of adults? 9. What borders exist in our own communities? 10. How have my family’s stories shaped history? *Behind history, policies and laws are people and stories that should be considered in all of their complexity. *Borders, places, movements, and spaces shape our personal stories. *Our collective stories are a part of official history, and they matter. *My personal story and the story of my family has shaped history, places, and left its mark on the world. By the end of the study, students will be able to read, listen to, interpret, and analyze a variety of historical texts in the target language, as well as personal stories and narratives. Students will study legends, stories, and histories from the border region in a variety of time periods. In addition, students will study the border today as it relates to child migrants through an interactive wall that contains the stories and experiences of child migrants. Students will read selections from the children’s book Caminos de luces y sombras: Historias de niños, niñas y adolescentes migrantes. From their readings and presentations, students will write short memory vignettes from the perspective of a child migrant, to later be turned into a class play to be performed in Spanish for the school community. If time allows, students will interview a native or heritage language Spanish speaker in the local area, and then as a class create an oral history map that synthesizes these stories and a collective history together of the region. Finally, students will interview a family member/family friend on his/her experience on moving to his/her current city (in this case, Detroit, MI), and then write this story in the target language using the past tense. Students will read their story aloud, or create a multimedia presentation of the story, of their family’s arrival to Detroit. Students will be able to conjugate and use appropriately the past tense in the target language. - I can read, annotate, summarize, interpret and analyze a variety of Mexican legends and folktales in the target language - I can describe people, places and things in the stories I read - I can compare legends and stories that I read - I can summarize and narrate events, activities, and stories in the past - I can describe early civilizations and their activities - I can read, annotate, interpret and analyze historical texts in the past in the target language - I can read, annotate, interpret, and analyze stories from the border between Mexico and the United States - I can read, analyze and interpret maps in the target language - I can describe the layout of a city from both the present day and the past - I can describe continuing actions in the past - I can use the past tense in the target language - I can compare movements and borders at various points in history - I can compare a variety of oral histories from various moments throughout the history of the US/Mexico border - I can analyze the borders or border-like spaces that exist in my own community - I can interview a person from the local community with a connection to the history of that community in the target language - I can analyze how personal stories are shaped by government policy and legislation - I can write and present a story from my community in the past tense of the target language For this unit, students will need the following: - Notebook/paper/writing utensil - Access to a device - laptop or tablet preferred Teachers should provide access to the following links: Teachers will need to purchase the following literature: - “La Llorona” - 2-3 versions of the legend Part One: Leyendas mexicanas Time: One week Actividad 1: Una leyenda mazateca: El fuego y el tlacuache (1-2 days) Have students read, annotate, and summarize as a class the Mazateca legend of the origin of fire. Have students create a timeline of events using the past tense as a class. Point out the use of past tenses, and have students notice which verbs are in the past tense. Actividad 2 (1-2 days):Using the interactive “Pueblos Map,” have students in groups of three choose an indigenous group in Mexico, and read/listen to their legend. While reading students should annotate and create a timeline of events. Students should listen/watch the legend 2-3 times. Find another group of three, and retell what happened in the legend using the created timeline. Have students create a brief poster with their annotations, summary, and timeline to present briefly to the class. Have students make note of the verbs in the past tense. Students present and share their stories. https://www.thinglink.com/scene/945534646525886467 Actividad 3 (1-2 days): As a class read the legend of the Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl. Have students individually annotate, retell, and create a timeline of events in the story. Individually have students pick out the verbs in the past tense, and then share out as a class. As the teacher, model the two types of past tenses, and sort them accordingly. Additional lessons should cover the two types of past tenses and their conjugations, using the story as a mentor text. Finally, ask students “What do these stories tell us about Mexico and Mexico’s history? What do these stories reveal about the Mexican culture? What are their values and beliefs? What do these stories teach us about the border, and the relationship between Mexico and the US today?” Actividad 4 (1-2 days): As a class, read la leyenda “La Llorona”. Assign different versions of the story to groups of two/three students. Have students read, annotate, retell and create a timeline of events in the story. As an assessment, have students individually identify the verbs in the preterite and the imperfect, and write a summary of the text. Have students meet with a partner that read a different version of the legend, and create a Venn Diagram with the similarities and differences between the retellings of the story. Have students share out/present. Ask students to respond individually (and then as a whole class) to the questions: “What do these stories tell us about Mexico and Mexico’s history? Why are there different versions of the same legend? What does this reveal about Mexican culture, or stories in general? What are the values and beliefs present in these stories? What do these stories teach us about the border, and the relationship between Mexico and the US today?” Part Two: Las historias de la frontera de hoy y de ayer Time: One week Actividad 1 (Day 1): Diversas historias fronterizas Have students navigate to the “Diversas historias fronterizas map” on Thinglink. Have students first look at the map itself, and have them complete a See/Think/Wonder as a class, asking them in the target language: - What do you see on this map? - What does it make you think? - What do you wonder or ask yourselves? Have students turn and talk to a partner and share what they see/think/wonder in regard to the map (using “changing perspectives” technique). Have students share out with the class. Ask students: what don’t you see on the map? What parts are missing? Who/what else is present here that is not seen? (Stories, people, animals, images of human life, the human element, answers will vary). Share out responses. Actividad 2 (1-2 days, begin on Day 1): Invite students to explore the “Diversas historias fronterizas” map with a partner. Using the Ver/Pensar/Preguntarse worksheet, have students work with a partner and choose five different points on the map to explore (a mixture of photos, historical vignettes, videos, songs from various time periods in the border). Students should select one of the points on the border, and then write/describe what they see/read, think, and what they wonder. Students may concentrate on one area of the map (alike items are clustered together), or choose from a variety of the items. As students interact with the readings/audios/videos/images, they should write on their chart the items that they found interesting, important, or insightful. After students have researched, each group of two should join with another group of two and share one of their findings, two minutes each group. Ask students to share out what they learned about the history of the border as a whole class. Extension: Have students write a reflection about how the policies of the border have affected individual stories/lives. Actividad 3 (1 day): After sharing out, ask students to work individually to create a visual of their idea of the border. Have students do the Visible Thinking Routine (Appendix B) “Color/Symbol/Image”. They should: choose a color, a symbol, and an image that they feel best represents or captures the essence of the US/Mexico border. Have students share with a partner their color, symbol and image and explain what part of the border/which stories it represents. Put up their Color/Symbol/Image poster around the room, and have all the students do a gallery walk of the posters. Share out as a whole class, using the following questions as a guide: - What kinds of stories, histories, laws, policies, situations, songs and other artifacts have come out of the border? - What effect has the border had on people and their lives and/or stories? - What words, images, colors and symbols reflect this variety of history on the border and why? ***Optional: Model with students one of the items on the map and complete a See/Think/Wonder, and Color/Symbol/Image worksheet for this item. ***Optional (if time allows; good for students that have not grasped the past tense as well): Complete the process with Juan Loza’s interview as a bracero. Help students read, listen to, take notes, and create a timeline. Have students listen again to the interview, and read the transcript along with it, as they annotate and add to their timeline. Have students write a brief summary (3-5 sentences) of Loza’s journey in the target language in the past tense. Students may do this in a group of three as well. Consider using a map of the United States and Mexico to trace his travels as a Bracero, and sharing it through a short presentation. Part 3: El muro hoy Time: 1.5 weeks Actividad 1 (1 day): As a class, read the introduction to the “Caminos de luces y sombras: Historias de niños, niñas y adolescentes migrantes”, a children’s book on underage minors and immigration. As a class, read/annotate the text. Have students (as one of their annotations) write questions they might have while reading. After reading, ask students to share their “wonderings” with a partner, and then their table. Share out as a whole group. If further questioning is needed, ask some of the following questions. Ask students: - What information do we have about child migrants today? What have you heard/seen/read in the news? - Why do we have so many child migrants? What might be the diverse reasons child migrants cross? - What might it feel like to be a child migrant crossing the border? - Why might there be an increase in unaccompanied minor migration? - Why is there a difference in the number of girls and boys that cross the border? Have students take one of their questions, or one of the teacher-provided questions and write a short reflection in the target language (paragraph or so). Actividad 2 (3-4 days): Next, have students explore the “El muro y sus historias de hoy” interactive ThingLink Map with a partner, using the See/Think/Wonder. First, have students look at the digital image of the wall. Ask students to complete a See/Think/Wonder using the image of the wall. Have students share out with a partner, their group and then the whole class. Ask students: What might this wall look like to a child crossing? What might it feel like? How would a child migrant feel looking at this wall and knowing he/she had to cross it? What walls have you had to cross in your life? How did you feel? Then, ask students to use the See/Think/Wonder worksheet with a partner to explore what it is like for child migrants crossing the border today. Students should choose three elements/links/images/videos/points on the map (or one video in full), and analyze and interpret them using the See/Think/Wonder worksheet. After exploring the map, have students choose one element/image/video/story that seems especially important, insightful or interesting. Have each group create a short mini-poster/presentation on that element to share with the class. The poster should include: their see/think/wonder, a sentence/word/phrase from that source, or the color/symbol/image activity, as well as answer one of the key questions generated at the beginning of the study on child migrants. Students present and share out. As an intro to the next activity, have the students read “Migra” by José Antonio Rodríguez. In addition, teachers might have English teachers study the same poem with students. Actividad 3 (Three days): Turn back to the “Caminos de luces y sombras” book. Teacher will choose one story that connects to the whole class. Model for the students reading, annotating and timeline. Pull out the key words, and summarize, and then analyze and connect the story in relationship to the sources from the interactive map. Then, assign (or let students choose) groups of three/four students to one of the individual child migrant stories. In groups, students should read, annotate and create a timeline of events for their story. Students should pull out key words (palabras clave) and make a summary of the story. Have students include a key word/sentence/phrase, and two images that are important to the story in their interaction with the text. Then, have each group of students join with another group of students (who studied a different story), and create a Venn Diagram comparing and contrasting the two migrant children’s stories. Using this work, collaboratively the two groups will create a poster and presentation with this diagram and the similarities/differences between the two stories, as well as two images that represent the children’s stories. Students present their work, and then return to the questions, keeping the stories and their interactions with the interactive map in mind: - What are some common themes in the stories of migration? What are the similarities and differences in the stories? What are some commonalities in the childhood migrant experience? - What might it feel like to be a child migrant crossing the border? - Why might there be an increase in unaccompanied minor migration? - What are the different challenges that unaccompanied minors face crossing? How is it different to cross as a girl than a boy? ***Optional: If students need more guidance, or practice in the past tense in the target language, choose a story from the “Caminos de luces y sombras” and read/annotate and summarize as a whole class. Model this with them as you read the story, or split into groups to take various parts to complete the practice. Then, assign groups to read the individual stories. Actividad 4 (2 days): Obra de teatro “Bocón” Have students read through the play as a whole class, assigning various parts and reading aloud. After, have students break out into groups of three/four and assign various sections of the play to each group. Have students read and analyze what the main characters might be thinking/feeling during that section of the play. The next day, have each group prepare their short scene to share with the class. After the performance, ask students to write a short response in the target language to one of the following questions: Questions to pose to the class before, during and after the play: - What are the challenges that face Miguel and his village? Why does he migrate? - What is the importance of stories in the play? What stories are told? How do they impact Miguel’s journey? - How does Miguel regain his voice? What does it mean for him that he has his voice back? What does it mean for migrant children? Have students share with a partner, their table, and as a whole class. Actividad 5 (1-2 days): Write a memory of one of the child migrants we read about/watched/studied. Have students choose one of the children migrants we read about/studied from either the stories, presentations, play, or the interactive map. Have students imagine what a memory of this child migrant might be - perhaps something from home, from crossing over, or from their new home. Students should write a short memory narrative from the first person perspective of this student in the target language using the past tense appropriately, about what happened in this memory for the child migrant. Students should use their imaginations, and their empathy to really put themselves in the shoes of the child migrant. Have students write these in class, and then share out with their partner. Have students then share as a whole group. Actividad 6 (3 days) As a final assessment, have students prepare the memory they wrote to be included in a class play about the child migrant experience. Each group should have 3-4 people in it, and they should choose one of the original written memories to enact as a group. Each sketch should be 2-5 minutes in length, and be based on an experience they had learning about children migrants (from the stories, their memories, or any of the images/documents we interacted with). Have students write out their scene in the target language. Students should then practice/rehearse, and stage the performance in class. Hold a performance of the vignettes in class on the third day, and invite other Spanish classes (or any classes). Later, compile the sketches and scenes into a book/play, and put online/publish in a public context. Additional activities that work nicely with this project would be working in the community to gather oral narratives on the Latino community and their stories (or any immigrant community), in order to create a virtual map of their stories. Students should interview locals in the Latino community about their immigration experience (with permission of course), and then write these stories in the past tense. Students could also do this project with their own relatives and family members, and prepare questions on how their own family members came to the area/U.S.A., and then write out their story in the past tense, or create a video that demonstrates how their family came to the community. - Written summary and/or oral retelling of a legend or folktale using the past tense - Oral presentation/interpretation of a legend or folktale using the past tense - Written summary and/or oral retelling of a border story using the preterite/imperfect/past tense appropriately - (Optional) Create a written/performed legend of your own following the format of legends studied, using the past tense - Presentation on an important historical event on the US/Mexico border - Written summary and/or oral retelling of an oral history relating to the US/Mexico border - Written creative writing “memory” piece of a child migrant - Class play based on written memories of child migrants to present to other Spanish classes in a multimedia play production - Interview with a native/heritage speaker of the target language in the local community - Living Map Project - Placing oral histories from the interviews on a map of the community interviewed - Interview with a family member/friend in the language most comfortable for the interviewee - Written family story on arrival to Detroit (or local community) We will be doing a lot of reading and listening to stories in this unit; as such, students may need extra time or repeated readings of the story, small group/partner group while reading, or individual assistance with the teacher. In order to accommodate these students, repeated readings of the stories, chunking of the text, and picking out keywords from the story would be helpful. Do this as a class, and as many times as necessary with the stories presented. In addition, it is helpful to model as much as possible reading and annotating the text. Modify the plan by having students spend more time on a story, read multiple stories in groups, or do more as a whole class. For the final writing piece, have students draw out/sketch their memory, and present this to the class with short sentences of writing in the past tense, instead of a fully written piece. For advanced classes, add on the community and telling our family’s own story of arrival to the community, and give students freedom in choosing how they want to present their final oral history narrative. Download the College and Career Readiness Standards Brenes Herrera, Ani. Caminos De Luces y Sombras: Historias De Niños, Niñas y Adolescentes Migrantes. San José, C.R. , Organización Internacional Para Las Migraciones (OIM), www.programamesoamerica.iom.int/sites/default/files/Luces_y_sombras.pdf. Loomer, Lisa. Bocón!: a Full-Length Play. Woodstock, IL, Dramatic Pub., 1998. Texas Hispano. Texas Hispano, 2015, www.thc.texas.gov/public/upload/publications/texas-hispano-espanol-guide.pdf. I will start off by saying that this an ambitious unit. To even get through the first two or three parts of this unit, would be more than enough. I think we owe it to our students today - surrounded by so many outside influences, news sources, social media platforms, and disingenuous representations of life - to teach them about the power of stories. To help them see the human side to every statistic or news story that they browse past on their Twitter feed. To teach them that their voice and the voices of others matter, and that we deserve to hear these stories. That these stories make up our collective history. I hope that my students and students everywhere that embark on this challenging task of listening to and interpreting these migrant stories from the border take away with them a newfound understanding of empathy for the human experience - one in which we all share when we look for better opportunities, education, or safety in this world we call home. I am inspired by the variety of resources that students have at their disposal in this lesson and online, and I hope that they will be inspired to tell their own stories, or at least listen to others as they build a bridge that unites us, as opposed to more walls that divide us. Happy learning! Download the Microessay

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For many centuries, books have been one of the central forms of entertainment for humankind. Readers around the world invest countless hours escaping into new and unique worlds, losing themselves in the words and pages of books from various genres. While all books affect readers in different ways, history has shown that some books have a way of reaching and impacting large groups of people so that they are forever changed. These books can share knowledge, inspiration, and discoveries in various fields. They teach, influence, and alter the way we think. Sometimes these books are so important and enlightening that they help the world and its people evolve. The following books have done just that. By educating and informing readers in the areas of politics and government, creating new standards in literature, challenging societal norms, and advancing academic thought in the schools of science and religion, these are top 50 books that changed the world. Politics and Government These titles represent some of the most influential books that examine politics, economics, and philosophy. Each of these texts had an impact on the way we understand governance. - The Republic, Plato. Written around 380 BCE, this text is considered to be one of the most influential pieces ever written. The Republic observes justice in man and politics and discusses the role of the philosopher in society. Many of the intellectual concepts contained in The Republic are still discussed today, but the text is also an important historical document that provides historians with a snapshot of Greece at the time of its writing. - The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. One of the most recognized and popular political texts ever written, The Communist Manifesto details the class struggle that exists in society and traces its beginnings in history. The document highlights the problems of capitalism and capitalist production and how these structures impact the political and societal landscape. - The Rights of Man by Thomas Paine. The Rights of Man argues that political revolution is acceptable and permissible when a government fails to perform its duty of protecting the natural rights of its citizens. Written as a defense of the French Revolution, Paine’s 1791 book was widely circulated and challenged all societal institutions that don’t benefit the nation overall, including institutions such as monarchies and aristocracies. - Common Sense by Thomas Paine. Published anonymously in 1776, this pamphlet supported the Americans in their fight for independence from the British during the American Revolution. The pamphlet encouraged the people in the American Colonies to resist the leaders from Great Britain and push for an egalitarian government. Still today, Common Sense is one of the all-time best-selling American titles. - Democracy in America by Alexis de Tocqueville. In what was originally meant to be an observation of the American prison system, Democracy in America is a look at American society and institutions overall and the reasons why American democratic equality exists and thrived at the time of the writing. Alexis de Tocqueville traced the historical evolution of equality and suggested that specific conditions, such as widespread economic opportunity and the abolition of primogeniture, led to the American democratic revolution. - The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli. Considered to be one of the first works of modern political philosophy, The Prince is a political treatise from 1513 that offers advice on how aspiring leaders can survive and thrive in the contentious political landscape. While the intent of the book is still debated, the result is one of the most unabashed meditations on political power and what is required in order to make it last. - Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave by Frederick Douglass. Written by the famed orator and former slave, Frederick Douglass, this narrative is considered the most famous of pieces written by former slaves and one of the most influential texts during the abolitionist movement in the United States. In the text, Douglass recounts his life as a slave on his way to freedom. - On Liberty by John Stewart Mill. This philosophical work is considered a foundational text for modern liberal political thought. The text applies ethical utilitarianism to society and state governance, arguing that more importance be placed on the consequences of actions as they relate to the interests of others than one’s own interests. - The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith. The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, describes how and what builds a nation’s wealth. Largely viewed as the foundational text for classical economics, The Wealth of Nations explores the economic system and suggests that a free market is able to automate and regulate itself. These functions are only limited by the privileges given to certain members within the economy. - Orientalism by Edward Said. Primarily a work of postcolonial cultural studies, Orientalism discusses how cultural representations of the Eastern world are bound to the structures and societies that create them. Since these patronizing and exaggerated depictions of difference are designed in such a way that Western superiority is highlighted in comparison, Orientalism becomes a critique of Westerns politics and power. From creating characters and stories that have become foundational elements in cultures around the world to upsetting undesirable standards and inspiring the imagination of many, these works of literature have touched the world in significant ways. These are the most influential books in literature. - The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. Written in the 14th century, this collection of tales brought to life characters and stories that remain popular today. The Canterbury Tales also provides a glimpse into the customs and practices within the society at the time of its writing. This work is one of the most read books and one of the most studied in all the world. Many scholars suggest that Chaucer’s magnum opus contributed greatly to the popularization of the English vernacular in literature. - Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Considered one of the most important pieces of world literature, the Divine Comedy is an epic poem that details a journey through the realms of the afterlife and, allegorically, the soul’s discovery of God. Long considered to be the greatest piece of Italian literature, the Divine Comedy also provides us with a closer view of medieval Christian theology and philosophy. - The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. William Shakespeare is often considered the greatest writer in the English language and the greatest dramatist in all of history. The characters, stories, and language have taken hold of readers for hundreds of years and have greatly contributed to shaping modern culture. Shakespeare’s complete works have been translated into every major language and are still enjoyed around the world. - Moby Dick by Herman Melville. This now-famous book about a man’s hunt for the great whale is considered one of the greatest American novels ever written. Moby Dick is heavy on symbolism, but is also famous for the detailing of the whaling industry in the 19th century and its many different narrative styles and structures. - 1984 by George Orwell. This dystopian novel describes life in a totalitarian regime that has stripped the people of their rights. The themes in this novel have become a major part of modern culture, creating terms and concepts that have been incorporated into our own society. Surveillance, truth, and censorship take center stage in this novel; no other book has contributed to our understanding of these themes like 1984. - Brave New World by Aldous Huxley. Another dystopian novel, this one by Huxley is often considered one of the great novels of the 20th century. Huxley’s novel looked unfavorably on the loss of an individual’s identity through futuristic technological advancements. Huxley’s own fears of commerciality and the emerging youth culture are fully on display in this novel. - The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer. These two ancient Greek epic poems are not only the preeminent works in ancient Greek literature, but they are also incredibly influential texts for all forms of art, thought, and music in Western civilization. The Iliad details a few weeks during the end of the Trojan War and the Odyssey describes Odysseus’ ten-year journey home from the Trojan War. These two works are important for their detail of Greek history and legend, the composition of story, and the development of themes. - Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. This Spanish novel, originally published as two books, is one of the most influential and popular novels in the world. It’s also considered to be one of the best books ever written. The adventure, symbolism, and characterization contained in Don Quixote has promoted the book to the incredible popularity it has today. Don Quixote became one of the earliest canonical texts and has been inspiring artists of all kinds for hundreds of years. - In Search of Lost Time by Marcel Proust. Daunting in length, the seven-volume In Search of Lost Time is one of the most prominent modern works of the early 20th century. The novel explores themes of memory, childhood, and meaning, but it avoids the plot-driven model of 19th-century novels. The supporting cast are incredibly well drawn and the events are moved forward by the differing perspectives that experience them, writing techniques that have been emulated endlessly since the novel’s publication. - Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert. Flaubert’s story of a woman who engages in adulterous affairs in an attempt to escape from a loveless marriage was subjected to heavy censorship at the time it was published, and Flaubert was taken to trial over the novel. After his acquittal, Madame Bovary became renowned as a masterpiece of the Realism movement. - Arabian Nights translated by Andrew Lang. This English language version of One Thousand and One Nights retells the ancient stories that have now become popularized around the world, including the plight of Scheherazade, the adventures of Aladdin, and the voyages of Sinbad. - One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez. Considered to be one of the most significant novels in the Spanish literary canon, One Hundred Years of Solitude tells the story of the Buendía family over several generations. The style and themes in the novel are seen to be representative of a unique Latin American literary movement of the 1960s: Magical Realism. - War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy. Though Tolstoy was hesitant to call this a novel, War and Peace is often included in the discussion of the best novels of all time. Chronicling the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the book looks at the psychological effects of the war and the philosophical discussions that it created. - The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. Written in the beginning of the 11th century, The Tale of Genji is often called the first novel. While it does not have a plot by definition, the story does have many elements of a modern novel, including a main character, a supporting cast, and characterization. Translation of this novel has proved difficult over time, but most still consider it the first and greatest work in Japanese literature. - Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriett Beecher Stowe. Written by a middle aged, white woman in 1851, Uncle Tom’s Cabin has been credited for changing the views of slavery in the north and continues to serve as a reminder of the effects of slavery and other inhumane acts. - Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoyevsky. While Fyodor Dostoyevsky has written several works that could be considered some of the most influential ever published, Crime and Punishment is one that stands above the rest as one of the best books ever written. This novel explores the mind of an individualistic person from within, challenging the rules of crime and punishment as they apply to the main character and the people around him. - Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe. The theme of preserving cultural history in the face of Western domination in this novel gave voice to the oppressed people in Africa and caught the attention of the world. This novel, written in 1958, is still widely read and studied as an example of the damage of colonialism. - Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Faust is a tragic play, but it has long been considered the single greatest work in German literature. The tale tells of Faust selling his soul to the devil for worldly knowledge and pleasures. The influence this story has on art, literature, music, and thought is immeasurable. - Beloved by Toni Morrison. Written to honor the memory of African American slaves brought over during the slave trade, Toni Morrison’s Beloved is one of the most recognizable and influential texts in modern literature. For giving voice to the African-American experience and observing and recording the collective memory of the population, Morrison’s novel won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1988. - The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. Not only is The Lord of the Rings one of the best-selling novels in the world, it also helped form and shape the high fantasy genre. While many of the themes from the story were adapted from earlier mythologies, The Lord of the Rings itself became the foundational text for all fantasy readers and authors. These are the most influential books in terms of impacting society, texts that helped changed people’s views on racism, feminism, consumption, and language. - The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank. This landmark book is built from the actual diary kept by Anne Frank, the young daughter of a Jewish family hiding during the Nazi takeover in the Netherlands. The innocence of this young girl so full of hopes and dreams is held in sharp contrast to the reality of her situation at the hands of the Nazis. This book has become a strong symbol and reminder of the impact of racial persecution. - The Vindication of the Rights of Women by Mary Wollstonecraft. Considered the first great treatise on feminism, Wollstonecraft’s text was written in response to those who felt that women should not be educated. She argued that women are deserving of an education that is proportionate to their position in society, that of educators and companions. Wollstonecraft demonstrated that inequality is not only morally and ethically wrong, but is also economically and socially irresponsible. - The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir. The Second Sex examines why a woman’s position in society is prohibitive and how it got to this point. Establishing herself as a fundamental figure in feminist philosophy, de Beauvoir was one of the first to explore gender as a social construct, distinguishing between the terms “sex” and “gender.” - A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf. In A Room of One’s Own, an extended essay that Woolf delivered to two women’s colleges, the differences between male and female writers and how those differences are the result of the limitations and restrictions imposed on females, is discussed. Without the freedom, the education, or the financial rewards of male authors, females are barred from creating a literary tradition of their own. - Walden by Henry David Thoreau. Walden is the textual reflection of Thoreau’s social experiment of living isolated in a cabin next to Walden Pond in order to better understand society. Thoreau wrote the results of his experience with self-sufficiency and simplicity in Walden, which has subsequently become a source of inspiration for those seeking a life removed from the business of society. - A Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson. Considered the most influential dictionary of the English language, Johnson compiled this book over seven years all by himself. Credited as the foundational text for the study of the English language and lexicography, Johnson’s dictionary was not the first of its kind, but it was the most comprehensive and well-researched. - Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant. Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is largely considered to be one of the most influential philosophical texts of all time. Exploring human knowledge and reason, their extents and limitations, and the perception of space and time, Kant’s text is one of the most important books to read for all who are interested in philosophy. - The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. Even though Upton Sinclair set out to write a novel about the lives of immigrants in America in the early 20th century, The Jungle ended up gaining popularity because it highlighted the unsanitary practices in the meatpacking industry. By depicting countless health violations and stories of the unfair treatment and pay of migrant workers, Sinclair was a major contributor to the reformation of the meat inspection laws in America. Over time, he gained more recognition for influencing standardized wages as well. - Native Son by Richard Wright. Often regarded as the father of Black American Literature, Richard Wright wrote Native Son as an attempt to demonstrate the harsh realities of being a black person in white America. It was one of the earliest and most successful books to observe the racial divide in the country from the perspective of the minority, and it highlighted black culture in a way that had not been done before. Science, Math, and Geography These works are some of the most influential books because they began or at least represent the beginning of entire movements and schools of thought in the fields of science, math, and geography. - Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. Written while Cambridge was closed because of the plague, Newton’s Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica details the principles of gravity, mechanics, calculus, and light and color. This book set the stage for modern studies of both math and physics. - The Meaning of Relativity by Albert Einstein. The Meaning of Relativity is a collection of the Stafford Little Lectures made by Albert Einstein in 1921 at Princeton University. Delivered five years after Einstein’s groundbreaking paper on general relativity was published, these lectures sum up the man’s work. While many of the ideas were presented in different forms prior to the publication of this book, The Meaning of Relativity remains one of the most important collections of ideas ever put together. - On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. This work by Darwin laid out the foundation for the theory of evolution. Since its publication, the book’s theories and observations have helped make life sciences what they are today. Darwin’s adaptation and evolutionary model still aid modern scientists as they build a better understanding of all Earth’s species, including our own. - Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. Carson wrote on the topic of environmental justice in this book that inspired readers to think more seriously about their relationship to the Earth. Silent Spring helped the modern environmental movement get off the ground and led to the nationwide ban on DDT. - Geographia by Ptolemy. Ptolemy wrote and mapped the world according to the knowledge he had available to him in the 2nd century. His maps and methodologies were used for hundreds of years afterward. Today’s cartography is directly descended from Ptolemy’s work. - The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud. Freud included the basics of his theories on psychoanalysis in this landmark work that is still read and studied worldwide. In this work, Freud introduced the concept of the unconscious and demonstrated how his theories are used to interpret dreams. Freud’s work popularized the science of psychology and helped build the foundation on which modern psychological discourse now stands. These religious texts are some of the most influential books ever written, serving as spiritual and lifestyle guides for countless people around the world. Some of these texts are thousands of years old. - The Bible. This sacred text brought Christianity to the world and has continued to serve as a source of inspiration for millions of people. It is the most translated and the most frequently purchased book in the world. - The Qur’an. The sacred text of Islam, the Qur’an is believed to be the last word of God told to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years. This book is the cornerstone of the Islamic religion. - The Torah. The written laws and teachings that are contained in the Tanakh have offered a way of life for those of the Jewish faith. The text provides teaching and methods of practice for daily living and has influenced art and literature in countless ways. - The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Perhaps the most well-known Tibetan text, this book was written by a Tibetan monk and discusses what happens during death, the time between death and rebirth, and rebirth. - The Analects by Confucius. The Analects is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius, a Chinese philosopher. The text has been read and studied in China for the last 2,000 years and has had a monumental impact on Chinese culture, values, art, and thought.

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What is an Annotated Bibliography? A bibliography is a list of works on a subject that gives complete publication information and is formatted according to one of several documentation styles (MLA, APA, etc.). An annotated bibliography gives for each citation some commentary from the person who has compiled the list of works. An annotated bibliography describes the field of research on a topic and should include sources that reflect the range of approaches to the subject. The annotations tend to do one or both of two things: Description: a descriptive annotation provides a brief overview of the text. This can include: - a description of the contents and a statement of the main argument (i.e., what is the book about?) - a summary of the main points - a quotation or two to illustrate the style, tone, treatment of the subject Evaluation: a critical annotation includes an analysis of the work. Some useful points to consider are: - the strengths and weaknesses of the text - its accuracy, currency, and/or completeness - the intended audience, the level of difficulty - the qualifications and authority of the author and publisher - the usefulness of the text for your research project or for further study - the place of this text in the field of research covered in your bibliography Most annotated bibliographies include a combination of descriptive and evaluative comments. The key to writing a good annotation is to consider who will use it. If it is for someone else, what will your reader need to know in order to decide whether or not to read the text for him/herself? If it is for you, how can you sum up the work so that later you will remember your ideas about it? Be brief, clear, and succinct to convey the maximum useful information in your annotation. Annotations can vary in length from very brief (a sentence or less) to very detailed (a page or more), but the average length of annotations is around 4-5 sentences or 150 words. The length is related to the purpose and intended audience of the annotated bibliography. Your annotations should be written in complete sentences or brief paragraphs. Annotated bibliographies are useful for: - Active Reading:Annotations make you think carefully about what you are reading: can you sum up an article or a book in a few sentences and state why the source is or isn't useful to your project? - Keeping Track:Annotations can form the basis of a research bibliography for a large project, tracking what you've been reading, which sources you’ve found useful and why. - Developing Your Ideas:Annotations can help you focus your own ideas on a subject through critically analyzing and articulating your ideas about other treatments of the subject. - Surveying the Field: Annotations give an overview of a subject for your reader, showing the range of ideas, viewpoints, what has been "done" on this topic so far, and revealing what has not yet been examined in the literature. Remember: Always check with your professor for the purpose, format and length requirements of any assignment, including an annotated bibliography, before completing it and handing it in. Example #1a: Descriptive annotation A descriptive annotation gives a brief summary of the main points and features of the work, without evaluating it. Note: The following two examples are in APA format. London, H. (1982). Five myths of the television age. Television quarterly 10, 1, 81-89. Herbert London, the Dean of Journalism at New York University and author of several books and articles, explains how television contradicts five commonly believed ideas. He uses specific examples of events seen on television, such as the assassination of John Kennedy, to illustrate his points. His examples have been selected to contradict such truisms as: "seeing is believing"; "a picture is worth a thousand words"; and "satisfaction is its own reward." London uses logical arguments to support his ideas which are his personal opinion. He doesn't refer to any previous works on the topic. London's style and vocabulary would make the article of interest to any reader. Example #1b: Critical Annotation In addition to what a descriptive annotation should include, a critical annotation evaluates the usefulness of the work, gives a sense of its strengths and weaknesses, and may compare it to other works on similar topics. In this example, the words in bold indicate what has been added to the annotation above to make it a critcal annotation. London, H. (1982). Five myths of the television age. Television quarterly 10, 1, 81-89. Herbert London, the Dean of Journalism at New York University and author of several books and articles, explains how television contradicts five commonly believed ideas. He uses specific examples of events seen on television, such as the assassination of John Kennedy, to illustrate his points. His examples have been selected to contradict such truisms as: "seeing is believing"; "a picture is worth a thousand words"; and "satisfaction is its own reward." London uses logical arguments to support his ideas which are his personal opinion. He doesn't refer to any previous works on the topic; however, for a different point of view, one should refer to Joseph Patterson's "Television is Truth" (cited below). London's style and vocabulary would make the article of interest to any reader. The article clearly illustrates London's points, but does not explore their implications, leaving the reader with many unanswered questions. Examples 1a and 1b reproduced with permission from: Suzanne Sexty. "How to write annotated bibliographies." Memorial University Libraries. April 22, 2003. August 22, 2003. Example #2a: Descriptive Annotation Here is another pair of examples demonstrating the difference between descriptive and critical annotations. The words in bold indicate what has been added to make the second example a critical annotation. These two examples use MLA style. Summers, Montague. The Vampire, His Kith and Kin. New York: Dutton, 1929. "The first serious study in English of the Vampire, and kindred traditions from a general, as well as from a theological and philosophical point of view." Concludes that "it is hard to believe that a phenomenon which has so complete a hold over nations both old and young, in all parts of the world, at all times of history, has not some underlying and terrible truth however rare this may be in its more remarkable manifestations." The study covers appearance, characteristics, causes for, feeding habits of, and precautions to be taken against. Includes case histories, ancient accounts, an anthropological-type survey of various nations, asides on premature burial, necrophilia, and various perverse and antisocial acts. Contains a chapter on the vampire in literature and a bibliography of both true and fictitious vampires. A fascinating account which proves the old adage about truth and fiction. Example #2b: Critical Annotation Summers, Montague. The Vampire, His Kith and Kin. New York: Dutton, 1929. "The first serious study in English of the Vampire, and kindred traditions from a general, as well as from a theological and philosophical point of view." Concludes that "it is hard to believe that a phenomenon which has so complete a hold over nations both old and young, in all parts of the world, at all times of history, has not some underlying and terrible truth however rare this may be in its more remarkable manifestations." The study covers appearance, characteristics, causes for, feeding habits of, and precautions to be taken against. Includes case histories, ancient accounts, an anthropological-type survey of various nations, asides on premature burial, necrophilia, and various perverse and antisocial acts. Contains a chapter on the vampire in literature and a bibliography of both true and fictitious vampires. Although useful as a source for broad historical background, this work does not fully address the issue of the vampire's cultural significance. For a review of recent cultural studies work on the figure of the vampire that argues that its current popularity, with both the cultures that represent and the post-modern critics who study it, resides in the vampire’s representation of “racial and sexual mixing,” see Shannon Winnubst, cited below. Example 2 adapted from McNutt, Dan J. The Eighteenth-Century Gothic Novel: An Annotated Bibliography of Criticism and Selected Texts. New York & London: Garland, 1975. 61-62. It is no exaggeration to say that the appearance of David Punter's The Literature of Terror in 1980 formed a landmark in the literary-historical treatment of what has since become a suddenly flourishing area of Romantic studies, namely that of Gothic and related terror-fiction. It was the first substantial and serious investigation of this tradition in English since Edith Birkhead's The Tale of Terror was published nearly sixty years previously; and it undertook a more extended survey than Birkhead had attempted. At once it superseded those embarrassingly eccentric and critically wayward 'authorities', Montague Summers's The Gothic Quest (1938) and Devendra Varma's The Gothic Flame (1957), releasing the study of terror-fiction from the stranglehold of hobbyists into something more like the clear light of twentieth-century critical sanity. It was rightly welcomed by a new generation of students, teachers, and general readers for whom the fascinations of genre fiction (and its cinematic equivalents) were no longer disreputably 'marginal' but now worthy of serious historical exposition. Numerous general studies of Gothic have followed it, many directly indebted to Punter's insights, all at least indirectly benefiting from the wider interest his book attracted. The first edition of The Literature of Terror was issued in one volume as a 'trade' paperback, which means that most of the copies surviving in the libraries are disintegrating from over-use. The house of Longman has now, for reasons best known to its marketing and accountancy departments, chosen to split the second edition into two volumes, the first covering the period from Smollett to LeFanu, the second (not submitted for review here) taking us from Stevenson to the present. It is in the second volume, in fact, that the most significant updating and expansion has been done: there is a new chapter on the contemporary Gothic, and a revised theoretical retrospect, as well as an updated bibliography. In the first volume, the initial eight chapters of the original text remain much as they were, although the bibliography has been brought up to date, and there is a useful new 'Appendix on Criticism' which briefly reviews twenty-six important studies of the relevant period of Gothic fiction that have appeared since the late Seventies. Punter's Preface to this new edition modestly presents the largely unrevised work as a 'period piece', and of course in many respects it belongs to a specific moment at which literature in the British academy had begun to be both politicized and psychologized in new ways, but at which the ferment of continental Theory and of American feminism had not yet been digested into the discourses of literary history. The names of Bakhtin, Barthes, Foucault, Genette, and Kristeva appear nowhere in the index, while those of Derrida, Lacan, Sedgwick, and Todorov have surfaced only in this new edition. Any comparable work written ten years later would almost inevitably have been peppered with references to these theorists, and would probably have been dominated by their categories and terms. One of the pleasures of revisiting Punter's book, indeed, is that of enjoying the fluency and narrative continuity of a history uncongested by the burdens of Theory. Not that The Literature of Terror is in any damaging sense a naive or 'innocent' work: a post-structuralist (or perhaps just late-modernist) preference for narrative self-consciousness and for the scriptible has evidently filtered through in its critical stance; and more generally it has a theoretical programme and sense of direction, but one derived from a pre-Lacanian phase of the quest for a synthesis of Marx and Freud, perhaps most closely aligned with the position of Herbert Marcuse - the only post-war thinker noticeably invoked in the first volume. Its most active analytic terms, as Punter acknowledges - the Unconscious, repression, pathology, sublimation, paranoia - are obviously the Freudian ones, while Marx is brought in only intermittently. The signature of the book's 'moment' is perhaps most visible in its pivotal third chapter, on the three 'Classic Gothic Novels' of the 1790s - The Mysteries of Udolpho, The Monk, and The Italian . Punter's boldest move here is to read these works 'in series', in effect as a kind of collaborative or at least dialogic trilogy. Before Punter, the figures of Radcliffe and Lewis had habitually been presented as antagonists in the supposedly crucial matter of the use of the 'explained' supernatural. And since Punter, these two romancers have been sundered even more drastically as founders of incommensurable 'female' and 'male' Gothic modes - as 'Mother' and as 'Monk'. The Literature of Terror stands out, then, as one of the few studies of Gothic fiction in which, while allowing for formal, tonal, and gendered differences, Radcliffe and Lewis are treated as interlocutors in a common language. On the one side, Punter's dismissal of the question of the 'explained' supernatural as an exaggerated distraction opens up other dimensions of their writing to new scrutiny; on the other, it now appears refreshing to find no implausible claims for Radcliffe's 'radicalism', and to see Lewis presented more as a formal innovator than as a blindly phobic misogynist. In this chapter, as in many of the others, it is clear that the real critical work is being done not at the level of commentary or of 'readings' of texts (for which there is, in a survey of such scope, little room), but at the level of the collocation or clustering of them - a process which of course involves an 'interpretation' of a silent but powerful kind. Punter works well with either three texts or three authors to a chapter: thus the seventh ('Early American Gothic') covers Brockden Brown, Hawthorne, and Poe, while the eighth ('Gothic and the Sensation Novel') tackles Dickens, Wilkie Collins, and Sheridan Le Fanu. It is in the fifth chapter, though, that the interpretative collocation - of Godwin, Maturin, and Hogg - brings off one of the book's most interesting successes, bracketing Caleb Williams, Melmoth the Wanderer, and the Confessions of a Justified Sinner together as narratives of persecution, indeed as 'paranoiac texts' (p.138) in which, as Punter's commentary ably shows, the authors' overt moral purposes are in each case overwhelmed by darker obsessions. The most significant lost opportunity here is the exclusion of Frankenstein, which really belongs, formally and thematically, within this 'family' of persecution-novels rather than alongside the Romantic poets, where Punter wastefully strands it. The more disappointing chapters of the first volume are those in which Punter tries to corral too loose an assortment of authors and texts into the same discussion. The sixth ('Gothic, History and the Middle Classes') rounds up Walter Scott, Edward Bulwer Lytton, William Harrison Ainsworth, G. P. R. James, and G. W. M. Reynolds, thus mixing together pseudo-chivalric romances, mainstream historical novels and urban sensational fiction in a rather aimless account of their various sources and debts. One has the feeling that Punter has expended a great deal of time on too many tedious third-rate novels, and needs to have something to show for his efforts, even if he is plainly unconvinced that these materials are either 'Gothic' or terrifying at all. The chapter does, however, throw up one tantalising retrospective observation: Gothic in the last years of the eighteenth century was, as we have seen, partly an attitude towards history; more specifically, it clearly had to do with the ways in which a social class sought to understand and interpret class relations in the past.P.144 It is a remark that could and should have been followed through more purposefully in several parts of the book, in which attitudes towards history are too frequently occluded by the preoccupations of a dominant depth-psychology. A weak chapter of a different sort is the fourth, entitled 'Gothic and Romanticism', which embraces five of the six major English Romantic poets (the incorrigibly unGothic Wordsworth is set aside) along with Frankenstein and Polidori's 'The Vampyre'. The purpose of its arguments is announced thus: One of the features of Gothic fiction which distinguishes it historically from many other forms of 'sensational' writing is the power which it exerted over this group of undeniably major writers; this is both part of its validation as a focus of critical interest, and also a major source of its continuing historical vitality.P.87 As a 'validation' of interest in Gothic fiction, this is both unnecessary and unconvincing - a poeticized variation upon the more familiar and more plausible justifications of early Gothic as a precursor of Dickens or Dostoevsky or Kafka. Even as Punter attempts to illustrate the thesis in this chapter by adducing a small anthology of passages from the Romantics' minor works, it quickly becomes apparent that the connections between Gothic prose and Romantic poetry are both thematically unsurprising (Blake is interested in repression; so is Lewis) and genealogically indirect - which is to say that nothing more is demonstrated here than the well-known existence of a common body of 'pre-Romantic' materials behind both traditions: graveyard poetry, Ossianism, balladry, the cults of sensibility and the sublime. It takes more than a debt to Young or 'Ossian' to constitute a properly Gothic dimension of a poet's work; but in Punter's account there is a frequent slippage, and not just in this chapter, between the sources of Gothic and its achieved generic features, such that the label 'Gothic' can come to be applied to almost anything that contravenes the conventions of Augustanism. Before leaving this chapter, it is worth noticing that its treatment of Frankenstein is unusual to the point of perversity in regarding Mary Shelley's attitude to the creature as fearfully contemptuous. On the other hand, Punter's brief comments on 'The Vampyre' and its shaping of middle-class notions of the aristocracy are perceptive and well balanced. The principal value of The Literature of Terror, it is worth recalling, is that it takes the story of Gothic fiction well beyond the border of 1820 behind which most previous accounts had restricted it. And in attempting such a prolonged narrative, it needs to be sensitive to shifts and transformations in an evolving tradition. From this point of view it is not just convenient but essential that Punter avoid fixing a tight definition of 'the Gothic' at the start. Instead we have, in the opening chapter, a survey of the various meanings and 'dimensions' of the term as it has been understood, but no attempt to sift or decide among them. This subsequently allows Punter to range fairly freely among different generic and national traditions (the American and Irish short story, the historical romance, the sensation novel) and thus to trace the various ways in which the Gothic legacy has coloured the literature of the last two centuries. This necessary flexibility has its costs, however, in the form of a repeated uncertainty about the applicability of 'Gothic' to many of the texts surveyed. Sometimes Punter will declare forthrightly that a particular novel or novelist is not Gothic (Scott, for instance); at others he concedes that a text's relation to the Gothic is open to debate (as with Frankenstein ); and towards the end of this volume he refers to Le Fanu's Uncle Silas (1864) as 'the first properly Gothic masterpiece in Britain since Melmoth the Wanderer ' (p.201) - which would make more sense (whether or not Dublin is in Britain) if we had been provided with a more secure ground for distinguishing proper Gothic from its impure offshoots. Without such a preparation, we are left with the impression that British and Irish fiction of the period 1820-1864 comprises works that are either Gothic but not masterpieces (Confessions of a Justified Sinner ?) or masterpieces but not properly Gothic (Little Dorrit ?). We are also presented with some curious choices of texts for illustration: the section on Dickens, for instance, is devoted almost entirely to Oliver Twist on the basis of its extreme violence rather than for any more specifically Gothic feature. Another way of approaching the same recurrent problem is to say that there is a tension in this work between the terms of its main title and those of its subtitle: are we tracing the history of Terror or of Gothic? In so far as this history holds itself together, it does so by characterising (without ever actually defining) Gothic as Terror: 'Gothic fiction has, above all, to do with terror' (p.13). Yet the implied identification of Gothic with Terror is disputable. It is possible, although uncommon, to have a Gothic novel or tale that is not above all to do with terror, so long as certain minimal conditions (apprehension, confinement, and the claustrophobic pressure of the past) are active. The two masterpieces of Charlotte Bronte - the most glaring omission from this volume - are cases of this kind: both Jane Eyre and Villette are truly, if also idiosyncratically, Gothic novels, and yet terror is not of their essence. The same might even be said of Radcliffe's The Romance of the Forest . Punter often indicates that the essential features of Gothic fiction are psychological: derangement, obsession, nightmare, the eruption of the irrational. This is surely true - a non-psychological Gothic fiction is unthinkable - but just as surely misleading if it is allowed to dispose of other striking elements of the genre. In the fifth chapter especially, Punter tends to contrast the real psychological preoccupations of Gothic with its incidental 'environmental trappings' (p.116) - a model of trivial surface and serious depth that is upheld throughout this 'psychologizing' work. Of almost all accounts of Gothic fiction, this is the least interested in the familiar 'surface' decor of the genre: its castles, underground passages and creaking doors, its stock-in-trade abbots and servants. In this respect, it misses the opportunity to integrate the 'trappings' with the major obsessions. In particular, it is blithely unconcerned with the religious and sectarian dimensions of the genre, with all their historical resonances. The question of anti-Catholicism goes unmentioned for the first fifty pages, and at one point Punter even remarks that Maturin displays 'an anticlericalism, surprising in a priest' (p.124), as if Protestantism had nothing to do with this. It has taken works of a more clearly historical tendency - notably Horror Fiction in the Protestant Tradition (1988) by Victor Sage, Punter's former colleague at the University of East Anglia -to correct such imbalances, but the historicist camp has yet to produce an extensive history of Gothic that could rival the lucidity or stimulating power of The Literature of Terror.

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a complete guide to teaching critical thinking and fake news to studentsRead More The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions has released an excellent poster for your classroom identifying 'How to spot Fake News" It can be downloaded here Recently we posted an insightful article about teaching Fake News in your classroom and I can highly recommend reading it here. Discussions about fake news has led to a new focus on media literacy more broadly, and the role of libraries and other education institutions in providing this. When Oxford Dictionaries announced post-truth was Word of the Year 2016, we as librarians realise action is needed to educate and advocate for critical thinking – a crucial skill when navigating the information society. IFLA has made this infographic with eight simple steps (based on FactCheck.org’s 2016 article How to Spot Fake News) to discover the verifiability of a given news-piece in front of you. Download, print, translate, and share – at home, at your library, in your local community, and on social media networks. The more we crowdsource our wisdom, the wiser the world becomes. Regardless of their cultural background, every student in your class is likely to be familiar with fables. They are often one of our first introductions to the joys of storytelling. Of course, their merit lies not only in their huge entertainment value, but the fact that they are designed to teach us moral lessons. In Western culture, the influence of fables, particularly those of that wily old Greek Aesop, permeate our everyday speech. Everything from Don’t count your chickens before they hatch to Out of the frying pan and into the fire can be traced to the wisdom of fables. Given they are generally relatively short, very entertaining, and students are likely to have some familiarity with them already, fables make excellent resources for improving literacy skills. Read on to get more 5 interesting ideas on how to incorporate them into your lessons. 1. As Sly as a Fox Though fables can reveal to us much about human nature, it is interesting to note that the central characters are most often animals. This is true even in more modern versions of fables, such as George Orwell’s Animal Farm. This anthropomorphism can provide a great in for some very fun writing activities. Have younger children match personality traits to animals. This simple animal adjectives task consists of providing a list of adjectives and a list of animals. Students must match each adjective with the most suitable animal based on the fables they have been working on. You can further categorize adjectives in lists relating to size, shape, color, feeling, tone etc. This will open up learning opportunities for punctuation work too. Older students can undertake a similar activity, but incorporate their understanding of poetry techniques to write similes or metaphors based on the animals in the fables they have read. To broaden out their characters, students could also be asked to develop bios for each animal. 2. And the Moral of the Story is... As mentioned, these pithy little tales convey morals to readers. Indeed, back in the days of togas and scrolls, the Greeks would use fables to teach their society how to live the virtuous life. Encourage close reading skills in your students by having them identify the moral of a variety of fables. As many of these stories date back over 2,500 years old, copyright is unlikely to be an issue! You can find tons of free versions of Aesop’s fables online. Print a selection off, organize your class into groups, give them copies of the tales, and set them the task of reading and identifying the moral of each one. This activity is easily differentiated by the language level of each version. There are numerous versions of Aesop’s fables available for download online. Choose the version that best suits your class, group, or individual’s needs. For younger students, or students of lower ability, you may wish to provide the group with a list of morals from which they have to choose to match up with the appropriate fable. 3. Getting Your Ducks in a Row Sequencing is very important in storytelling; in fact, it’s very important in all writing genres. Having a firm grasp of the importance of good sequencing helps students organize their writing at the planning stage. There are many possible variations of sequencing activities you can set your students. Very young students can be given a series of jumbled up pictures of scenes from a fable you have already read to them. They are tasked with putting the pictures in chronological order and sticking them onto a strip of paper. They can then use these as prompts to tell each other the story in their own words. This activity can easily be modified to challenge stronger students. For example, you may provide a set of corresponding captions that must be matched to the pictures before organizing chronologically. You can further differentiate by introducing non-conventional story structures such as In Media Res where a story starts in the middle. Students will likely have some awareness of this from its frequent use in the movies. Have them play with the sequence of events and try different starting points for effect. This can reap great creative rewards in their writing later. This HUGE BUNDLE offers a mix of hands-on, printable, and digital media resources. By the time you have finished this pack, your students won’t just be able to READ and COMPREHEND fables, but will also be WRITING their own unique fables with structure and purpose. That’s it's one our most popular products –Keeping kids excited and engaged for weeks as you work through... ✔ What Is a Fable and Its Purpose? ✔ Who Is Aesop, The Father of Fables? ✔ 12 Famous Interactive Fables by Aesop (Professionally Narrated) ✔ Scripted Fable Theater - Turn These Fables into a Drama Class ✔ Deconstructing Fables for Meaning ✔ Planning and Assessment Rubrics for Writing Fables ✔ Fable Writing Workshop ✔ Character Traits Worksheets and Activities for All of Aesop's Creatures ✔ Digital and Paper Based Resources for Publishing Fables ✔ Fable Glossary and Curriculum Links. 4. Divide and Comprehend! Just as scientists can understand the inner workings of a frog by dissecting it, students can understand the inner workings of a story through the same process. Hopefully though, the magic of storytelling survives the process, unlike the poor frog! Use a fable your students are very familiar with to teach the essential parts of a story: character, setting, problem,climax, and resolution. Discuss the characters in the story and have them identify the setting. Discuss the links between types of character and suitable settings. Broaden this idea out to other writing genres such as science fiction, westerns, and horror. What patterns can your students uncover about the relationships between characters and settings? Now it’s time to get scientific! In groups, have students draw a graph with time along the horizontal axis and action along the vertical axis. Have students plot the various parts of the story (introduction of the characters and setting, problem, climax, resolution) as points along the axis. The points should move from left to right as they occur chronologically in the story. The higher the point is, the more dramatic the action. This is a great way for students to see the physical shape of a narrative arc. A simple version of this activity may involve students simply plotting the points and labeling them introduction, problem etc. However, more advanced students can also write captions that describe the action at the different stages. You may also wish to take the opportunity to make some cross curricular technology links here and have students construct their graphs digitally with a suitable software program. 5. Dragged Kicking and Screaming into the 21st Century Though many of traditional fables date back to around 500 BC, they have survived due to the timeless nature of their messages and the generality of the characters and settings. Now your students have a good understanding of how they work, have them rewrite the fables for the modern day. This will require them to get specific. Characters will become human and locations will be defined. This is a great way to reveal to students that the same theme can be given a number of different treatments; stories that seem markedly distinct can share an underlying moral. This activity can be differentiated by outcome, whereby more able students will produce more complex stories. While the less advanced students may stick tightly to the original, more advanced students may completely reinterpret the story with only the central moral remaining intact. A Word in Summary and an Extra Idea or Two The activities above can be used as one-off lessons or as a series of lessons exploring different aspects of fables: character, moral, sequence, and story structure. There is also a lot of scope here for continuing work based on the initial fables. Time spent getting to grips with a story can be utilized in other genres and for other learning objectives too. Perhaps you want to teach the writing of playscripts? You can teach the criteria for the genre and then set your students the task of adapting a fable to the playscript format. To develop public-speaking skills, have the students engage in an oral retelling of a fable or make a dramatic presentation of the story. There are innumerable opportunities, but don’t be in too much of a rush, for if The Tortoise and the Hare have taught us one thing, slow and steady wins the race... This tool assists students to create engaging fables based upon the model we have been using for generations. It is best printed in a larger format so as your students can visually represent their ideas alongside written ones and is completely free and available here. Whatever Donald Trump’s legacy as president of the United States becomes he will forever be known as the protagonist for bringing two key terms to the modern vocabulary. “Fake News” and “Alternative Truths” Whilst Trump’s delivery and intent of these terms are contentious there is no debate he called out the elephant in the room when talking about news and journalism in the context of modern technology. Facebook, Twitter, blogging and an endless army of social media tools have provided a platform for anyone with a WiFi connection and a device the opportunity to voice their opinion and consider themselves a journalist, social crusader, paid opinion or blatant liar... The propagation of questionable “news” content has skyrocketed out of control at pace with the growth of the internet. Content creation today is virtually free without any need for fact-checking or validation. Today’s news cycle is now driven by the need to be first as opposed to providing insight, truth and depth behind a story. Our students are growing up in a world dominated by fake news on the platforms they look too most frequently for truth and reassurance. 21st-century media is out of control, living off the reputation of two centuries of professional journalism operating within an environment in which printing, publishing and televising news was an expensive and competitive game in which “fake news” and “alternative truths” could sink an organisation and end a career in instantly. Mark Zuckerberg Facebook creator and founder has the loudest voice on earth, with 3.15 billion active users log into Facebook at least once per month. He has the loudest voice in history, and it’s not even close. No individual or organization has actively controlled what half the earth’s population can see, say or share. And all without any regulation. Facebook is valued at over $500 Billion, with Zuckerberg’s wealth entirely generated by selling our data. The flow of this data is controlled by algorithms. Secret algorithms that are completely hidden by Facebook. This denial of transparency underpinned by our governments who clearly value the profitability of big business over free speech, privacy and protection of our rights. We must understand that Facebook is drinking water from a fire hydrant here and get a lot more wrong than right. Mark Zuckerberg is still wiping the egg from his face after he was forced to admit they completely bungled the flow of information and content from Russian hackers that may potentially have put Trump in office. For Zuckerberg, a man with an endless cash flow, and the largest soapbox in history and surely has an eye on the White House at some point will be forever dogged as being asleep at the switch in a critical moment of global history. As educators, we must value this understanding of fake news, and a greater understanding of algorithmic design and suppression and release of data as an essential skill for our students. And we are already starting from a long way back. As teachers and education systems what are we doing to move fake news from the top of our news feed back to the “News of the world?” What skills and knowledge do our teachers and students need to outsmart a journalist who got their degree from Walmart. Sugata Mitra, globally renowned educational researcher believes today’s students need only three essential skills beyond a basic elementary education that are based on sorting facts from fiction, enquiring and acting. Skip ahead to 9:54 to hear Sugata Mitra discussing his three essential skills for modern students - Reading Comprehension - Information Search and Retrieval Skills - Teach students to both question and believe things they read and see. Mitra identifies these skills as essential for students in arming them with the skills to oppose doctrine and think and act for themselves. Teaching “Fake News” in the classroom is surely an essential skill for any student with access to social media and uses the internet to seek out information about the world around us. We need to teach them the key elements of fake news - Rumor Mill - Paid Opinions - Click bait - Fake News What are they? What is entertainment? What is news? How can I report or respond to this? The internet is not driven by free speech or good will, but by search engine optimization and keyword stuffing. Internet success is more about being page one on Google or first with a news story rather than being correct or the best at what you do. We have an obligation to our students to share this knowledge with them from a very young age. We need to explore and discuss what living in a world in which we cannot trust the media and news, in general, might be like. It’s quite frightening. Facebook is currently creating regime of doubt and mistrust in news and media as we speak but assures us “they have got this” Of course, we will never know as there is no transparency or government regulation around the content they run on Facebook. Ironically the government could shut down NBC tomorrow for major breaches of ‘Fake News” but they can do nothing to control Facebook. We must teach our students the difference between a fact and opinion. Twenty years ago it used to be what someone thinks as opposed to what was published in a nonfiction book such as an encyclopedia. Today a student probably considers what Siri tells them to be a fact, and maybe what their teacher tells them to be an opinion. The lines have become very blurred but we cannot avoid dealing with this issue. How do students seek a second opinion, be it on the internet or otherwise and what weight can I place on different news sources? These are all issues we just took for granted in a post-internet world. Technology is not going anywhere, and nor is our dependence upon it for news. Ignoring this issue will not make it go away. Become a teacher who understands and accepts that we are the products of organizations such as Google, Facebook and Amazon and if we see content or behavior in these spaces that simply does not pass the sniff test that we can either call it out or step off the train until we are comfortable it is taking us to a better place. Fake news has and always still exist but we just need to start teaching our students that in the real world they do not have to accept it. Every aspect of life has its own vocabulary. Jargon, lingo and terminology which is essential to function in that field of expertise and appear credible to those around you. As an English teacher, tutor or even a student there are some essential terms required to run and participate in an effective English class. Knowing these literary terms and their meanings will greatly enhance your students learning opportunities and enhance your own professional understanding of your craft. Hopefully, you already know most of these but here is the definitive list of what you need to know in order to 'walk the walk, and talk the talk' as a quality English teacher Accented: a word, syllable, or musical note or chord) stressed or emphasized. Allegory: A story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one. Alliteration: The occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. ‘the alliteration of ‘sweet birds sang’’ Analysis: Detailed examination of the elements or structure of something. Assonance: Resemblance of sound between syllables of nearby words, arising particularly from the rhyming of two or more stressed vowels, but not consonants (e.g. sonnet, porridge), but also from the use of identical consonants with different vowels (e.g. killed, cold, culled) ‘the use of assonance throughout the poem creates the sound of despair’ Ballad: A poem or song narrating a story in short stanzas. Traditional ballads are typically of unknown authorship, having been passed on orally from one generation to the next. Biography: An account of someone's life written by someone else. Character: A person in a novel, play, or film. - The mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual. Chiasmus: A rhetorical or literary figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order. Chronological: following the order in which they occurred. Cliche: A phrase or opinion that is overused and betrays a lack of original thought.‘that old cliché ‘a woman's place is in the home’’ Comparison: A consideration or estimate of the similarities or dissimilarities between two things or people. ‘they drew a comparison between Gandhi's teaching and that of other teachers’ Contrast: The state of being strikingly different from something else in juxtaposition or close association. ‘the day began cold and blustery, in contrast to almost two weeks of uninterrupted sunshine’ Description: A spoken or written account of a person, object, or event. Dialogue: A conversation between two or more people as a feature of a book, play, or film. Drama: A play for theatre, radio, or television. Epic: A long poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the past history of a nation. Fact: A thing that is known or proved to be true. Fantasy: A genre of imaginative fiction involving magic and adventure, especially in a setting other than the real world. Fiction: Literature in the form of prose, especially novels, that describes imaginary events and people. A figure of speech: A word or phrase used in a non-literal sense for rhetorical or vivid effect. Fairy Tale: A children's story about magical and imaginary beings and lands; a fairy story. Folk Tale: A story originating in popular culture, typically passed on by word of mouth. Form: The structure of a word, phrase, sentence, or discourse. Generalization: A general statement or concept obtained by inference from specific cases. Genre: A style or category of art, music, or literature. Hyperbole: Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally. Idiom: A group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words (e.g. over the moon, see the light). Imagery: Visually descriptive or figurative language, especially in a literary work. Inference: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. Irony: The expression of one's meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect. Kenning: A compound expression in Old English and Old Norse poetry with metaphorical meaning, e.g. oar-steed = ship. Metaphor: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. Moral: A lesson that can be derived from a story or experience. Motive: A reason for doing something. Narrative Poetry: Poetry that tells a story. Narrator: A person who narrates something, especially a character who recounts the events of a novel or narrative poem. Non-fiction: Prose writing that is informative or factual rather than fictional. Novel: A fictitious prose narrative of book length, typically representing character and action with some degree of realism. Ode: A lyric poem, typically one in the form of an address to a particular subject, written in varied or irregular meter. Onomatopoeia: the formation of a word from a sound associated with what is named (e.g. cuckoo, sizzle ). Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction (e.g. faith unfaithful kept him falsely true). Personification: The attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something non-human, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form. Plot: The main events of a play, novel, film, or similar work, devised and presented by the writer as an interrelated sequence. Poetry: Literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity by the use of distinctive style and rhythm; poems collectively or as a genre of literature. Point of view: (in fictional writing) the narrator's position in relation to a story being told. Predictions: A thing predicted; a forecast. Rhyme: A short poem in which the sound of the word or syllable at the end of each line corresponds with that at the end of another. Rhythm: The measured flow of words and phrases in verse or prose as determined by the relation of long and short or stressed and unstressed syllables. Science Fiction: Fiction based on imagined future scientific or technological advances and major social or environmental changes, frequently portraying space or time travel and life on other planets. Sequence: A particular order in which related things follow each other. Setting: The place or type of surroundings where something is positioned or where an event takes place. Simile: A figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind, used to make a description more emphatic or vivid (e.g. as brave as a lion). Solution: A means of solving a problem or dealing with a difficult situation. Stanza: A group of lines forming the basic recurring metrical unit in a poem; a verse. Theme: An idea that recurs in or pervades a work of art or literature. Voice: The distinctive tone or style of a literary work or author. Getting younger students to record their ideas in a logical and engaging manner can be tough. If you have reluctant writers in your classroom, you will appreciate how difficult it can be to get work from them demonstrating a clear understanding of what you have been teaching them. Finding alternatives to written work is not always easy to come across especially if there are deeper issues than the student simply being a reluctant writer such as a diagnosed learning condition. To counteract this issue I find Adobe Spark Video to be an incredibly easy to use on all devices. It is a powerful tool which as the name suggests relies mainly on visuals and images to share knowledge as opposed to writing down line after line of text. The other great thing about Adobe Spark Video is the polish it adds to presentations that make them far more engaging than your traditional PowerPoint or Keynote presentation. Simply giving students Adobe Spark Video and directions around a specific topic can sometimes leave them confused and seeking further clarification. To remedy this I have created a free template which you can download here that will ensure your students stay on task and have a clear direction about what they are supposed to be doing. Best of all the template can be adapted to any age group or topic area Argumentative writing may sound like a new concept or approach, but it is not. This term basically means to argue one’s opinion while understanding that there is an opposing side. Brought to the forefront with the adoption of the new ELA Common Core Standards, middle and high school students alike need practice in developing argumentative writing. This allows them to increase their comfort level in choosing a side on a controversial issue and developing their opinion using persuasive language and techniques. From there, writers should be able to think about the arguments or counterclaims that the opposing side would make in response. Not only should the author seek to provide these counterclaims, but to add support that dismisses the opposition’s argument. The argumentative graphic organizer is a strategic teaching tool that better equips students to develop this type of writing. This graphic organizer is designed to anticipate the needs of the readers, as well as have the author utilize a variety of detail types to develop their opinion with more than just fluffy, eloquent language.

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Drama may be stereotypically presumed as a group of people on stage following a script and acting it out. However, drama in the curriculum is rather diverse, and focusses more on the simple elements, such as understanding body language and emotions. Drama has also been said to enhance other areas in the curriculum (Woolland, 2010, p41), for example, health and wellbeing. For me, children generally expressing themselves is very important as it contributes well to our mental health. Participating in drama could also potentially increase confidence as children can present their work in front of others. This can also encourage meeting CfE outcome EXA 2-01a: I have experienced the energy and excitement of presenting/performing for audiences and being part of an audience for other people’s presentations/performances. Within the video, “Teaching Drama: A Structured Approach”, the drama facilitators had a clear structure to their lesson. They found that having a warm up, exploring some drama conventions, then having an evaluation discussion at the end was an effective way to teach children drama. They also had an “agreement” of “3 C’s” (communication, cooperation and concentration) and included a stimulus of photographs at the beginning to get ideas flowing. Some of the drama conventions used were still image/freeze frame, visualisation, soundscape and bodyscaping. The structure used conveys to work very well, the point in the warm up is to encourage decision making and physical activity. The stimulus is used to develop ideas and the drama conventions are great ways to explore different elements of drama. They also allow questions to develop and open up the discussion more. Lastly, evaluation of what the children have learned in the session is a good way to not only recap on their learning, but also to let the children calm down after such a physical, exciting lesson. The lesson as a whole meets a variety of the Es and Os, including EXA 2-12a, 2-13a and 2-14a. Assessing children through drama can be done in a variety of ways. Firstly, looking at their spacial awareness and body movements around others can be an indicator that the child understands that in order to present, we must have the appropriate space and be aware of our surroundings. Other things to look at can be: - Facial expressions - Eye contact - Roles taken on Also, it may not be a bad idea to let children assess one another, after all, it is simply peer learning and assessment, just as we would use in the classroom. It lets children get a better understanding when they watch another child who is maybe doing a different facial expression or body position which is more appropriate to the context, which can inspire a change of their previous thought. Drama is a great way for children to express themselves, can be applied to other areas of the curriculum, and can also help gain more confidence in children’s performance and expressive arts. If we could teach history though interactive learning, for example, acting out an important historic event, why shouldn’t we? It can promote and enhance learning if children are out of their seats and getting creative and involved instead of sitting on seats listening to the teacher talking, resulting in a better classroom atmosphere for all. TeachFind. (2006). Teaching Drama: A Structured Approach. [online]. Available at: http://archive.teachfind.com/ttv/www.teachers.tv/videos/ks1-ks2-drama-teaching-drama-a-structured-approach.html [Accessed 22 January 2019] Woolland, B. (2010). Teaching Primary Drama. Ebooks Corporation. I have come to realise that reflection is a crucial part of becoming a teacher. Taking constructive criticism has always been difficult for me, and over the first semester, peering into second, I am beginning to understand why it is essential, and why I should encourage people to watch over my practice and assess it. I understand that we cannot improve without critique. If we weren’t reviewed by others and ourselves, we would repeatedly be in the same position making the same mistakes, and for the interests of the children, we must use our professional development to benefit them and improve the quality of our practice. Education is an ever-changing profession, things such as the curriculum and legislation have changed over the years and it is up to us to stay in-date with relevant issues and topics, as well as policies and regulations to give future generations a good, informed education. Reflecting becomes important after lessons in the sense that we should always evaluate what went well and what could have been better. We should continually ask ourselves “How have the class responded?” and “What are my next steps?”. Although you may be challenging some of the children, maybe for others it was too difficult, which caused them to be disengaged. If a lesson in misunderstood by the whole class, there is of course no logic in progressing further and deeper into the subject. Next steps should be to adapt the lesson and maybe even our style to engage the children and encourage their understanding. Reflection allows us to answer questions such as, “What from your teaching has prevented the children from understanding?”, “Have you challenged the children enough, or too much?”, “What could I have done better to improve the children’s learning?”. Pulling out our own abilities and developing qualities from the lesson can encourage our personal development in order to enhance children’s education. In semester one during the working together module, I figured that speaking up and getting my voice heard wasn’t at all a bad thing. It was best for my group to get my opinion, as when we are qualified together, speaking up is important for the children and young people we will work with. Also in semester one, my involvement was restrictive and therefore restrictive to my learning. Moving forward, my confidence should continue to grow and I should ensure I get involved and keep up to date with reading, as I have found how much this can benefit my studies. I feel my realisation for personal development and reflection was at the beginning of semester two. I only began truly reflecting when we started our second semester and had a dance workshop. When I realised in the dance workshop that actually, getting involved can be enjoyable and that everyone in my class was in the same boat, I no longer wanted to be the shy girl I was in primary school again. I wanted to enjoy every moment of my studies, including through dance. I decided there that I would try to give everything my maximum effort when possible and that I should stop being embarrassed to participate. My confidence was limited in semester one and I thought speaking out in a lecture was a rather daunting thing. However, semester two has already taught me that getting involved heightens my learning and that I should believe in myself more. I should try to speak up in a lecture if I have an answer, I should try to throw myself into new things when appropriate, and I should definitely take constructive criticism! Not everything will be perfect, and sometimes, some things change depending on the day. It is now crucial for me to regularly reflect, otherwise, I would still be that shy girl from primary school, and not the best version of myself. A rush of anxiety flowed through me at a velocious pace when I heard our workshop was going to be on dance. I stereotypically pictured a dance workshop with mirrored walls and a choreographed routine that we would have to memorise and repeat. I recalled on memories from school where I was a hesitant child and didn’t enjoy joining in on active sessions or expressive arts, unless it was art such as painting and drawing. However, I persisted and rid the negative thoughts and memories from school, and went into the workshop with an open mind. After the workshop, I was surprised and overwhelmed by how much I actually enjoyed it! It especially made me realise that everyone can dance, and it doesn’t have to be a strict routine where only those who are fluent in dance are able to greatly participate. With being a shy child, I wasn’t one to express myself through things such as dance, or generally any exercise, so taking part in the workshop was a significant step for me in my self confidence, and not just in my studies. I have found that dancing is a great way for children to release anxiety and gain confidence which can contribute to other areas of the curriculum, not just the expressive arts. It can encourage critical thinking in children which they can apply to things such as their maths problems or creative writing, for example. If I were to use the lesson plan kindly given by Eilidh Slattery, I would be certain that children were working together in teams, thinking about sequencing and creating solutions to problems. All of these skills can be applied to other areas of the curriculum as well as in every day life. I haven’t realised until now the affect these types of activities can have on children, as these are well needed skills which are being taught through dance. After reading ‘Get Scotland Dancing’, a Scottish Government policy by Creative Scotland, I gained a better understanding as to why we have to get more people dancing. Key findings from the Scottish Health Survey reported that although 70-72% of children under 10 meet the Recommended Physical Activity (RPA), this figure reduces to 50% as the children progress into teenagers (age 13-15). The RPA for children is 60 minutes of physical activity per day. Some schools can only stretch in an hour a week for a PE session, which can be considered unacceptable, as in this generation, a lot of children are going home to play on their online devices and therefore are less likely to be playing actively outdoors. Get Scotland Dancing managed to achieve 546 dance events (and 74,636 participants!) with 448 of those events being over Scotland. With how important exercise and keeping active is, I’d like to think this was a great achievement. I chuckled at the title of, “What? Me? Teach Dance?” by Russell-Bowie (2013), as I felt it was fitting to myself. With having no dance background, I found this article interesting to read, with its conclusions being that nationality backgrounds may play a fair part in teachers’ abilities and willingness to teach dance. In South Africa, participants were much more confident in teaching dance to their classes and strongly agreed/agreed that they had a stronger background in dance compared to those from Western countries. This was because they have been raised around dance from birth and it is a cultural thing for them to take part in. 34% of all participants said they did not enjoy or feel confident teaching dance, and only 20% said they felt they had at least a “good” dance background. If we continue to increasingly teach dance in the UK, wouldn’t we gradually find it more accepting and enjoyable to teach? Through the workshop, I have been shown that dance can certainly be for everyone. I would like to go into schools with this attitude to show the children who are as shy as I was, that dance can be fun and refreshing! All it takes is some effort and an open mind, and the best thing to do is to give it a go and join in! It does not have to be a complicated, hard-to-remember sequence or a daunting performance, but just an enjoyable, creative lesson and routine for children to express themselves, and to give an opportunity to work on different skills and abilities. I am particularly glad that I had the chance to take part in this workshop, as it was very insightful, and I now feel a great amount more confident with teaching the expressive art of dance. Creative Scotland. (2014). Get Scotland Dancing: A Literature Review. [online]. Scottish Government. Available at: https://www.creativescotland.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/26149/GSDLitReviewv2.pdf (Accessed on: 12 January 2019) Creative Scotland: Get Scotland Dancing, 2014. Phase Two. Evaluation Report. [online]. Scottish Government. Available at: https://www.creativescotland.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/31626/Get-Scotland-Dancing-Phase-2-Evaluation-Report.pdf (Accessed on: 12 January 2019) Russell-Bowie, Deirdre, E. (2013). What? Me? Teach Dance? Background and confidence of primary preservice teachers in dance education across five countries. Research in Dance Education. V(14.3). P216-232. After the input on Tuesday’s lecture on Values, I found myself slightly itching with how uncomfortable I had felt because of how little the world has really come over so many decades. The realisation of the fact Racism is still so current honestly disheartens me. I will never understand why people of 2018 still think it is acceptable to judge someone from simply the colour of their skin. Why does this matter so much to people? Groups like the Ku Klux Klan are still present to this day, from around 1865. Surely after 100+ years, political responses and Civil Rights movements should be enough to change someones mind about how we are treating others. Why is this not the case? Why did Rosa Parks stand her ground on that bus, just for the future to still contain racism? Why have millions of people marched for rights, just for their children to still be brought up in this world, which has changed so little? In the news, we are still faced with racist stories and headlines every so often. We hear of a black man being shot in America because “he was posed a threat”, however was nothing of the sort. I never realised how lucky I am to be a white, female, UK citizen until this input. It was astonishing to say the least, to see a quote from only 2016, claiming, “they hate white people because white people are successful and they’re not,”. My eyes have been opened to a different way of thinking – a deeper way – to understand why racism is still apparent. While watching Clint Smith’s TEDTalk on “How to Raise a Black Son in America”, I was pushed to see an insight to a black child’s life growing up in America. Children are having their childhoods almost stripped when they are simply trying to live their child lives, making mistakes and building resilience. However, Clint Smith recalls of a time with his friends in a low-lit area having fun with water guns, hiding and dodging behind cards, then quickly being taken by his father with an “unfamiliar grip” back inside. His father apologised to him, explaining that he “can’t act like his white friends”, hiding behind cars holding a fake gun. Parents and their children are existing in fear and cannot afford to make any mistakes living in America around white police. It is an extremely sad reality. Regarding the police force, interesting statistics showed that in 2010, 10.5% of white people were drug users, with only 5.8% of black people being drug users. However, the stats for being stopped and searched show that black people are 6x more likely to be stopped than white people. Why should black people have to put up with this? How does this make any sense? A percentage of black people are also sceptical that the country will make changes for racial equality. I am certainly not saying I was unaware of racism existing, but the amount of it is overwhelming, and in my opinion, the changes in the world have not been enough over the years. We must strongly influence change on the upcoming generations to hopefully change future opinions, because racism is unacceptable. “All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from common stock. They are born equal in dignity and rights, and all form an integral part of humanity.” – UNESCO 1982 On Tuesday afternoon, we had our first values workshop. It consisted of 4 groups, and each table had their own pack of materials to work with. Everything inside was all we had to work with to create something which would benefit a new student. The package my group received had a range of luxurious materials. We discussed our ideas which resulted in creating a double layered pencil case with a map on the outside. It also contained different, colourful information cards inside. However, the point of the task was not how well we worked together, or what we came up with to help students; it was to highlight the fact we can be quite submissive in noticing how different groups can be treated differently by society, depending on what we have. The groups with the packs of rich materials lacked the consideration to notice that the other groups had a basic supply of resources to work with, and that the lecturer was treating everyone differently (the richer-material groups were gaining attention and on the contrast the groups with less resources were going unnoticed). In all honesty, it was a big eye opener for me. Have I always been this passive? Is this a good thing, because then I do not notice people for what they lack or have, I just see the group as simply another group of people? Or is it a bad thing – that I selfishly do not see what negativity is happening to other groups around me? I do believe the way we are raised can be fed into our personal beliefs and values. As a teacher, I feel it is important to not treat anyone different just because they are from a certain group; whether it be race, gender or anything else. I want to teach children this when they are young while their brains are still making their set decisions on others, so that they can go out into the world and be respectful of everyone and their beliefs. Nowadays, I think being non-judgemental is a good trait to have. We have a lot of variation in people who are open and happy to share their lifestyles; whether this be around religion, gender roles, or any other personal choice. To finally reflect on the meaning of this workshop, I understand that as a teacher it is crucial not to treat children differently regarding things such as their economic backgrounds, as of course, just because a child may have limited resources, does not mean they are any less than any other child in the classroom. Lots of families are effected by inequalities, and it is an educators job to support them as much as possible, and not let them go unnoticed. A frequently asked question: What made you want to be a teacher? Honestly, I don’t have a specific reason as to why I would like to become a teacher. So many things over the years have contributed to where I am today, influencing my decision to apply for Primary Teaching. However, there are key elements which I can highlight which I have taken from my own school experiences. Firstly, my primary 5-7 teacher is one of the biggest reasons I am studying at Dundee University today. Over the 3 years, she got to know me on a personal level, knowing my interests, abilities and preferences. To me, she was more than a teacher; she was a friend, a guardian, and a safe place to confide in. The relationship we shared was created over the 3 years we had spent together, her caring nature captivated me, influencing me to begin my career path as a teacher. Throughout high school, I began to doubt my career options. I varied between midwifery/nursing, and early years practice/primary teaching. I felt I wasn’t good enough to be teaching future generations, until I met my new art teacher in S5. She is another key character in my teaching journey, who continually encouraged me to keep going with my studies to ensure I achieved the best outcome from school. She sat with me while I researched the teaching roles and helped me with my personal statement for University. She was truly there for me when I needed support and I will always appreciate that. These two women are the passionate, considerate, inspiring role models who I took a lot of advice and motivation from, and are part of the many reasons why I am aiming to be a teacher. I want to bring the same, supportive, approachable role model to my future pupils, and offer them a warm, comfortable environment, similar to the experience I was lucky enough to have. Another reason regarding my want to become a teacher would have to be based on how much I really enjoyed school, and the people there who were around me. The primary school I attended, in a considerably deprived area, is now the primary school of the majority of my younger family. In high school, I felt embarrassed to admit where I had attended P1-7, due to the stigma around my scheme. It took me a while to realise that it does not matter where a school is situated, it is about who is inside, that makes it a successful school. My 3 sisters and I (age range 11-31) attended the school, and now their children attend. The auxiliary nurse still remembers all of our names after all of these years and still welcomes us back with open arms whenever we visit. The school’s staff always ensured you felt comfortable, and still continue to do so. To me, education is about shared learning between enthusiastic teachers and willing pupils; it is about a thriving environment with multiple opportunities to offer; it is about the relationships, the bonds and the personal progression of everyone inside. All-in-all, to me, education does not matter where it is situated, and it is not just about mathematics and literacy, it is so much more. Welcome to blogs.glowscotland.org.uk – Glow Blogs. This is your first post. Edit or delete it, then start blogging!

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|Objective||Building a portfolio of their project works that can serve future plans| Modern humans are often seen as superior to other animals in a wide range of cognitive and behavioral domains. Researchers have adopted comparative approaches to find out which mechanisms underlying human intelligence, social cognition, communication and other complex behaviors are shared with other species. In this course we will look at studies investigating the behavior of non-human animals and the research methods used to understand it. To what extent can we find parallels for complex human behavior in non-human species? What can we learn about human cognition and behavior from the comparative approach? Issues such as the emergence of culture, social imitation, language, domestication and ethics will be addressed using data on various species including birds, primates and dolphins. We will read and discuss literature on animal cognition and gain hands-on practice with the design and presentation of a scientific poster, which will be displayed at a poster festival in the last week of the course. Objective: This course will give an overview of the comparative approach towards an understanding of human and non-human cognition. Examination: Poster presentation, homework assignments, student participation in class Starting academic year 2017-2018, this course replaces the course "Web Technology". |Objective||See course description "Learning Outcomes"| Language is a major characteristic that makes humans unique as a species. How did we get from the chirps, howls and calls of monkeys and apes to the complex and sophisticated signal of human speech? What is the origin of this unique form of communication? This is a question that has fascinated researchers since long ago. Yet, we do not have a clear picture of how language arose and what it is exactly that gives humans the ability to use it. Until relatively recently it was hard to approach questions on language evolution without resorting to speculation because there is not much obvious tangible evidence to be found in this area. Researchers therefore had to come up with creative methods to tackle questions on the origins of language. In this research seminar we will take an interdisciplinary journey through the field of language evolution and explore the many creative ways evidence can be gathered to study the origins of this unique human trait. We will look at widely varying theories and review methods and results from research in genetics, computer simulations, field work data on emerging sign languages, laboratory experiments and comparisons with other cultural systems like music. Language can be seen as a complex adaptive dynamical system that evolves and constantly adapts to the humans that are learning and using it. What kind of mechanisms support this process of cultural evolution? How can we study it in a quantitative way? How does all this new data fit with original theories on the origins of language? We will explore current literature and experiment with computational and in-class simulations of language evolution processes. This course will help create an understanding of the breadth of the field of language evolution and the creative and interdisciplinary approach needed to investigate its questions. - After successful completion of this course, the learner will be able to: - Identify and list the many creative ways evidence can be gathered to study the origins of language - Describe different theories that have been proposed - Design and implement a computer model to study aspects of language evolution - Evaluate and draw conclusions from computer modeling work - Evaluate and judge laboratory experiments that study aspects of language evolution - Observe, analyze and report on the experimental live emergence of an artificial language - Summarize how mechanisms of cultural evolution shape language - Generate ideas for future studies and creative use of data in the field of Language Evolution More information regarding examinitions, literature, assignments, schedules, etc., can be found on the course's Blackboard page. Starting academic year 2017-2018, this course replaces the course "Perceptualization". |Teacher(s)||Marcello Gómez Maureira| The 'Graduation Lab' is a weekly two-hour session in which students in their graduation phase discuss recent developments, challenges, and successes in their graduation projects. Every research project comes with a multitude of decisions to make and steps that could be taken. In the Graduation Lab, these steps will be discussed as a group with the goal of strengthening both the quality of the individual projects, as well as the analytical skills of their authors. Meeting regularly with other graduates has proven to be a strong contributor to graduation success and increases the enjoyment of the process. While the lab is specifically aimed at students in their graduation phase, students who still have ample time before starting their projects are welcome to participate. (image: old pencil sketches and grafitti by Leiden University students awaiting their final exam inside the Academy building; a tradition that is still honoured among Leiden graduates in slightly modified form.) Research Seminar: Social Technologies |Objective||Investigating technologies that support social living in the light of human evolution and exploring novel ways in which technology can create, maintain, or extend social ties.| |Teacher(s)||Max van Duijn| |Number of Classes||~7| |Examination||Homework assignments and research project| What have telling stories around the campfire, playing football, dancing on a festival, and spending time on Facebook in common? If we follow our evolutionary lineage back a few million years, we find a social primate that populated parts of the African continent. This primate lived in small-scale communities of around 40-60 individuals, about the same size as the groups formed by present-day chimpanzees and bonobos. Over time, however, our ancestors started living in social environments of ever increasing size and complexity. With groups growing larger, individuals had to spend more time maintaining their social networks and cognitive processing of social information became more demanding. As a consequence, we had to develop bigger and more powerful brains, and find more efficient ways of forming and maintaining social bonds than how most members of the primate family do this: through grooming. In this research seminar a fascinating, adventurous hypothesis will be worked out: various “inventions” presumed to be characteristic of early human societies, such as the production of art, story-telling, dance, or ritualistic behaviours, can be viewed as social technologies supporting the formation and maintenance of complex social networks. What is the evidence supporting this hypothesis, and what could lead to its rejection? How does it relate to modern media and communication technologies? How can future technological developments affect the deep primate roots of our social structures? And what can the study of social technologies over millions of years teach us about the possibilities and limitations of social life in modern mass-societies? Through active engagement with scientific literature and hands-on investigation of how people use present-day social (media) technologies, a rich and diverse perspective on this hypothesis will emerge. Sciences & Humanities |Objective||Gaining insight in how the sciences and humanities differ in their research objectives, methods, and approaches to knowledge production, and understanding their distinct roles in modern societies.| |Teacher(s)||Max van Duijn| |Number of Classes||~6| |Examination||Homework assignments and written exam| Most people know Pythagoras, Copernicus, Darwin, Einstein, or Crick, and are probably able to indicate in a few words what their main discoveries are. But who can do the same for Panini, Scaliger, Whorf, Wittgenstein, Chomsky, Propp, or Foucault? First, this course focuses on discoveries across both the humanities and sciences that have impacted on the way we see the world throughout the ages. What were the methods used by the great minds who made these discoveries, and what were their motives and drivers? Next, the focus shifts to the current divide in the academic world between scientists and humanists. The “two cultures” will be investigated from a historical and science-philosophical perspective, as well as through hands-on experience. Students with a background in the sciences will engage in a small research project using methods and materials from the humanities, and students with a background in the humanities will take up a small scientific research project. The course concludes with a discussion of opportunities and challenges for “consilience” through multidisciplinary and topic-oriented scholarship. New Media New Technologies |Objective||To understand new media and technologies, and to critically reflect upon them| |Number of Classes||5| In new media one trend, technology or fad quickly follows the next. For anyone with an interest in media technology it is important to be up to date with the latest and greatest, from augmented reality to social networking, and from three dimensional printing to location aware services. However it is equally important to be able to critically reflect on these trends, to identify what is really novel and what is merely a hype. This course covers a range of the latest new media technologies and concepts, organized by more timeless themes such as new media history, social relationships, space and intelligent perception and action, so that these technologies can be placed into perspective. The course is a mix of lectures and practical assignments, and students are asked to create a product that incorporates a new technology or concept and motivate why it is not just a gimmick or hype. Essentials in Art & Music |Objective||Extend student knowledge about art and to create a foundation to approach their work from an artistic perspective| |Teacher(s)||Edwin van der Heide, Taco Stolk| |Number of Classes||5| |Examination||To be announced in class| This course focusses on a number of important developments through the history of all art disciplines. This ranges from realized and unrealized artworks to concepts and artistic approaches. These developments will be studied in order to get a better understanding of creative thought in past and present, and to be able to connect those to personal points of view. The aim of the course is to extend your knowledge about art, to build a foundation to approach your work from an artistic perspective, and to develop your creative research capabilities regarding various cultural contexts. |Objective||To develop, research and describe a complete scientific project, preferably alone.| Each student must choose an individual topic or theme on which he/she would like to graduate. To complete the graduation project, a students must formulate her/his own scientific question and setup a research to answer it. Personal inspiration can play a large role in coming up with a research question, and creativity is often required to answer it. Graduation project output The research motivation, context, method and outcome are described by the student in a scientific style paper, that in principle could be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal or conference. Such a paper is typically 10-15 pages. However, other thesis formats are allowed, such as books, columns, and popular science works. Most graduation projects create some product to answer the research question: something that can be "experienced" -- seen, smelled, tasted, touched or heard. Are you planning to graduate? Then read the detailed Graduation Project Procedures. Exhibition: Statement to Experience |Objective||To learn how to develop a concept from a theme, and realize it in an exhibition context. The concept development is by far the most important aspect in this.| |Teacher(s)||Various scientific staff members| Throughout every student's third semester in the programme, a project is scheduled in which groups of students work towards realizing an actual product or installation. However, the process of researching while creating the product is as important as the product itself. Themes and coaches All projects start from their own theme, and students can also suggest new themes. A coach (scientific staff member) assists every project team. The final product must be experiencable in a public exhibition and critically challenge its audience. It typically includes a media component as well as a technical component. The project ends with an exhibition in a gallery that is open to the general public, and in which all products are exhibited. This exhibition may be part of a city-wide cultural event. Many interesting projects that resulted from the Media Technology programme were created within the Semester Project. Language & Text |Objective||Comprehension of the complexity of language generation and hands-on experience with applications.| |Number of Classes||10| |Examination||Assignments and written exam| Speech and text are very special media because they enable to express relatively complex information. Therefore, the usage of speech and text is a privilege to humans. This course discusses the structure of language and how this structure plays a role in the automatic generating of speech and text. Topics that are dealt with are amongst others state-of-the-art language regenerating systems and their diverse applications. During lab-time students will experiment with software that automatically generates poems. |Objective||Enabling students to decide which medium is the most representative for their goal, but is not necessarily the easiest solution.| |Number of Classes||5| The creation of a piece of art implies the choice of the medium, which already is an artistic choice. In the Meta Media classes students learn to integrate this choice in the artistic process. To achieve this, a theoretical framework is presented in which (cultural-) philosophy, conceptual art and the possibilities of the new, digital media is discussed. Furthermore, a wide range of old and new, simple and complex, conventional and unusual media is studied from the point of view of applicability for the arts. Hardware & Physical Computing |Objective||To understand processors, sensors, and actuators. Having hands-on experience with building a small computer and using this in a physical installation.| |Teacher(s)||Paul Jansen Klomp, additional class by Maarten Lamers| |Number of Classes||8| This course is about connecting computers to the physical world. We are used to connecting ourselves to computers, for example via keyboard, mouse, monitor, and touch screen. However, many creative computing applications require a computer to connect to the physical world via other sensors (buttons, dials, thermometers, distance sensors, gps, pressure sensors, accelerometers, light sensors, ...) and actuators (motors, steppermotors, servo's, leds, lcd's, electrical appliances, ...). Typical application domains where computers sense and act in the physical world are experimental devices, robotics, tactile interaction, home automation and interactive installations. This course is available ONLY for Media Technology MSc students. This course introduces physical computing and interfacing via the Arduino open-source hardware platform. Arduino's are inexpensive and popular micro-controller boards. Students learn to build their own Arduino board and must then apply it in a creative computing project — they must build an interactive installation or robot. Read more about Arduino. The course takes a very hands-on approach. Examination is through project work. Reading materials are supplied in class. |Objective||Introduction to various basic internet and web technologies and enabling design of alternative technologies/solutions| |Teacher(s)||Enrique Larios Vargas| |Number of Classes||8| |Examination||Assignments and written examination| Web Technology is a course about several Internet-related technologies. It teaches the basic workings of the web. Why the basic workings? Because understanding them enables students to come up with alternative strategies to solve web-problems and achieve new web-goals. Students will be encouraged to find their own solutions, e.g. come up with alternative and new web-protocols. internetworking - protocol stacks - IP, TCP, UDP and HTTP protocols - Open Sound Control (OSC) protocol - semantic web - streaming media - MP3 encoding - peer-to-peer file sharing - BitTorrent protocol - TOR Onion Routing - "Is there a future for the world-wide web?" This course specifically does not cover web-design issues, and does not teach you HTML (those skills are assumed). It is about how the Internet works, how the World Wide Web functions and what you could add to this. The format is interactive and kaleidoscopic, integrating lectures, guest lectures, and programming demonstrations. Examination is through a final exam. Full class attendance is compulsory. Reading materials are distributed electronically in class. Sound, Space & Interaction |Teacher(s)||Edwin van der Heide| |Number of Classes||7| |Examination||1 presentation day| This course will focus on many topics in parallel: basics about sound and timbre, basics about acoustics, communication models incorporating space (and distance) and interaction models based on sound. The assignment of the course is as follows: students are supposed to make an interactive application that communicates with the audience/participant(s)/user(s) solely by means of sound. In order to achieve this you have to design your own communicating sonic language. The assignment has to be realized with the Pure Data programming environment. Basics about Pure Data will be addressed both in the classes and in the labs. |Objective||Gaining insight into perceptualization of information via theory, discussion and examples.| |Teacher(s)||Edwin van der Heide, Maarten Lamers| |Number of Classes||~7| |Examination||Homework, projects and presentations| The term "perceptualization" was coined specifically for this course. It describes the translation of signals and information to modalities that appeal to any of the human senses. As such, it generalizes the terms "visualization" and "sonification" to include all other senses. We study such perceptualizations, with particular focus on how properties of a perception systems can be used to optimally convey information. In this course, history, theory, practice, and examples of information perceptualization are studied and discussed. Lectures are combined with reading homework, student presentations and a student project. Full attendance is compulsory. If you have questions, or want to attend the course as a guest student, contact the teachers via firstname.lastname@example.org. Study Trip to Ars Electronica Festival |Objective||Offer a source of inspiration and knowledge for new Media Technology students, and a basis for discussion and critical thought| At the start of each academic year, all new Media Technology students go on a study trip to the Ars Electronica Festival in Linz, Austria. Since 1979 Ars Electronica has been the world's most outstanding forum of electronic art. State-of-the-art works of hundreds of artists from dozens of countries are presented in a festival that consists of exhibitions, demonstrations, performances, lectures, conferences, films, outside events, meetings and parties of all kinds. Over four days students are faced with many sides of the electronic arts: creative aims, technological means, scientific consequences, artistic qualities, ecological and ethical questions, and the social consequences of the spread of new media. It offers a source of inspiration and knowledge for new Media Technology students, and a basis for discussion with which to start their studies. Incidently, the study trip is a great way to meet your fellow students. Ask our alumni and second year students about their experiences. To join us, a minor fee for travel and stay must be paid by students. The Media Technology office arranges travel by bus, stay at a youth hostel, and substantial discount on festival passes. International students must themselves take care of appropriate visa (travel is through Germany and Austria). The visit is shared with new students of the ArtScience program. Students unable to join the study trip can submit a petition to do an alternative course or project instead. Introduction to Programming |Objective||To learn computer programming in such a way that technology will not be a holdback for executing a project.| |Teacher(s)||Marcello A. Gómez Maureira| |Number of Classes||10| |Examination||Assignments and a written exam| The Introduction to Programming course deals with the basic principles of programming: what is programming and how to write a program to achieve a task? The objective of the course is to get familiar with programming technology in order to prepare students for later projects in which computer technology is employed. The fundamentals of programming are discussed by means of the relatively easy language Processing, that is similar to Java. The Processing language simplifies programming of visual programs, and yields immediate graphical output. It is ideal for understanding the basics of computer programming. Additionally the basics of Pure Data are included in the course. Small assignments help students apply the topics discussed in class and larger assignments on which they can release their creativity. During lab time there is assistance present to help students with specific aspects of the assignments. |Objective||To deepen the student's knowledge of specific scientific topics, in preparation of the individual graduation project.| Part of the curriculum is reserved for elective courses. This enables students to gain deeper insight into scientific topics of their choice and prepare them optimally for the individual graduation project. Elective courses can be for instance in the fields of Computer Science, Psychology, Art History, Linguistics, Philosophy, etcetera. The Media Technology programme does not compile lists of available courses. Elective courses offered by Leiden University can be found in the E-studyguide. Elective courses may also be followed at other universities. Students applying for elective courses should carefully read: How to apply for elective courses, and other rules. Image & Vision: Embodied Vision |Objective||Film history (illusionism) and study of film| |Teacher(s)||Dan North and other lecturers| |Number of Classes||8| |Examination||Essay and final project| The course consists of 8 sessions in total. Four sessions are classical lectures (hoorcollege) by Dan North, collectively discussing a topic. Three other sessions will be a workshop by Robin de Lange, with the last session as presentations. All sessions have compulsory attendance. The connecting threads between the four classes will be special effects and illusionism, either in the service of narrative, spectacle, or affective responses from viewers (as in the 'effects' of experimental cinema), and editing, which can be used to effect a transformation, construct spatiotemporal continuity, or create associative montages. This is thus a set of classes that take an angle on film history (illusionism), and also introduce some of the key concepts underpinning the study of film. Course work and grading To successfully complete the course, students must: 1. Attend all sessions (attendance is registered). Failing to attend sessions may affect the final grade. 2. Write an essay about the topic of the 4 collective classes. 3. Complete a project about a topic of the workshops. Details about the assignments will be communicated by the lecturers during the course. Separate submission dates are scheduled for the essay assignment and project assignment. Scientific Narration & Visualization |Number of Classes||10| |Examination||To be announced in class| This course focuses on the last part of a scientific project: presenting results and explaining insights. Hence, it can be seen as an extension of the course Creative Research. As that course deals with unconventional scientific questions and research methods, the course Scientific Narration and Visualization deals with unconventional ways of conveying scientific insights. I.e. all forms besides scientific articles and scientific posters. This course is different compared to e.g. data visualization as it deals with conveying understanding instead of data. The main learning goal of this course it to make students aware of the drawbacks and advantages of the various forms, such that they will be able to use the most appropriate form for their case. My goal this year is to get input for a textbook on this matter. Structure of lessons Each lesson consists of three parts. In part one we discuss the assignments of the previous week. Starting from lesson IV as only after lesson III the homework assignments start. I will select three works that we will discuss in class. So be prepared to present your assignment. In part two we will discuss the reading material of that week. And in part three, I will present series of examples that illustrate the reading material of that week. Mode of Instruction Lectures, self study There is a weekly assignment running five times, starting after lesson III. And there is a larger assignment to end this course with. Both assignments count for 50% of the final grade. The weekly assignment has the following form: select the form that was discussed in class, and combine that form with a scientific topic, in order to explain (part of) that topic. You can use the suggestions from the following table, but you may also try your own topic, as long as it belongs to the natural sciences. I won’t provide reading material for the underneath topics; it is your responsibility to study the topic of your choice. - Metaphors we live by, G. Lakoff & M. Johnson (1980), p1-55. - Understanding by design, G. Wiggins & J. McTighe (2005), p35-55. - Understanding needs embodiment, K. Niebert, S. Marsch & D. Treagust (2012). - The Oxford book to modern science writing, R. Dawkins (2008), p232-266. - Using narratives and storytelling to communicate science with nonexpert audiences, M. Dahlstrom (2014), PNAS, Sep.16, 2014, Vol. 111, p13614-13620, http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1320645111 - Storytelling, M. Krzywinski & A. Cairo (2013), Nature methods, Vol 10, No. 8, p687. Plus comments in the same journal! (Against storytelling & Should scientists tell stories?) - The Role of Narrative in Communicating Science, L. Avraamidoua & J. Osborne (2009), International Journal of Science Education Vol. 31, No. 12, p1683-1707. - Aristotle’s ladder, Darwin’s tree, J.D. Archibald (2014), p1-21. Graphs & infographics: - Envisioning information, E.R. Tufte (1990), ch4&6. - The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, E.R. Tufte (2001), p40-43. - Trees, Maps & Theorems, J-l Doumont (2009). Film, play & animation : - Dynamic visualizations and learning, R. Ploetzner et al. (2004), p235-240 & p343-351. - Animation: can it facilitate? B. Tversky & J.B. Morrison (2002). Experiments & objects: - Experiments in science and science teaching, D. Hodson (1988), Educational philosophy and theory, 20:2, p53-66. - Wandering seminar on scientific objects, S. Vackimes & K. Weltersbach (2007), p19-34 & p129-139. Via programme coordinator Barbara Visscher-van Grinsven: email@example.com, 071-527 6994 Research Seminar: Artificial Intelligence |Objective||Goal of the course is to learn studying, processing and presenting scientific material, and to learn about artificial intelligence.| |Number of Classes||~15| |Examination||Homework tests, student presentations, attendance.| Due to the seminar-structure of the course only a limited number of students can be enrolled. Students enrolled in the Media Technology MSc program are automatically enrolled and have priority over other students. This course studies the topic of artificial intelligence, in its broadest sense. It covers various sexy topics from the field of artificial intelligence, to the level that should enable students to discuss AI comfortably with other scientists. The topics include the question of whether machines can think, evolutionary computation, neural networks, computing with DNA, computers and emotions, biological computations, artificial creativity, and more. The selected topics were chosen to be practically applicable, or to make students think about future directions of artificial intelligence. Seminar-style imples that presentations are mainly held by the students themselves, with much plenary discussion and interaction. Active participation and full class attendance are required to pass the course. Examination is based on student presentations, homework tests, and attendance. Reading material is distributed electronically in class. The course is open to students from other programmes and institutes also, insofar as it was not yet filled up, and only with explicit permission from the instructor. Human Computer Interaction & Information Visualization |Objective||Knowledge of theory and underlying mechanisms of interface design, combined with hands-on experience.| |Number of Classes||26| |Examination||Assignments, final project, paper and written exam| This course covers theory and underlying mechanisms of human-computer interface design and implementation. The theoretical part deals with topics such as human perception, cognitive processes, limitations of human memory, metaphors, icons, widgets and user-centered design. During lab-time the underlying implementation of interfaces is discussed. Topics covered are (amongst others) object-oriented interface design, basic computer graphics, event handling, windowing systems, toolkits and cut/copy/paste techniques. The course is very much hands-on oriented; the results of the lab assignments play an important role in the determination of a students’ final result. This course is also being attended by Computer Science students. Media Technology students are expected to actively participate with them. |Objective||Understanding the principles and organization of science, and understanding the importance and possibilities for being creative in scientific research.| |Number of Classes||~13| |Examination||Final project, written paper, presentation, homework assignments, student participation in class, attendance.| "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advances in science." — Albert Einstein Creativity is an important factor in scientific innovation. In this course, principles and organization of scientific research are presented, and through examples the concept of "creative research" is introduced. With that we mean actual scientific research that was brought about in unconventional or creative ways, in order to come to results that could otherwise not be envisioned or achieved. Topics of the course are principles of science, organization of the scientific world, scientific publication, creative and unconventional research, asking the right questions, finding the right data, and creative scientific output. Student participation is high, with multiple homework assignments, a final research project and presentations. Class attendance is compulsory. Participants must do a final research project and write a paper about this. If you have questions, or want to attend the course as a guest student, contact the teacher via firstname.lastname@example.org.

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Often books on mythology conveniently forget that myth stories were once all believed to be "true" (in some sense). The problem arises when we try to figure out in what sense. For example, most Greeks probably believed that there was a god in the sky named Zeus, but did they really believe that this god had all those affairs with mortal women? Because belief is often so personal and individual, questions like this are hard to answer. The question of belief is especially difficult to unravel in polytheistic ["many gods"] systems, because worshippers often follow personal, family, or local gods rather than bothering about the pantheon ["all the gods"] as a whole. Also, polytheistic religions often lack centralized priesthoods and/or central sacred texts which are considered the word of god(s). In general, polytheistic systems allow for a greater latitude of belief than monotheistic ["one god"] religions do, if only because these systems offer a greater variety of deities to worship. In this course, students and the instructor will respect individual beliefs while also exploring the many ways of reading and understanding religious stories. Early philosophers tried to rationalize the fantastic events in myth by claiming that they were distortions of historical fact. One of these fellows was a Greek named Euhemerus (c. 300 BC), who gave his name to any theory that claims that the gods were originally historical heroes who were later deified. While this sort of euhemerism (Zeus seen as an ancient tribal hero who gradually took on attributes of a god, for example) is considered naive by some, theorists still look for historical truths hidden behind mythological stories. For example, (sticking with Zeus for a moment) many scholars see the thunder god's many love affairs with goddesses and mortal women as a reflection of Greek religious history: nomadic, sky-god worshipping invaders from the north came into the Greek peninsula to find an agricultural, goddess-worshipping people. The invaders (and their god, Zeus) took over, but not before adapting aspects of the goddess-worship of the natives. Each "marriage" of Zeus would then signify that the two religious traditions had been combined into one belief-system. (Sky-god marries earth-goddess: see "Gods and Men in Greek Religion" below.) Since the end of the 19th century, archeologists have searched for the site of the historical Troy. It is generally agreed now that a site near Hissarlik, in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) is the historical Troy. It is even most likely that the Bronze Age Greeks went to war with the Trojans: as M. I. Finley puts it, "War was normal in that world" (40). No one can say for certain, however, whether a 10-year war was fought over a woman by heroes with names and personalities like those in Homer. The chief differences between modern historical interpretation and ancient euhemerism are these: (1) the moderns are sometimes more cautious in sifting the historical evidence, (2) they have more evidence, archeological and textual, to sift, and (3) while modern euhemerists seem quite willing to investigate the historicity of heroes like Odysseus and Gilgamesh, no one seems willing to state that gods like Zeus and Prometheus were actually historical figures. Early philosophers were also disturbed by the seemingly immoral or amoral actions of their gods. The Greek philosopher Xenophanes (fl. c. 530 BC) wrote: "Homer and Hesiod have attributed to the gods all the things that are shameful and scandalous among men: theft, adultery, and mutual treachery" (quoted in Curtius 204). In order to rescue myth (and the gods) from charges of immorality, the philosophers decided that these fantastic stories must be hiding deep truths beneath their improbable exteriors. This method of interpretation is called (the story parallels and illustrates the deeper philosophical sense). Ernst Robert Curtius states that the allegorizing of myth "was in harmony with one of the basic characteristics of Greek religious thought: the belief that the gods express themselves in cryptic form--in oracles, in mysteries" (205). Though some philosophers like the Roman Stoic Seneca (4 BC-65 AD) ridiculed allegory as "foolishness" (Seznec 85), still, the method won out. A sixth century Latin work such as the of Fulgentius interpreted the rape of Leda by Zeus (in the form of a swan) as the "coupling of Power and Injustice--the fruits of such a union being, like Helen, inevitable objects of discord and scandal" (Seznec 89). Most of the time, such allegories are non-historical wishful thinking (people didn't think of their myths as philosophy, but as a traditional religious story), but sometimes, the myths themselves invite allegorical interpretation, as when Zeus swallows Metis ("Wisdom" or "Cunning Intelligence") in order to become wise (Hesiod 85-86). Using stories to illustrate a moral was very popular in the Middle Ages, when writers wanted to tell pagan myths without getting into trouble with Church authorities. Therefore, they asserted that the stories illustrated moral truths. For example, one Medieval poem, Romance of the Rose, by Jean de Meun (1237--1305 AD) uses the story of Aphrodite (Venus) and Adonis to point up a moral about listening to one's lover. Venus warns Adonis not to go hunting, but he does anyway and is killed by a boar. Of course, the moral of the story is "listen to your lover's advice." This tacking of a moral onto the end of a story tends to focus interpretation on only one aspect of the tale (Adonis didn't listen to his lover), while ignoring other important elements (like Adonis' bizarre conception and birth.) No one would deny that ancient gods sometimes represent natural phenomena or processes (Zeus, for example, is associated with thunder). However, how are we to understand this connection between gods and nature? Do the actions of the gods "explain" natural events? Are the gods directing nature, or are they in it? Some gods, like Gaia (the Earth) seem to be identical with it. G. S. Kirk has pointed out a further complication: some gods, like Kronos, may have nature-associations when worshipped but not when they appear in mythological stories (44-47). What do you suppose led early peoples to associate the divine with nature? Many scholars believe there is great difference between gods like Zeus, who are associated with natural phenomena, and a god like Yahweh of the Hebrews, who stands outside nature, creating and directing it. Another difference: most nature myths represent time as a cycle, a continuous birth, death and rebirth of generations and natural forms. However, Hebrew and Christian traditions represent time as linear: time begins with creation and ends with the advent of the Messiah or the Last Judgement. Seasonal cycles occur within this vast historical drama of birth and salvation, but they are not as important as this long-term linear notion of national (Hebrew) and personal (Christian) salvation. Myths often present themselves as explanations of how nature works or how a certain benefit or ill came about. For example, Hesiod says that men burn only the inedible parts of animals (bones and fat) as a sacrifice for the gods because Prometheus once tried to trick Zeus by giving him bones covered with succulent-looking fat and giving humans the good parts. These sorts of "explanations" are called aetiological ("the study of causes"). However, G. S. Kirk has pointed out that stories which supposedly give reasons or causes for things really don't explain them in a scientific way: they present images, not causes (54). This kind of explanation seems less like scientific cause and effect reasoning than a kind of logic of association. This logic works by similarity or contact; it equates a story or image or symbol with "explanation." This sort of image-thinking is characteristic of non-literate or oral cultures, which do not develop philosophical modes of thought, but rather store their wisdom in more easily-remembered stories, proverbs and genealogies. According to this theory, myths are not primitive gropings for scientific explanation, but rather belief-systems set up to authorize and validate current social customs and institutions. Much as the Constitution provides a charter or fundamental social contract for our society, charter myths validate the social practices of the societies which produced the myths. (This approach looks at how a story functions in a society rather than seeing it as a response to a demand for an explanation.) The most obvious example of a charter myth we will study this semester is the Babylonian creation story, the Enuma Elish. In it, the world, humans, the agricultural system, and the city of Babylon are created for one purpose: to serve the gods. The myth thus defines the whole social system and its relation to the gods. However, the Elish is not only a charter for divine rule. It also tells a creation story that had a seasonal ritual function, as well as containing speculations on natural beginnings. We will also read some charter myths which narrate the founding of cities and the establishment of laws, customs, and dynasties (royal families). The story of Athena, Cecrops, and Erechtheus contains charter elements like these. The Romanian-born theorist of religion Mircea Eliade views myth as an effort to recapture the creative power of the origin of the world. This kind of power is necessary to maintain the divine order of the world and the seasons. This is one way in which myth functions as a charter for a sacred order of the universe and of society. Eliade also notes that since every creation represents or recreates the first creation of the world, then each new creation (the founding of a city, for example) "has its foundation at the center of the world" (Eliade 18). We will see that many peoples regard their cult centers or holy cities as being at the center of the world. For example, the Greeks called Delphi, the seat of their most respected oracle, the omphalos, or "navel" of the world. Most of the myths we will study are predominately local or tribal in character; they concern local city gods or familiar landmarks (the Greek gods live on Mount Olympus). This local focus contrasts sharply with the universal claims made by the "higher" religions, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. The mythologist Joseph Campbell sees myth as metaphors or symbols of the unknown. This "unknown" is located in two places: in the spiritual realm and in the depths of the human psyche. Campbell reasons that even though the divine, or "God," or whatever you call it (him/her?) is ultimately unknowable by human thought, men still try to create images of the Godhead. These images and stories may vary from culture to culture, but they remain valid as metaphors which express our experience of something beyond the human. Remarkably, many of themes and motifs in myths reappear in stories told by widely scattered peoples, which for Campbell means that many of them must be inherent in the human psyche. Thus, myths can also tell us truths about our own psychology. (See item # 10 below and the page on "The Hero's Journey," where I discuss Campbell's idea of the hero.) A ritual is an act or series of acts designed to bring men into contact with higher spiritual powers. An early theorist of ritual, Arnold van Gennep, noted that ritual acts can usually be divided into three stages: separation, transition, and incorporation (15-21). For example in the Catholic sacrifice of the Mass, the host (bread) is separated from other pieces of bread by its size and shape and by a series of preparatory rituals. It then undergoes a transition (others would say this transition is symbolic, not real), into the body of Christ, after which it is consumed (incorporated) by the faithful. For the purposes of this course, we will distinguish four categories of ritual: sacrifice, initiation ("mysteries"), purification, and seasonal renewal. Often, these different kinds of ritual occur together. For example in Christian ritual, baptism is at the same time a purification (a cleansing of original sin) and an initiation (an entry into the Christian faith). Animal sacrifice is probably the most difficult ritual for us to understand. At the simplest level, it is a symbolic way of rendering the fruits of the earth back to the gods. It reaffirms a people's dependence on the gods for their livelihood while at the same time the people consume the gifts of the gods (they have a feast). Animal sacrifice may also contain elements from earlier hunting cultures' magic (rites to ensure that game remained plentiful; symbolic resurrections of the animal, etc.). College students who pledge fraternities or sororities should be quite familiar with initiation rituals. There is a separation (hazing), transition (pledges do the crud work), and finally incorporation, or full membership in the society. Initiations have been defined as "a ritual change of status" (Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults 8). There are many varieties of such status changes. Perhaps the most common among tribal societies are puberty rites. (A Jewish bar mitzvah is an example of such a rite.) In this course, we will deal with two sorts of initiation: the mystery-rituals of Demeter at Eleusis, in which the person being initiated experienced "a personal change" through emotional rites designed to show him/her aspects of the sacred and the initiation of shamans (sorcerers, medicine men), which can throw some light on a curious text about the Norse god Odin. In ancient Greek religious thought, the sacred is opposed to the polluted (miasma). One cannot participate in sacred rituals (and in a larger sense, in the life of the community) if one is defiled. Pollution is caused by "more or less grave dislocations of normal life . . . birth, death, and especially murder" (Burkert Greek Religion 78). To remove the stain of miasma, one must undergo rites of purification (catharsis). We shall see that Apollo, the Greek god of purification (among other things) must himself be purified for the crime of murder. Purification rituals are extremely varied. One can be purified by fire, air, or water (all three have cleansing properties). The murderer was usually purified by having the blood of a sacrificial animal sprinkled over him (the stain or miasma is washed away by its likeness--note the Pentecostal phrase for conversion: "washed in the blood of the lamb"). Catholics who dip their hands in holy water and cross themselves before entering church are engaging in a simple ritual of purification. Often, rituals were performed to insure that the seasons would continue to follow one another and the earth would continue to produce its fruits. The granddaddy of all myth and ritual theorists, Sir James G. Frazer (1854-1941), thought that myths of seasonal renewal could be traced back to a single pervasive ritual in which a sacred king "dies" and is replaced by a new, more vigorous king. He posited the following |1) Sacred year-king guarantees fertility of nature, 2) suffers ritual 3) a new, vigorous king succeeds. |1) Year-god represents natural vegetative force, 2) dies, or is imprisoned 3) rises again, is reborn. Most early myth and ritual theorists tended to insist that ritual came before the myth and thus explained it in some way. Nowadays, many scholars still believe that myths and rituals are connected, but they see the relations between the two as more complex than a simple "who came Because certain images or motifs common in myth would appear in the dreams or psychotic fantasies of his patients, the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) reasoned that many of these motifs or themes must be the products of some sort of "myth-forming structural elements . . . in the unconscious psyche" (Jung 71). These elements he called archetypes (Greek, arkhe, beginning, original + tupos, mold, model). Jung further claimed that myths exhibit these archetypes because in the "primitive" mentality, the "conscious mind is far less developed in scope and intensity" than it is in our supposedly more sophisticated minds. For Jung, "the primitive does not think consciously but . . . thoughts appear" (72). Despite his rather patronizing manner towards "primitives," Jung may have a point here. Recurring themes or motifs in myth can be accounted for in at least two ways: 1) diffusion (someone borrowed the story) or 2) psychology (unconscious ideas or situations often recur among humans). For Joseph Campbell, hero myths are "a magnification" of van Gennep's initiation scheme of separation, transition, and incorporation. "A hero ventures forth from the world of common day [separation] into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are then encountered and a decisive victory is won [initiation]: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man [return]" (Hero 30). Campbell says that in his encounter with this region of wonder, the hero learns about his true inner nature and identity, and about the ultimate reality beyond the physical, i.e., "God." For Campbell, the hero's inner and outer journey symbolizes psychic and religious discoveries that all humans ought to make, and hero myths can function even today as guides for humans through various stages of life. It's perfectly possible that repetitions of structure or motif point to some deep-seated human need or conflict. For example, what could be the psychological reality behind so many myths that tell of fathers trying to do away with their sons (Ouranos, Kronos) or sons who "accidentally" do away with their fathers or grandfathers (Oedipus, Theseus, Perseus)? Since myths are traditional stories, they often exhibit characteristics of other sorts of traditional tales, most notably folktales. For example, the search to find the secret name of Ra (and thus his power) can be seen as similar to a motif in the folktale Rumplestiltskin. (For the differences between myth, legend, and folktale, see "Myth FAQs.") Several psychologists and folklorists have noticed that traditional tales often exhibit the same or similar plot patterns. We will study at least two such lists of plot motifs (by Vladimir Propp and Lord Raglan) later in the semester. For an overview of the patterns caused by oral storytelling, see "Characteristics of Oral Composition." Besides studying plot motifs and tale types, folklorists also try to discover character types in stories from different cultures. For example, types like hero twins appear in both American Indian and Roman myths. Probably the most widespread character type is the trickster. Trickster figures are quite common in American Indian myths, but they will also appear in the stories we study. As their name suggests, tricksters achieve their goals by trickery or cleverness, not by strength. Often, tricksters are culture-bringers like Prometheus or Enki, but they can also be socially disruptive characters like Loki. Often called "structuralist," this approach was invented by French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss and is probably the most difficult to summarize in 25 words or less. Basically, Lévi-Strauss says that myths embody in their structures elementary contradictions or problems which no society can resolve. (Examples: why is incest forbidden if we are all descended from one parent [the earth]? Or, why are humans allowed to cook and eat meat when the gods get only the smoke from altars?) Since these contradictions cannot be removed, they are hidden, or encoded in mythical stories. We can read the code by noticing pairs of opposites like raw vs. cooked (Prometheus and some Norse tales), high vs. low (sky gods vs. earth gods), male vs. female, men vs. gods, profane vs. sacred, wild vs. tame, waste vs. cultivated land, and (most importantly) nature vs. culture. These pairs of opposites sometimes appear in the tales only in symbolic form. Myths mediate these oppositions or contradictions, making them acceptable. Often, a term or image or figure will act as mediator in the myths. For example, Prometheus could be seen as mediating the gap or conflict between gods and men. Lévi-Strauss accounts for repetitions and variations of motifs by saying that the message embodied in myth is redundant, repeated over and over so that it will get through even if part of the transmission is lost. (This idea should remind you of theories of oral poetry.) Since the message appears many times in different stories, Lévi-Strauss thinks we can ignore the order in which events occur in traditional tales and look only at the repeated patterns and their structural relations to each other. Students who want a fuller introduction to structuralist myth interpretation might wish to consult Edmund Leach's book on Lévi-Strauss. If we think of myths as true, if we believe in them (way #1), then obviously, we are thinking in religious terms. But belief is also psychological: some say humans need to believe in some power greater than themselves. Others, like Joseph Campbell, see the origins of myth and religion in the psychological response of early man to the trauma of death. Thus, belief in a greater power arises when humans are faced with the mystery of what happens after death. The earliest efforts to rationalize myth by seeing it as disguised history, as disguised philosophy, or as fables illustrating moral truths (ways 2-4) all proceeded from a desire to make the seemingly irrational and immoral actions of gods and men appear rational and moral. Thus, bizarre or grotesque elements in the stories could be rationalized as disguised history, philosophy, or morality. However, these early rationalizers often ignored elements of the myths which did not fit into their allegorical schemes and made little attempt to look at myths psychologically or symbolically, or to place the them in their proper historical context. (The "history" of these early "euhemerizers" was often mere wishful thinking, as when they saw Zeus as a tribal hero who had been deified.) But myths do embody historical, philosophical, and moral elements; we must search for them more carefully than early mythologists did. Ways 5, 6, and 7 all see myth as an explanation, whether for natural events, for puzzling phenomena, or for local customs and institutions. Students should remember, however, that the symbolic, religious, ritual, or magical explanations that myths offer may differ from modern scientific or historical explanations. Something as great as God may be quite difficult for limited human minds to comprehend. Joseph Campbell says we can only know God through stories and symbols, or myth (way #8). But our stories are human and limited, and thus cannot, according to Campbell, tell literal truths, but all can and do tell metaphoric and symbolic truths. Ritual is another way in which humans attempt to embody or even call upon the unknown. Ritual patterns may reappear in myths and mythic motifs may be reflected in rituals (way #9). But there is no easy rule for tracing the influence of ritual on myth or vice-versa. Mythologists continue to argue whether the repetitive patterns of motifs and plot seen in many myths stem from ritual patterns (way #9), or from psychological archetypes inherent in humans (way #10), or from the repetition common in oral forms of storytelling (way #11). Probably all three are in some way responsible for the patterns we see in stories, along with diffusion or borrowing. Structuralists assert that the patterns they see (way #12) lie in the stories themselves, and ultimately are the patterns of the culture that produced the stories. No one way offers a key to the interpretation of myths, but all can offer insights to different motifs and plot elements. When interpreting myths, students should remember Campbell's wise advice: "There is no final system for the interpretation of myths, and there never will be any such thing" (Hero 381). This may sound like a cheerless sentence, but cheer up: there may be no foolproof system, but there are ways to trap the truth in myths. According to Campbell, myths are like the god Proteus (sometimes called the Old Man of the Sea) in the Odyssey who "always speaks the truth" (Homer 52, my emphasis). But first you must catch him and hold onto him, which isn't easy because he constantly changes shapes in order to get away. "He will turn into all sorts of shapes to try you, into all the creatures of that live and move upon the earth, into water, into blazing fire; but you must hold him fast and press him all the harder" (Homer 53). Great advice for any student of myth! Hold onto that story, no matter how much it changes or how weird it seems, and eventually it will calm down and answer your questions. But Proteus only answers the specific questions put to him. So, to get good answers, you have to ask a lot of different questions. That's one reason why there I ask so many questions in class.

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What was Druidry? The Druids were the educated elite of what is now called the “Celtic” race. Many historians and archaeologists now argue that there never was an actual Celtic race but for the sake of clarity and to give a sense of familiarity, I will use the term throughout this booklet. The Celts were a tribal people, with each tribe having its own chieftain. They were often at war with one another, raiding nearby tribal villages and stealing their neighbors’ cattle. They were a warrior race who, in one of those strange historical paradoxes, created the most beautiful art and inspired a religion which had a deep respect for Nature. The Roman invasion of the Celtic regions was made easier because Celtic society was so fragmented. The Romans systematically conquered one tribe at a time. The only common link between the Celtic tribes was Druidry. The Druids were the prophets, magicians, seers, healers, royal advisors and judges. Druids could move in complete safety between tribes as their murder was punishable by death. Very quickly the Druids began to unite the tribes and give them the focus they needed against the invaders. This move did not go unnoticed and it was in the year 61CE that two crushing blows were dealt against the British. The first was the sacking of Ynys Mon, the Isle of Anglesey, off the north coast of Wales, which was a major centre of Druidic learning. As the Romans conquered Britain, the Druids retreated to Ynys Mon and became trapped. It was written by Tacitus that the Druidesses were like screaming furies who spat curses across the bay at the assembling Roman armies. Although this chilled the blood of the Centurions, they attacked and won the battle. All of the Druid Groves (sacred clearings within the forests) were destroyed and all Druids, Druidesses and their children were slaughtered. The other blow was the defeat of the Iceni Queen Boudicca whose revolt very nearly put an end to the entire Roman occupation. However, the massacre of the Druids did not destroy the religion. It continued in smaller groups and gradually the Druid was seen as little more than a wandering magician. A far cry from the high status previously held. The ancient Druids consisted of three “castes”, or divisions – Bards, Ovates and Druids. The Bard learned all of the tales of the chieftain’s victories and the secret lore of sacred poetry. A Bard was an honoured member of the Tribe who was welcome wherever he or she travelled – in a way they were the newspapers of the day. We know from ancient poetry that the Bardic/Ovate crossover was not so defined, and that the Bards were also Shamans. They were trained in the Art of Magic using the power of poetry in either praise or satire. Their Lore supplied the foundation to the religious and magical practice of Druidry, telling the nature of the Gods, the deeds of the Ancestors and the sacred places of the land. Through the power of the sacred word, expressed through poetry, storytelling and song, they invoked the blessings of the Spirit of Place, and of the Gods and ancestors of the people. As previously mentioned the caste known as Bards had their own Shamanic practices, but it may be that some Bards blended their creative skills with those of the Ovates (or Vates). These were the prophets and seers. They worked with the three realms of past, present and future and entered into trance states, foreseeing the future fortunes of the Tribe. The Ovate was the Druid Shaman. If the ancient Druids performed sacrifice (there is no hard evidence of this other than Caesar’s account, which could well have been propaganda) then the Ovates would have been the people who oversaw such events. When considering the act of ritual sacrifice we must try to understand that the Celtic tribes lived and died by their crops. If the crops failed, then a hard winter of starvation and disease was inevitable. A whole village could be wiped out through lack of food; therefore, when such a catastrophe occurred, the ancients felt they had to offer a gift to their Gods. The true nature of sacrifice was to give somebody who came willingly. To offer themselves as such placed them with their Gods and the Tribe revered them as heroes. To view ancient civilizations from the standpoint of modern ethics is a mistake. We have supermarkets and world trade, which keeps us supplied with wonderful food throughout the year. Now imagine growing all of the food you eat yourself, without the use of pesticides to protect the crop from blight and insect diseases. Then imagine your crop fails and you face a winter of unimaginable pain and suffering. Now imagine it happened for a second year…. The third ‘caste’ was the Druid. Much of what we know about the ancient Druids comes from classical writers, and it might be that ‘Druid’ was a collective term that included the Bards and Ovates, we simply don’t know for sure, but either way we do know that they were highly respected members of the tribe – the wise one who had passed through madness and survived. This brought great wisdom and peace; the Druid’s role was therefore that of advisor, teacher and judge. In Celtic mythology tribal chieftains each had their Druid to whom they turned for advice during times of need. Between 5OOCE and the late middle ages the Druid tradition was kept alive in the tales and songs of the storyteller and wandering minstrel. It is here that we see the blending of two castes, the Bard and Ovate. We see such characters as Merlin and Taliesin emerging as seer-poets, living on the edge of sanity and completely accepted by the spirits of Nature. Much of the modern Druidic teaching stems from the words of the ancient Bardic tales and the poetry of Taliesin and Merlin. Bardic colleges continued to operate in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, for many centuries, but eventually the last one was closed in the 17th century. However, the pull of this tradition was too strong and soon poets such as William Blake rediscovered the voice of the Bard. These Bardic revivalists, who revelled in the beauty of nature, met in the quieter rooms of public houses at the end of the 18th century, and thus the thread spins on…. What is Druidry today? With the growing awareness many people have towards the environment, there is an understandable interest in the Nature, or Pagan, religions. Druidry means different things to different people. There are those who take their spirituality from Druidry and blend it with their own tradition, be that Pagan or Christian. And there are others who try to follow a rediscovered “Druidism”. To give an insight into modem Druidry we must start with exploring the symbol and Druidic “sacred mantra” known as the Awen. Central to Druid philosophy is the force known as the Awen. The closest definition of the words Awen is “divine inspiration” or “flowing spirit” and it is this flowing spirit that guides us through the Druid work and, because the force of the Awen is described thus, it can be seen as many different things. The force of divine poetic inspiration, which is held within the three drops of potion brewed in the Cauldron of the Goddess Ceridwen, to the Christian Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, both could be described as the Awen. The symbol of the Awen is the “Three Rays of Light” shining from three single points surrounded by three circles. The three points can represent the directions of the sunrises of the Soistices and Equinoxes. On the Summer and Winter Solstices the Sun rises east-north-east and east-south-east respectively, whilst on the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes it rises due east. The Awen also symbolises the three drops of inspiration from the Cauldron of Ceridwen. The three circles represent the three Circles of Creation in Welsh cosmology, ie Abred, Gwynvid and Ceugant. The central area represents the realm of Annwn. During a Druid ritual, the Awen can be intoned as a single monotone note using three syllables “Ah-oo-en”(some Druid Orders intone the three letters I. A. U. in a similar way). The power held within the Awen mantra can be used in many ways – from initiating poetic inspiration, to drawing down the blessing of the God and Goddess or evoking a change in the atmosphere of a ritual circle. It is truly a sacred word. Like many others the Druids honour the eight seasonal festivals of our modern Pagan traditions. These being: The Solar Cycle Alban Arthan (Winter Solstice): Alban Arthan means the Light of Arthur. Some Druid Orders believe this means the Light of the hero King Arthur Pendragon who is symbolically reborn as the Sun Child (The Mabon) at the time of the Solstice. Others see the Light belonging to the star constellation known as the Great Bear (or the Plough) – Arthur, or Art, being Gaelic for Bear. This constellation shines out in the sky and can symbolise the rebirth of the Sun. At this point the Sun is at its southernmost point almost disappearing beyond the horizon, and the days are at their shortest. This was a time of dread for the ancient peoples as they saw the days getting shorter and shorter. A great ritual was needed to revert the course of the sun. This was probably calculated by the great circles of stone and burial grounds which are aligned to this festival, such as Newgrange in Co. Meath, Eire. Sure enough, the next day the Sun began to move higher into the sky, showing that it had been reborn. This time of year is very cold and bleak, which is why so many celebrations are needed to help people get through the Winter months. It is significant that many civilisations welcomed their Solar Gods at the time of greatest darkness – including Mithras (the bull-headed Warrior God), the Egyptian God Horus and, more recently, Jesus Christ. Alban Eilir (Spring Equinox): Alban Eilir means the Light of the Earth. As the Sun grows warmer so life begins to show through the soil. Small signs at first – the daffodils and crocuses – then more green as the bluebells and wood anemones spread through the woodland. Plants are seen by some as inanimate greenery with no actual feelings and life force. But Druids see life in all living things, from rocks and stones, to rivers and springs, plants and trees – all life is sacred. Have you ever thought about how you recognise the beginning of Spring? Is it the plant life? The weather? How does a plant know when it is time to grow? It cannot tell the time or see a calendar. Yet it knows. If it has senses then it has consciousness, if it has consciousness then it is more than an inanimate life form. So it is the return of life to the Earth that is celebrated at Alban Eilir, the time of balance. One of the inner mysteries of Druidry is the Druid’s egg. Life-giving, it is the egg protected by the hare, which is the symbol of Alban Eilir – still celebrated by the giving of Easter eggs by the Easter bunny. Alban Hefin (Summer Solstice): Alban Hefin means the Light of the Shore. Druidry has a great respect and reverence for places that are “in between” worlds. The seashore is one such place, where the three realms of Earth, Sea and Sky meet. There is great power in places such as these. It is the time of greatest light when the Solar God is crowned, by the Goddess, as the King of Summer. It also brings some sadness because from now until Alban Arthan the Sun’s strength is declining and we have entered the waning year. At this time the Dark Twin, or Holly King, is born – he will take his crown at Alban Arthan. Of all the festivals Druidry is mostly associated with Alban Hefin. The wonderful white-robed figures filmed at the dawn rituals at Stonehenge are testament to this. However, to many Druids it is the turning seasons and the cycle of life, death and rebirth – reflected in the Wheel of the Year in its completeness – which are significant. Alban Elfed (Autumn Equinox): Alban Elfed means the Light of the Water. The Wheel turns and the time of balance returns. Alban Elfed marks the balance of day and night before the darkness overtakes the light. It is also the time of the second harvest, usually of the fruit which has stayed on the trees and plants to ripen under the Summer Sun. It is this final harvest which can take the central theme of the Alban Elfed ceremony. Thanking the Earth, in her full abundance as Mother and Giver, for the great harvest. It is the beginning of Autumn. The Agricultural Cycle Imbolc: On or around the 1st February – This is often seen as the first of three Spring festivals. It is hard sometimes to think of Spring in what feels like the depths of Winter. But if we look at the ground we can see the first shoots of green beginning to reach towards the Sun. Imbolc can be celebrated on either the 1st or 2nd February, or more naturally when the Snowdrops cover the ground. Imbolc by Damh the Bard As the dark, cold morning gives way to light, And the world shows its face dazzling in her nakedness, So the twigs and leaf-bare branches, Bow to the passing dance Of old Jack Frost. His crystal breath on the earth, And the corners of houses weep icicles of joy. But where is the Sun’s warmth? Where is life? A small flower, delicate and pure-white, Looks to the earth, As if talking to the waiting green, “Not yet,” it seems to whisper. “When I fall, then you can return.” And she nods her head, as the Lady passes by, Leaving more flowers in Her wake. Beltane: On of around the 1st May – Beltane is the beginning of Summer, or the height of Spring. It is thought that the ancients only recognised two seasons, these being Summer and Winter. Beltane is the time when the Earth is literally buzzing with fertility. Life springs forth in all of its richness, and the land is covered with beautiful flowers, the freshly opened leaves of the trees are a quality of green that they only show at this time of year. At Beltane the Lady of the Land takes the hand of the Horned God, and together they walk into the forest. Their cries of love bring all life from the Earth. Some celebrate Beltane on the dates given above, whilst others look to the flowers of the May tree as their signal that Beltane had, at last, arrived. Lughnasadh: On or around the 1st August – Lughnasadh is the first of two harvest festivals, the other being Alban Elfed (the Autumn Equinox). At Lughnasadh we see the fields of corn being cut, and for some this is the true time of the festival. In the fields John Barleycorn, who laid with the Lady in the woods at Beltane, has grown old, and now stands bent and bearded with a crocked cane. He looks to the Sun as he has changed from green to gold, and he known that his time has come. His life will feed the people, and it is this sacrifice that we honour at Lughnasadh. Samhain: On of around the 31st October – This is a festival of the dead, a festival of remembrance and honouring of our dear departed friends and relations. It is said that, at Samhain, the veil that separates the worlds is at its thinnest. So our world, the world of Faerie, and that of the dead, blend as one. It is no wonder then that this night has become so wrapped in superstition. It is a night of wonder, and magic. On this night the Cailleach (the Crone) comes to strip the leaves from the trees, to quicken the decay of the flesh of the year, so that it may feed the new life to come. We can also ask Her to take the unwanted aspects of our personal year away, so that this too might be transformed. Yet even on the darkest night of Samhain, whilst our minds ponder our mortality, if you listen carefully, you can hear the sound of a new-born child crying for its Mother’s breast, for shortly it will be Alban Arthan, the Winter solstice, and the Wheel will turn once more. Druid ritual takes many forms and has many functions. Druids draw on various sources for ritual – including mediaeval and later Celtic literature, previous generations of Druid revivalists, archaeology, poetry, and other traditions. But they draw mainly on their own judgement, and experience, of what is right for a given moment. Most rituals begin with the call for peace for, as is said within Druid teaching, “without peace can no work be”. The Druid will approach each quarter and say “May there be peace in the (direction).” Then the Sacred Circle is cast, followed by calls to the Spirits of the four directions. Rituals are frequently composed for a particular combination of time, place and people. They vary from the open celebration of the Bardic Gorsedd to the intimacy of personal Rites of Passage. They may take place anywhere – from great Stone Circles to private rooms. Most take place outdoors, since contact with the Earth, Sea and Sky is very important to the practice of Druidry. Group rituals commonly celebrate the eight major festivals. Rites of Passage include the naming or blessing of children, the onset of puberty, Druid weddings (handfastings), and passing on. Rituals may also be directed towards healing or spiritual growth. Most of the common elements of Druid ritual are those associated with the Bardic tradition. These include the Gorsedd Prayer, written by lolo Morganwg: Grant, Oh God/dess, thy protection, And in protection, strength, And in strength, understanding, And in understanding, knowledge, And in knowledge the knowledge of justice, And in the knowledge of justice, the love of it, And in that love, the love of all existences, And in the love of all existences, the love of God/dess and all goodness. Although this prayer occurs widely in Modern Druidry, there are many who do not use it. Another widespread element of Druid ritual is the Oath of Peace: We swear by peace and love to stand, Heart to heart, and hand in hand, Mark, 0 Spirit, and hear us now, Confirming this, our Sacred Vow. Druid ritual brings the participants into contact with the Spiritual. Thus our lives are touched with the deep sources of inspiration, creativity, wisdom and healing. Oh that I could see to the Other Realm – that I could learn the magic of the Ancients. Oh that the secrets of the Druids could be whispered in my ears that I might know their beauty and their power – that I might love again this land and hear the voices of the Goddess and the God in the trees and in the rivers. For more information about Druidry go to www.druidry.org For details of open rituals, moots, camps and conferences in Sussex: www.anderidagorsedd.org

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A ghost story may be any piece of fiction, or drama, that includes a ghost, or simply takes as a premise the possibility of ghosts or characters' belief in them. The "ghost" may appear of its own accord or be summoned by magic. Linked to the ghost is the idea of "hauntings", where a supernatural entity is tied to a place, object or person. Ghost stories are commonly examples of ghostlore. Colloquially, the term "ghost story" can refer to any kind of scary story. In a narrower sense, the ghost story has been developed as a short story format, within genre fiction. It is a form of supernatural fiction and specifically of weird fiction, and is often a horror story. While ghost stories are often explicitly meant to be scary, they have been written to serve all sorts of purposes, from comedy to morality tales. Ghosts often appear in the narrative as sentinels or prophets of things to come. Belief in ghosts is found in all cultures around the world, and thus ghost stories may be passed down orally or in written form. A widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they are composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists link this idea to early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person (the person's spirit), most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist. Belief in ghosts is found in all cultures around the world, and thus ghost stories may be passed down orally or in written form. The campfire story, a form of oral storytelling, often involves recounting ghost stories, or other scary stories. Some of the stories are decades old, with varying versions across multiple cultures. Many schools and educational institutions encourage ghost storytelling as part of literature. In 1929, five key features of the English ghost story were identified in "Some Remarks on Ghost Stories" by M. R. James. As summarized by Frank Coffman for a course in popular imaginative literature, they were: - The pretense of truth - "A pleasing terror" - No gratuitous bloodshed or sex - No "explanation of the machinery" - Setting: "those of the writer's (and reader's) own day" The introduction of pulp magazines in the early 1900s created new avenues for ghost stories to be published, and they also began to appear in publications such as Good Housekeeping and The New Yorker. Ghosts in the classical world often appeared in the form of vapor or smoke, but at other times they were described as being substantial, appearing as they had been at the time of death, complete with the wounds that killed them. Spirits of the dead appear in literature as early as Homer's Odyssey, which features a journey to the underworld and the hero encountering the ghosts of the dead, as well as the Old Testament in which the Witch of Endor calls the spirit of the prophet Samuel. The play Mostellaria, by the Roman playwright Plautus, is the earliest known work to feature a haunted dwelling, and is sometimes translated as The Haunted House. Another early account of a haunted place comes from an account by Pliny the Younger (c. 50 AD). Pliny describes the haunting of a house in Athens by a ghost bound in chains, an archetype that would become familiar in later literature. The One Thousand and One Nights, sometimes known as Arabian Nights, contains a number of ghost stories, often involving jinn (also spelled as djinn), ghouls and corpses. In particular, the tale of "Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad" revolves around a house haunted by jinns. Other medieval Arabic literature, such as the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity, also contain ghost stories. English Renaissance TheatreEdit In the mid-16th century, the works of Seneca were rediscovered by Italian humanists, and they became the models for the revival of tragedy. Seneca's influence is particularly evident in Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy and Shakespeare's Hamlet, both of which share a revenge theme, a corpse-strewn climax, and ghosts among the cast. The ghosts in Richard III also resemble the Senecan model, while the ghost in Hamlet plays a more complex role. The shade of Hamlet's murdered father in Hamlet has become one of the more recognizable ghosts in English literature. In another of Shakespeare’s works, Macbeth, the murdered Banquo returns as a ghost to the dismay of the title character. In English Renaissance theatre, ghosts were often depicted in the garb of the living and even in armour. Armour, being out-of-date by the time of the Renaissance, gave the stage ghost a sense of antiquity. The sheeted ghost began to gain ground on stage in the 1800s because an armoured ghost had to be moved about by complicated pulley systems or lifts, and eventually became clichéd stage elements and objects of ridicule. Ann Jones and Peter Stallybrass, in Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory, point out, "In fact, it is as laughter increasingly threatens the Ghost that he starts to be staged not in armor but in some form of 'spirit drapery'." An interesting observation by Jones and Stallybrass is that "at the historical point at which ghosts themselves become increasingly implausible, at least to an educated elite, to believe in them at all it seems to be necessary to assert their immateriality, their invisibility. [...] The drapery of ghosts must now, indeed, be as spiritual as the ghosts themselves. This is a striking departure both from the ghosts of the Renaissance stage and from the Greek and Roman theatrical ghosts upon which that stage drew. The most prominent feature of Renaissance ghosts is precisely their gross materiality. They appear to us conspicuously clothed." Ghosts figured prominently in traditional British ballads of the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly the “Border Ballads” of the turbulent border country between England and Scotland. Ballads of this type include The Unquiet Grave, The Wife of Usher's Well, and Sweet William's Ghost, which feature the recurring theme of returning dead lovers or children. In the ballad King Henry, a particularly ravenous ghost devours the king’s horse and hounds before forcing the king into bed. The king then awakens to find the ghost transformed into a beautiful woman. One of the key early appearances by ghosts was The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole in 1764, considered to be the first gothic novel. However, although the ghost story shares the use of the supernatural with the Gothic novel, the two forms differ. Ghost stories, unlike Gothic fiction, usually take place in a time and location near to the audience of the story. The modern short story emerged in Germany in the early decades of the 19th century. Kleist's The Beggar Woman of Locarno, published in 1810, and several other works from the period lay claim to being the first ghost short stories of a modern type. E. T. A. Hoffmann's ghost stories include "The Elementary Spirit" and "The Mines of Falun". The Russian equivalent of the ghost story is the bylichka. Notables examples of the genre from the 1830s include Gogol's Viy and Pushkin's The Queen of Spades, although there were scores of other stories from lesser known writers, produced primarily as Christmas fiction. The Vosges mountain range is the setting for most ghost stories by the French writing team of Erckmann-Chatrian. One of the earliest writers of ghost stories in English was Sir Walter Scott. His ghost stories, "Wandering Willie's Tale" (1824, first published as part of Redgauntlet) and The Tapestried Chamber (1828) eschewed the "Gothic" style of writing and helped set an example for later writers in the genre. "Golden Age of the Ghost Story"Edit Historian of the ghost story Jack Sullivan has noted that many literary critics argue a "Golden Age of the Ghost Story" existed between the decline of the Gothic novel in the 1830s and the start of the First World War. Sullivan argues that the work of Edgar Allan Poe and Sheridan Le Fanu inaugurated this "Golden Age". Irish author Sheridan Le Fanu was one of the most influential writers of ghost stories.. Le Fanu's collections, such as In a Glass Darkly (1872) and The Purcell Papers (1880), helped popularise the short story as a medium for ghost fiction. Charlotte Riddell, who wrote fiction as Mrs. J. H. Riddell, created ghost stories which were noted for adept use of the haunted house theme. The "classic" ghost story arose during the Victorian period, and included authors such as M. R. James, Sheridan Le Fanu, Violet Hunt, and Henry James. Classic ghost stories were influenced by the gothic fiction tradition, and contain elements of folklore and psychology. M. R. James summed up the essential elements of a ghost story as, “Malevolence and terror, the glare of evil faces, ‘the stony grin of unearthly malice', pursuing forms in darkness, and 'long-drawn, distant screams', are all in place, and so is a modicum of blood, shed with deliberation and carefully husbanded...”. Famous literary apparitions from the Victorian period are the ghosts of A Christmas Carol, in which Ebenezer Scrooge is helped to see the error of his ways by the ghost of his former colleague Jacob Marley, and the ghosts of Christmas Past, Christmas Present and Christmas Yet to Come. In a precursor to A Christmas Carol Dickens published "The Story of the Goblins Who Stole a Sexton". Dickens also wrote "The Signal-Man", another work featuring a ghost. David Langford has described British author M. R. James as writing "the 20th century's most influential canon of ghost stories". James perfected a method of story-telling which has since become known as Jamesian, which involved abandoning many of the traditional Gothic elements of his predecessors. The classic Jamesian tale usually includes the following elements: - a characterful setting in an English village, seaside town or country estate; an ancient town in France, Denmark or Sweden; or a venerable abbey or university. - a nondescript and rather naive gentleman-scholar as protagonist (often of a reserved nature). - the discovery of an old book or other antiquarian object that somehow unlocks, calls down the wrath, or at least attracts the unwelcome attention of a supernatural menace, usually from beyond the grave. According to James, the story must "put the reader into the position of saying to himself, 'If I'm not very careful, something of this kind may happen to me!'" He also perfected the technique of narrating supernatural events through implication and suggestion, letting his reader fill in the blanks, and focusing on the mundane details of his settings and characters in order to throw the horrific and bizarre elements into greater relief. He summed up his approach in his foreword to the anthology Ghosts and Marvels (Oxford, 1924): "Two ingredients most valuable in the concocting of a ghost story are, to me, the atmosphere and the nicely managed crescendo. ... Let us, then, be introduced to the actors in a placid way; let us see them going about their ordinary business, undisturbed by forebodings, pleased with their surroundings; and into this calm environment let the ominous thing put out its head, unobtrusively at first, and then more insistently, until it holds the stage." He also noted: "Another requisite, in my opinion, is that the ghost should be malevolent or odious: amiable and helpful apparitions are all very well in fairy tales or in local legends, but I have no use for them in a fictitious ghost story." Despite his suggestion (in the essay "Stories I Have Tried to Write") that writers employ reticence in their work, many of James's tales depict scenes and images of savage and often disturbing violence. 19th Century American writersEdit Influenced by British and German examples, American writers began to produce their own ghost stories. Washington Irving's short story The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820), based on an earlier German folktale, features a Headless Horseman. It has been adapted for film and television many times, such as Sleepy Hollow, a successful 1999 feature film. Irving also wrote "The Adventure of the German Student" and Edgar Allan Poe wrote some stories which contain ghosts, such as "The Masque of the Red Death" and "Morella". In the later 19th century, mainstream American writers such as Edith Wharton, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman and F. Marion Crawford all wrote ghost fiction. Henry James also wrote ghost stories, including the famous The Turn of the Screw. The Turn of the Screw has also appeared in a number of adaptations, notably the film The Innocents and Benjamin Britten's opera The Turn of the Screw. The introduction of pulp magazines in the early 1900s created new avenues for ghost stories to be published, and they also began to appear in publications such as Good Housekeeping and The New Yorker. Comedies and operasEdit In the United States, prior to and during the First World War, folklorists Olive Dame Campbell and Cecil Sharp collected ballads from the people of the Appalachian Mountains, which included ghostly themes such as "The Cruel Ship's Carpenter", "The Suffolk Miracle", "The Unquiet Grave" and "The Wife of Usher's Well". The theme of these ballads was often the return of a dead lover. These songs were variants of traditional British ballads handed down by generations of mountaineers descended from the people of the Anglo-Scottish border region. In the Edwardian era, Algernon Blackwood (who combined the ghost story with nature mysticism), Oliver Onions (whose ghost stories drew on psychological horror), and William Hope Hodgson (whose ghost tales also contained elements of the sea story and science fiction) helped move the ghost story in new directions. Kaidan (怪談), which literally means “supernatural tale” or "weird tale", is a form of Japanese ghost story. Kaidan entered the vernacular when a game called Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular in the Edo period. The popularity of the game, as well as the acquisition of a printing press, led to the creation of a literary genre called Kaidanshu. Kaidan are not always horror stories, they can "be funny, or strange, or just telling about an odd thing that happened one time". Lafcadio Hearn published Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things in 1904 as a collection of Japanese ghost stories collected by Lafcadio Hearn, and later made into a film. The book "is seen as the first introduction of Japanese superstition to European and American audiences." Modern era (1920 onward)Edit Ghost Stories magazine, which contained almost nothing but ghost stories, was published from 1926 to 1932. Beginning in the 1940s, Fritz Leiber wrote ghost tales set in modern industrial settings, such as "Smoke Ghost" (1941) and "A Bit of the Dark World" (1962). Shirley Jackson made an important contribution to ghost fiction with her novel The Haunting of Hill House (1959). During the late 1890s the depiction of ghost and supernatural events appear in films. With the advent of motion pictures and television, screen depictions of ghosts became common, and spanned a variety of genres. The works of Shakespeare, Dickens and Wilde have all been made into cinematic versions, as well as adaptations of other playwrights and novelists. One of the well known short films was Haunted Castle directed by Georges Méliès in 1896. It is also considered as the first silent short film depicting ghost and supernatural events. After the second World War, sentimental depictions of ghosts were more popular in cinema than horror, and include the 1947 film The Ghost and Mrs. Muir, which was later adapted to television with a successful 1968–70 TV series. Genuine psychological horror films from this period include 1944's The Uninvited, and 1945's Dead of Night. The film Blithe Spirit, based on a play by Noël Coward, was also produced in this period. 1963 saw one of the first major adaptations of a ghost novel, The Haunting, based on the well known novel The Haunting of Hill House. The 1970s saw screen depictions of ghosts diverge into distinct genres of the romantic and horror. A common theme in the romantic genre from this period is the ghost as a benign guide or messenger, often with unfinished business, such as 1989's Field of Dreams, the 1990 film Ghost, and the 1993 comedy Heart and Souls. In the horror genre, 1980's The Fog, and the A Nightmare on Elm Street series of films from the 1980s and 1990s are notable examples of the trend for the merging of ghost stories with scenes of physical violence. The 1990s saw a return to classic "gothic" ghosts, whose dangers were more psychological than physical. Examples of films from this period include 1999's The Sixth Sense and The Others. The 1990s also saw a lighthearted adaptation of the children's character Casper the Friendly Ghost, originally popular in cartoon form in the 1950s and early 1960s, in the feature film Casper. Asian cinema has also produced horror films about ghosts, such as the 1998 Japanese film Ringu (remade in the US as The Ring in 2002), and the Pang brothers' 2002 film The Eye. Indian ghost movies are popular not just in India, but in the Middle East, Africa, South East Asia and other parts of the world. Some Indian ghost movies such as the comedy / horror film Chandramukhi have been commercial successes, dubbed into several languages. Generally the films are based on the experiences of modern people who are unexpectedly exposed to ghosts, and usually draw on traditional Indian literature or folklore. In some cases the Indian films are remakes of western films, such as Anjaane, based on Alejandro Amenábar's ghost story The Others. In fictional television programming, ghosts have been explored in series such as Ghost Whisperer, Medium, Supernatural, the television series adaptation of The Ghost and Mrs. Muir and Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased). In animated fictional television programming, ghosts have served as the central element in series such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, Danny Phantom, and Scooby-Doo, as well as minor roles in various other television shows.[which?] Popularized in part by the 1984 comedy franchise Ghostbusters, ghost hunting has been popularized as a hobby wherein reportedly haunted places are explored. The ghost hunting theme has been featured in paranormal reality television series, such as A Haunting, Ghost Adventures, Ghost Hunters, Ghost Hunters International, Ghost Lab, and Most Haunted. It is also represented in children's television by such programs as The Ghost Hunter based on the book series of the same name and Ghost Trackers. The Indian television series, Aahat, featured ghost and supernatural stories written by B. P. Singh. It was first aired on 5 October 1995 and ran for more than a decade, ending on 25 November 2010 with more than 450 episodes. - Darrell Schweitzer (2005). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders. Westport, CT: Greenwood. pp. 338–340. - "Ghost Stories" in Margaret Drabble (ed.), The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 9780198614531 (p. 404-5). - J. Gordon Melton (1996). Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-8103-5487-6. - Vassler, Bill. "Campfire Stories: The Art Of The Tale". Westside Toastmasters. Retrieved 12 August 2014. - Gordon, Lauren (16 July 2014). "9 Scary Campfire Stories That'll Make You Drop Your S'mores". ABC News. Retrieved 12 August 2014. - Carey, Joanna (17 February 2004). "Ghouls for schools". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media. Retrieved 13 August 2014. - Coffman, Frank. "Excerpts From "Some Remarks on Ghost Stories"". Archived from the original on February 14, 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2012.CS1 maint: Unfit url (link) - Carpenter, Lynette; Kolmar, Wendy K. Ghost Stories by British and American Women: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography. Taylor & Francis. pp. xxii. - Finucane, R. C. (1984). Appearances of the Dead: A Cultural History of Ghosts. Prometheus Books. pp. 4, 16. ISBN 978-0879752385. - D. Felton (2010). Haunted Greece and Rome: Ghost Stories from Classical Antiquity. University of Texas Press. pp. 50–51. ISBN 978-0-292-78924-1. - Jaehnig, K.C. (1999-03-11). "Classical ghost stories". Southern Illinois University. Archived from the original on September 8, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-19. - Braund, Susanna (28 March 2013). Buckley, Emma; Dinter, Martin T., eds. Haunted by Horror: The Ghost of Seneca in Renaissance Drama. A Companion to the Neronian Age. pp. 425–443. doi:10.1002/9781118316771.ch24. ISBN 9781118316771. - Yuriko Yamanaka, Tetsuo Nishio (2006). The Arabian Nights and Orientalism: Perspectives from East & West. I.B. Tauris. pp. 83–84. ISBN 978-1-85043-768-0. - Hamori, Andras (1971). "An Allegory from the Arabian Nights: The City of Brass". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 34 (1): 9–19 . doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141540. - Ian Richard Netton (1991). From the introduction of Muslim Neoplatonists: An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity. Edinburgh University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-7486-0251-3. - Smith, Tom (August 6, 2014). "Hyper Japan hails digital-age 'Genji' opera". The Japan Times. Retrieved August 12, 2014. - Graves, Zachary (2011). Ghosts the complete guide to the supernatural. Eastbourne, UK: Canary Press. p. 182. ISBN 9781908698124. - Jones, Ann Rosalind; Stallybrass, Peter (2000). Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0521786638. Retrieved August 16, 2014. - Helen Child Sargent; George Lyman Kittredge (1904). English and Scottish Popular Ballads edited from the Collection by Francis James Child. New York: Houghton Mifflin. - Newman, Kim (ed.) (1996). BFI Companion to Horror. London: Cassell. p. 135. ISBN 978-0304332168.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) - Andrew Barger, "Introduction:All Ghosts are Grey" in Barger (editor),The Best Ghost Stories 1800–1849: A Classic Ghost Anthology. Bottletree Books LLC, 2011. ISBN 1-933747-33-1, (pp. 7-12) - Pamela Davidson. Russian Literature and Its Demons. Berghahn Books, 2000. ISBN 9781571817587. Page 59. - Jack Sullivan (1986). "Golden Age of the Ghost Story" in The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural. Viking Press. pp. 174–6. ISBN 978-0-670-80902-8. - J. L. Campbell, Sr., "J. S. Le Fanu", in E. F. Bleiler, ed. (1985). Supernatural Fiction Writers. New York: Scribner's. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-684-17808-0.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) - J. L. Campbell, Sr., "Mrs. J. H. Riddell", in Bleiler, ed., Supernatural Fiction Writers. - James, M. R. (December 1929). Some Remarks on Ghost Stories. The Bookman. pp. 55–56. - Barger, Andrew (2015). Middle Unearthed: The Best Fantasy Short Stories 1800-1849. Bottletree Books LLC. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-933747-53-8. - David Langford, "James, Montague Rhodes", in David Pringle, ed., St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost & Gothic Writers (London: St. James Press, 1998). ISBN 1-55862-206-3 - James, M.R., "Preface to More Ghost Stories of an Antiquary". In Joshi, S.T., ed. (2005). Count Magnus and Other Ghost Stories: The Complete Ghost Stories of M.R. James, Volume 1, pt. 217. Penguin Books. - Punter, David (2003). "The modern gothic". The literature of terror: a history of Gothic fictions from 1765 to the present day. London: Longman. p. 86. ISBN 978-0582290556. Although James conjures up strange beasts and supernatural manifestations, the shock effect of his stories is usually strongest when he is dealing in physical mutilation and abnormality - Sleepy Hollow at Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 29 January 2009. - Benjamin Fisher, "Transitions from Victorian to Modern: The Supernatural Stories of Mary Wilkins Freeman and Edith Wharton" in: Robillard, Douglas, ed. American Supernatural Fiction: From Edith Wharton to the Weird Tales Writers. New York: Garland, 1996. (pp. 3-42). ISBN 0-8153-1735-2 - Douglas Robillard, "The Wandering Ghosts of F. Marion Crawford" in: Robillard, Douglas, ed. American Supernatural Fiction: From Edith Wharton to the Weird Tales Writers. New York: Garland, 1996. (pp. 43-58). ISBN 0-8153-1735-2 - Cameron, George Frederick (1889). Leo, the Royal cadet. [Kingston, Ont.? : s.n. - Campbell, Olive Dame & Sharp, Cecil James (1917). English Folk Songs From The Southern Appalachians. New York: G. Putnam's Sons.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) - Foutz, Scott. "Kaidan: Traditional Japanese Ghost Tales and Japanese Horror Film". Retrieved 14 August 2014. - "What are Kaidan". Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai. 2010-08-18. Retrieved 14 August 2014. - "Kwaidan", by Brian Stableford, in Frank N. Magill, ed., Survey of Modern Fantasy Literature, Vol 2. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, Inc., 1983, ISBN 0-89356-450-8 (pp. 859-860). - Landon, Brooks (1983). "The Short fiction of Leiber". In Magill, Frank N. Survey of Modern Fantasy Literature, Vol 4. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, Inc. pp. 1611–1615. ISBN 978-0-89356-450-6. - Sullivan, Jack. "Shirley Jackson". In Bleiler. Supernatural Fiction Writers. pp. 1031–1036. - Joshi, S. T. (2001). Ramsey Campbell and Modern Horror Fiction. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 53–63. ISBN 978-0-85323-765-5. - Babbis, Maurice. "The True Origin of the Horror Film". Emerson.edu. Emerson College. Retrieved 11 August 2014. - "Blithe Spirit". British film institute. Retrieved 11 August 2014. - Chanko, Kenneth M. (August 8, 1993). "FILM; When It Comes to the Hereafter, Romance and Sentiment Rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-29. - Rafferty, Terence (June 8, 2003). "Why Asian Ghost Stories Are the Best". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-29. - Mohamed, Shoaib (September 24, 2007). "The Bus Conductor Turned Superstar Who Took the Right Bus to Demi". Behindwoods. Retrieved 2010-03-17. - "Anjaane – The Unknown". Indiafm.com. December 30, 2005. Retrieved 2010-03-17. - Williams, Karen (2010). "The Liveness of Ghosts: Haunting and Reality TV". In Blanco, María del Pilar; Peeren, Esther. Popular ghosts : the haunted spaces of everyday culture. New York: Continuum. pp. 149–160. ISBN 9781441163691. - "Hello darkness, my old friend..." Indian Express. Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd. 3 November 1997. Archived from the original on 12 January 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2010. - Bailey, Dale. American Nightmares: The Haunted House Formula in American Popular Fiction, Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87972-789-6. - Felton, D. (1999). Haunted Greece and Rome: Ghost Stories from Classical Antiquity. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72508-9. - Ashley, Mike, Editor. Phantom Perfumes and Other Shades: Memories of GHOST STORIES Magazine, Ash-Tree Press, 2000. - Joynes, Andrew (editor), Medieval ghost stories: an anthology of miracles, marvels and prodigies Woodbridge: Boydell press, 2003. - Locke, John, Editor. Ghost Stories: The Magazine and Its Makers: Volumes 1 & 2, Off-Trail Publications, 2010. - Sullivan, Jack. Elegant Nightmares: The English Ghost Story From Le Fanu To Blackwood, Ohio University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-8214-0569-1.

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Here is new research to challenge the notion that video games have to be mindless and sedentary. A new study reveals how students can learn geometry through movement using the Kinect for Windows. “Carmen Petrick Smith, assistant professor of mathematics education (second from left), works with undergraduate education majors on movements that are used to help elementary school children learn geometry (credit: Andy Duback) University of Vermont assistant professor of mathematics education Carmen Petrick Smith has found in a study that elementary school students who interacted with a Kinect for Windows mathematics program while learning geometry showed significant gains in the understanding of angles and angle measurements… Smith and her research team engaged 30 third- and fourth-grade students in a series of tasks that involved moving their arms to form angles projected on a large Kinect screen. The screen changed colors when the students’ arms formed acute, right, obtuse and straight angles. A protractor helped students measure and refine their movements. Students were asked to figure out the hidden rules that made each of the four colors appear on the screen.” - Carmen Petrick Smith, Barbara King, Jennifer Hoyte. Learning angles through movement: Critical actions for developing understanding in an embodied activity. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 2014; 36: 95 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmathb.2014.09.001 Learning angles through movement: Critical actions for developing understanding in an embodied activity Pre- and post-tests showed gains in understanding of angle and angle measurement. Connections between physical and abstract representations can support learning. Exploring a variety of physical representations is associated with learning. Connections between movements and personal experiences can support learning. Angle instruction often begins with familiar, real-world examples of angles, but the transition to more abstract ideas can be challenging. In this study, we examine 20 third and fourth grade students completing a body-based angle task in a motion-controlled learning environment using the Kinect for Windows. We present overall pre- and post-test results, showing that the task enhanced learners’ developing ideas about angles, and we describe two case studies of individual students, looking in detail at the role the body plays in the learning process. We found that the development of a strong connection between the body and the abstract representation of angle was instrumental to learning, as was exploring the space and making connections to personal experiences. The implications of these findings for developing body-based tasks are discussed. - Embodied cognition; - Motion-controlled technology” Faculty Biography | Carmen Petrick Smith Carmen Petrick Smith, Ph.D. Carmen Petrick Smith is an Assistant Professor of Mathematics Education at the University of Vermont. She received her Ph.D. in Mathematics Education from the University of Texas at Austin where she studied the effects of embodied actions on learning geometry. Her research interests center on embodied cognition, games for learning, and STEM education. She is also a former high school mathematics teacher, and in addition to her work in education, she can solve a Rubik’s cube, is a former Guinness World Record holder for dancing the Thriller, and won the 2008 O. Henry Pun-Off World Championships. Paul Howard-Jones, of Bristol University, addresses the topic of Learning Games and “…using uncertain reward within computer games to make learning engaging. There is a clear theoretical basis and laboratory-based evidence for a classroom-based approach and so me exploratory research in classrooms that may be helpful in informing pedagogy, but evidence of impact on improved engagement and enhanced academic achievement is limited to young adults” (p.5). He goes on to write that; “Mental rotation skills are strong predictors of achievement in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) subjects and results from a single study show that improving mental rotation does lead to improvement in attainment. However, this has only been tested with undergraduate students. Another way of improving these skills might be through video games” (p.6). Howard-Jones adds that; “Popular games provide rapid schedules of uncertain reward that stimulate the brain’s reward system. The brain’s reward response can positively influence the rate at which we learn. Beyond just the magnitude of the reward, a range of contextual factors influence this reward response” (p.11). To read the full report by Paul Howard-Jones, Neuroscience and Education: A Review of Educational Interventions and Approaches Informed by Neuroscience Full Report and Executive Summary, Press Release from The Gates Foundation; SEATTLE–The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation today announced a suite of investments, totaling more than $20 million, focused on identifying and expanding promising cutting-edge learning resources that support teachers and students and bring innovative new instructional approaches into America’s classrooms. These investments support the development of game-based learning applications; math, English language arts and science curricula built in to digital formats; learning through social networking platforms; and embedded assessments through a real-time and engaging environment of experiences and journeys. All these promising resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards, which are college- and career-ready standards being implemented in more than 40 states. The Pearson Foundation, one of the major partners in this work, today is also announcing the development of its complete digital curriculum to support the standards. The foundation is pleased to work with Pearson Foundation by providing research and $3 million in funding to help make these tools widely available. In addition to the Pearson Foundation, the foundation is also partnering with Educurious Partners, Florida Virtual School, Institute of Play, Reasoning Mind, Quest Atlantis, Digital Youth Network and EDUCAUSE to develop and promote new applications for learning and assessments aligned to the Common Core State Standards. “Teachers are telling us what they want, and we are listening,” said Vicki L. Phillips, Director of Education, College Ready, at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. “We believe these exciting world-class tools have the potential to fundamentally change the way students and teachers interact in the classroom, and ultimately, how education works in America.” A significant part of these investments announced today include supporting work to build a complete system of digital courses aligned to the Common Core State Standards. The Pearson Foundation, the philanthropic arm of Pearson, the leading learning company, is developing 24 online math and English language arts courses to help teachers and principals implement the standards. These courses will be delivered through a combination of technologies, including video, interactive software, games, social media, and print. Funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation will support the development of this robust system of courses, including four— two in math and two in English language arts—to be available at no cost on an open platform for schools. In addition, a $2 million grant to Educurious Partners will help develop high school courses in biology, freshman literature and Algebra I using a project-based learning design and incorporating a social network Internet application. These include two literacy-based and two math-based courses that are contextualized within disciplines, such as engineering or writing in the natural sciences. The foundation’s $742,996 investment in Reasoning Mind which offers teacher professional development and online elementary math curricula that build algebraic thinking, will pilot a program that makes a single effective math teacher available across multiple classrooms. If successful, one Reasoning Mind-trained teacher can affect the math scores and proficiency of 250 students using the program in different grades at several schools. A Reasoning Mind classroom is a hybrid of online and face-to-face instruction, where the teacher gives each child individual help and attention. “Technology has advanced how we do so many things today,” added Phillips. “Yet, instead of transforming our schools, technology has generally been placed on top of antiquated models. These new cutting-edge applications have the potential to inspire students and engage them in the way they naturally learn, while giving teachers the flexibility to be creative in their craft and customize tools to their students’ needs.” The foundation is also investing in several game-based learning tools: - $2.6 million for iRemix, which is being developed by Digital Youth Network. It will be a set of 20 literacy-based trajectories that allow students to earn badges and move from novice to expert in areas like creative writing. - $2.5 million to Institute of Play will build a set of game-based pedagogical tools and game-design curricula that can be used within both formal and informal learning contexts. - $2.6 million to Quest Atlantis is creating video games that build proficiency in math, literacy and science. All these applications will support the Common Core State Standards. In addition, a $2 million grant to Educurious Partners will help develop high school courses in biology, freshman literature, and Algebra I through a social network Internet application. The application will allow students and teachers to collaborate with a variety of experts who are working in professional fields that are relevant to what the students are learning in the courses. These courses will also support the Common Core State Standards. Finally, in June, Next Generation Learning Challenges will award up to $10 million in competitive grants to support promising technology-enabled programs built around embedded assessments that can help students master 7th, 8th, and 9th-grade content and competencies aligned with the Common Core State Standards. Embedded assessments are a way of testing a student’s knowledge in real-time through program such as online math courses that help students self-pace their learning, game-based learning environments, and literacy instruction delivered through mobile phones. While learning in a digital environment that uses embedded assessments, students demonstrate mastery of a subject in order to progress to the next level of a game, course, or application. Next Generation Learning Challenges is a grant competition and community aimed at identifying and expanding promising technologies that can help improve education across the K-12 and postsecondary spectrum. It is led by EDUCAUSE and community partners with support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. For more information about the foundation’s investments to advance promising technologies in education, please visit www.gatesfoundation.org\education. Allie Bidwell, of US News, writes that; “It seems like kids do everything online these days – and school is no exception. More and more, educators are taking advantage of digital advances to supplement their teaching in the classroom, and are seeing encouraging results. This is especially the case for certain subgroups of students that typically struggle academically, such as English language learners and special education students. “The classroom you went to school in is almost the exact same classroom you’d walk into today, but the level of engagement our kids get outside of the classroom has changed dramatically,” says Jessica Lindl, general manager of the digital gaming company GlassLab and a spokesperson for the game SimCityEDU. “Teachers are almost the entertainers trying to find whatever tool they can to try to engage their kids.” Lindl says the SimCityEDU game helps engage kids by helping them improve basic cognitive functions and critical thinking. In the game, students serve as the mayor of a city and are immediately faced with challenges – they must address environmental impacts on the city while maintaining employment needs and other relationships. Although Lindl says it’s important to use games as a supplement to classroom-based learning, such digital outlets have added benefits. “There is continuous positive feedback,” Lindl says. “Learners are way more likely to feel comfortable with a video game than taking a standardized test and that’s really powerful.” Additionally, video games in the classroom provide teachers, administrators and parents with a plethora of data to give assessments on students’ performances that Lindl says is invaluable, not just because of the granularity of the data, but also because it shows student achievements in real time. Other times, parents and students may have to wait weeks or months, depending on the test, to see their results. “When you think of learning games, engagement and game mechanics is exciting, but there’s a critical value proposition around game-based assessments that we’re seeing,” Lindl says. “Teachers, students and parents can have in the moment understanding of what the child is learning, how they arrived at that learning and accelerate what the learning is, as opposed to waiting weeks down the road.” Another valuable aspect of using games in the classroom is the competition (and hence reward) mechanisms built into some games. At Mario Umana Academy in Boston, students from kindergarten through eighth grade have been using a program called First in Math since 2010.” To read the full article by Allie Bidwell, of US News, click here; Jonathan Wai wrote a very compelling article on “Why We Need To Value Students’ Spatial Creativity”. He reminds us of the spatially creative inventors and geniuses who have contributed so much to to science and industry. Then he reveals how schools neglects the development of spacial creativity. He makes clear connections between the video games, the development of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) skills and spacial creativity; “The research is clear that spatial skill is important for STEM careers, and perhaps we can even enhance spatial skill to help more people join the STEM fields. What we need is research directed at understanding the best ways to develop the talent of students who are high spatial, but relatively lower math/verbal. Perhaps spatial video games and online learning coupled with hands on interventions might help these students.” Wai also writes that; “Spatial thinking “finds meaning in the shape, size, orientation, location, direction or trajectory, of objects,” and their relative positions, and “uses the properties of space as a vehicle for structuring problems, for finding answers, and for expressing solutions.” Spatial skill can be measured through reliable and valid paper-and-pencil tests—primarily ones that assess three dimensional mental visualization and rotation. Read more about examples of items that measure spatial skill here. But despite the value of these kinds of skills, spatially talented students are, by and large, neglected. Nearly a century ago, a talent search conducted by Lewis Terman used the highly verbal Stanford-Binet in an attempt to discover the brightest kids in California. This test identified a boy named Richard Nixon who would eventually become the U.S. president, but two others would miss the cut likely because the Stanford-Binet did not include a spatial test: William Shockley and Luis Alvarez, who would go on to become famous physicists and win the Nobel Prize. Today talent searches often use the SAT and ACT which include math, verbal, and writing sections, but do not include a spatial measure. All of the physicists described above (and Tesla who could do integral calculus in his head) would likely qualify today at least on the math section, and Edison would likely have qualified on the verbal section due to his early love of reading. However, there are many students who have high spatial talent but relatively lower math and verbal talent who are likely missed by modern talent searches and therefore fail to have their talent developed to the extent it could. Also, because colleges use the SAT and ACT for selecting students, many high spatial students likely do not make it onto college campuses. Nearly every standardized test given to students today is heavily verbal and mathematical. Students who have the high spatial and lower math/verbal profile are therefore missed in nearly every school test and their talent likely goes missed, and thus under-developed. What’s more, spatially talented people are often less verbally fluent, and unlikely to be very vocal. Finally, teachers are unlikely to have a high spatial profile themselves (and typically have the inverted profile of high verbal and lower math/spatial), and although they probably do not intend to, they’re more likely to miss seeing talent in students who are not very much like themselves.” One topic that Wai did not address is the effect of the gender imbalance, in teaching, on the neglect of spacial creativity in US. Schools. When one gender so dominates the teaching profession, we should expect that certain aspects of creativity will necessarily be neglected. Gender diversity is better for all professions. Gender diversity in the teaching profession would go a long way toward fostering the development of spacial creativity in students. To read the full article by Jonathan Wai on Mind/Shift click here; NDTV notes that; Moreover, students’ interest and enjoyment in playing the math video game increased when they played with another student. The findings point to new ways in which computer, console, or mobile educational games may yield learning benefits. “We found support for claims that well-designed games can motivate students to learn less popular subjects, such as math, and that game-based learning can actually get students interested in the subject matter?and can broaden their focus beyond just collecting stars or points,” said Jan Plass, a professor in New York University’s Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development and one of the study’s lead authors. “Educational games may be able to help circumvent major problems plaguing classrooms by placing students in a frame of mind that is conducive to learning rather than worrying about how smart they look,” added co-lead author Paul O’Keefe, an NYU postdoctoral fellow at the time of the study. The researchers focused on how students’ motivation to learn, as well as their interest and performance in math, was affected by playing a math video game either individually, competitively, or collaboratively. Researchers had middle-school students play the video game FactorReactor, which is designed to build math skills through problem solving and therefore serves as diagnostic for learning.” To read the full article click here, - Playing educational video games can boost kids’ motivation to learn (indiavision.com) - Educational Video Games Help Students with Math Skills (scienceworldreport.com) - Educational video games can boost motivation to learn, NYU, CUNY study shows (hispanicbusiness.com) - Co-op gaming is a smart way to teach, says new research (polygon.com) - Breaking Barriers: Video Games as Tools for Learning and Recovery (thetechscoop.net) “Games have long been used to engage students. But as game-based learning becomes more prevalent in schools, researchers are interested in how game structure mirrors the learning process. In many games, students explore ideas and try out solutions. When they learn the skills required at one level, they move up. Failure to complete tasks is reframed as part of the path towards learning how to conquer a level. Universities like Harvard, MIT and the University of Wisconsin’s Game and Learning Society are studying how game-playing helps student engagement and achievement, and well-known researchers in the field like James Paul Gee and University of Wisconsin professor Kurt Squire show are using their own studies to show that games help students learn. Once the terrain of experimental classrooms, digital games are now becoming more common in classrooms. In a recent survey by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center, half of 505 K-8 teachers said they use digital games with their students two or more days a week, and 18 percent use them daily. Educators are using commercial games like Minecraft, World of Warcraft and SimCity for education. The Institute of Play continues to study game-based learning and helps support two Quest to Learn schools, which are based around the idea of games and learning.” To read the full article click here; Neil Peirce finds that; “Although there is a limited amount of academic research in this area, there is evidence of the benefits of specifically designed games, notably in the areas of phonological awareness, differentiating relationships, memory enhancement, coordinated motor skills, and mathematical development. However, these benefits have only been evaluated over several months in a structured preschool environment. The impact of such games being played intermittently in an informal setting is an area of Download a copy of the report here [PDF]. In her article “Teachers, Students, Digital Games: What’s the Right Mix?” Holly Korbey interviewed a few educators who had some bad ideas about computer games; “And learning is hard work. The tools children use to manipulate and change the world and their own neural pathways should reflect the profundity of that phenomenon; we should have some blisters, form calluses, break a sweat. Computer games don’t demand that from The better games are demanding. That is why they are the best games. There are educational games that are very challenging but they are challenging in the way that good play is challenging. It is counter productive to remind children that they learning not playing. The best learning happens when we are playing. Practicing a skill leads to success, but if the practice is boring then students will be less motivated to engage in the requisite practice (James Gee, 2007). The best digital games provide practice that is very compelling, engaging, and challenging, but never boring. Gamers play not because games are easy but because they are hard. But, they are hard in the right way, to the right degree, and most importantly – they are hard in a fun way. The best games provide the balance of challenge and support. To describe learning as “hard work and not play” is one of the worst possible ways to describe it. Gee, J.P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (Rev. ed.). New York: Palgrave McMillian. To read the full article by Holly Korbey click here; This could be a great tool for teachers and others who are interested in making learning games.

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Japanese Art Before 1392 First Things First... This lesson plan will cover Japanese Art before 1392, from the Prehistoric to the Kamakura period. A recurring theme in the history of Japanese art and culture is the constant flow of influence from China and its transformation into a unique Japanese form. Thus, often following the lessons on South Asian, Chinese, and Korean art, this lecture can provide great opportunities for students to develop skills in comparative analysis, through which they gain critical assessment of pan-Asian internationalism vs. Japanese local/national style. While Buddhism, spread through the Silk Road, is the most important vehicle for cross-cultural exchanges at this stage in history, comparison to Chinese artifacts, such as ancient pottery and medieval scroll painting, can also be effective. Nobuo Tsuji, the art historian who authored the most recent survey of Japanese art history (Nihon bijutsu no rekishi, 2005; no English trans.), identifies the tendencies towards “decorativeness,” “playfulness,” and “animism” (including a secular interest in “animating” inanimate things) as three crucial features of Japanese aesthetics. Perhaps, instead of lecturing on such a preset of ideas, ask students to contemplate on what they detect as distinctive qualities of Japanese art for themselves. Another theme in this lecture is the urge for imagination, animation, and storytelling in visual art. These concepts can perhaps relate to many of your students’ prior knowledge on Japanese art and culture, predominantly derived form manga comics, animé, and video games. Since these Japanese pop-cultural products frequently draw visual and narrative motifs from art and literature of the past, ranging from ancient to modern times, one possible opening exercise could be a formal analysis of Goggle-Eyed Dogū—a motif often adapted to monster/alien/enemy characters in recent Japanese visual culture. Once students conclude that it is a representation of a woman, comparable to, but with very different emphasis from, the Woman of Willendorf, you can then ask students why they think contemporary creators almost unanimously focus on the “monstrous” quality of this figure, disregarding its feminine identity, and why this prehistoric design, highly stylized and full of creativity, seems to perfectly fit visual fictions of our time. The tendency towards stylization/abstraction and imagination can be related to the interest in simplified or humorous forms and the various storytelling techniques explored in this lecture. - Goggle-Eyed Dogū, c. 1000–400 BCE - Storage Jar, c. 300–100 BCE - Haniwa Warrior, sixth century CE - Main Hall at Ise Shrine, Mie prefecture - Hōryū-ji temple, Nara prefecture, c. 711 CE (lost original 607 CE) - Tori Busshi, Shaka Triad, Golden Hall, Hōryū-ji, 623 CE - Hungry Tigress, from Tamamushi Shrine, Golden Hall, Hōryū-ji - Yakushi Triad, Yakushi-ji temple, Nara - A scene from Kashiwagi Chapter, the Tale of Genji Scrolls, 12th century CE - The Frolicking of Animals, twelfth century CE - Night Attack on Sanjō Palace from The Tale of Heiji Scrolls, second half of the thirteenth century CE Dogū (“clay icon”): an earthenware figurine possibly created for ritual purposes during the Jōmon period. Emaki or emakimono: illustrated narrative scroll that developed from handscroll painting imported from China into a unique pictorial narrative during the Heian and Kamakura period. Haniwa (“clay circle”): clay sculpture representing human figures, animals and buildings that were used to adorn the kofun. Heian-kyō (Kyoto): Japan’s second capital, built in 794 CE. Heijō-kyō (Nara): Japan’s oldest capital, established in 710 CE. Jōmon (“cord marking”): the decorative pattern found on prehistoric ceramic objects, created by pressing a cord or rope against unfired clay; the term also refers to the historical period when this style of pottery was produced. Kana or hiragana: the phonographic writing system, developed from abstracted Chinese characters; initially recognized as on’na-de (feminine style/women’s hand writing) as opposed to otoko-de (masculine style/men’s hand writing) of Chinese characters. Kofun (“old mound tomb”): large scale burial mounds, erected as the tombs of rulers and community leaders during the Kofun period. Mahāyāna Buddhism: the school of Buddhism that became spread to Japan and other regions of East Asia. Literary meaning “great vehicles,” Mahāyāna aims for the salvation of a communal whole, in contrast to Theravāda Buddhism, practiced in Sri Lanka and most of Southeast Asia, that focuses on one’s individual path to enlightenment. Mudra: the hand gesture of Buddhist figures that have symbolic meanings. On’na-e: feminine style/women’s hand painting characterized by sumptuous rich colors. Otoko-e: masculine style/men’s hand painting, initially typified by ink monochrome style informed by Chinese painting but later associated with the depiction of dynamic movement or military subject. Pagoda: a Buddhist reliquary in the form of a tower-like structure; the tall, slender design originated in Han dynasty China, replacing the dome-shaped stupa reliquary developed in India. Shintō (“the way of gods”): indigenous religion of Japan that worships yaoyorozu no kami (Eight Million Gods), various gods and spirits of nature and inanimate objects. Japanese emperors are believed to be the descendants of the one of the supreme deities, the sun goddess Amaterasu. After the arrival of Buddhism to Japan, the elements of the two belief systems were often fused and simultaneously venerated by many Japanese. Torii gate: a gateway to Shintō shrine. Yamato: ancient name of Japan. Yamato-e: literary “Japanese painting,” but used to refer to a painting that depicts local landscape or a domestic subject, in contrast to Chinese-influenced kara-e (“Chinese paining”). The Jōmon period (c. 11,000–c. 300 BCE) covers a wide range of time when semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers developed Meso/Neolithic culture on the Japanese archipelago. As Jōmon (“cord marking”) refers to the characteristic surface patterns found on numerous clay shards, the invention of pottery making was the hallmark of this culture. Recent scientific research dates some Jōmon clay pots prior to 10,000 BCE, making them the oldest known ceramic objects in history. In the Middle to Late Jōmon phase, clay vessels were profusely decorated with coiled motifs, the most elaborate ones possibly used in rituals. Also widely produced in this period are clay figurines known as dogū (“clay icon”), mysterious humanoids that exhibit high degree of creativity. Goggle-Eyed Dogū represents the type of dogū frequently excavated in the northeast region, characterized by the exaggerated, coffee bean shaped eyes (“goggle-eyed” because they resemble the snow goggles traditionally worn by the Intuits, but there is no actual cultural/historical connection). While highly stylized and disproportionate, the figure’s pointed breasts, small waist and wide hips unmistakably point to her female identity. The incised lines, cord marking patterns, and series of dots that cover her torso may represent tattoos, and the protrusion on her head could be a headdress or intricate hairstyle. Although the true meaning and function of dogūs remain unknown to us, the goggle-eyed type possibly personified fertility, and since several examples have been discovered with one leg broken, some archaeologists suggest their usage in healing rituals. Around 300 BCE, a group of emigrants from the Asian continent, possibly war refugees of the Warring States under Zhou dynasty China, arrived in southern Japan via a maritime route or the Korean peninsula, bringing with them Chinese technologies such as bronze and iron casting, and wet rice agriculture. These newcomers to the Japanese islands formed farming communities that grew larger and more permanent, referred to as Yayoi culture (c. 300 BCE–c. 250 CE), which eventually absorbed the indigenous Jōmon population. (While opinions vary, there could be a period when the two cultures coexisted; there is no sign of military conflicts between them.) The distinctive artistic aesthetic of the Yayoi people is most obvious in their earthenware vessels such as Storage Jar, which displays a striking contrast to the dynamic decoration and imagination of Jōmon potteries. In contrast to the open fired and thickly coiled Jōmon vessels, Yayoi potteries are thinner, more durable, and symmetric in shape thanks to the introduction of kilns and potter’s wheels. Their pottery also completely lacks or only contains simple, minimal decorations. In the subsequent Kofun period (c. 250–538/552 CE), the Jōmon tendency towards bold creativity and the Yayoi taste for simple elegance seem to have been fused in the production of haniwa (“clay circle”) figurines, a kind of funerary object that adorned the exterior of kofun (“old mound tomb”) tumuli. Between the mid-third and early sixth century, about 160,000 kofun tombs of various shapes and sizes were built as burial mounds for community leaders, the most enormous of which is the key-hole shaped Tomb of Emperor Nintoku in Sakai city, Osaka. A variety of haniwa—representing men, women, animals, houses and boats—were placed on the top of kofun along the edges, supposedly in order to define the boundary between the worlds of life and death or to guard the deceased in the burial chamber below. Consisting of hollow coiled cylinders with incised holes and lines indicating eyes and mouths, human and animal haniwa are simple in construction, but bluntly communicate unpretentious emotion through their facial expressions and humorous gestures. Haniwa Warrior is one of the most intricate designs created in the late Kofun period, providing detailed visual information of ancient Japan’s arms and armor. A comparison with the terracotta soldiers from the tomb of Qin Shihuandi could be a good topic for class discussion, highlighting the contrast between the Chinese interest in realism as the expression of military power, and the Japanese emphasis on emotional and spiritual quality in simple forms, even in the figure of a warrior. Kofun tumuli’s spread from the Kinki region, then the political center of Japan, to outer areas throughout the country indicates the establishment of the Yamato (ancient name of Japan) government and the lineage of the Imperial House that still continues today. Shintō, the other major religions of Japan, was closely tied to the empowerment of Japanese Emperors, believed to be the descendants of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Literally meaning “the Way of Gods,” Shintō is a polytheistic faith with a wide array of spirits that embody natural objects and phenomena, as well as inanimate things. Such an animistic world view still strongly preoccupies the cultural life of Japan today: one example is the unique tradition of harikuyō (“memorial for broken needles”), born out of the Shintōist respect for mundane everyday objects. One may also recognize similar sensitivity behind Sony’s invention and exploration of the robot dog, Aibo, as a companion animal. Of over 80,000 Shintō shrines that currently exist in Japan, the most important is the Ise Shrine in Mie Prefecture, the foundation of which can be dated as early as 4 BCE in the Yayoi period. Ise Shrine collectively refers to numerous Shintō structures in the area, bilaterally grouped as naikū (the Inner Shrine) consecrated to the sun goddess Amaterasu, and gekū (the Outer Shrine) devoted to the grain god who prepares food for her. A visitor to the Inner Shrine passes under the torii gate and crosses the bridge, both of which mark the transition into a sacred domain, and then proceeds to worship Amaterasu at the Main Hall (honden), protected in the innermost sanctuary and only partially visible behind wood fences. In a unique ritual known as shikinen sengū (“ceremonial year shrine transfer,” or “the moving of the goddess”), the Main Hall is rebuilt anew every twenty years at an adjacent identical rectangular lot within the sanctuary. This practice is believed to have begun in 690 CE, and except for occasional delays and the 120-year-long disruption due to civil wars in the late fifteenth to sixteenth century, has been continued to this day with the most recent occurrence in October 2013. The architectural style and technique of ancient Japan, including the selection and preparation of materials, thus has been preserved through rituals, not in the physical originality of the building. The Main Hall’s unchanged style, specifically known as shinmei zukuri, is characterized by a gabled roof supported by main pillars on its short sides, an entrance on one of the long sides, and a raised floor and veranda surrounding the building, believed to have evolved from raised-floor granaries. The end of the Kofun period is marked by the official introduction of Mahāyāna Buddhism to Japan in 538 or 552 CE (recently the former date is more supported in Japan, but most art history surveys in English list the latter date), made through gifts of the Buddhist scriptures and a gilt bronze statue from King Seong-wang of Baekje (one of the Korean Three Kingdoms) to Emperor Kinmei. The subsequent Asuka, Hakuhō, and Nara periods (538/552-645-710-794 CE) are separated by major political incidents, but are related by the centralization of Buddhism in Japan’s politics and society. The assimilation of Buddhism also promoted direct exchanges with China and further absorption of continental art, culture, and philosophies. The Buddhist artifacts and monuments created in this phase, still extant in Japan, are important records of early Buddhist art and architecture of all of East Asia. Most Chinese and Korean artifacts and monuments did not survive due to the major Buddhist persecutions in China between the fifth and the tenth centuries, and the predominance of Confucianism in Korea under the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910). The introduction of a new foreign religion brought confusion to the Yamato court in the mid-sixth century. The civil conflicts between two powerful aristocratic clans, the pro-Buddhist Sogas and the anti-Buddhist Mononobes, ended with the latter’s defeat, and the proclamation of the reconciliation and amalgamation of Shintōism and Buddhism (shinbutsu shūgō) by Prince Shōtoku (572–622 CE). The son of Emperor Yōmei, and later a regent of his aunt Empress Suiko, Prince Shōtoku was a semi-legendary politician and Buddhist scholar, who had become himself the object of worship as the founder of Japan’s first Buddhist monasteries, derived from his research on Chinese and Korean precedents through treatises and illustrations. One of his achievements, the Hōryū-ji temple complex, located outside Nara is the world oldest extant wood architecture, originally constructed in 607 CE. The present structures are reconstructions completed in c. 711 CE after a fire in 670 CE. The current plan (garan) of Hōryū-ji is asymmetric, as the Middle Gate (chūmon), Five-Story Pagoda, and the Golden Hall (kondō) are arranged slightly off the north-south axis, while the lost original plan is believed to have followed the more orthodox Chinese and Korean style, strictly symmetrical and centered around the Pagoda. This change in layout suggests 1. the increasing significance of the Golden Hall (the main worship hall housing the statue of Buddha), rivaling the previously most important pagoda (the reliquary, or the container for Buddha’s ashes, developed from Indian stupas into vertical structures in China; considered to be the embodiment of the Buddhist doctrine); 2. the Japanese preference for asymmetry, also echoing the asymmetric balance of the pagoda and the Golden Hall. Comparing the Chinese-influenced Hōryū-ji Golden Hall to the domestic architectural style of the Ise Shrine Main Hall can be a good exercise for detecting the foreign elements newly introduced to Japan: the raised-floor is replaced by a stone platform, and the reed-covered gabled roof is taken over by the double-roofed hip-and-gable style fortified with clay tiles. Although the Golden Hall appears to be a two-story building from the outside, its interior consists only of one story, unlike its Chinese model. The Golden Hall’s interior is presided by a gilt bronze Shaka Triad, a Shakyamuni (historical) Buddha flanked by two attendant bodhisattvas, created by Tori Busshi, a master craftsman of Korean decent. This Buddha figural group, shown with the “fearlessness” mudra (hand gesture) to symbolize their benevolence, was commissioned in 623 CE as an offering to Prince Shōtoku who had died in the previous year. This object is believed to have survived the 670 fire. The style shows Tori’s familiarity with the continental style of Buddhist sculpture: the frontal pose, flat bodies, slightly enlarged heads with archaic smile, and flowing linear drapery bear a strong resemblance to the Buddhist sculptures created in Northern Wei China or contemporary Korea. The wall paintings that originally adorned the interior of the Golden Hall were destroyed in a fire in 1949, but photographic evidence suggests that their style was influenced by early Indian paintings, such as the ones at the Ajanta cave temples. Hōryū-ji has other examples of early Japanese Buddhist painting that possibly show the similar international style of the lost Golden Hall wall painting. The base of Tamamushi Shrine, a miniature replica of the destroyed original Golden Hall, is decorated with panel paintings. Two of these paintings illustrate episodes from the Jātaka Tales, a body of literature on the former lives of Shakyamuni Buddha (Gautama Siddhartha), largely derived from folklore and established in India around the fourth century BCE. Hungry Tigress illustrates Buddha’s encounter in one such reincarnation with a starving tigress, who was on the verge of killing her two cubs out of despair. Even though Buddha compassionately offers his own body to feed the animals, they were too weak to kill him, so he jumps off a cliff to wrench his flesh. The anonymous artist of Hungry Tigress depicted the scene in a continuous narrative, by repeating the slim, elegant figure of Buddha three times in the single pictorial space: he first appears on the cliff top as he takes off his cloth, then is vertically diving in the air, and lastly lies horizontally as his body is devoured by the tigers. Following the sequence of Buddha’s movements from top to bottom, the viewer’s eye traces a large inverted C-shaped curve, which echoes multiple decorative C shapes in the stylized depiction of rugged cliffs on the left edge of the painting. The graceful rhythm created by abstract forms and flowing lines contrasts to the staggering brutality in the story, but paradoxically sublimates Buddha’s deed as the ultimate form of self-sacrifice. On the continent, the Silk Road trade route reached its height in the eighth century, and the flourishing of international trade from Asia to Europe also impacted various aspects of Japanese society in the Hakuhō-Nara period. As the newly built capital of Heijō-kyō (today’s Nara) was entirely modeled after the Chinese grid urban plan, Tang dynasty China remained the most direct and all-encompassing influence on the political, economic, and cultural system of Japan. However, the wider cultural influence well beyond the border of East Asia also reached Japan at this time, as evidenced by the objects diversely originated from India, Persia, Egypt and Rome still in the imperial collection of the Shōsō-in treasure house at the Tōdai-ji temple. Yakushi Triad, a Medicine Buddha flanked by Nikkō (Sun Light) and Gakkō (Moon light) bodhisattvas, a sculpture in the Golden Hall of the Yakushi-ji temple, is one embodiment of the rich internationalism of the time. Students can recognize the Greek origin of contrapposto in the figures of the two bodhisattvas, and are also able to trace the transmission of this pose via the Silk Road through the Greco-Indian Gandhara Buddha image, and the Tang dynasty Buddha group at the Longmen cave that they must have studied in the lectures on South Asian and Chinese art. The body of the Medicine Buddha, cross-legged on falling drapery, is full and robust, revealing the Japanese’s quick departure from the Chinese/Korean-influenced frontal and linear style found in the Shaka Triad just a few decades ago. This new tendency towards a fully rounded body with greater anatomical definition certainly paralleled the Tang dynasty style, most visible in the Longmen Vairocana Buddha, which in turn had been influenced by fleshy Indian Buddhas of the Gupta or Mathura period. Another sign of internationalism can be found in the relief decorations of the Buddha’s rectangular throne, which contains various designs distinctly derived from four different cultures: - Greece (the grape vines in the uppermost horizontal band; grapes did not grow in Asia back then); - Persia (the gem shaped motifs in other horizontal and vertical strips); - China (the four mythological animals, dragon, phoenix, tiger and turtle/snake, associated with the four directions); - India (the chubby demon figures behind bell-shaped arches at the bottom of the throne, resembling the indigenous ancient deity of yakusha.) By the end of the eighth century, the capital of Heijō-kyō was packed with numerous Buddhist temples that were problematically gaining political leverage. In 794 CE, Emperor Kanmu finally moved the capital to Heian-kyō (today’s Kyoto) in order to break free from this corruption, marking the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185/1192 CE). This was a time when actual political control was transferred from emperors to the powerful aristocratic Fujiwara family, who also established refined elegance and sumptuousness as the dominant style of Heian art and culture. The Heian period also saw changes in Japan’s relationship with China. In the early Heian period, China, still under the prosperous Tang dynasty, continued serving as Japan’s model, but after the fall of the Tang empire (907 CE), the Japanese stopped sending official emissaries to the continent and the Chinese influence quickly diminished. This distance from China in the middle to late Heian phase propelled the burgeoning of unique, national style in art and literature for the first time in Japanese history, such as the development of the new pictorial genre of emaki narrative scrolls. Also of particular interest here is the Japanese self-identification as “feminine,” as opposed to the “masculine” Chinese models: we repeatedly encounter with such binary distinction of “masculine” vs. “feminine” in Heian art, the implication of which would shift in the late Heian/Kamakura period. In visual art, in addition to the inherently foreign-influenced Buddhist subjects, Heian painters increasingly favored the depictions of the local landscape in four seasons and subjects derived from domestic literature. This type of painting came to be recognized as yamato-e (Japanese painting), as the counterpart to the Chinese-inspired kara-e (Tang painting). In literature, Japanese developed new phonographic letters known as kana, abstracted from a set of kanji (Chinese characters) that had been introduced to the country by the end of the Yayoi period. While official documents and Buddhist texts were still strictly written in kanji, gendered as otoko-de (masculine writing), the usage of kana, or on’na-de (feminine writing), became prominent in personal and intimate literature such as journals, letters, and the 31-syllable verse known as waka (Japanese poems). The rise of female writers in medieval Japan’s literary scene is a unique phenomenon in human history, and may not have been unrelated to the “feminine” identification (regardless of the author’s actual gender) of the national writing style. The Tale of Genji, arguably the oldest novel in the world, was written by Lady Murasaki, a lady-in-waiting possibly related to the Fujiwara family, and completed by c. 1008 CE. Intended for female readers at the court, the Tale of Genji narrates the fictive lives of Prince Genji and his descendants on an epic scale, equivalent to a 2000-page long modern novel. Its narrative focuses on romantic encounters of Genji, but also communicates existential ebbs and flows with great attention to subtle emotions of characters, addressing the newly emerged unique Japanese aesthetics that embraces evanescence and transience. The long-standing popularity of the Tale made it one of the most illustrated narratives in the history of Japanese painting. One of the most celebrated examples, the national-treasured Tale of Genji Scrolls come from Heian period, originally a complete set of all 54 chapters rendered on handscrolls, only a handful of which have survived to this day. The production of this lavish set is believed to have been a collective work, involving a calligrapher, a main painter who determined compositions and painted the initial contours, colorists who finished the images outlined by the main painter, and others who were in charge of the paper decorations and mounting of the scrolls. While the set’s provenance is unclear, the sheer scale of the work suggests that it was completed at a national scale, intended for a royal or aristocratic audience. Each scroll typically consists of two or three pairs of a text alternating with illustrations. Thus, when looking at an image, the viewer is already familiar with the event going on in the scene. A Scene from the Kashiwagi Chapter, the thirty-sixth in the entire tale depicting Genji in his late forties, narrates an episode in which the Third Princess, one of Genji’s consorts, confesses her adultery and her decision to become a nun due to her guilt. The image shows Genji delicately holding the Third Princess’s baby and her lover Kashiwagi. Kashiwagi was the best friend of Genji’s oldest son, but recently died due to his sinful agony, thus the scene tangibly depicts Genji’s sorrow over Kashiwagi’s death and Princess’s departure as well as his benevolence in accepting the now fatherless baby as his own son. Yet another theme that runs through this episode is that of the poetic justice, or the Buddhist concept of the “retribution of Karma”: as the reader is introduced in earlier chapters, Genji himself has an illegitimate son who goes by as his half-brother, born out of his dangerous liaison with his late stepmother, the youngest concubine of his late emperor-father. In the painting, the face of Genji is rendered in the simplified generic hikime kagihana (“a line for the eye, a hook for the nose”) style, and the dramatic emotions are instead conveyed through the multi-layered rich colors, known as tsukuri-e (“constructed painting”). The rich colors are also a distinctive feature of on’na-e, the “feminine painting.” In order to make the indoor scenes visible to the viewer, the artist devised the hikinuki yatai (“blown-off roofs”) technique, in which the ceilings and roofs of buildings are omitted from the bird’s eye view. While grasping the elegance of the Heian court life in the intricate details of garments, screens and fabrics, the artist also explored the destabilizing effects of the diagonal, asymmetric composition that pushes the figures to one corner. As opposed to the “feminine painting,” distinguished by rich colors and epitomized in The Tale of Genji Scrolls, otoko-e or “masculine painting” was characterized by the emphasis on brushwork, largely indebted to the ink monochrome tradition of Chinese painting. One of the masterpieces of this masculine style is Frolicking of Animals, a set of four handscrolls belonging to the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto, and once attributed to the hand of a monk Toba Sōjō (this attribution is now in question due to the various styles recognizable in different volumes). Unlike most other emaki scrolls, Frolicking of Animals is not accompanied by texts but only consists of black-and-white paintings. Even though there seems to be certain narrative themes ask your students to take a look at the first volume before class and to interpret what they see for homework. The most celebrated first volume depicts anthropomorphized rabbits, frogs, and monkeys engaging in amusing activities that can be interpreted as caricatures of human life and society. The artist’s mastery of brush technique, unmistakable in the brisk and confident brushstrokes, simultaneously captures the essence of animal forms and transforms them into humorous humanized actions. This volume is often considered the origin of Japanese manga due to the use of abstract lines to indicate movement and sounds, a technique commonly used in modern manga. Students can also see that the artist worked directly on the paper without any under-drawings nor mistakes, as typical of East Asian painting tradition. In the last phase of the Heian period, Japan entered a chapter of political turmoil when the emerging military clans known as samurai overtook the weakening aristocratic. The transition to the Kamakura period (1185/1192–1333 CE) was marked by the Genpei Civil Wars (1180–5 CE), a series of battles fought between the two powerful samurai clans, the Minamotos and the Tairas, which ended with the triumph of the former and the complete destruction of the latter. Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–99 CE) became the first shōgun in Japanese history, the de facto governor of the country. The political influence of the Emperors was reduced to the appointment of shōguns as their regents until the end of the Edo period. The capital was also for the first time moved to eastern Japan in the city of Kamakura about a hundred miles to the south of today’s Tokyo, where the new artistic taste, reflecting the samurai aesthetics and lifestyle, emerged. Rejecting the graceful and sumptuous Heian court style, Kamukura warriors favored simple and pragmatic, virile and robust qualities This shift in artistic orientation can be recognized in the emaki handscrolls of this period as well. The Tale of Heiji Scrolls (second half of the thirteenth century CE), created about a hundred years after the Genpei Civil Wars, chronicles the major events of the legendary military conflicts with a vigorous sense of realism, combining the vivid colors of “feminine” (Tale of Genji Scrolls), and the dynamic actions and brushwork of “masculine” (Frolicking of Animals). Although the Tale of Heiji Scrolls themselves are considered “masculine painting,” this categorization did not result from their visual reliance on the Chinese style, but rather stemmed from the “masculine” military subject, giving rise to the “battle painting” narrative sub-genre. Unlike the Tale of Genji Scrolls that break up one chapter into multiple scenes, each volume of the Tale of Heiji Scrolls begins and ends with substantial text parts, and emphasizes an uninterrupted visual representation in the central portion of the scroll. Night Attack on Sanjō Palace depicts the kidnapping of the ex-Emperor Shirakawa by the Minamoto warriors and their noble ally Fujiwara no Nobuyori, opening with the chaotic procession of the nobles on ox carts, surrounded by warriors on horseback. While deploying conventional bird’s eye perspective, the anonymous painter of the Heiji Scrolls introduced a new technique to divide the foreground and the background of one pictorial space into different scenes, enabling a seamless visual narrative clearly indicative of spatial and temporal progress. This is most obvious in the middle in which one sees Fujiwara no Nobuyori holding a bow and arrows, ordering the Minamoto troop in the background to attack the palace. In the foreground, court ladies can be seen mourning. The contrast between masculine power and female passivity continues as one witnesses further violence to the left side of this scene, culminating in the dramatic depiction of the burning palace behind the fighting warriors. Because of the meticulously rendered details, the Night Attack volume is also an important visual record of the weapons and armors worn by the samurais of the Kamakura period. At the End of Class... Smarthistory on Korea and Japan Conserving the Gan Ku Tiger scroll painting at the British Museum: © Trustees of the British Museum

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English Language and Grammar - 'Adjectives, Nouns and Verbs - defined' Adjectives – what are they? Adjectives are used to modify nouns or pronouns. They are always near the noun or pronoun they are describing. They can be one word or a group of words. Adjectives can also be used with certain verbs (such as the verb "to be"). They are used to clarify the subject that is doing the action; adjectives are not used to clarify the verb. Adjectives are used to describe colour, material, shape, size, amount, price, quality, origin, personality, weight, temperature, weight, age, and direction. There are 9 different adjective groups and the order of these adjectives is as follows: When there are 2 or more adjectives that are from the same group "and" is placed between the 2 adjectives. - The boat is green and red. - The bookshop has old and new books. When there are 3 or more adjectives from the same adjective group. Place a comma between each of the adjectives. A comma is not placed between an adjective and thenoun. - We have a big, green, white and red boat on the canal. - My friend lost a red, black and white scarf, if you find it please let me know. Adjectives are placed before the noun. The form of the adjectives is the same for all types of nouns. Adjectives can be used with all forms of nouns. Adjectives and Nouns Usually, adjectives are placed before the noun. Adjectives are used to describe the noun. - The little boy is cute. - The black dog is very old. 2 or more adjectives can be used together to describe a noun. - The big red bike outside is my new bike. - I am going to take the long black tram to the town centre. Nouns can be used as adjectives. - Smokey, the cat likes his new cat igloo. - Please close the pantry door. When an article is used such as "a", "an" or "the", then the article is placed before the adverb. What are comparative adjectives? Comparative adjectives are used to compare the difference between 2 nouns, or a collective noun. Superlative adjectives are used to compare 3 or more nouns. - The black boat is older than the white boat. - My boat is bigger than his boat. - The blue boat is more expensive than the green boat. The Rules for using Comparative Adjectives "Than" is usually used after the comparative adjective. -er is added to the end of a 1-syllable adjective - Cold - colder : The winter is colder than the summer. - Small – smaller : The blue boat is smaller than the black boat. - Tall – taller: Most jockeys are smaller than footballers. -er is added to the end of an adjective with 2 syllables, if the word ends in -y. - Early – earlier : I came home earlier than my husband. - Happy – happier : I am happier now than I ever was. - Crazy – crazier : You are crazier than me. "More" or "less" is used for adjectives that have 2 syllables, if the word doesn't end in -y. Adjectives that end in -y, change the -y to i and add -ed. - Honest - more honest : Policemen are more honest than criminals - Difficult- more difficult : Yesterdays test was more difficult than today’s. - Modern - more modern : Our generation is more modern than our parent’s generation. "More" or "less" is used for adjectives that have 3 or more syllables - Expensive - more expensive : My boat is less expensive than her boat. - Comfortable - more comfortable : The green chair is more comfortable than the green settee. Adjectives that end in -e, only -r is added to end of the adjective. - Nice – nicer : This hotel is nicer than the last - Safe – safer : Aeroplanes are safer than cars Adjectives that end in with a consonant, vowel, consonant - the last consonant is doubled. - Big –bigger : My boat is bigger than her boat. - Hot –hotter : The summer is hotter than the winter. The structure of comparative adjectives There are two ways to form comparative adjectives, depending on the length of the adjective. Adjectives with 1 syllable or adjectives with 2 syllables if the word ends in -y, then -er is added to the end of the word. djectives ending in -y; change the -y to -i and add -er. Adjectives that end with a consonant, vowel, consonant - the last consonant is doubled and -er is added to the end of the adjective. - cold - colder - small – smaller - tall – taller - big –bigger - hot -hotter Adjectives with 3 more syllables, and words with 2 syllables that don't end in -y. The word "more" or "less" is placed before the adjective. Note: adjectives that end in -e, only -r is added to end of the adjective. - Difficult- more difficult - Modern - more modern - Expensive - more expensive - Difficult - more difficult - Honest – more honest "Than" is usually used after the comparative adjectives. Superlative adjectives are used to compare at least 3 things or 3 groups of things. Superlative adjectives state that something is the most and there cannot be anymore or that something is the least and there cannot be any less. - She is the smallest pupil in her class. - The boat at the last mooring is the latest. "The" is usually used before the superlative adjective. - We have the biggest narrow boat on the part of the canal. - He is the tallest pupil in the class. Superlative Adjectives - Formation There are two ways to form superlative adjectives, depending on the length of the adjective. The number of syllables the adjectives contain determines if -est is added to the end of the adjective, or if "most" or "least" is added before the adjective. English Superlative Adjectives Rules -est is added to the end of a 1-syllable adjective - Cold – coldest : Last winter was the coldest, that I could remember. - Small – smallest : The blue boat is the smallest boat in the marina. - Tall – tallest : I am the tallest in my family. 2 syllable adjectives the -y is change to -i. and add -est to the end of an adjective - Early – earliest : Today is the earliest that I came home all week - Happy – happiest : She is the happiest I have seen her for a long time - Crazy – craziest : I have the craziest dog in the world. "most" or "least" are used for adjectives that have 2 or more syllables and don't end in –y - Honest - most honest : She is the most honest person that I know - Modern - more modern : She is more modern than her sister. "most" and "least" are used for adjectives that contain 3 or more syllables - Expensive - most expensive : She wore the most expensive dress in the world. - Difficult - most difficult : This is the most difficult decision I have ever had to make. - Comfortable - most comfortable : This is the most comfortable I have been. Adjectives ending in -e, only -r is added to end of the adjective. - Nice –nicest : you are the nicest family I have ever met. - Safe –safest : This is the safest house in the street. Adjectives that end in a consonant, vowel, consonant - the last consonant is doubled and -est is added to the end of the adjective. - Big –biggest : My boat is the biggest in the marina. - Fat- fattest : He was the fattest man in the world. - Hot –hottest : Last summer was the hottest summer for a while Available on Amazon List of Adjectives (not comprehensive) Aback, abaft, abandoned, abashed, aberrant, abhorrent, abiding, abject, ablaze, able, abnormal, aboard, aboriginal, abortive, abounding, abrasive, abrupt, absent, absorbed, absorbing, abstracted, absurd, abundant, abusive, acceptable, accessible, accidental, accurate, acid, acidic, acoustic, acrid, actually, ad hoc, adamant, adaptable, addicted, adhesive, adjoining, adorable, adventurous, afraid, aggressive, agonizing, agreeable, ahead, ajar, alcoholic, alert, alike, alive, alleged, alluring, aloof, amazing, ambiguous, ambitious, amuck, amused, amusing, ancient, angry, animated, annoyed, annoying, anxious, apathetic, aquatic, aromatic, arrogant, ashamed, aspiring, assorted, astonishing, attractive, auspicious, automatic, available, average, awake, aware, awesome, awful, axiomatic Bad, barbarous, bashful, bawdy, beautiful, befitting, belligerent, beneficial, bent, berserk, best, better, bewildered, big, billowy, bite-sized, bitter, bizarre, black, black-and-white, bloody, blue, blue-eyed, blushing, boiling, boorish, bored, boring, bouncy, boundless, brainy, brash, brave, brawny, breakable, breezy, brief, bright, bright, broad, broken, brown, bumpy, burly, bustling, busy Cagey, calculating, callous, calm, capable, capricious, careful, careless, caring, cautious, ceaseless, certain, changeable, charming, cheap, cheerful, chemical, chief, childlike, chilly, chivalrous, chubby, chunky, clammy, classy, clean, clear, clever, cloistered, cloudy, closed, clumsy, cluttered, coherent, cold, colourful, colossal, combative, comfortable, common, complete, complex, concerned, condemned, confused, conscious, cooing, cool, cooperative, coordinated, courageous, cowardly, crabby, craven, crazy, creepy, crooked, crowded, cruel, cuddly, cultured, cumbersome, curious, curly, curved, curvy, cut, cute, cute, cynical. Daffy, daily, damaged, damaging, damp, dangerous, dapper, dark, dashing, dazzling, dead, deadpan, deafening, dear, debonair, decisive, decorous, deep, deeply, defeated, defective, defiant, delicate, delicious, delightful, demonic, delirious, dependent, depressed, deranged, descriptive, deserted, detailed, determined, devilish, didactic, different, difficult, diligent, direful, dirty, disagreeable, disastrous, discreet, disgusted, disgusting, disillusioned, dispensable, distinct, disturbed, divergent, dizzy, domineering, doubtful, drab, draconian, dramatic, dreary, drunk, dry, dull, dusty, dusty, dynamic, dysfunctional. Eager, early, ear-splitting, earthy, easy, eatable, economic, educated, efficacious, efficient, eight, elastic, elated, elderly, electric, elegant, elfin, elite, embarrassed, eminent, empty, enchanted, enchanting, encouraging, endurable, energetic, enormous, entertaining, enthusiastic, envious, equable, equal, erect, erratic, ethereal, evanescent, evasive, even, excellent, excited, exciting, exclusive, exotic, expensive, extra-large, extra-small, exuberant, Fabulous, faded, faint, fair, faithful, fallacious, false, familiar, famous, fanatical, fancy, fantastic, far, far-flung, fascinated, fast, fat, faulty, fearful, fearless, feeble, feigned, female, fertile, festive, few, fierce, filthy, fine, finicky, first, five, fixed, flagrant, flaky, flashy, flat, flawless, flimsy, flippant, flowery, fluffy, fluttering, foamy, foolish, foregoing, forgetful, fortunate, four, frail, fragile, frantic, free, freezing, frequent, fresh, fretful, friendly, frightened, frightening, full, fumbling, functional, funny, furry, furtive, future, futuristic, fuzzy. Gabby, gainful, gamy, gaping, garrulous, gaudy, general, gentle, giant, giddy, gifted, gigantic, glamorous, gleaming, glib, glistening, glorious, glossy, godly, good, goofy, gorgeous, graceful, grandiose, grateful, gratis, grey, greasy, great, greedy, green, grey, grieving, groovy, grotesque, grouchy, grubby, gruesome, grumpy, guarded, guiltless, gullible, gusty, guttural, Habitual, half, hallowed, halting, handsome, handsomely, handy, hanging, hapless, happy, hard, hard-to-find, harmonious, harsh, hateful, heady, healthy, heartbreaking, heavenly, heavy, hellish, helpful, helpless, hesitant, hideous, high, highfalutin, high-pitched, hilarious, hissing, historical, holistic, hollow, homeless, homely, honourable, horrible, hospitable, hot, huge, hulking, humdrum, humorous, hungry, hurried, hurt, hushed, husky, hypnotic, hysterical. Icky, icy, idiotic, ignorant, ill, illegal, ill-fated, ill-informed, illustrious, imaginary, immense, imminent, impartial, imperfect, impolite, important, imported, impossible, incandescent, incompetent, inconclusive, industrious, incredible, inexpensive, infamous, innate, innocent, inquisitive, insidious, instinctive, intelligent, interesting, internal, invincible, irate, irritating, itchy. Kaput, keen, kind, kind-hearted, kindly, knotty, knowing, knowledgeable, known. Laboured, lackadaisical, lacking, lame, lamentable, languid, large, last, late, laughable, lavish, lazy, lean, learned, left, legal, lethal, level, lewd, light, like, likeable, limping, literate, little, lively, lively, living, lonely, long, longing, long-term, loose, lopsided, loud, loutish, lovely, loving, low, lowly, lucky, ludicrous, lumpy, lush, luxuriant, lying, lyrical. Macabre, macho, maddening, madly, magenta, magical, magnificent, majestic, makeshift, male, malicious, mammoth, maniacal, many, marked, massive, married, marvellous, material, materialistic, mature, mean, measly, meaty, medical, meek, mellow, melodic, melted, merciful, mere, messy, mighty, military, milky, mindless, miniature, minor, miscreant, misty, mixed, moaning, modern, mouldy, momentous, motionless, mountainous, muddled, mundane, murky, mushy, mute, mysterious. Naïve, nappy, narrow, nasty, natural, naughty, nauseating, near, neat, nebulous, necessary, needless, needy, neighbourly, nervous, new, next, nice, nifty, nimble, nine, nippy, noiseless, noisy, nonchalant, nondescript, non-stop, normal, nostalgic, nosy, noxious, null, numberless, numerous, nutritious, nutty. Obedient, obeisant, obese, obnoxious, obscene, obsequious, observant, obsolete, obtainable, oceanic, odd, offbeat, old, old-fashioned, omniscient, one, onerous, open, opposite, optimal, orange, ordinary, organic, ossified, outgoing, outrageous, outstanding, oval, overconfident, overjoyed, overrated, overt, overwrought. Painful, painstaking, pale, paltry, panicky, panoramic, parallel, parched, parsimonious, past, pastoral, pathetic, peaceful, penitent, perfect, periodic, permissible, perpetual, petite, petite, phobic, physical, picayune, pink, piquant, placid, plain, plant, plastic, plausible, pleasant, plucky, pointless, poised, polite, political, poor, possessive, possible, powerful, precious, premium, present, pretty, previous, pricey, prickly, private, probable, productive, profuse, protective, proud, psychedelic, psychotic, public, puffy, pumped, puny, purple, purring, pushy, Quack, quaint, quarrelsome, questionable, quick, quickest, quiet, quirky, quixotic, and quizzical. Rabid, racial, ragged, rainy, rambunctious, rampant, rapid, rare, raspy, ratty, ready, real, rebel, receptive, recondite, red, redundant, reflective, regular, relieved, remarkable, reminiscent, repulsive, resolute, resonant, responsible, rhetorical, rich, right, righteous, rightful, rigid, ripe, ritzy, roasted, robust, romantic, roomy, rotten, rough, round, royal, ruddy, rude, rural, rustic, ruthless. Sable, sad, safe, salty, same, sassy, satisfying, savoury, scandalous, scarce, scared, scary, scattered, scientific, scintillating, scrawny, screeching, second, second-hand, secret, secretive, sedate, seemly, selective, selfish, separate, serious, shaggy, shaky, shallow, sharp, shiny, shivering, shocking, short, shrill, shut, shy, sick, silent, silent, silky, silly, simple, simplistic, sincere, six, skilful, skinny, sleepy, slim, slimy, slippery, sloppy, slow, small, smart, smelly, smiling, smoggy, smooth, sneaky, snobbish, snotty, soft, soggy, solid, sombre, sophisticated, sordid, sore, sour, sparkling, special, spectacular, spicy, spiffy, spiky, spiritual, spiteful, splendid, spooky, spotless, spotted, spotty, spurious, squalid, square, squealing, squeamish, staking, stale, standing, statuesque, steadfast, steady, steep, stereotyped, sticky, stiff, stimulating, stingy, stormy, straight, strange, striped, strong, stupendous, stupid, sturdy, subdued, subsequent, substantial, successful, succinct, sudden, sulky, super, superb, superficial, supreme, swanky, sweet, sweltering, swift, symptomatic, synonymous. Taboo, tacit, tacky, talented, tall, tame, tan, tangible, tangy, tart, tasteful, tasteless, tasty, tawdry, tearful, tedious, teeny, teeny-tiny, telling, temporary, ten, tender, tense, tense, tenuous, terrible, terrific, tested, testy, thankful, therapeutic, thick, thin, thinkable, third, thirsty, thirsty, thoughtful, thoughtless, threatening, three, thundering, tidy, tight, tight-fisted, tiny, tired, tiresome, toothsome, torpid, tough, towering, tranquil, trashy, tremendous, tricky, trite, troubled, truculent, true, truthful, two, typical. Ubiquitous, ugliest, ugly, ultra, unable, unaccountable, unadvised, unarmed, unbecoming, unbiased, uncovered, understood, undesirable, unequal, unequalled, uneven, unhealthy, uninterested, unique, unkempt, unknown, unnatural, unruly, unsightly, unsuitable, untidy, unused, unusual, unwieldy, unwritten, upbeat, uppity, upset, uptight, used, useful, useless, utopian, utter, uttermost. Vacuous, vagabond, vague, valuable, various, vast, vengeful, venomous, verdant, versed, victorious, vigorous, violent, violet, vivacious, voiceless, volatile, voracious, vulgar. Wacky, waggish, waiting, wakeful, wandering, wanting, warlike, warm, wary, wasteful, watery, weak, wealthy, weary, well-groomed, well-made, well-off, well-to-do, wet, whimsical, whispering, white, whole, wholesale, wicked, wide, wide-eyed, wiggly, wild, willing, windy, wiry, wise, wistful, witty, woebegone, womanly, wonderful, wooden, woozy, workable, worried, worthless, wrathful, wretched, wrong, wry. Yellow, yielding, young, youthful, and yummy. Zany, zealous, zesty, zippy, zonked. Adjectives and Verbs Verbs are the most important part of speech in the English language. Verbs do a lot of work in the English language. Some are busy action verbs; others are modest helping or linking verbs. No matter what kind they are, verbs keep the English language movin' and shakin'. Action verbs tell what a person, animal or thing can do or be. Verbs also use rules for telling when something happened - in the past, the present, or the future. Being Verbs tell about something in a state of being. A noun or pronoun does not always take action. Helping verbs do not stand alone or express action. They are part of verb phrases that "help" the main verb. Helping verbs define the tense (past, present, future) or change the meaning of the main verb. Linking verbs do not show action. Instead, they connect nouns and pronouns to other information in the sentence. Irregular Verbs are verbs that don't follow the rules for changing tense. How are adjectives used with verbs? Sometimes the adjective is placed after a verb especially if the verb is a "linking verb". Adjectives don't describe the verb. Adjectives describe the subject that is performing the action: - The book looks good. - Your picture looks great. Where did you get your picture? - The boys play football all the time. When you use an adjective and a verb together the adjective comes after the verb. Sometimes one adjective is not enough to describe the noun or the subject that is performing the action so 2 or more adjectives can be used together. When do you use an adjective or an adverb? Do I need to define the verb or the sentence? Do I need to define the subject that is performing the action? Be careful how you use adjectives such as interesting, beautiful, great, wonderful, or exciting. These and many other adjectives tend to be overused adding little definition to a sentence. You can demonstrate what you are talking about by creatively using verbs, nouns and a few well-chosen adjectives. Basic English - Nouns Verbs Adjectives - Creative Writing - Dramatic Monologue - what is it a... Shakespeare was the most prolific writer of dramatic monologues. This guide will hopefully explain what Dramatic Monologues are and how to write a dramatic Monologue - where to start. List of nouns (not comprehensive) Able, able, account, achieve, acoustics, act, action, activity, actor, addition, adjustment, advertisement, advice, aftermath, afternoon, after-thought, agreement, air, airplane, airport, alarm, amount, amusement, anger, angle, animal, answer, ant, ants, apparatus, apparel, apple, apples, appliance, approval, arch, argument, arithmetic, arm, army, art, attack, attempt, attention, attraction, aunt, authority. Babies, baby, back, badge, bag, bait, balance, ball, balloon, balls, banana, band, base, baseball, basin, basket, basketball, bat, bath, battle, bead, beam, bean, bear, bears, beast, bed, bedroom, beds, bee, beef, beetle, beggar, beginner, behaviour, belief, believe, bell, bells, berry, bike, bikes, bird, birds, birth, birthday, bit, bite, blade, blood, blow, board, boat, boats, body, bomb, bone, book, books, boot, border, bottle, boundary, box, boy, boys, brain, brake, branch, brass, bread, breakfast, breath, brick, bridge, brother, brothers, brush, bubble, bucket, building, bulb, bun, burn, burst, bushes, business, butter, button. Cabbage, cable, cactus, cake, cakes, calculator, calendar, camera, camp, can, cannon, canvas, cap, caption, car, card, care, carpenter, carriage, cars, cart, cast, cat, cats, cattle, cause, cave, celery, cellar, cemetery, cent, chain, chair, chairs, chalk, chance, change, channel, cheese, cherries, cherry, chess, chicken, chickens, children, chin, church, circle, clam, class, clock, clocks, cloth, cloud, clouds, clover, club, coach, coal, coast, coat, cobweb, coil, collar, colour, comb, comfort, committee, company, comparison, competition, condition, connection, control, cook, copper, copy, cord, cork, corn, cough, country, cover, cow, cows, crack, cracker, crate, crayon, cream, creator, creature, credit, crib, crime, crook, crow, crowd, crown, crush, cry, cub, cup, current, curtain, curve, cushion. Dad, daughter, day, death, debt, decision, deer, degree, design, desire, desk, destruction, detail, development, digestion, dime, dinner, dinosaurs, direction, dirt, discovery, discussion disease, disgust, distance, distribution, division, dock, doctor, dog, dogs, doll, dolls, donkey, door, downtown, drain, drawer, dress, drink, driving, drop, drug, drum, duck, ducks Ear, earth, earthquake, edge, education, effect, egg, eggnog, eggs, elbow, end, engine, error, event, example, exchange, existence, expansion, experience, expert, eye, eyes, face, fact, fairies, fall, family, fan, fang, farm, farmer, father, faucet, fear, feast, feather, feeling, feet, fiction, field, fifth, fight, finger, finger, fire, fireman, fish, flag, flame, flavour, flesh, flight, flock, floor, flower, flowers, fly, fog, fold, food, foot, force, fork, form, fowl, frame, friction, friend, friends, frog, frogs, front, fruit, fuel, furniture. Galley, game, garden, gate, geese, ghost, giants, giraffe, girl, girls, glass, glove, glue, goat, gold, goldfish, good-bye, goose, government, governor, grade, grain, grandfather, grandmother, grape, grass, grip, ground, group, growth, guide, guitar, gun, hair, haircut, hall, hammer, hand, hands, harbour, harmony, hat, hate, head, health, hearing, heart, heat, help, hen, hill, history, hobbies, hole, holiday, home, honey, hook, hope, horn, horse, horses, hose, hospital, hot, hour, house, houses, humour, hydrant. Ice, icicle, idea, impulse, income, increase, industry, ink, insect, instrument, insurance, interest, invention, iron, island. Jail, jam, jar, jeans, jelly, jellyfish, jewel, join, joke, journey, judge, juice, jump Kettle, key, kick, kiss, kite, kitten, kittens, kitty, knee, knife, knot, knowledge. Labourer, lace, ladybug, lake, lamp, land, language, laugh, lawyer, lead, leaf, learning, leather, leg, legs, letter, letters, lettuce, level, library, lift, light, limit, line, linen, lip, liquid, list, lizards, loaf, lock, locket, look, loss, love, low, number, lunch, lunchroom. Machine, magic, maid, mailbox, man, manager, map, marble, mark, market, mask, mass, match, meal, measure, meat, meeting, memory, men, metal, mice, middle, milk, mind, mine, minister, mint, minute, mist, mitten, mom, money, monkey, month, moon, morning, mother, motion, mountain, mouth, move, muscle, music. Nail, name, nation, neck, need, needle, nerve, nest, net, news, night, noise, north, nose, note, notebook, number, nut. Oatmeal, observation, ocean, offer, office, oil, operation, opinion, orange, oranges, order, organization, ornament, oven, owl, owner Page, pail, pain, paint, pan, pancake, paper, parcel, parent, park, part, partner, party, passenger, paste, patch, payment, peace, pear, pen, pencil, person, pest, pet, pets, pickle, picture, pie, pies, pig, pigs, pin, pipe, pizzas, place, plane, planes, plant, plantation, plants, plastic, plate, play, playground, pleasure, plot, plough, pocket, point, poison, police, polish, pollution, popcorn, porter, position, pot, potato, powder, power, price, print, prison, process, produce, profit, property, prose, protest, pull, pump, punishment, purpose, push. Quarter, quartz, queen, question, quicksand, quiet, quill, quilt, quince, quiver Rabbit, rabbits, rail, railway, rain, rainstorm, rake, range, rat, rate, ray, reaction, reading, reason, receipt, recess, record, regret, relation, religion, representative, request, respect, rest, reward, rhythm, rice, riddle, rifle, ring, rings, river, road, robin, rock, rod, roll, roof, room, root, rose, route, rub, rule, run Sack, sail, salt, sand, scale, scarecrow, scarf, scene, scent, school, science, scissors, screw, sea, seashore, seat, secretary, seed, selection, self, sense, servant, shade, shake, shame, shape, sheep, sheet, shelf, ship, shirt, shock, shoe, shoes, shop, show, side, sidewalk, sign, silk, silver, sink, sister, sisters, size, skate, skin, skirt, sky, slave, sleep, sleet, slip, slope, smash, smell, smile, smoke, snail, snails, snake, snakes, sneeze, snow, soap, society, sock, soda, sofa, son, song, songs, sort, sound, soup, space, spade, spark, spiders, sponge, spoon spot, spring, spy, square, squirrel, stage, stamp, star, start, statement, station, steam, steel, stem, step, stew, stick, sticks, stitch, stocking, stomach, stone, stop, store, story, stove, stranger, straw, stream, street, stretch, string, structure, substance, sugar, suggestion, suit, summer, sun, support, surprise, sweater, swim, swing, system. Table, tail, talk, tank, taste, tax, teaching, team, teeth, temper, tendency, tent, territory, test, texture, theory, thing, things, thought, thread, thrill, throat, throne, thumb, thunder, ticket, tiger, time, tin, title, toad, toe, toes, tomatoes, tongue, tooth, toothbrush, toothpaste, top, touch, town, toy, toys, trade, trail, train, trains, tramp, transport, tray, treatment, tree, trees, trick, trip, trouble, trousers, truck, trucks, tub, turkey, turn, twig, twist Umbrella, uncle, underwear, unit, use. Vacation, value, van, vase, vegetable, veil, vein, verse, vessel, vest, view, visitor, voice, volcano, voyage Walk, wall, war, wash, waste, watch, water, wave, waves, wax, way, wealth, weather, week, weight, wheel, whip, whistle, wilderness, wind, window, wine, wing, winter, wire, wish, woman, women, wood, wool, word, work, worm, wound, wren, wrench, wrist, writer, writing. Yak, yam, yard, yarn, year, yoke. Zebra, zephyr, zinc, zipper, zoo. Was this hub helpful? English Language and Grammar - Frustrating English Grammar: Which Is Correct: "in-p... Which phrase is correct in proper English grammar - © 2010 Leni Sands

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This article was initially written as part of the IEEE STARS program. One of the most influential technologies of the past hundred years has been motion pictures. Not only are movies big business, but they are also a large part of popular culture. They have an enormous impact on how people perceive the world and how people behave, as they provide information, elicit empathy, and shape everyday behavior. This entertainment medium and art form began more than a hundred years ago as a relatively simple technology of motion-picture camera and projector. Since then, continual technological innovation has improved the medium, all the while expanding its expressive possibilities. One of the most influential technologies of the past hundred years has been motion pictures. A photographic technique for capturing action became a new medium, a significant part of the economy, and a dominant part of popular culture. A long series of technical advances created the medium and allowed it to grow to express the visions of filmmakers and to provide entertainment for most of the world's population. Inventing a medium A precursor to motion pictures was the Zoetrope. Invented in 1834, it gave the impression of continuous motion when the viewer watched a rapidly changing series of still images. In 1888 Thomas Edison filed a patent caveat for the Kinetoscope, which, he wrote, would do "for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear." Edison and his associate W. Laurie Dickson built a practical camera in 1890. They used, as a medium, celluloid film, which George Eastman, founder of the Eastman Kodak company, had invented the year before. In 1892 Edison and Dickson built a practical viewing device. One looked through a viewer at the top of a box-like cabinet to see the backlighted film. In 1894 a Kinetoscope parlor opened in New York City. It cost a penny to see a motion-picture sequence lasting about a minute. Soon Kinetoscope parlors opened elsewhere. In 1895 in Paris the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, who had independently developed a movie camera, demonstrated a better way of viewing a motion picture: instead of a single viewer looking into a box, a group of people viewed the images projected onto a screen. In the United States, Edison purchased rights to a movie projector, renamed it the Vitascope and demonstrated it in New York City in 1896. A crucial invention, which permitted films longer than a few minutes, came in 1895 with the Latham loop, a slack-forming loop in the film's path before it passed by the shutter of a camera or projector. In the years around 1900 the basic technology of camera and projector was developed and refined. By about 1910, 35-millimeter film, used by Edison, became the international standard. Because the photographic film at that time required high illumination, the electric spotlight, introduced in 1904 for theaters, became important in movie making, and in 1919, a much more intense carbon-arc lamp, the klieg light, began to be used. Most filming, though, continued to use natural lighting. Motion pictures gained popularity rapidly. Though there had been many earlier storytelling films, Edwin S. Porter's 12-minute-long The Great Train Robbery, released in 1903, attracted much attention for its narrative style. In about 1905, nickelodeons, where film was projected on a screen, began appearing in cities. These were typically long, narrow rooms that could seat a hundred people or so. In the United States in 1910, there were about 10,000 nickelodeons serving some 20 million viewers per week. Films moved into theaters, where they were often part of a larger entertainment program, which typically included vaudeville acts. Movies were all short, usually one-reelers, that is, up to about 15 minutes in duration. The movie house almost always provided live musical accompaniment. Around 1910, especially in Europe, there was a move toward so-called feature films, lasting an hour or more. In the United States, D.W. Griffith's 1915 Birth of a Nation exemplified this move. Also in this decade, Hollywood emerged as a center of movie making. Film companies gravitated there for its climate, cheap land, and lack of labor unions. In the era of silent movies it was relatively easy to export films to other countries, and the U.S. movie industry set up distribution offices overseas. At the end of the decade it was the fifth largest industry in the United States, where there were some 20,000 movie houses. In Europe, quite a few countries, among them France, England, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, very early established strong national film industries, and France had the most influential film industry until World War I. The war, however, hindered European film production drastically, and Hollywood gradually established worldwide dominance. Talking pictures and color movies A momentous technical advance was the development of sound movies. In 1923 Lee De Forest demonstrated a sound-on-film process, in which the sound was recorded optically on the film strip. In making the film, the amplitude variations of the sound were captured as variations in gray level on the film strip. In playback, a light shining through the soundtrack onto a photocell created an electrical signal sent to a loudspeaker. Hollywood, however, showed little interest, in part because there had already been many failed attempts at synchronizing sound with motion pictures. In 1924 Western Electric demonstrated a sound-on-disk system, which used the same electric motor to drive the projector and the phonograph so that it was easier to maintain synchronization. The Warner Brothers studio took up the Western Electric system, using it in 1926 with Don Juan (in which there was no talking, but with music synchronized to the action) and in 1927 with The Jazz Singer (which had several dialog sequences in addition to synchronized music). Both were successful, The Jazz Singer so much so that other studios rushed to make sound movies. The technology that won out, however, was the sound-on-film system, thanks especially to work by General Electric and by the German developers of the so-called Tri-Ergon system. Because the conversion to sound movies was expensive and because sound movies were more expensive to produce, the major Hollywood studios increased their market dominance within the United States. Sound movies helped competitors overseas, however, as it tended to segment the market by language. Before the 1920s, movies were often shot at 16 frames a second. At this rate, flickering of the image was noticeable, hence the name 'flicks' for movies. Frame rates increased in the 1920s, but there was much variability until sound movies finally brought standardization of the 24-per-second frame rate. Movies appealed to all social classes, and the movie business boomed in the 1930s. In 1939 the average weekly movie attendance in the United States was 85 million, equal to two-thirds of the nation's population. Because they were doing so well financially, the studios were disinclined to invest in new technologies, but the decade nevertheless saw several significant advances. One was deep-focus cinematography. Much more intense lighting, notably from powerful carbon-arc lamps, allowed cinematographers to decrease aperture, thus increasing depth of field. Contributing also were more sensitive film stocks and new lens coatings that permitted more light to pass through the lens. Another technical advance was dubbing, in which the original soundtrack was replaced with one in a different language. Most audiences much preferred this to the use of subtitles. Dubbing began in 1932 and helped the Hollywood studios regain overseas audiences they had lost with the coming of sound movies. A third technical advance of the 1930s was greater use of color, which was pioneered by Disney cartoons of the early 1930s, such as Flowers and Trees and Three Little Pig. Color was highly successful in the full-length animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 and in the feature films Becky Sharp in 1935 and Gone with the Wind in 1939. These films were shot in so-called three-strip Technicolor, a system in which action was captured on three strips of film simultaneously. A camera, using a beam splitter and color filters, recorded three regions of the spectrum, red, green, and blue, on separate filmstrips; and in the laboratory a single full-color filmstrip was created from these three. Because of cost, however, color movies did not become standard until the late 1960s. In the United States, as in many other countries, motion picture attendance climbed during World War II, and it reached an all-time peak shortly after the war. There was better sound recording and mixing, and in 1940 Disney's Fantasia introduced stereo sound for movies. The blue-screen process, used to superimpose a person's image on a separate background, was first used in the 1940 movie Thief of Bagdad. In the late 1940s filming on location became more common, facilitated by portable power units developed for that purpose. In 1948 the so-called "Paramount decision," which the movie industry unsuccessfully appealed all the way to the United States Supreme Court, ended the vertical integration of the film business. The studios were now compelled to separate cinema operation from production and distribution. Also, this ruling ended restrictive contracts with actors. In Europe during the interwar years, the film industries in most countries thrived. Indeed, French and British cinema achieved international success in the 1930s, while in the same period the totalitarian regimes of Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union made much use of cinema as a propaganda medium. In Japan, for cultural and financial reasons, silent movies continued to be made through the 1930s. CinemaScope and drive-in theaters In the United States weekly movie attendance declined from 90 million in 1948 to 51 million in 1952, partly as a result of television and partly as a result of the move of many people to the suburbs. Thousands of cinemas closed in the 1950s and 1960s. The movie industry sought to regain customers by technological improvements such as widescreen formats, stereo sound, and 3-D images. From 1952 through 1954, several widescreen formats were introduced, notably Cinerama, which required three synchronized projectors, and CinemaScope and Panavision, both of which used a single projector. CinemaScope, which premiered with the 1953 movie The Robe, used anamorphic projection, which stretches an image horizontally. This allowed CinemaScope to use 35-mm film, which was less expensive than wider film, and it gave better image quality than widescreen systems that cropped the frame. Stereo, which gave a spatial distribution of sound using left and right loudspeakers driven by different soundtracks, became common, and some of the largest cinemas implemented sound systems with more than two tracks. Magnetic sound-recording, newly available around 1950, facilitated movie production. Several types of 3-D projection had been demonstrated in the 1920s and 1930s, but it was the 1952 release of "Bwana Devil" that made the technique well known and started a brief 3-D craze. Also in this decade, the number of color movies increased. The introduction in 1950 of Eastmancolor, a single-strip film which could be used in a standard 35mm camera, made it much less expensive to make a color movie. (Technicolor required a bulky camera, and the company demanded that Technicolor staff be on set.) In the 1950s in the United States, but not in Europe, drive-in theaters became common. The first drive-in movie theater had opened in 1933, but there were very few drive-ins before 1946. The number in the U.S. grew from 800 in 1948 to 6000 in 1961, which was the high point for the business, and in 1956 more people went to drive-ins than to "hardtop" cinemas. The drive-in movie business, however, underwent a great decline in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in part because people had color TV in the home and because real-estate prices and a limited season made it much more expensive to operate a drive-in than a traditional movie house. In the 1960s greater use of color and greater permissiveness in movie making were industry responses to the lure of television. In the United States, concern about the increase in sex, violence, and profanity in movies, however, led to the adoption of movie ratings in 1968. Lightweight cameras with portable synchronous sound equipment made it much easier to film on location, and faster film stocks made it easier to film indoors and at night. Development of new zoom lenses in the late 1950s led to extensive use of zoom in the 1960s. In the middle decades of the century, Japan had the most productive film industry outside the United States until India overtook it in the 1970s. Japanese movies remained highly influential, especially in other Asian countries. India had a thriving film industry already in the 1920s, centered, then and since, on Bombay (Mumbai). In the last decades of the 20th century, Indian cinema grew to be second only to Hollywood in earnings. IMAX, videocassettes, and computer-generated imagery In 1970 a new format, IMAX, offered a screen size ten times that of conventional films. Because of construction costs, the number of IMAX theaters grew slowly, and production costs limited the number of IMAX movies. Dolby noise reduction, which reduced tape hiss and other noise, was introduced to movies with A Clockwork Orange in 1971, and multitrack sound finally became established in cinemas with the arrival of Dolby four-channel sound in 1975. The sound system attracted much notice with "Star Wars" in 1977, and this movie also made use of new special effects, notably "motion control", which was computerized control of both camera and model. Toward the end of the 1970s movies began to be sold on videocassette and on video disk. There were two competing videocassette formats, Betamax introduced by Sony and VHS introduced by the rival Japanese electronics company JVC, and there were three competing video-disk formats, Philips's LaserVision, RCA's SelectaVision, and JVC's VHD. Video disks did not become popular, but videocassettes did, with the VHS format outcompeting the Betamax format. Already in the mid 1980s rentals and sales of videos was a huge business, greatly increasing home consumption of movies. Indeed, in 1987 in the U.S., video rentals surpassed ticket sales as the leading revenue source for the movie industry. In the later decades of the 20th century, Hollywood retained a dominating position, as its films were marketed worldwide and exhibited in new ways, including television, videos, and DVDs. Other internationally prominent centers of filmmaking were Bombay (Mumbai), Hong Kong, and Paris. In the 1980s many major studios became part of media and consumer electronics conglomerates. Warner merged with Time, News Corporation acquired Fox, Sony acquired Columbia and Tri-Star, and Matsushita acquired MCA-Universal. Characteristic of the 1980s were multiplex cinemas. Though the first multiplexes appeared in the 1960s, it was in the 1980s that they became common. The major studios emphasized action movies, and they directed marketing more than ever to teens and young adults. At the same time the number of independent films increased dramatically. The new and large video market made it much easier for independent filmmakers to obtain financing for their films and to distribute them. Computers became important in film production, especially for computer-generated imagery (CGI). Such computer animation debuted in the movie Tron, released by Walt Disney Pictures in 1982. By the end of the decade CGI was lowering the cost of producing certain effects and making possible images that could hardly be created in other ways. The Turner Broadcasting System made use of computer technology in another way when, in 1987, it began offering colorized versions of black-and-white movies. Home-theater systems and the move to digital In the 1990s, viewing of movies in the home increased markedly. There were video rentals and video purchases and, late in the decade, DVD rentals and DVD purchases. Cable and satellite TV offered movie channels and pay-for-view movies. And direct-to-video movies, bypassing theaters altogether, became an important business. People acquired home-theater systems, with large screens and multiple speakers, so that the home experience approximated the cinema experience. The most obvious technological change of the decade was the arrival of DVDs and DVD players in 1997. Another obvious change was improved sound, both in cinemas and in homes. The 1992 movie Batman Returns pioneered Dolby Digital, a 5.1-channel digital sound system. (The channels were left, center, right, left-rear, and right-rear, supplemented by a subwoofer channel for lowest frequencies.) A similar system became part of DVD specifications, and a principal attraction of many home theaters was a six-speaker sound-system for Dolby Digital. In the 1990s computer-generated special effects became widespread. The first computer-generated 3-D character appeared in the 1989 movie The Abyss. Morphing (the computer technique of changing one image seamlessly into another image) appeared in the 1991 movie Terminator 2. The success of Jurassic Park in 1993 made clear to filmmakers the value of CGI. The 1994 movie Forrest Gump combined, in several sequences, historical footage and live action, and the 1995 movie Toy Story was the first commercially released full-length movie created entirely on a computer. Motion capture, a technique of recording physical movements, made digital creations move realistically. The 1999 movie The Matrix, in the technique called "bullet time", used computers to create seamless action from multiple stills. Characteristic of the 1990s was the move from analog to digital with cell phones, cameras, camcorders, answering machines, and other consumer electronics. This move gradually occurred with movies, in production, in distribution, and in cinemas. The 2002 movie Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones was shot digitally, and the 2008 Slumdog Millionaire, filmed in India, was the first digitally-shot movie to win the Academy Award for best cinematography. Cinemas acquired digital projectors, and movies began to be distributed through the Internet and by satellite networks. Digital camcorders, which made it easier and less expensive to make movies, were a boon to independent filmmakers. Motion pictures began as an electromechanical technology the 1890s. In the course of the 20th century, a wide range of technological advances continually reshaped the medium. Electronic and computer techniques became more and more important, and motion pictures entered the 21st century moving from the analog to the digital realm. The author would like to thank members of the STARS Editorial Board for review and constructive criticism of this article, and to give special thanks to film historians Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell for helpful comments and suggestions. - 1834, Invention of the Zoetrope - 1888, Patent caveat by Thomas Edison for the Kinetoscope - 1890, Construction of a practical movie camera by Thomas Edison and W. Laurie Dickson - 1892, Construction of the Kinetoscope, for viewing motion pictures, by Edison and Dickson - 1894, Opening of a Kinetoscope parlor in New York City - 1895, Demonstration of film projection by Auguste and Louis Lumière in Paris - 1903, Release of The Great Train Robbery, a movie that tells a story - 1923, Demonstration by Lee De Forest of a sound-on-film process - 1927, Successful showing of the sound movie The Jazz Singer - 1935, Release of the first full-length color film shot in three-strip Technicolor, Becky Sharp - 1952, Release of the 3-D movie Bwana Devil - 1953, Introduction of the wide-screen technology CinemaScope with The Robe - 1970, Introduction of IMAX films, projected on a much larger screen - 1982, Use of computer animation in the movie Tron - 1995, Release of the first full-length movie created entirely on a computer, Toy Story References of Historical Significance Thomas Edison. 1888. Patent caveat for the "kinetoscope". Caveat 110, 8 October 1888 (Thomas A. Edison Papers Microfilm Edition, reel 113, frame 236) References for Further Reading Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, ed.. 1996. The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press Robert Sklar. 2002. A World History of Film. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell. 2009. Film History: An Introduction. 3rd edition. New York City: McGraw-Hill About the Author Frederik Nebeker received a Ph.D. in history of science and technology from Princeton University. He worked at the American Philosophical Society and at the Center for History of Physics before moving in 1990 to the IEEE History Center at Rutgers University, where he was Senior Research Historian before retiring in 2011. He is author, co-author, or editor of ten books, most recently Dawn of the Electronic Age: Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the Modern World, 1914 to 1945 (Wiley & Sons, 2009). - 1 Citation - 2 Introduction - 3 Inventing a medium - 4 Talking pictures and color movies - 5 CinemaScope and drive-in theaters - 6 IMAX, videocassettes, and computer-generated imagery - 7 Home-theater systems and the move to digital - 8 Acknowledgements - 9 Timeline - 10 Bibliography - 11 About the Author

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Our Elementary curriculum emphasizes the development of the whole child, to lay a solid foundation for lifetime learning. This developmental approach recognizes that children are unique in their personal and academic development and learning styles. We use a variety of hands-on activities and help facilitate mastery in computation, reading and writing. The curriculum also employs multi-sensory teaching techniques to further ensure successful learning. A Classroom Resource teacher and an Enrichment teacher are available to support and challenge students during classroom learning. A DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH The educational philosophy of our Elementary school is developmental in its approach to teaching and learning. Children pass through specific stages of development but not necessarily at the same time or with the same outcomes. Therefore, children must be considered within a number of contexts for successful education to occur. Educators consider the child’s chronological age, family background, culture and community, past history and present circumstances when determining the most appropriate educational techniques and programs to use at any particular age. Developmental education approaches children as unique individuals with unique gifts, talents, and abilities academically, socially, physically, emotionally, and spiritually. Some of the major principles of developmental education include: - Development occurs in an orderly and predictable sequence with ability growing upon ability. - Each child has a unique pattern and pace of development. - Early experiences affect future development in all areas – spiritual, academic, social, physical, and emotional. - There are optimal times of learning in certain areas. For example, the early years of a child’s development provide times of readiness that should be taken advantage of when planning curriculum. - Play, exploration, and research activities are crucial for learning to take place in the early stages of development. - Children learn best in an atmosphere of safety and love. The elementary years represent an explosion in cognitive growth, increased social awareness and empathy. Immanuel Christian School teachers design creativelessons to encourage students to develop reading and writing fluency and critical thinking skills while promoting greater independence in accomplishing academic tasks. Reading is an integral part of the curriculum because it lays the foundation for all other future learning experiences. Children are first introduced to sounds and their relationship to language. As the children move into higher level critical thinking and reasoning skills, they are challenged to use previous knowledge to expand into an understanding of new and more complex academics. Because children learn best from hands-on experiences, math is introduced using manipulatives so children can experience math concepts and thinking – not merely memorize math facts – before moving to the symbolism of math. Creativity, self-expression and camaraderie are all supported through the hands-on curriculum extensions that enhance classroom instruction and meet the needs of diverse learning styles. Children also develop spiritually. Therefore, children are exposed to godly principles through experience and example. Memorizing God’s Word daily gives to our students a foundation rich in scripture that can be used as the child matures and he/she is called upon to defend his/her faith and meet the demands of daily challenges. Bible stories are taught and reviewed often in order to solidify godly principles and build character. A biblical worldview is integrated throughout the curriculum and students participate in ongoing class service projects. FIRST GRADE: Experiential and Developmental Learners In first grade, we emphasize experiential and developmental learning. First graders explore the world around them daily, developing knowledge in core subject areas through tasks that grow in complexity throughout the year. This is a time when students are seeking answers, and the first grade curriculum helps provide insights. First graders learn to apply previous knowledge, observations and critical thinking skills to solve new problems. Additionally, they have numerous opportunities to develop their creative gifts and talents. Social skills are developed in first grade with exciting activities. Through the following initiatives, students learn the values of exploration, cooperation, sharing and patience. - Readers’ Theater - Winter Writing Project - 100th Day Celebration - Thanksgiving Feast - Pumpkin Week Festivities - Christmas Project - Theatreworks USA - National Building Museum - Pumpkin Patch - A Bargain for Francis by Tanya Hoban - Frog and Toad are Friends by Arnold Loebel - Little Bear by Else Holmelunch Minarik - Madeline by Ludwig Bemelmans - The Lighthouse Children by Syd Hoff - Henry and Mudge: The First Book by Cynthia Rylant - The Country Mouse and the City Mouse (summer reading) View our first grade Bible memory verses SECOND GRADE: Understanding The World Around Them This is a year when significant advances are made in reading fluency and proficiency. Through reading groups tailored to meet each student’s individual learning profile, they develop skills in a supportive environment. Development in math is also strongly emphasized in second grade. Algebraic concepts are introduced in the curriculum and the practice of basic math operations builds mastery in anticipation of third grade. - Meet the Author Day - Heritage Day Festival - Dinosaur Museum - Butterfly Release Party - Theaterworks USA - Fossil Field Trip to Maryland - Washington D.C. tour - A Gift for Mama by Esther Hautzig - Molly’s Pilgrim by Barbara Cohen - Josephina’s Story Quilt by Eleanor Cooer - Nate the Great and the Missing Key by Marjorie Weinman Sharmat - The Chalk Box Kid by Clyde Robert Bulla - Lily and Miss Liberty by Carla Stevens - A Gift for Mama by Esther Hautzig - Danny and the Dinosaur by Syd Hoff (summer reading) View our second grade Bible memory verses THIRD GRADE: Expanding Critical Thinking and Writing Skills Our teachers encourage third grade students to increase their responsibility for learning new concepts and are constantly devising new classroom strategies that engage all types of learners. Students in third grade are gaining confidence and learning how to be a positive influence in our school community. - Native American Festival - Moving West Play - Native American Museum in Washington, D.C. - National Colonial Farm - Green Meadows Native American Trip - Theatreworks USA - The Boxcar Children by Gertrude Chandler Warner - Squanto, Friend to the Pilgrims by Clyde Robert Bulla - The Courage of Sarah Noble by Alice Dalgliesh - Eagle Feather by Clyde Robert Bulla - Little House in the Big Woods by Laura Ingalls Wilder - Next Spring an Oriole by Gloria Whelan (summer reading) View our third grade Bible memory verses FOURTH GRADE: Building Independence Students will read more challenging books and be expected to identify key elements of plot, setting, and character development. The school year ends with students performing an annual favorite, The Missing Parts of Speech play. Students will be expected to do more independent reading and research and to be able to answer more challenging comprehension questions that require inference and critical thinking. - Colonial Luncheon - Missing Parts of Speech Play - Relief map of Virginia - Theatreworks USA - Mount Vernon - Gadsby’s Tavern - Virginia Bound by Amy Butler - Thimble Summer by Elizabeth Enright - Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt - Shiloh by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor - A Lion to Guard Us by Clyde Robert Bulla (summer reading) View our fourth grade Bible memory verses OUR ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM The Language Arts encompasses reading, writing, and oral language, but teachers recognize that learners progress in acquiring language mastery at their own pace. First grade utilizes scaled reading groups and differentiated language activities to reach each child in his or her individual ability level. Opportunities for growth in language proficiency include phonics-based reading resources and modeled writing using appropriate children’s literature books. Reading units with recognized authors such as Jan Brett, culminate in students writing their own illustrated, published book. Reading and writing skill development takes place through practice in spelling, letter formation, and writing complete sentences. Students’ concept of community expands as they compare the characteristics of cities and rural settings. A field trip to the National Building Museum provides a hands-on experience in creating a working urban environment. Basic geography studies involve familiarity with the globe, identification of continents, and knowing how to find the United States. First graders begin to develop a sense of history as they explore the world of the Pilgrims and Native Americans. Cooperation between groups is a focus of the annual Pilgrim Feast in which students take on the roles of participants in the first Thanksgiving. Learning the language of mathematics is a focus of first grade math studies. Students begin to read and write number sentences and discover the inverse relationship between addition and subtraction. Practical math topics include the value of money, distance and volume measurement, learning to tell time, calculating elapsed time and using a calendar. The concept of 100 as well as word and vertical math problems of increasing complexity are included in the math curriculum as our students makes strides in numeric comprehension and computational ability. The properties and characteristics of objects in nature are organizing concepts of first grade science. With a combination of curriculum from the science carts and teacher-created units, students experiment with classifying objects and identifying them according to their properties. Students examine geological objects such as rocks, soil, wood and seashells as well as living organisms such as plants and guppies. The role of habitat and the purpose of the life cycle are taught in the living organisms unit. Students learn basic musical terms and singing skills in first grade. Rhythm, tempo, and singing in unison are important performance preparations for the December Christmas musical. In depth examination of a particular composer (Mozart) and various musical instruments accompany singing practice in the second semester. Art classes integrate with literature units whenever possible. For example, as the children read Eric Carle books in the first grade classroom, they create a collage based on the illustrations of Carle’s books. Color theory and the contrast between warm and cool colors introduce students to the basics of visual art. The warm, bright colors of Vincent Van Gogh, and in particular his masterpiece Sunflowers is the model for sunflowers painted by first graders and displayed in the entrance hallway to the school. First graders learn about God’s relationship to the world in Bible classes. Themes of God’s plan, promises, and gifts allow students to view the Old Testament and see God at work. Students consider the choices and consequences of Old Testament men such as Adam, Noah, and Abraham and learn about God’s forgiveness and power. The children also discuss how Jesus handled temptation, how he interacted with people, and how he offers new life. Bible verse memorization and recitation in first grade uses verses cued to letters of the alphabet. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character. First graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention. Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In first grade, students enjoy cooperative play in their daily recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities. Second graders discover characterization, identify conflict and solutions, and observe writer’s technique through the study of Kevin Henkes’ witty and engaging books in addition to a selection of many other grade level books chosen for their readability and relationship to reading skills acquisition. Students begin to construct paragraphs in response to reading. Scaled reading groups that fit the reading level of individual students promote confident oral reading and prepare the students for independent silent reading. Two whole-class literature units expose young readers to various elements of grammar, comprehension and analysis of plot, and traits of creative writing. Spelling practice, punctuation mini-lessons, and correct sentence composition modeling assists students in their growth as confident writers. In the fourth quarter, students each “author” a story from beginning to end, putting into practice all of the skills acquired throughout the year. Second grade students advance in the process of recognizing the place of others in society and how people throughout the world contribute to their lives. Following the chain of production for bananas and peanuts demonstrates how many workers are involved in bringing food to their table at home. The Immigration Unit gives the children an appreciation for their personal family heritage and recognition of the multi-cultural composition of America. Each child creates a “Family Book” that explores their family’s traditions and culture. Students also read about and discuss the lives of individuals who have come to our country and made a positive impact, with the objective of making a connection to the students themselves and encouraging them to use their God-given talents and interests for the benefit of others. Second grade students build on their first grade addition and subtraction skills to compute numbers of greater place value. The study of decimals and fractions expands understanding of the number system. Using the properties of addition, students are introduced to multiplication, and also begin simple division problems. Word problems encourage math reasoning and creative thinking. Hands-on activities using metric measurements expand students’ understanding of quantities and distances. Reasoning and analytical games are used to increase critical thinking and stimulate memory/retrieval skills. Materials from the science kit provide experimentation in gears and conductivity. Students also study the systems of the human body. Projects and lessons help children identify the body systems and their function, concluding in the construction of a “vest” showing all of the body systems. Springtime brings caterpillars and chrysalises to the classroom, as students observe the stages of butterfly development, culminating in the Butterfly Release Party. Using the music of Peter and Wolf as a source, students learn about the various instruments in the orchestra, listening for the timbre, tone, and other individual properties that enable identification and enjoyment of string, percussion, horns and woodwind instruments. Instruction and practice in singing in unison and reading music continues in rehearsal for the Christmas musical and other classroom music. Students work with a variety of media in Art classes, including clay, tissue paper, printmaking materials, paints, and drawing pencils, using each to depict a figure, object, or scene that corresponds with the second grade classroom curriculum. The freedom found in obedience to God is the focus for second grade as they study the Great Commandments and the Ten Commandments. Through their lessons, students see that, in his kindness, God gave His people rules to follow so that they would not be enslaved to sin. Students memorize verses from the Gospel Hand, Psalm 8, Proverbs 3, and the Ten Commandments. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character. Second graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention. Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In second grade, students enjoy cooperative play in their daily recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities. Third Grade Language Arts encompasses English, reading, spelling and vocabulary instruction. Students practice the building blocks of good writing through English instruction, which emphasizes familiarity with the parts of speech and the components of paragraph writing. Whole-class reading books, Little House in the Big Woods, The Courage of Sarah Noble, Eagle Feather, Squanto and The Boxcar Children, integrate with social studies topics and engage young readers while teaching them the habits of proficient readers. Students observe the writer’s craft by identifying descriptive words and apply descriptive language to their own writing. Class discussions examine the character traits of central characters in the novels and make connections between the students’ lives and the actions and attitudes of book characters. Students begin the year in Social Studies with a study of geography in which they identify the characteristics of land and water. Natural habitat for various plants and animals and sustainability in diverse regions are also discussed. Throughout the remainder of the year, third graders combine their study of geography with history, as they read about Native American tribes in the northwest, plains, and desert regions of the United States. Students study more in-depth about the arrival of the Pilgrims and the government and society they developed. The year concludes with the westward expansion, the effect of railroads on the West, and developing an appreciation for the hardships endured by settlers and their families. These are all depicted in the Moving West play, performed for parents at the end of the fourth quarter. Math strategies, critical thinking, math facts and their applications are all features of third grade mathematics. Students enhance their understanding of the number system through the study of place value up to one hundred thousand and work with decimals and fractions. Everyday use of math is demonstrated through word problems involving time and money. Students memorize the multiplication table through games such as Math Football and Around the World which track their progress and encourage the learning of math facts. Learning the principle of division allows students to find quotients for three-digit numbers and completes initial instruction in the four basic operations. Using this information, third graders apply their knowledge of operations to word problems. In their first year in the Elementary Science classroom, third graders review the concepts of plants, animals, living and non-living things, habitats, and the concept of the experiment. Using plants and colored water, students observe how plants absorb nutrients through the soil and gain an appreciation for the delicate balance of the environment. The importance of gathering and notating data is introduced through the observation of aphid and daphnia populations over a period of weeks. Making predictions about plant and animal behavior introduces the method of developing a scientific hypothesis. Electricity, magnets, the properties of liquid solutions, and basic physics experiments complete the units of study for third graders. Music classes in the first semester prepare third graders for their part in the Grandparents’ Day Christmas musical in December. Third and fourth quarters are devoted to identifying notes on the treble staff, identifying and performing rhythms using eighth, quarter, half and whole notes, and singing folk songs as part of the integration with westward expansion in social studies. Playing recorders for the Moving West play is the culmination of music instruction for the year. Third graders experiment with line and movement in Art, based on the painting Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh and use color resist technique to create their own depiction of the painting. The students view and discuss Alexander Calder’s sculptures with emphasis on his mobiles and create an original work based on this genre. In keeping with “modeling with the masters,” students observe the style of Georgia O’Keefe and use pastels to create their own version of Sunflowers. God’s relationship with His people is seen with examples from scripture of those whom God used to reveal His plan for salvation. In the Old Testament, God offered opportunities and choices to respond to Him in obedience to his laws, through patterns of worship, and the promise of a Savior. The New Testament reveals Jesus’ teaching about God the Father – His love, power and plan for mankind to be saved from their sinful condition. Life application and creative responses to God’s truth are critical parts of the students’ experience in Bible classes. Students memorize and recite verses from the Psalms, I Corinthians, and the Christmas story in Luke 2, which students recite together at the annual Grandparents’ Day assembly in December. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character. Third graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention. Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In third grade, students enjoy cooperative play during their recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities. As in all the elementary grades, Language Arts instruction includes English, reading, and spelling/vocabulary. Development of writing skills is integrated in each of these areas. Fourth grade readers are acquiring the ability to work with greater independence and the curriculum encourages this developmental milestone. New reading skills include identifying figurative language, making inferences and predictions, identifying cause and effect and interpreting character traits through the conversations, actions, and opinions in the novel characters. Both positive and negative character traits are part of the novel selection at this grade level, creating valuable interpretation and application skills and encouraging critical thinking. Students in fourth grade begin the research project process at ICS which culminates in the eighth grade formal research paper. At the fourth grade level, students learn the basics of finding relevant information in a non-fiction book, conducting research using an online database, how to incorporate research information into their writing, and correct paragraph formation to include a topic sentence and supporting sentences. Each year, fourth graders enact The Lost Parts of Speech, which concludes grammar studies for the second semester. Virginia history and early American history from the first explorers to North America through the Civil War are the focus of social studies in fourth grade. Students study and discuss the role of Virginians leading up to and in the Revolutionary War, the First and Second Continental Congresses, and in the development of key documents for the republic. The development of mapping skills, including the creation of a topographical, clay map of the state of Virginia, connects textbook depiction of maps with the actual geographical features of the Commonwealth. Parent volunteers assist in the Colonial Day celebration, in which fourth graders dress in colonial attire and explore a variety of activities common to colonial times. In the fourth quarter, students research books and the Internet in order to create a Publisher brochure that describes a famous Virginian. Students continue to explore the number system as they compare, round and order numbers through hundred millions. Identification of prime numbers and associative, communicative, and zero properties as well as computation of problems with three, four and five-digit whole numbers stretch students’ math abilities. Collection, organization, and interpretation of data using a variety of graphs allow students to connect mathematics to real world problems. Students employ strategies to choose the correct operation to solve word problems, identify patterns, and estimate products and quotients. The physics of motion and inertia, measurement of direction and distance, observing the behavior of objects in three dimensions of space, concepts of galaxies and the universe, development of language to describe the properties of constellations, starts, meteor, and the structure of the universe are all covered in fourth grade science. The environment on Earth and factors that influence plant and animal growth are examined. Students observe hermit crabs in a terrarium and determine their response to changes in temperature, light, and moisture. In music, our fourth grade students practice reading and performance skills in preparation for the Christmas concert. Benjamin Britten’s Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra is used in second quarter to further acquaint students with orchestral music and to support participation in the ICS Junior Orchestra. Composers studied include Brazilian composer Villa-Lobos, as well as Bach and Handel. After learning the history of quilt-making from a member of the local quilting guild, students create their own quilt designs and assemble them using paper triangles of various colors. Students study sculpture techniques and use lengths of silver wire to create a human figure and attach it to a display base. Gesture drawings, using the technique of spiral drawing of the human body, prepare students for the sculpture unit and promote understanding of the composition of the human figure. Fourth grade Bible features Biblical heroes. These character studies allow the children to see people who model traits of faith, obedience, courage, and strength of character. Just as people in Bible times faced problems requiring God’s work in their lives, students recognize their own significance before God. Through Biblical characters such as Elijah, Esther, Nehemiah, and Peter, student learn of God’s promises for those who trust in Him and His word. Students memorize and recite the Books of the Bible, and verses from I John, Philippians, and the Psalms. Participation in bi-weekly elementary chapel emphasizes corporate worship and teaching from the Bible as it relates to individual character. Fourth graders have weekly classes that focus on acquiring vocabulary, developing listening and inference skills, and speaking basic conversational phrases. The classes combine music, games, and hands-on activities to encourage long-term retention. Physical fitness and outdoor exercise are a priority for Immanuel students. In fourth grade, students enjoy cooperative play in their recess times. The skills of simple organized sports and the exercise, agility, and endurance necessary for good health are emphasized in twice-weekly PE classes. Sportsmanship, teamwork, respect, and safety are all taught as essential to the enjoyment of sports activities. TEXTS AND RESOURCES

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In our chemistry help section, you'll find a broad range of topics from very basic chemistry all the way through some more advanced organic chemistry topics. Browse our chemistry topics below, or contact one of our chemistry tutors for private help. Before you get into the other topics, learning HOW to learn chemistry is a great place to start, and this section will help. The Periodic Table Almost everyone has heard of the periodic table, but do you know how to read it? This section gives you a thorough history of the periodic table, and explains how elements are divided and grouped in the table. Take a deep dive on every element on the periodic table. Mixtures and solutions may seem to have a lot in common, but they're actually very different. Find out more here. States of Matter Matter has a variety of different states, ranging from gases to solids. Learn more about them in this section. What are the different bonds and how do you create a compound? Get some clarity in this thorough section. Let's learn more about writing simple chemical equations and types of reactions. We cover a lot of ground here. Moles and Percents What are moles and why do we need them? No, not the animal - although those are great too! What is stoichiometry and what forms does it take? This section goes into detail. What are gases and the laws that govern them? We take a look here. Acids and Bases What makes an acid or a base weak or strong? What are acids and bases in the first place? Let's dig in. Polyatomic ions are ions with many atoms; they contain more than one element. They are charged just like regular ions; for example, an ion looks like this: Cl-, while a polyatomic ion looks like this: ClO3-. While the chloride ion only contains one element - chlorine - the chlorate ion contains both chlorine and oxygen. Read this lesson for examples of other commonly known polyatomic ions. Electronegativity is a property of atoms that has to do with the tendency to attract electrons from another atom to form an ionic bond. Electronegativity is measured using the Pauling scale, which was instated by Linus Pauling. Read this lesson to find out all about electronegativity! Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions All reactions can be classified as endothermic (storing energy) or exothermic (releasing energy). This lesson reviews the ways in which reactions store and give off energy, including items like heat, light, and mechanical energy. Once you've read this lesson, test yourself with a quick practice quiz to review the endothermic and exothermic concepts. Hydrolysis occurs when one adds water to a compound, which causes the compound to break apart into a cation and an anion. Then, water can bond chemically with the substance, changing its chemical form.These reactions often take place when ionic compounds dissolve in water. Read on to learn more about the process of hydrolysis! When a reaction is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, the reaction is reversible. This means that, to maintain equilibrium, the products break apart to form the reactants. Read this lesson for more information on dynamic equilibrium! Enthalpy is a state function that is measured in kilojoules per mole. Enthalpy is abbreviated as H in the Gibbs free energy equation: G = H - TS. Enthalpy can help an observer discern whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic based on the enthalpy having a positive or negative value. Read on to find out more about enthalpy! Like enthalpy, entropy is also a state function that is defined as ΔS, or Sf - Si. It is a spontaneous reaction that occurs naturally. Entropy measures the disorder of a system. Read this lesson to learn more about entropy! Mass spectrometry is used to experimentally determine the molecular weight of a sample by ionizing a molecule and passing it through electrical and magnetic fields. The observer would then note how the ionized compound responds, which correlates with the molecular weight in a quantifiable way. Read on to learn more about the intricate process of mass spectrometry! Hess's law is much like solving a puzzle using the change in entropy of a reaction. The result is that one can tell the change in energy (in kJ/mol) of a reaction. Hess's law requires a balanced equation with proper coefficients. Read on for more advice on implementing Hess's law! The Born-Haber cycle is a series of chemical processes that are used to calculate the lattice energy of ionic solids. The Born-Haber cycle can be thought of as a special case of Hess's law. Read on for a definition of lattice energy as well as examples of how the Born-Haber cycle is used to calculate lattice energy. This page identifies different types of bonds, including covalent, polar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen. It explains how to draw compound structures by counting electrons and placing bonds accordingly. The Octet and Duet rules are also explained here. This page details how electrons are arranged in an atom, including information about the orbitals (s, p, d, and f) and how to easily tell which orbital an electron is in. You’ll also learn about the diagonal rule and electron spin. Electron delocalization can be really confusing! In order to understand this concept, one must learn about resonance, bonding, and aromaticity. Read on for more information about electron delocalization! The Aufbau principle describes how electrons fill energy levels in an atom. In order to write the electron configuration of an atom, one must know how the subshells fill. Using the diagonal rule will certainly help with this process. Read on for more information about the Aufbau principle. Hybridization occurs when two atomic orbitals combine to form one hybrid orbital. One of the more common types of hybridization is sp3 hybridization, which is described in detail in this lesson. Read on for more detailed information on the intricacies of electron orbitals. Electrolysis occurs in electrolytic cells when an electrical current causes a nonspontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction. This lesson describes how electrolysis is used, including extracting pure metals from the Earth's crust. Read on for more information on the process of electrolysis! Voltaic cells use chemical energy to do electrical work. A redox reaction occurs, and the electrons are forced through an electrical circuit. Read on to find out the specifics on how voltaic cells power electrical processes! The study of nuclear reactions is called radiation chemistry. A nuclear reaction involves the nucleus of an atom. These types of processes were first discovered by Marie Curie in the late 1800s. Read on for more details about radiation chemistry! Introduction to Organic Chemistry Introduces carbon structures and interactions between molecules. Basic vocabulary and ideas are introduced concerning alcohols and hydrocarbons. Combustion of a hydrocarbon is also discussed briefly. Alkanes and Alkenes Alkanes and alkenes are both hydrocarbons that follow the standard nomenclature procedures. Learn whether alkanes and alkenes are saturated or unsaturated, which is more reactive, and how to name a compound by looking at its structure in this lesson. Aromatic Electrophilic Substitutions (EArS Reactions) When aromatic compounds undergo reactions with electrophiles, a substitution reaction occurs. This reaction is known as an electrophilic aromatic substitution (EArS or EAS) reaction. Read on for an in-depth description of how these reactions occur! Halogenoalkanes are exciting because, compared to alkanes, they are very highly reactive when paired with nucleophiles or bases. Halogenoalkanes are also SP3 hybridized. Read this lesson to find out more information on halogenoalkanes! Carbonyl Condensation Reactions A carbonyl condensation reaction occurs between two carbonyl partners and involve nucleophilic addition and α substitution. This lesson also covers aldol condensation as well as the Robinson annulation reaction. Read on for more details about these chemical processes. An elimination reaction occurs when a starting product breaks down into two new products that contain all the atoms of the original reactant. There are two types: E1 and E2. Read this lesson for more information about elimination reactions. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions Nucleophilic substitution reactions occur when a nucleophile interacts with an electrophile. Read this lesson for a step by step explanation of what happens during a nucleophilic substitution reaction. This lesson also covers nucleophilic substitution including the SN1 and SN2 mechanisms. Effects on kinetic rate, alkyl group, and more are discussed in this lesson. Because many students cannot and do not draw organic structures correctly, one of our most prominent chemistry tutors took the time to explain how to draw cyclohexane rings in great detail. She even shows more than one way to get a perfect drawing of this ring. Read the lesson to find out how to draw these rings correctly! Stereoisomers are a category of isomers. Learn about the different categories of isomers in this lesson, and how you will study stereoisomers in chemistry and biochemistry. Content in this section of Wyzant Lessons has been curated by tutors, as well as by Chemtutor.com creator David Wilner. David Wilner is a native of Georgia, USA, born just before the end of WWII. Mr. Wilner is happiest when he is explaining things in science (pontificating), so it is natural that he has been a science teacher in high school and a teacher of chemistry at Georgia Perimeter College. 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Purim Quick Facts Meaning of Hebrew Name: “Lots” (as in “casting lots” – not as in “lots of something”) English Name: Purim Western Calendar Month: February/March Jewish Calendar Date: Adar 14 Establishment of Purim: Fifth century BC; Esther 9:20–22 Purpose of Purim The scene: a king tossing and turning for fear that his lovely queen is conspiring against him with his chief advisor. A queen so worried over the king’s plan to put to death her people that she barges into his inner chamber unannounced, looking lovelier than ever. Two advisors to the king are getting ready for a showdown – the town (Persia) is only big enough for the one of them. Haman, hell-bent on the destruction of the Jews, is besmeared with waste matter and wincing in pain by the end of this battle. Mordecai, his Jewish enemy, is clad in purple robes, majestically seated atop the royal horse, freshly bathed and coiffed by Haman himself. The difference could hardly be more pronounced. If the scene sounds only half-familiar, that’s because it is. Although Megillat Esther (“the Scroll of Esther”) lines up with the basics of the plot described above, the colorful embroideries came later; they were added in the tractate Megillah of the Talmud and in other commentaries. Jewish literature contains a wealth of such embellishments. Why? More than any other story in Jewish history (except, perhaps, for Passover and Hanukkah), the story of Esther inspires further storytelling and bears repeating. The great Jewish traditions of storytelling and humor come to the fore on Purim, the feast day commemorating Esther’s and Mordecai’s defeat of Haman’s plot to annihilate the Jews of ancient Persia. The great commandment on Purim is that we “proclaim the miracle” by reading Megillat Esther, banqueting together, sending gifts, and giving portions to the poor. The revelry takes other forms too, from dressing up in wild costumes to watching the Purimspiel (Purim play), which brings the story of Esther to life. Origin of Purim Megillat Esther starts with the unlikely fate of a Jewish girl living in the Persian Empire. King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) takes Esther, the cousin of the Jewish advisor Mordecai, to be his new queen after deposing Queen Vashti. On Mordecai’s advice, Esther hides her Jewish ancestry from Xerxes until the wicked counselor Haman hatches a plot against the life of the Jews, obliging her to speak out for her people. The most famous lines of the story come when Mordecai persuades Esther to go to the king unannounced, a capital offense: Then Mordecai told them [the messengers] to reply to Esther, “Do not think to yourself that in the king’s palace you will escape any more than all the other Jews. For if you keep silent at this time, relief and deliverance will rise for the Jews from another place, but you and your father’s house will perish. And who knows whether you have not come to the kingdom for such a time as this?” Then Esther told them to reply to Mordecai, “Go, gather all the Jews to be found in Susa, and hold a fast on my behalf, and do not eat or drink for three days, night or day. I and my young women will also fast as you do. Then I will go to the king, though it is against the law, and if I perish, I perish.” (Esther 4:13–16) By their wit and wile – though behind the scenes orchestrated by God – Esther and Mordecai foiled Haman’s plot. Following Haman’s execution and the deliverance of the Jews, Esther and Mordecai established a feast for future generations to celebrate their people’s survival for “their sorrow was turned into joy and their mourning into a day of celebration” (Esther 9:22). And Mordecai recorded these things and sent letters to all the Jews… obliging them to keep the fourteenth day of the month Adar and also the fifteenth day of the same, year by year, as the days on which the Jews got relief from their enemies… that they should make them days of feasting and gladness, days for sending gifts of food to one another and gifts to the poor. (Esther 9:20–22) Thus Purim was born. Purim is so called because Haman cast lots (purim) to determine the most propitious date for implementing his planned genocide, but the verses about the casting of lots are brief and vague. We read in Esther 3:7: “They cast Pur (that is, they cast lots).” The medieval rabbi Rashi comments: “Whoever cast it, cast it, and the verse does not specify who. This is an elliptical verse.” He interprets the phrase that follows – “that is, the lot” – this way: “Scripture explains: and what is the pur? That is the lot. He cast lots [to determine] in which month he would succeed.” Because of Esther’s faithfulness in relying on God’s guidance and her courage to speak to the king on behalf of her people, Haman was foiled, the day of his dreamed-of success of annihilation of the Jewish people became the day of the Jews’ deliverance from death to life – Purim. How Purim is Observed The Purim Feast: The Purim feast is a time of conviviality and merrymaking. It must take place on the day of Purim, not on the evening before (Megillah 7b) on account of the mandated “days of feasting and gladness” (Esther 9:20–22). The rabbis explain: “[We read in connection with Purim] gladness and feasting and a good day; ‘gladness’: this teaches that it is forbidden on these days to mourn; ‘feasting’: this teaches that it is forbidden on them to fast; ‘a good day’: this teaches that it is forbidden on them to do work” (Megillah 5b). Fasting, mourning, and work are all swept aside on this day of celebration and revelry. Proclaiming the Miracle: Most important of all, however is not eating and drinking but reading Megillat Esther and thereby “proclaiming the miracle.” This most commonly takes place in synagogue, where the Scroll of Esther (an individual scroll, usually without being combined with any other portion of Scripture) is read aloud in a raucous, buzzing atmosphere. Congregants cheer and laugh or stamp their feet and shout and boo whenever the name “Haman” is mentioned. (This is done on the basis of Exodus 17:14, where God tells us to “blot out the memory of Amalek,” and so of his descendant Haman.) Despite the apparent chaos of the Megillah reading, the Mishnah and the Talmud set down elaborate rules for the proper proclamation of the miracle. We must read the Megillah from beginning to end (some rabbis disagree about where to start); we mustn’t take long breaks; we mustn’t read it backwards… even the parchment and ink of the scroll must be up to snuff! In light of these various rules, some so obvious as to go without saying, it behooves us to remember the spirit of “proclaiming the miracle.” One rabbi comments: “When the text says, thou shalt not forget, the injunction against mental forgetfulness is already given. What then am I to make of ‘remember’? This must mean, by utterance [lit. “with the mouth”]. Proclaim the miracle” (Megillah 18a). It is not enough not to forget; remembrance goes a step further: we must fasten our minds on the history and tell it out loud. Only then do we pay God sufficient homage for rescuing His people from the clutches of Haman. Sending Food and Giving to the Poor: The famous Jewish commentator Maimonides placed the book of Esther on an equal footing with the Torah, as one of the imperishable books of the Hebrew Bible. His love of Purim was in no way exclusionary – rather, he stressed that all Jews should be able to take part. We see in Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah his concern that all members of the community, rich and poor, do their bit in celebrating Purim: Similarly, a person is obligated to send two portions of meat, two other cooked dishes, or two other foods to a friend, as implied by Esther 9:22, ‘sending portions of food one to another’…. Whoever sends portions to many friends is praiseworthy. If one does not have the means to send presents of food to a friend, one should exchange one’s meal with him. On Purim, Jews greet one another by sending portions of food, often in the form of gift baskets full of sweets and nuts and fruits, called mishloach manot in Hebrew or shalach manos in Yiddish. In this manner, the feast of Purim spills out of the home into the community at large. No delicacies or lavish spending necessary – two poor friends can just trade food and thus “send portions,” a way for the less fortunate to fulfill the commandment. Maimonides adds that one must give alms on Purim to those who don’t even have enough to eat for themselves. One is obligated to distribute charity to the poor on the day of Purim. At the very least, to give each of two poor people one present, be it money, cooked dishes, or other foods…. We should not be discriminating in selecting the recipients of these Purim gifts. Instead, one should give to whomever [sic] stretches out his hand. It is preferable for a person to be more liberal with his donations to the poor than to be lavish in his preparation of the Purim feast or in sending portions to his friends. For there is no greater and more splendid happiness than to gladden the hearts of the poor, the orphans, the widows, and the converts. Giving alms far outweighs the preparation of a lavish feast or gratuitous consumption. Feeding the hungry and helping the poor in their distress is a commandment that must be carried out at all times; even on a day of carefree revelry, we must remember the fatherless and widows in their affliction. Special Synagogue Readings for Purim Torah Portion: Exodus 17:8–16 (the Israelites defeat the Amalekites, from which tribe Haman is descended). No haftarah portion, as the central non-Pentateuchal reading of Purim is, of course, Megillat Esther. Purim, like most biblical Jewish holidays, is not what it was in ancient times; rather, the encrustations of centuries of tradition and interpretation have lent the holiday an evolving character all its own. Many of these traditions derive from the Talmud, the chief Jewish interpretive work of the post-exilic period. All kinds of embellishments were made to the story of Esther in the Talmud, including angelic interventions and even scatological details. Esther gets a divine makeover from angels to please Ahasuerus: “R. Joshua b. Korha said: Esther was sallow, but a thread of grace was drawn about her” (Megillah 13a). Haman was a former “slave sold for loaves of bread,” bought by Mordecai during one of the wars of the Jews against the Amalekites (Megillah 15b). When Haman led Mordecai before Ahasuerus, he had to give him a haircut because Esther closed all the bathhouses, and Mordecai wouldn’t come into Ahasuerus’ presence untrimmed. When mounting his horse, Mordecai asked Haman for help and kicked him on his way up. Haman’s daughter, seeing Haman leading the horse, mistook him for Mordecai and dumped a chamberpot on him; realizing her mistake, she fell off a roof for shame. All of these myths lighten the story and infuse Purim with a dose of hilarity. According to one rabbi, “It is the duty of a man to mellow himself [with wine] on Purim until he cannot tell the difference between ‘cursed be Haman’ and ‘blessed be Mordecai’” (Megillah 7b). So “mellow” did the Jews become on Purim that the rabbis tell a cautionary tale about drinking to excess: “Rabbah and R. Zera joined together in a Purim feast. They became mellow [i.e., drunk], and Rabbah arose and cut R. Zera’s throat. On the next day he prayed on his behalf and revived him. Next year he said, Will your honour come and we will have the Purim feast together. He replied: A miracle does not take place on every occasion” (Megillah 7b). Not only abundant drink, but also abundant food sets Purim apart. Of Purim’s delicacies, kreplach (tri-cornered dumplings filled with meat) and hamantaschen (tri-cornered cookies with a fruit filling) take the cake (pun intended). These beloved foods may represent any number of things: the shape of the lots; Haman’s triangular ears; a dunce-ish hat Haman wore (an invention of the Purimspiel), which we gobble down in revenge; or even God, hidden inside the events of Esther! Dressing up has also become part and parcel of Purim celebrations, originating with the Italian carnivalesque attire Jews wore during Purim in the Renaissance. Why do we dress up? Perhaps because God “disguised” Himself in the book of Esther, never being named but pulling the strings all along. Perhaps because Haman changed costumes so often, going from a slave to a chief advisor to a hanged man. Dressing up also reminds us of Mordecai’s many “costume changes” in the book of Esther – from regular courtly dress, to ashes and sackcloth, to a royal purple tunic. By gussying ourselves up in over-the-top costumes, we act out the fast-changing fortunes of the Jews and of Haman in the Book of Esther. Purimspiel, or the Purim play, which originated in Eastern Europe and has spread worldwide, makes light of the story. Performers and audiences alike clad in over-the-top costumes draw on the rich storehouse of details mentioned in Jewish literature for humor and color. During Purim plays and throughout Purim, we practice various cruelties on Haman. In olden times, Jews would burn effigies of him, though attacks from Christians led to the adoption of a substitute practice: beating objects with the name of Haman written on them. Noisemaking, a longstanding feature of folk cultures, is meant to drive away evil spirits like Haman’s. Many Jews even go so far as to write Haman’s name on the soles of their feet so they can “stomp on him” during Purim. In brief, a rich tapestry of traditions from around the world makes Purim the brightest and most colorful of Jewish holidays. Spiritual Application of Purim Some Purim traditions stray from biblical ideals: drunkenness and stomping on one’s enemies, for example. Yet when we return to the contents of the book itself, Purim invites reflection on God. For far too long, Esther has been wrongly viewed as an unspiritual, even unsavory, book of the Bible. Martin Luther infamously complained: “I am so hostile to this book [2 Maccabees] and to Esther that I could wish that they did not exist at all; for they judaize too greatly and have much pagan impropriety.” In contrast, the rabbis of the Talmud so esteemed the book of Esther that they ferreted out sometimes fanciful references to it in other parts of the Hebrew Bible. For example, the Talmud traces Psalm 22 and its famous words, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” and “Deliver my soul from the sword, my precious life from the power of the dog,” to Esther in her distress, even though David wrote the psalm. Aside from disparaging its content, some have leveled accusations against the book’s authenticity, claiming that Megillat Esther is nothing more than a myth or tall tale. These attacks on the veracity of Esther have subsided in recent years, as scholars once more reassert the overall legitimacy and historicity of the story (something Jews traditionally never had reason to doubt). Others have criticized Purim on different grounds, attributing to it an overweening sense of national pride and wiliness. These claims rest on the bogus belief that when Esther and Mordecai outwitted the genocidal Haman, they portrayed cunning and guile rather than bravery. Unfortunately, many objections to the story of Esther and the celebration of Purim have often been bound up with anti-Semitic sentiment. Indeed, many churches avoid the book of Esther altogether, sometimes venturing the lame excuse that the word “God” does not appear in the book of Esther and so it must be of no religious significance. Above all, many find in Megillat Esther an indication that the events of history are orchestrated behind the scenes for good by the one character not named in the book: God Himself. Though unmentioned, many see Him as front and center – in the events of Esther’s and Mordecai’s time, and in the preservation of the Jewish people throughout history. We are reminded in the book of Esther that God orchestrates the details of our lives even when we cannot see His hand. Like Job, we can say: “I go forward, but he is not there, and backward, but I do not behold him; he turns to the right hand, but I do not see him. But he knows the way that I take; when he has tried me, I shall come out as gold” (Job 23:8–10). And perhaps, like Esther, we have been purposely placed in unusual circumstances (for such a time as this) to be a light of His love to others. The synopsis in this section is based purely on the Scriptures, not on rabbinical commentaries as above. See transcript of Christine Hayes, “Lecture 24 – Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah [December 6, 2006],” Open Yale Courses, accessed July 24, 2017, https://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145/lecture-24 (30-second mark): “There’s no x in the Hebrew alphabet – this is Ahasuerus, which is Xerxes.” Rashi’s Commentary on Esther 3:7, Chabad.org, accessed July 24, 2017, http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16476/jewish/Chapter-3.htm#showrashi=true<=primary..? Some rabbis debated whether there was an obligation not to work on Purim. Megillah 19a: “Rab Judah said in the name of Samuel: If one reads the Megillah from a volume containing the rest of Scriptures, he has not performed his obligation,” i.e., because he does not sufficiently proclaim the miracle. [Exception: if it’s about even with the admixed material.] Because of this teaching, many Megillot (scrolls of the book of Esther) have been copied, some decorated with intricate illustrations. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, trans. Eliyahu Touger, Chabad.org, accessed July 24, 2017, http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/952007/jewish/Megillah-vChanukah-Chapter-Two.htm. “Megillah and Chanukah” 2:15. Ibid., 2:16. All of these details drawn from Megillah 16a. Table Talk, XXIV Chat with us What traditions do you celebrate on Purim? Do you dress up and watch a Purim play? Do you read the book of Esther? We’d love to hear your answers to these questions and your reflection on this most joyous of holidays. Either send us a message or click on the chat tab on the bottom right-hand of the page to get in touch. Chag Purim Sameach! JEWISH HOLIDAYS 2019 Note that in the Jewish calendar, a holiday begins on the sunset of the previous day: - Passover - Saturday, April 20, 2019 - Shavuot - Sunday, June 09, 2019 - Rosh Hashanah - Monday, September 30, 2019 - Yom Kippur - Wednesday, October 09, 2019 - Sukkot - Monday, October 14, 2019 - Hanukkah - Monday, December 23, 2019

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Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language, but a tool used to make languages be read. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence, record keeping and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems. As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. In both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have evolved through calendric and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. Means for recording information H.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death". The major writing systems—methods of inscription—broadly fall into five categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, featural, and ideographic (symbols for ideas). A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies. A logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both—("logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs). Many logograms have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka", was also used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated, or when there was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a phonetic. However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa. The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for the various languages or dialects of China, Japan, and sometimes in Korean despite the fact that in South and North Korea, the phonetic Hangul system is mainly used. A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar. Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam; and the Vai script of Liberia. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component. Ethiopic, though technically an abugida, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point where it is learned as if it were a syllabary. An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. In most of the writing systems of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date back to the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called abjads, derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet". In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable. Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the Latin alphabet, although abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is often considered to be the first alphabet. A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips ("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" and "d" are not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element, but in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed. Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes and movements of the hands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as J.R.R. Tolkien's Tengwar. Historical significance of writing systems Historians draw a sharp distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but they are not considered true writing because they did not represent language directly. Writing systems develop and change based on the needs of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation, and meaning of individual signs changes over time. By tracing the development of a script, it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well as how the script changed over time. Tools and materials The many tools and writing materials used throughout history include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slats, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography. The Incas used knotted cords known as quipu (or khipu) for keeping records. The typewriter and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil. By definition, the modern practice of history begins with written records. Evidence of human culture without writing is the realm of prehistory. The Dispilio Tablet (Greece), Jiahu symbols (China) and Tărtăria tablets (Romania), which have been carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, are recent discoveries of the earliest known neolithic writings. While neolithic writing is a current research topic, conventional history assumes that the writing process first evolved from economic necessity in the ancient Near East. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which have been found in the Zagros region of Iran, and the first known writing, Mesopotamian cuneiform. In approximately 8000 BC, the Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing these tokens inside large, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container came to be expressed by impressing, on the container's surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they 'counted' the objects by using various small marks. In this way the Sumerians added "a system for enumerating objects to their incipient system of symbols". The original Mesopotamian writing system (believed to be the world's oldest) was derived around 3600 BC from this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium BC, the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means of pictographs. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but by the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements. Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that time, Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian) around 2600 BC, and then to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. With the adoption of Aramaic as the 'lingua franca' of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century AD. Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing system from Iran. In use only for a brief time (c. 3200–2900 BC), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran. The Proto-Elamite script is thought to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be partly logographic. Linear Elamite is a writing system attested in a few monumental inscriptions in Iran. It was used for a very brief period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot be proven since Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to decipher the script, most notably Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi. The Elamite cuneiform script was used from about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from the Akkadian cuneiform. The Elamite cuneiform script consisted of about 130 symbols, far fewer than most other cuneiform scripts. Cretan and Greek scripts Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of the Mycenaean Greeks, has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summarized as follows: Cretan hieroglyphs were used in Crete from c. 1625 to 1500 BC; Linear A was used in the Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and the Greek mainland (Laconia) from c. 18th century to 1450 BC; and Linear B was used in Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) from c. 1375 to 1200 BC. The earliest surviving examples of writing in China—inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used for divination—date from around 1200 BC in the late Shang dynasty. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived. Historians have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used. In 2003, archaeologists reported discoveries of isolated tortoise-shell carvings dating back to the 7th millennium BC, but whether or not these symbols are related to the characters of the later oracle-bone script is disputed. The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer Palette, dating to c. 3200 BC, and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs were based on a much older artistic rather than written tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet. Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. The world's oldest known alphabet appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th century BC. Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line inscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphic prototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until the 12th to 9th centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used. Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (which spanned modern-day Pakistan and North India) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. In spite of many attempts at decipherments and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The term 'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC, and was followed by the mature Harappan script. The script is written from right to left, and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400–600, midway between typical logographic and syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic (typically syllabic scripts have about 50–100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates that an agglutinative language underlies the script. In 2001, archaeologists discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia that used writing c. 2000 BC. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal. Phoenician writing system and descendants The Proto-Sinaitic script, in which Proto-Canaanite is believed to have been first written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Hieratic, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include Cyrillic, used to write Bulgarian, Russian and Serbian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew and the Arabic scripts are descended. The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script, which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin. A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing, known as the Cascajal Block, was discovered in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing by approximately 500 years. It is thought to be Olmec. Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the Maya script. The earliest inscription identified as Maya dates to the 3rd century BC. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing. The Incas had no known script. Their quipu system of recording information—based on knots tied along one or many linked cords—was apparently used for inventory and accountancy purposes and could not encode textual information. Three stone slabs were found by Romanian archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in the mid-20th century (1961) in Tărtăria (present-day Alba County, Transylvania), Romania, ancient land of Dacia, inhabited by Dacians, which were a population who may have been related to the Getaes and Thracians. One of the slabs contains 4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some of the characters are also found in Ancient Greek, as well as in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian. The origin and the timing of the writings are disputed, because there are no precise evidence in situ, the slabs cannot be carbon dated, because of the bad treatment of the Cluj museum. There are indirect carbon dates found on a skeleton discovered near the slabs, that certifies the 5300–5500 BC period. In the 21st century, writing has become an important part of daily life as technology has connected individuals from across the globe through systems such as e-mail and social media. Literacy has grown in importance as a factor for success in the modern world. In the United States, the ability to read and write are necessary for most jobs, and multiple programs are in place to aid both children and adults in improving their literacy skills. For example, the emergence of the writing center and community-wide literacy councils aim to help students and community members sharpen their writing skills. These resources, and many more, span across different age groups in order to offer each individual a better understanding of their language and how to express themselves via writing in order to perhaps improve their socioeconomic status. Other parts of the world have seen an increase in writing abilities as a result of programs such as the World Literacy Foundation and International Literacy Foundation, as well as a general push for increased global communication. - Asemic writing - Boustrophedon text - Collaborative writing - Composition (language) - Composition studies - Copyright Clause - Creative writing - Fiction writing - Foreign language writing aid - Interactive fiction - List of writers' conferences - Literary award - Literary criticism - Literary festival - Mechanical pencil - Peer critique - Creation of the Sequoyah syllabary - Story bible - Speech communication - Teaching Writing in the United States - Textual scholarship - White papers - Word processing - Writer's block - Writing bump - Writing circle - Writing in space - Writing slate - Writing style - Writing systems - Writer's voice - Robinson 2003, p. 36. - Wells, H. G. (1922). A Short History of the World. p. 41. - "The Khipu Database Project". - Chandler, Daniel (1990). "Do the write thing?". Electric Word. 17: 27–30. - Chandler, Daniel (1992). "The phenomenology of writing by hand". Intelligent Tutoring Media. 3 (2/3): 65–74. doi:10.1080/14626269209408310. - Chandler, Daniel (1993). "Writing strategies and writers' tools". English Today: the International Review of the English Language. 9 (2): 32–38. doi:10.1017/S0266078400000341. - Chandler, Daniel (1994). "Who needs suspended inscription?". Computers and Composition. 11 (3): 191–201. doi:10.1016/8755-4615(94)90012-4. - Chandler, Daniel (1995). The Act of Writing: A Media Theory Approach. Aberystwyth: Prifysgol Cymru. - Haarmann, Harald (2002). Geschichte der Schrift, C.H. Beck, ISBN 3-406-47998-7, p. 20 - Rudgley, Richard (2000). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 48–57. - The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing, Samuel Noah Kramer, Thirty Nine Firsts in Recorded History pp. 381–383 - Olivier 1986, pp. 377f. - Boltz, William (1999). "Language and Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–123. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. - "Archaeologists Rewrite History". China Daily. 12 June 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012. Rincon, Paul (17 April 2003). "'Earliest writing' found in China". BBC News. Retrieved 4 January 2012. Signs carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists - Goldwasser, Orly. "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr 2010 - Whitehouse, David (1999). "'Earliest writing' found" BBC - (Lal 1966) - (Wells 1999) - (Bryant 2000) - "Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan". BBC. 15 May 2001. Retrieved 30 March 2008. A previously unknown civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed, archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that seems to have been used as a stamp seal. - Wilford, John Noble (15 September 2006). "Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere". New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2008. A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere. - Briggs, Helen (14 September 2006). "'Oldest' New World writing found". BBC. Retrieved 30 March 2008. Ancient civilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests. - Rodríguez Martínez, Maria del Carmen; et al. (2006). "Oldest Writing in the New World". Science. 313 (5793): 1610–1614. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1610R. doi:10.1126/science.1131492. Retrieved 30 March 2008. A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block places it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica. - Saturno, William A.; David Stuart; Boris Beltrán (3 March 2006). "Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala". Science. 311 (5765): 1281–1283. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1281S. doi:10.1126/science.1121745. PMID 16400112. - A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multimedia, edited by Anne-Marie Christin, Flammarion (in French, hardcover: 408 pages, 2002, ISBN 2-08-010887-5) - In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. By Joel M. Hoffman, 2004. Chapter 3 covers the invention of writing and its various stages. - Origins of writing on AncientScripts.com - Museum of Writing: UK Museum of Writing with information on writing history and implements - On ERIC Digests: Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom; Writing Development; Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years - Angioni, Giulio, La scrittura, una fabrilità semiotica, in Fare, dire, sentire. L'identico e il diverso nelle culture, il Maestrale, 2011, 149–169. ISBN 978-88-6429-020-1 - Children of the Code: The Power of Writing – Online Video - Powell, Barry B. 2009. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization, Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6256-2 - Reynolds, Jack 2004. Merleau-Ponty And Derrida: Intertwining Embodiment And Alterity, Ohio University Press - Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback) - Ankerl, Guy (2000) . Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. pp. 59–66, 235s. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. - Robinson, Andrew (2003). "The Origins of Writing". In Crowley, David; Heyer, Paul. Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society. Allyn and Bacon. - Falkenstein, A. 1965 Zu den Tafeln aus Tartaria. Germania 43, 269–273 - Haarmann, H. 1990 Writing from Old Europe. The Journal of Indo-European Studies 17 - Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The Eagle – the Bird of death, regeneration resurrection and mesenger of Godds. Archaeological and ethnological problems. Tibiscum, 57–68 - Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The Eye – Symbol, Gesture, Expression.Tibiscum, 115–128 - Makkay, J. 1969 The Late Neolithic Tordos Group of Signs. Alba Regia 10, 9–50 - Makkay, J. 1984 Early Stamp Seals in South-East Europe. Budapest - Masson, E. 1984 L'écriture dans les civilisations danubiennes néolithiques. Kadmos 23, 2, 89–123. Berlin & New York. - Maxim, Z. 1997 Neo-eneoliticul din Transilvania. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 19. Cluj-Napoca - Milojcic, Vl. 1963 Die Tontafeln von Tartaria (Siebenbürgen), und die Absolute Chronologie des mitteleeuropäischen Neolithikums.Germania 43, 266–268 - Paul, I. 1990 Mitograma de acum 8 milenii. Atheneum 1, p. 28 - Paul, I. 1995 Vorgeschichtliche untersuchungen in Siebenburgen. Alba Iulia - Vlassa, N. 1962 – (Studia UBB 2), 23–30. - Vlassa, N. 1962 – (Dacia 7), 485–494; - Vlassa, N. 1965 – (Atti UISPP, Roma 1965), 267–269 - Vlassa, N. 1976 Contribuții la Problema racordării Neoliticul Transilvaniei, p. 28–43, fig. 7-8 - Vlassa, N. 1976 Neoliticul Transilvaniei. Studii, articole, note. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 3. Cluj-Napoca - Winn, Sham M. M. 1973 The Sings of the Vinca Culture - Winn, Sham M. M. 1981 Pre-writing in Southeast Europe: The Sign System of the Vinca culture. BAR - Merlini, Marco 2004 La scrittura è natta in Europa?, Roma (2004) - Merlini, Marco and Gheorghe Lazarovici 2008 Luca, Sabin Adrian ed. "Settling discovery circumstances, dating and utilization of the Tărtăria Tablets" - Merlini, Marco and Gheorghe Lazarovici 2005 "New archaeological data referring to Tărtăria tablets", in Documenta Praehistorica XXXII, Department of Archeology Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Ljubljana:2005–2019. |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Writing| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to People writing.| |Wikiversity has learning resources about Collaborative play writing| |Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Fiction technique| |Look up writing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|

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Photo manipulation involves transforming or altering a photograph using various methods and techniques to achieve desired results. Some photo manipulations are considered skillful artwork while others are frowned upon as unethical practices, especially when used to deceive the public, such as that used for political propaganda, or to make a product or person look better. Depending on the application and intent, some photo manipulations are considered an art form because it involves the creation of unique images and in some instances, signature expressions of art by photographic artists. For example, Ansel Adams employed some of the more common manipulations using darkroom exposure techniques, such as burning (darkening) and dodging (lightening) a photograph. Other examples of photo manipulation include retouching photographs using ink or paint, airbrushing, double exposure, piecing photos or negatives together in the darkroom, scratching instant films, or through the use of software-based manipulation tools applied to digital images. There are a number of software applications available for digital image manipulation, ranging from professional applications to very basic imaging software for casual users. Photo manipulation dates back to some of the earliest photographs captured on glass and tin plates during the 19th century. The practice began not long after the creation of the first photograph (1825) by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce who developed heliography and made the first photographic print from a photoengraved printing plate. Traditional photographic prints can be altered using various methods and techniques that involve manipulation directly to the print, such as retouching with ink, paint, airbrushing, or scratching Polaroids during developing. Negatives can be manipulated while still in the camera using double-exposure techniques, or in the darkroom by piecing photos or negatives together. Some darkroom manipulations involved techniques such as bleaching to artfully lighten or totally wash-out parts of the photograph, or hand coloring for aesthetic purposes or to mimic a fine art painting. In the early 19th century, photography and the technology that made it possible was rather crude and cumbersome. While the equipment and technology progressed over time, it was not until the late 20th century that photography evolved into the digital realm. At the onset, digital photography was considered by some to be a radical new approach, and was initially rejected by photographers because of its substandard quality. The transition from film to digital has been an ongoing process although great strides were made in the early 21st century as a result of advancing technology that has greatly improved digital image quality while reducing the bulk and weight of cameras and equipment. An early example of tampering was in the early 1860s, when a photo of Abraham Lincoln was altered using the body from a portrait of John C. Calhoun and the head of Lincoln from a famous seated portrait by Mathew Brady – the same portrait which was the basis for the original Lincoln five-dollar bill. Another is exampled in the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalogue wherein it exposes a manipulated American Civil War photograph of General Ulysses S. Grant posing horseback in front of his troops at City Point, Virginia. Close observation of the photograph raises questions and brings to light certain details in the photograph that simply do not add up. For example, Grant's head is set at a strange angle to his body, his uniform is of a different time period, and his favorite horse Cincinnati did not have a left hind sock like the horse in the photograph, although his other horse Egypt did have a sock but on a different foot. With further research, three different photographs were discovered that explained the composite using Grant's head from one photograph, the body of Major General Alexander McDowell McCook atop his horse from another photograph, and for the background, an 1864 photograph of Confederate prisoners captured at the Battle of Fisher's Hill. In the 20th century, digital retouching became available with Quantel computers running Paintbox in professional environments, which, alongside other contemporary packages, were effectively replaced in the market by Adobe Photoshop and other editing software for graphic imaging. Political and ethical issuesEdit Photo manipulation has been used to deceive or persuade viewers or improve storytelling and self-expression. Often even subtle and discreet changes can have a profound impact on how we interpret or judge a photograph, making it all the more important to know when or if manipulation has occurred. As early as the American Civil War, photographs were published as engravings based on more than one negative. Joseph Stalin made use of photo retouching for propaganda purposes. On May 5, 1920 his predecessor Vladimir Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended. Stalin had Trotsky retouched out of a photograph showing Trotsky in attendance. In a well known case of damnatio memoriae image manipulation, NKVD leader Nikolai Yezhov (the "Vanishing Commissar"), after his execution in 1940, was removed from an official press photo where he was pictured with Stalin. (For more information, see Censorship of images in the Soviet Union.) The pioneer among journalists distorting photographic images for news value was Bernarr Macfadden: in the mid-1920s, his "composograph" process involved reenacting real news events with costumed body doubles and then photographing the dramatized scenes—then pasting faces of the real news-personalities (gathered from unrelated photos) onto his staged images. In the 1930s, artist John Heartfield used a type of photo manipulation known as the photomontage to critique Nazi propaganda. Some ethical theories have been applied to image manipulation. During a panel on the topic of ethics in image manipulation Aude Oliva theorized that categorical shifts are necessary in order for an edited image to be viewed as a manipulation. In Image Act Theory, Carson Reynolds extended speech act theory by applying it to photo editing and image manipulations. In "How to Do Things with Pictures", William J. Mitchell details the long history of photo manipulation and discusses it critically. Use in journalismEdit A notable incident of controversial photo manipulation occurred over a photograph that was altered to fit the vertical orientation of a 1982 National Geographic magazine cover. The altered image made two Egyptian pyramids appear closer together than they actually were in the original photograph. The incident triggered a debate about the appropriateness of falsifying an image, and raised questions regarding the magazine's credibility. Shortly after the incident, Tom Kennedy, director of photography for National Geographic stated, "We no longer use that technology to manipulate elements in a photo simply to achieve a more compelling graphic effect. We regarded that afterwards as a mistake, and we wouldn’t repeat that mistake today." There are other incidents of questionable photo manipulation in journalism. One such incident arose in early 2005 after Martha Stewart was released from prison. Newsweek used a photograph of Stewart's face on the body of a much slimmer woman for their cover, suggesting that Stewart had lost weight while in prison. Speaking about the incident in an interview, Lynn Staley, assistant managing editor at Newsweek said, "The piece that we commissioned was intended to show Martha as she would be, not necessarily as she is." Staley also explained that Newsweek disclosed on page 3 that the cover image of Martha Stewart was a composite. Image manipulation software has affected the level of trust many viewers once had in the aphorism, the camera never lies. Images may be manipulated for fun, aesthetic reasons, or to improve the appearance of a subject but not all image manipulation is innocuous as evidenced by the Kerry Fonda 2004 election photo controversy. The image in question was a fraudulent composite image of John Kerry taken on June 13, 1971 and Jane Fonda taken in August, 1972 sharing the same platform at a 1971 antiwar rally; the latter of which carried a fake Associated Press credit with the intent to change the public's perspective of reality. There is a growing body of writings devoted to the ethical use of digital editing in photojournalism. In the United States, for example, the National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) established a Code of Ethics which promotes the accuracy of published images, advising that photographers "do not manipulate images [...] that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects." Infringements of the Code are taken very seriously, especially regarding digital alteration of published photographs, as evidenced by a case in which Pulitzer prize-nominated photographer Allan Detrich resigned his post following the revelation that a number of his photographs had been manipulated. In 2010, a Ukrainian photographer Stepan Rudik, winner of the 3rd prize story in Sports Features, has been disqualified due to violation of the rules of the World Press Photo contest. "After requesting RAW-files of the series from him, it became clear that an element had been removed from one of the original photographs." As of 2015, up to 20% of World Press Photo entries that made it to the penultimate round of the contest were disqualified after they were found to have been manipulated or post-processed with rules violations. Use in the Fashion IndustryEdit The photo manipulation industry has often been accused of promoting or inciting a distorted and unrealistic image of self; most specifically in younger people. The world of glamour photography is one specific industry which has been heavily involved with the use of photo manipulation (what many consider to be a concerning element as many people look up to celebrities in search of embodying the 'ideal figure'). Manipulation of a photo to alter a model’s appearance can be used to change features such as skin complexion, hair color, body shape, and other features. Many of the alterations to skin involve removing blemishes through the use of the healing tool in Photoshop. Photo editors may also alter the color of hair to remove roots or add shine. Additionally, the model’s teeth and eyes may be made to look whiter than they are in reality. Make up and piercings can even be edited into pictures to look as though the model was wearing them when the photo was taken. Through photo editing, the appearance of a model may be drastically changed to mask imperfections. In an article entitled, Confessions of a Retoucher: how the modeling industry is harming women, a professional retoucher who has worked for mega-fashion brands shares the industry’s secrets. Along with fixing imperfections like skin wrinkles and smoothing features, the size of the model is manipulated by either adding or subtracting visible weight. Reverse retouching is just as common as making models skinnier, “distorting the bodies of very thin models to make them appear more robust in a process called reverse retouching. It is almost worse than making someone slimmer because the image claims you can be at an unhealthy weight but still look healthy. In reality, you can't, you have to Photoshop it". Reverse retouching includes eliminating shadows from protruding bones, adding flesh over body parts, color correcting, and removing hair generated for warmth from extreme weight loss. Professionals are saying that if an image is not labelled "not retouched," then the public can assume that photograph has been modified. As the fashion industry continues to use photos that have been manipulated to idealize body types, there is a need for education about how unreal and unhealthy these images are and the negative implications they are promoting. Not only are photos being manipulated by professionals for the media, but also with the rise of social media everyone has easy access to edit photos they post online. Countless Apps have been created to allow smartphone user tools to modify personal images. These apps allow people to edit virtually every aspect in the photo focusing on the face and body represented. With social media users and the younger generation being exposed to an extreme amount of imagery that has been manipulated the consequences have a negative impact as body ideals are unachievable. Social media has the opportunity to be used as a platform for promoting healthy body image and unedited photos; the need for approval over social media has to be altered in the near future. Celebrities against photo manipulationEdit Photo manipulation has triggered negative responses from both viewers and celebrities. This has led to celebrities refusing to have their photos retouched in support of the American Medical Association that has decided that "[we] must stop exposing impressionable children and teenagers to advertisements portraying models with body types only attainable with the help of photo editing software" These include Keira Knightley, Brad Pitt, Andy Roddick, Jessica Simpson, Lady Gaga and Zendaya. Brad Pitt had a photographer, Chuck Close, take photos of him that emphasized all of his flaws. Chuck Close is known for his photos that emphasize all skin flaws of an individual. Pitt did so in an effort to speak out against media using photoshop and manipulating celebrities’ photos in an attempt to hide their flaws. Also, Kate Winslet spoke out against photo manipulation in media after GQ magazine altered her body, making it look unnaturally thin. In April 2010, Britney Spears agreed to release "un-airbrushed images of herself next to the digitally altered ones". The fundamental motive behind her move was to "highlight the pressure exerted on women to look perfect". Companies against photo manipulationEdit Multiple companies have begun taking the initiative to speak out against the use of photo manipulation when advertising their products. Two companies that have done so include Dove and Aerie. Dove created the Dove Self-Esteem Fund and also the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty as a way to try to help build confidence in young women. They want to emphasize what is known as real beauty, or untouched photographs, in the media now. Also, Aerie has started their campaign #AerieREAL. They have a line of undergarments now that goes by that name with the intention of them being for everyone. Also, their advertisements state that the model has not been retouched in any way. They also add in their advertisements that "The real you is sexy." Also, the American Medical Association has taken a stand against the use of photo manipulation. Dr. McAneny made a statement that altering models to such extremes creates unrealistic expectations in children and teenagers regarding body image. He also said that we should stop altering the models so they are not exposed to body types that can be attained only through the use of editing the photos. The American Medical Associations as a whole adopted a policy to work with advertisers to work on setting up guidelines for advertisements to try to limit how much photoshop is used. The goal of this policy is to limit the amount of unrealistic expectations for body image in advertisement. Governments against excessive photo manipulationEdit Governments are exerting pressure on advertisers, and are starting to ban photos that are too airbrushed and edited. In the United Kingdom the Advertising Standards Authority has banned an advertisement by Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts for being misleading, stating that the flawless skin seen in the photo was too good to be true. The US is also moving in the direction of banning excessive photo manipulation where a CoverGirl model's ad was banned because it had exaggerated effects, leading to a misleading representation of the product. Support for photo manipulation in mediaEdit Some editors of magazine companies do not view manipulating their cover models as an issue. In an interview with the editor of the French magazine Marie Claire, she stated that their readers are not idiots and that they can tell when a model has been retouched. Also, some who support photo manipulation in the media state that the altered photographs are not the issue, but that it is the expectations that viewers have that they fail to meet, such as wanting to have the same body as a celebrity on the cover of their favorite magazine. Surveys done about photo manipulationEdit Surveys have been done to see how photo manipulation affects society and to see what society thinks of it. One survey was done by a fashion store in the United Kingdom, New Look, and it showed that 90% of the individuals surveyed would prefer seeing a wider variety of body shapes in media. This would involve them wanting to see cover models that are not all thin, but some with more curves than others. The survey also talked about how readers view the use of photo manipulation. One statistic stated that 15% of the readers believed that the cover images are accurate depictions of the model in reality. Also, they found that 33% of women who were surveyed are aiming for a body that is impossible for them to attain. Dove also did a survey to see how photo manipulation affects the self-esteem of females. In doing this, they found that 80% of the women surveyed felt insecure when seeing photos of celebrities in the media. Of the women surveyed who had lower self-esteem, 71% of them do not believe that their appearance is pretty or stylish enough in comparison to cover models. Social and cultural implicationsEdit The growing popularity of image manipulation has raised concern as to whether it allows for unrealistic images to be portrayed to the public. In her article "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses the objectivity, or lack thereof, in photography, concluding that "photographs, which fiddle with the scale of the world, themselves get reduced, blown up, cropped, retouched, doctored and tricked out". A practice widely used in the magazine industry, the use of photo manipulation on an already subjective photograph, creates a constructed reality for the individual and it can become difficult to differentiate fact from fiction. With the potential to alter body image, debate continues as to whether manipulated images, particularly those in magazines, contribute to self-esteem issues in both men and women. In today's world, photo manipulation has a positive impact by developing the creativity of one's mind or maybe a negative one by removing the art and beauty of capturing something so magnificent and natural or the way it should be. According to The Huffington Post, "Photoshopping and airbrushing, many believe, are now an inherent part of the beauty industry, as are makeup, lighting and styling". In a way, these image alterations are "selling" actual people to the masses to affect responses, reactions, and emotions toward these cultural icons. Types of digital photo manipulationEdit In digital editing, photographs are usually taken with a digital camera and input directly into a computer. Transparencies, negatives or printed photographs may also be digitized using a scanner, or images may be obtained from stock photography databases. With the advent of computers, graphics tablets, and digital cameras, the term image editing encompasses everything that can be done to a photo, whether in a darkroom or on a computer. Photo manipulation is often much more explicit than subtle alterations to color balance or contrast and may involve overlaying a head onto a different body or changing a sign's text, for examples. Image editing software can be used to apply effects and warp an image until the desired result is achieved. The resulting image may have little or no resemblance to the photo (or photos in the case of compositing) from which it originated. Today, photo manipulation is widely accepted as an art form. There are several subtypes of digital image-retouching: - Technical retouching - Manipulation for photo restoration or enhancement. This can involve the adjustment of colors, contrast, white balance (i.e. gradational retouching) and sharpness, and the removal of noise, elements or visible flaws on skin or materials. - Creative retouching - Used as an art form or for commercial use to create more sleek and interesting images for advertisements. Creative retouching could be manipulation for fashion, beauty or advertising photography such as pack-shots (which could also be considered inherently technical retouching in regards to package dimensions and wrap-around factors). One of the most prominent disciplines in creative retouching is image compositing whereby the digital artist uses multiple photos to create a single image. Today, 3D computer graphics are used more and more to add extra elements or even locations and backgrounds. This kind of image composition is widely used when conventional photography would be technically too difficult or impossible to shoot on location or in studio. As a result of the popularity of Adobe Photoshop as image editing software, use of the neologism "photoshopped" grew ubiquitously. The term commonly refers to any and all digital editing of photographs regardless of what software is used. Trademark owners Adobe Systems Incorporated, while flattered over the software's popularity, objected to what they referred to as misuse of their trademarked software, and considered it an infringement on their trademark to use terms such as "photoshopped" or "photoshopping" as a noun or verb, in possessive form or as a slang term. However, Adobe's attempts to prevent "genericization" or "genericide" of the company's trademark was to no avail. Separately, the Free Software Foundation advises against using "photoshop" as a verb because Adobe Photoshop is proprietary software. The terms "photoshop", "photoshopped" and "photoshopping" are ubiquitous and widely used colloquially and academically when referencing image editing software as it relates to digital manipulation and alteration of photographs. In popular culture, the term photoshopping is sometimes associated with montages in the form of visual jokes, such as those published on Fark and in Mad magazine. Images may be propagated memetically via e-mail as humor or passed as actual news in a form of hoax. An example of the latter category is "Helicopter Shark", which was widely circulated as a so-called "National Geographic Photo of the Year" and was later revealed to be a hoax. - Error level analysis - 2006 Lebanon War photographs controversies - Whitewashing (beauty) - Cottingley Fairies - Digital art - Kerry Fonda 2004 election photo controversy - Pascal Dangin - Photoshop contest - Scientific misconduct#Photo manipulation - Source criticism - Straight photography - SurfSafe, Web browser extension intended to spot images identified as altered - Tobacco bowdlerization - Truth claim (photography) - Visual arts - Jack Dziamba (February 27, 2013). "Ansel Adams, and Photography Before Photoshop". - Mia Fineman (November 29, 2012). "Artbeat". PBS Newshour (Interview). Interviewed by Tom Legro. South Florida: WPBT2. Retrieved January 30, 2016. - "World's oldest photo sold to library". BBC News. March 21, 2002. Retrieved November 17, 2011. The image of an engraving depicting a man leading a horse was made in 1825 by Nicephore Niepce, who invented a technique known as heliogravure. - Farid, Hany. "Photo Tampering Throughout History" (PDF). Archived from the original on September 8, 2015. - Klaus Wolfer (ed.). "How to manipulate SX-70?". Polaroid SX-70 Art. Skylab Portfolio. Retrieved February 2, 2016. - Lynne Warren (2006). Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 3-Volume Set. Routledge. p. 1007. ISBN 9781135205362. - Peres, Michael (2007). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, Fourth Edition. Focal Press; 4 edition. p. Preface, 24. ISBN 0-240-80740-5. Retrieved January 30, 2016. - Reichmann, Michael (2006). "Making The Transition From Film To Digital" (PDF). Adobe Systems Incorporated. - "Civil War Glass Negatives and Related Prints – Solving a Civil War Photograph Mystery". Library of Congress. Retrieved January 30, 2016. - Fabio Sasso (July 2011). Abduzeedo Inspiration Guide for Designers. Pearson Education. p. 124. ISBN 9780132684729. - Rotman, Brian (2008). Becoming Beside Ourselves: The Alphabet, Ghosts, and Distributed Human Being. Duke University Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-0822341833. - Peter E. Palmquist, Thomas R. Kailbourn (2005). Pioneer Photographers from the Mississippi to the Continental Divide: A Biographical Dictionary, 1839-1865. Stanford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0804740579. - King, D. (1997). The Commissar Vanishes: the falsification of photographs and art in Stalin's Russia. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 0-8050-5294-1. - Ammann, Daniel (2009). The King of Oil: The Secret Lives of Marc Rich. Macmillan. p. 228. ISBN 978-1429986854. - The Newseum (September 1, 1999). ""The Commissar Vanishes" in The Vanishing Commissar". Retrieved September 30, 2012. - Carlson, Kathryn; DeLevie, Brian; Oliva, Aude (2006). "Ethics in image manipulation". ACM SIGGRAPH 2006. International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques. ACM. doi:10.1145/1179171.1179176. ISBN 1-59593-364-6. - Reynolds, C. J. (July 12–14, 2007). Image Act Theory (PDF). Seventh International Conference of Computer Ethics. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 28, 2008. - Mitchell, William John (1994). "How to Do Things with Pictures". The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in the Post-Photographic Era. MIT Press. - Fred Ritchin (November 4, 1984). "Photography's New Bag Of Tricks". The New York Times Company. Retrieved January 6, 2016. - "National Geographic — Altered Images". Bronx Documentary Center. Retrieved January 6, 2016. - Jonathan D. Glater (March 3, 2005). "Martha Stewart Gets New Body In Newsweek". New York Times. Retrieved January 6, 2015. - Katie Hefner (March 11, 2004). "The Camera Never Lies, But The Software Can". The New York Times Company. - Kitchin, Rob (2011). "6". Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life. The MIT Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-262-04248-7. - "NPPA Code of Ethics". National Press Photographers Association. - Lang, Daryl (April 15, 2007). "Blade Editor: Detrich Submitted 79 Altered Photos This Year". Photo District News. - "Announcement of disqualification". World Press Photo. Retrieved January 22, 2016. - "World Press Photo Organizer: 20% of Finalists Disqualified". TIME.com. Retrieved January 22, 2016. - "What counts as manipulation?". World Press Photo. Retrieved January 22, 2016. - "Britney Spears bravely agrees to release un-airbrushed images of herself next to the digitally-altered versions". Daily Mail. April 13, 2010. Retrieved March 23, 2012. - Metzmacher, Dirk. "Smashing Magazine." Smashing Magazine. N.p., n.d. Web. April 16, 2014. - Cage, Carolyn (October 6, 2017). "Confessions of a retoucher: how the modelling industry is harming women". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved October 30, 2018. - Cage, Carolyn (October 6, 2017). "Confessions of a retoucher: how the modelling industry is harming women". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved October 30, 2018. - "Here's how retouched photos impact our mental health". Business Insider. Retrieved October 30, 2018. - Media, Caroline Knorr, Common Sense. "How girls use social media to build up, break down self-image". CNN. Retrieved October 30, 2018. - "Photoshop contributes to unrealistic expectations of appropriate body image: AMA". NY Daily News. Retrieved April 25, 2016. - "Keep It Real Challenge: Photoshop's Impact on Body Image". info.umkc.edu. June 29, 2012. Retrieved April 19, 2015. - Roberts, Soraya. "Cate Blanchett goes without digital enhancement on the cover of Intelligent Life". The Juice. Retrieved March 22, 2012. - "The Evolution Video – Dove Self Esteem Project". selfesteem.dove.us. June 2, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2015. - "Aerie for American Eagle". Retrieved May 1, 2015. - Krupnick, Ellie (January 17, 2014). "Aerie's Unretouched Ads 'Challenge Supermodel Standards' For Young Women". The Huffington Post. Retrieved May 1, 2015. - "AMA Adopts New Policies at Annual Meeting". ama-assn.org. June 21, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2015. - Zhang, Michael. "Julia Roberts Makeup Ads Banned in UK for Too Much Photoshop". PetaPixel. Retrieved July 27, 2011. - Anthony, Sebastian. "US watchdog bans photoshopping in cosmetics ads". Retrieved December 16, 2011. - "In Defense of Photoshop: Why Retouching Isn't As Evil As Everyone Thinks". The Cut. August 29, 2010. Retrieved April 19, 2015. - "Women Need Further Educating Into Extent of Digital Manipulation of Mo". prweb.com. November 26, 2013. Retrieved April 19, 2015. - "The Self Esteem Act: Parents Push for Anti-Photoshop Law in U.S. to Protect Teens from Unrealistic Body Image Ideals". Associated Newspapers. Daily Mail Online. October 12, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2015. - Sontag, Susan (1977). On Photography. p. 4. - L. Boutwell, Allison. "Photoshop: A Positive and Negative Innovation". - Rodriguez, Edward (2008). Computer Graphic Artist. Netlibrary. p. 163. ISBN 81-89940-42-2. The term photoshopping is a neologism, meaning "editing an image", regardless of the program used. - Geelan, David (2006). Undead Theories: Constructivism, Eclecticism And Research in Education. Sense Publisher. p. 146. ISBN 90-77874-31-3. And with digital photography, there is also the possibility of photoshopping – digitally editing the representation to make it more aesthetically pleasing, or to change decisions about framing. - Laurence M. Deutsch (2001). Medical Records for Attorneys. ALI-ABA. ISBN 9780831808174. - "Use Of The Photoshop Trademark" (PDF) (Press release). Adobe Systems Incorporated. Retrieved February 2, 2016. - Katharine Trendacosta (August 26, 2015). "Here Is Adobe's Attempt to Stop People From Using the Term "Photoshop" All Willy-Nilly". Gawker Media. Retrieved February 2, 2016. - John Dwight Ingram (2004). "The Genericide of Trademarks" (PDF). Buffalo Intellectual Property Law Journal. State University of New York. 2 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 2, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2016. - Stallman, Richard (April 21, 2018). "Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing: 'Photoshop'". GNU Project. Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on May 28, 2018. Retrieved May 28, 2018. Please avoid using the term 'photoshop' as a verb, meaning any kind of photo manipulation or image editing in general. Photoshop is just the name of one particular image editing program, which should be avoided since it is proprietary. There are plenty of free programs for editing images, such as the GIMP [link in original]. - Blatner, David (August 1, 2000). "Photoshop: It's Not Just a Program Anymore". Macworld. Archived from the original on March 15, 2005. - "Photoshop Essentials". Graphic Design Portfolio-Builder: Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Illustrator Projects. Peachpit Press. August 15, 2005. ISBN 978-0-321-33658-3. - Jenn Shreve (November 19, 2001). "Photoshop: It's All the Rage". Wired Magazine. - Corrie Pikul (July 1, 2004). "The Photoshopping of the President". Salon.com Arts & Entertainment. Archived from the original on March 10, 2008. - Danielson, Stentor; Braun, David (March 8, 2005). "Shark "Photo of the Year" Is E-Mail Hoax". National Geographic News. Retrieved May 20, 2006. - ABC News (January 4, 2013). "Pelosi Defends Altered Photo of Congresswomen". Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Washington Post (January 4, 2013). "House Democratic leader Nancy Pelosi defends altered photo of women House members". Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Salon.com (January 4, 2013). "Pelosi defends altered photo of congresswomen". Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Huffington Post (January 4, 2013). "Nancy Pelosi Defends Altered Photo Of Congresswomen (PHOTO)". Archived from the original on January 7, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013. - WSET News (ABC TV-13) (January 4, 2013). "Pelosi defends altered photo of congresswomen". Retrieved January 4, 2013.[permanent dead link] |Look up photoshop in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photo manipulation.|

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The independent subordinative mode is used for certain types of secondary clauses that have something more about a previously mentioned subject, topic or place. As such, this mode is often used in narratives and story telling. This mode helps to link ideas together, and often provide details of quality, quantity, manner about a subject in a series of clauses all of which refer back to the subject mentioned beforehand. Preverbs are often used in this mood to help color the nature of these linked ideas. A preverb in the middle of a sentence with the meaning : 'at the location of _______' would naturally set the stage for additional information to be added about the location. The main clause starts the story and subordinative clause tells “the rest of the story …” In narratives, the main clause introduces a storyline and the followings sentences often introduced by the word “then” or “subsequently” (nan or yahah) use the subordinative mode to add more snippets of information to the story. VAIs conjugate in subordinative mode using a set of endings called the ‘’n endings’‘. Vowel ending stems add the endings directly using the stem ending vowel. Unstable stems do not shift vowels in the subordinative mode. Consonant ending stems insert (u) before the n endings. VAI Subordinative Mode |Vowel stem paradigm||Consonant stem paradigm||Meaning| |nu-(vowel stem)-n||nu-(consonant stem)-un||I —| |ku-(vowel stem)-n||ku-(consonant stem)-un||You —| |wu-(vowel stem)-n||wu-(consonant stem)-un||He or She —| |nu-(vowel stem)-nāānah||nu-(consonant stem)-unāānah||We — (exclusive)| |nu-(vowel stem)-nāānookw||nu-(consonant stem)-unāānookw||We all — (exclusive)| |ku-(vowel stem)-nāānah||ku-(consonant stem)-unāānah||We — (inclusive)| |ku-(vowel stem)-nāānookw||ku-(consonant stem)-unāānookw||We all — (inclusive)| |ku-(vowel stem)-nāāwah||ku-(consonant stem)-unāāwah||You (pl) —| |wu-(vowel stem)-nāāwah||wu-(consonant stem)-unāāwah||They —| |—-(vowel stem)-n||—-(consonant stem)-un||There is —| VAI Negative Subordinative Mode |Vowel stem paradigm||Consonant stem paradigm||Meaning| |ustah nu-(vowel stem)-wun||ustah nu-(consonant stem)-oowun||I — not| |ustah ku-(vowel stem)-wun||ustah ku-(consonant stem)-oowun||You — not| |ustah wu-(vowel stem)-wun||ustah wu-(consonant stem)-oowun||He or She — not| |ustah nu-(vowel stem)-wunāānah||ustah nu-(consonant stem)-oowunāānah||We — not (exclusive)| |ustah nu-(vowel stem)-wunāānookw||ustah nu-(consonant stem)-oowunāānookw||We — not (exclusive)| |ustah ku-(vowel stem)-wunāānah||ustah ku-(consonant stem)-oowunāānah||We — not (inclusive)| |ustah ku-(vowel stem)-wunāānookw||ustah ku-(consonant stem)-oowunāānookw||We — not (exclusive)| |ustah ku-(vowel stem)-wunāāwah||ustah ku-(consonant stem)-oowunāāawh||You (pl) — not| |ustah wu-(vowel stem)-wunāāwah||ustah wu-(consonant stem)-oowunāāwah||They — not| |ustah —-(vowel stem)-wun||ustah —-(consonant stem)-oowun||There is not —| VAI Subordinative Examples The verb anahkāāw ‘he works’ ndanahkāān ktanahkāān wtanahkāān ndanahkāānāānah ndanahkāānāānookw ktanahkāānāānah ktanahkāānāānookw ktanahkāānāāwah wtalahkāānāāwah X anahkāān ustah ndanahkāāwun ustah ktanahkāāwun ustah wtanahkāāwun ustah ndanahkāāwŭnāānah ustah ndanahkāāwŭnāānookw ustah ktanahkāāwŭnāānah ustah ktanahkāāwŭnāānookw ustah ktanahkāāwŭnāāwah ustah wtanahkāāwŭnāāwah X ustah anahkāāwun Unstable verbs in subordinative mode unstable (ąą) verbs use (ąą) + n endings unstable (ii) verbs use (ii) + n endings verbs in (kwii) use (kwii) + n endings unstable (ąą) verbs use (ąą) + negative n endings unstable (ii) verbs use (ii) + negative n endings verbs in (kwii) use (kwii) + negative n endings Ustah nāākmah pāāwih. He is not coming. (indicative mode) Nan ustah nāākmah pąąwun. (subordinative) Subordinative mode usage: The subordinative when used as the main verb in a non narrative phrase, forms mild commands or suggestions. Ndąąn. Let me go. āāw vai-ąą he goes These seem to have an unspoken main clause that says: “Would you please…” + subordinative verb Kamuk wtąąn. Let him go inside. Kóonθiin. Please be nice. (wunúθuw vai he is nice, good) Pąąn wiikuyah. Let him come to my house. (pāāw vai he comes) Kāāchih pąąnāāwah. Let them come now. Numíitsiin hamawusih. Let me eat slowly. (hamawusih pc kind of slowly) Ngáwiin. Let me sleep. Ngawíināānah. Let us sleep. Nsiin. Let me say. Secondary verbal clauses The subordinative is used in the second clause when a phrases contains two verb clauses. Some of these phrases use the conjunct for the second phrase. The subordinative tends to used instead when the second clause continues the narrative in some way. Wāāwihkwat noonāāyun. It is known I am good. wāāwihkwat vii be known Subordinative construct because the second verb explains something related to the first verb. Koonamanθih ndan noonamánθih. You are feeling well and I am feeling well. Non-subordinative construct. Neither verb says something that is secondary to the other. Examples of subordinative constructs: Aąyąąnkwat nŭmáwih-kawiin. It is necessary for me to go to sleep. Aąyąąnkwat koonāāyun. It is necessary for you to be nice. Ustah Aąyąąnkwatoowih nsiin. It is not necessary for me to say. Subordinative use with preverbs Certain preverbs (and related verb roots) are especially geared toward use in subordinative clauses. Preverbs related to the quality, the location, the aspect, or the quantity of an idea tend to be followed by a verb in the subordinative mode. A preverb that introduces the idea of ‘somewhere’ for example may associated with a verb about working. That verb would be in the subordinative because the idea of working somewhere would be part of the preceding dialogue and makes sense in the context of the dialogue. Locative nouns or numbers are examples of qualifiers that are connected to a verb but do not cause the verb to be in the subordinative mode. The preverb (anih-) sets up a verb so it can provide information with the meaning of ‘thereto’ or the ‘in the direction or manner of’ with reference to a place or time. The idea of ‘direction’ toward a destination extends to non literal places such as ideas and times. It can be used to express concepts such as ‘how’ or ‘thusly’ or ‘in what way’ or ‘in what timeframe’. By providing an explanation of the manner or direction of an action toward reaching a destination or a result, it may assume a variety of translations in English such as how, thus, thusly, the way that, the manner which, to the time of, to the place of, and other such ideas. It provides an explanation of a result or end point so sometimes translates as ‘because’. It forms a contrast with the preverb wchih- which means ‘therefrom’ or ‘the reason, purpose or cause from which’ with the idea of movement from a place of departure, a starting point, or a beginning. anih- pv thereto, how, so, in thus manner, in thus way, in relation to Beginning pattern (nu)-(anih) => ndunih- (ku)-(anih) => ktunih- (wu)-(anih) => wtunih- Reduplicated form is (ayúnih- ) ; with prefix: (ndayunih- ktayunih- wtayunih-) Reduplicated forms add emphasis, rhythm and cuteness, similar to words like ‘razzle dazzle’ or ‘fancy schmancy.’ (anih-) may also be used in non subordinative phrases to provide emphasis or direct statements based on ‘how’ something happens. It is important to keep in mind in interpreting phrases using (anih-) that the subordinative clause functions as an add on that tells the rest of the story. Ndanumúθih wtúnih-mawih-kawíin. I left when he went to sleep. I left, the end result (destination) of him going to sleep. anúmθuw vai he leaves Mbāāθih wtúnih-anúmθiin. I waited until he left. (pāāθuw vai wait) (I waited - to the time he was on his way - his leaving) Ndan wtúnih- wiikwáhmuk -piichiikwθiin. And - into the house to there he crawled inside. Then he crawled into the house. [piichiikwθuw vai crawl inside] Kamuk ndúnih-pah. I am coming over there. Over there is to where I come. (non-subordinative) Ootāānāāk ndúnih-pumúθih. I am walking to town. To town is to where I walk. (non-subordinative direct statement using of (anih-), single verb phrase) Nun ndayúnih-mąąchiin. This is the way I went home. (the direction or manner thereto) Nun refers to something said earlier, so this phrase is subordinate. Wchih- is a preverb that connects phrases with the idea of ‘’therefrom’ or ‘from where’ or ‘the reason, purpose or cause from which’. A reason, cause or explanation represents an ideational departure point, hence the frequent use for ideas such as ‘because’ or ‘why’. When the quantifier (the word or phrase that spells out the idea or place the preverb is pointing to) is a noun in locative form, the one verb in the phrase does not need to be in the subordinative mode. Phrases with two verbs use the subordinative. When a pronoun such as “this” or “that” or “there” serves as a pointer back to something else said earlier, the subordinative is used, even though it may be the only verb in that sentence. Wchih- also may be used as a prenoun, attached to a locative noun, indicating ‘from or at’ that location. Kiisih- ąąm - nąątamun xaskwiim wchih-wiikwahmuk? Can you get the corn from the house? (prenoun) Wiikwahmuk wchih-pumuθuw. He walked from the house. (preverb) Pāāw oochih-miitsiin. He came so he could eat. (from the idea that) Nun oochih-apíin. That's why he is there. (the purpose from which) Nun oochih-apiināāwah niimāānāāk. That's the reason why the men are there. (wu)+(wchih)=(oochih) Ngawih noochih-wunamanúθiin. I slept so I would feel good. Nun nooch-ąąptóonāān. That's the reason why I was speaking. Wchih can be used as a particle with meaning of ‘from’ and ‘reason, purpose’ Kāākway wchih? Why? What is the reason? Paníiw ąąn wchih kukuk. Go away from your mother's place. Subordinative constructs using other preverbs Other preverbs are used in subordinative mode phrases. Preverbs may be integrated into the verb as part of the ‘root’ of the verb in which case the effect is similar to using the preverb. (verbs are made of roots, medials and finals) Tanih connects phrases with the idea of ‘where, a place’ (in the same way that anih- connects phrases with the idea of ‘’how’‘). The ‘qualifier’ for tanih will be a location of some kind or ‘somewhere’ or a ‘place’. The subordinative mode is used with (tanih) when the clause it introduces is a secondary clause. tan- (as verb root) there, in a certain place, that is where… tanahkāāw he works (somewhere) Beginning pattern irregularity: (u) is inserted between the prefix and (tan-) (nu)-(-u-)(tanahkāāw) => ndutahkāān ktutahkāān wtutahkāān Ootāānāāk ndutanahkah. I work in town. (locative nouns in a direct statement, indicative mode) Noh nan ndutanahkāān. That is where I work (subordinative mode because this phrase is a secondary clause to a narrative) Mostly [tanih] is used as a particle (standalone word). When used with a verb as a preverb (tanih-) takes the form (atanih-). Noh wtútanih-pumuθiin. That's where he walked. Noh wtútanih-ąąn. That's where he went. Noh wtútanih-ąąnāāwah. That's where they went. Noh wtútanih-anahkāān. This is where he used to work Indicative mode examples, using a non verbal qualifier. Apuw tanih mbíik. He is there in the water. Pxąąn noh tanih. It is snowing here. Nuyah nŭmáwih-pumúθih ąąnāāk tanih. I went walking on the road. θáhkih- is a preverb that connects phrases with the idea of ‘the length, the extent, the amount of something’ Its qualifiers could be a number in which case there is only one clause which is a non-subordinative clause but if a verb is used then then the first verb will be in the indicative mode and the secondary verb phrase will be in the subordinative mode. θahkooxāāw vai-s go a certain way, distance Tąąn wθahkooxāān? How far is he going? Tąąn nθahkooxāān? How far am I going? Ustah nuwāāwiitāāwun tąąn nθahkooxāān. Mbúmθih nθáhkih-wiinamanθiin. I walked so far I was sick. θáhksuw vai be a certain length Thah wθáhksiin nah áxkook? How long is the snake? What is the extent- of the length of the snake Example without use of subordinative: θahkąąwθuw vai live a certain length of time (sahkąąwsuw) M sahkaawsuw vai live a certain length of time. ind 1st sg nθahkąąwθih conj 3rd sg θahkąąwθiit Tąąn nsahkąąwuθih. So long as I live. (s93) (s130) θahkąąwθuw vai live a certain length of time Niisah kiisoox θahkąąwθuw. He lived for two months. Tąąn θahkąąwθuw? How long has he lived? θahkih– as a preverb: Nāāwah kíisoox wθáhkih-pāāsiin. Four months is how long he waited. (He waited for four months.) Nun kθáhkih-pumúθiin. That is how long I walked. Use as particle Tąąn sáhkih ndaniitahah, 'nuya=ch nŭmáwih-míitθih'. After awhile I told myself, 'I'll go eat'. (non subordinative construction) Storytelling and the subordinative Story telling words like yahah, kniimah, knih, nih ‘then’ or ‘and then’ may introduce a subordinate clause. It is as if each new sentence tells more of the story, and the whole story forms a string of interconnected sub-phrases, all in the subordinative mode. yahah pc then, subsequently + subordinative kniimah pc then, after that + subordinative knih pc then nih pc that inanimate, emphatic When these particles are used with a verb to make direct statements, then the indicative mode is used. When the particle and verb refer back to something or someplace previously mentioned, subordinative is preferred. Nih ndanumúθiin. Then I went away (from there). Knih ustah ndąąwun. Then I didn't go (there). Kniimah ustah ngátāāw-ąąwun. Then I didn't want to go (there). Yahah ndaniitahah, "Nuyah ąąm ndąąn." Then I thought, 'I should go (there). This word may be used to refer back to something or someone from the main narrative and will trigger the subordinative mode if coupled with a verb. Nih wmun nah niimāānāāw. That's where that man comes from. Nih pxāānum wsiin. That's what the woman said. Verbs of motion Certain verbs of motion are used in subordinative mode, especially when the motion is defined, without vagueness. Pāāw. He comes. i.e. he comes somewhere, or somehow or sometime (vague) Nih pąąn. He came to this (place). (precise) pāāw vai-ąą come Nāākmah nahah pąąn, nguk uwah "kátāāw-míitθih?" He came, and my mother said "Do you want to eat?'' (precise) The subordinative may be useful to shift the focus or emphasis of a phrase : Nah nuyah ndapiin. That was me who was there. Plural and obviative endings on verbs in subordinative mode normally are omitted : Niichąąnak noh wtápiin wtapíinayuk. My daughters are there in their beds.

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Compare and contrast is a common form of academic writing, either as an essay type on its own, or as part of a larger essay which includes one or more paragraphs which compare or contrast. This page gives information on what a compare and contrast essay is, how to structure this type of essay, how to use compare and contrast structure words, and how to make sure you use appropriate criteria for comparison/contrast. There is also an example compare and contrast essay on the topic of communication technology, as well as some exercises to help you practice this area. What are compare & contrast essays? To compare is to examine how things are similar, while to contrast is to see how they differ. A compare and contrast essay therefore looks at the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences. This essay type is common at university, where lecturers frequently test your understanding by asking you to compare and contrast two theories, two methods, two historical periods, two characters in a novel, etc. Sometimes the whole essay will compare and contrast, though sometimes the comparison or contrast may be only part of the essay. It is also possible, especially for short exam essays, that only the similarities or the differences, not both, will be discussed. See the examples below. There are two main ways to structure a compare and contrast essay, namely using a block or a point-by-point structure. For the block structure, all of the information about one of the objects being compared/contrasted is given first, and all of the information about the other object is listed afterwards. This type of structure is similar to the block structure used for cause and effect and problem-solution essays. For the point-by-point structure, each similarity (or difference) for one object is followed immediately by the similarity (or difference) for the other. Both types of structure have their merits. The former is easier to write, while the latter is generally clearer as it ensures that the similarities/differences are more explicit. The two types of structure, block and point-by-point, are shown in the diagram below. Object 1 - Point 1 Object 1 - Point 2 Object 1 - Point 3 Object 2 - Point 1 Object 2 - Point 2 Object 2 - Point 3 Compare and Contrast Structure Words Compare and contrast structure words are transition signals which show the similarities or differences. Below are some common examples. Criteria for comparison/contrast When making comparisons or contrasts, it is important to be clear what criteria you are using. Study the following example, which contrasts two people. Here the criteria are unclear. Although this sentence has a contrast transition, the criteria for contrasting are not the same. The criteria used for Aaron are height (tall) and strength (strong). We would expect similar criteria to be used for Bruce (maybe he is short and weak), but instead we have new criteria, namely appearance (handsome) and intelligence (intelligent). This is a common mistake for students when writing this type of paragraph or essay. Compare the following, which has much clearer criteria (contrast structure words shown in bold). Below is a compare and contrast essay. This essay uses the point-by-point structure. Click on the different areas (in the shaded boxes to the right) to highlight the different structural aspects in this essay, i.e. similarities, differences, and structure words. This will highlight not simply the paragraphs, but also the thesis statement and summary, as these repeat the comparisons and contrasts contained in the main body. Title: There have been many advances in technology over the past fifty years. These have revolutionised the way we communicate with people who are far away. Compare and contrast methods of communication used today with those which were used in the past. Before the advent of computers and modern technology, people communicating over long distances used traditional means such as letters and the telephone. Nowadays we have a vast array of communication tools which can complete this task, ranging from email to instant messaging and video calls. While the present and previous means of communication are similar in their general form, they differ in regard to their speed and the range of tools available. One similarity between current and previous methods of communication relates to the form of communication. In the past, both written forms such as letters were frequently used, in addition to oral forms such as telephone calls. Similarly, people nowadays use both of these forms. Just as in the past, written forms of communication are prevalent, for example via email and text messaging. In addition, oral forms are still used, including the telephone, mobile phone, and voice messages via instant messaging services. However, there are clearly many differences in the way we communicate over long distances, the most notable of which is speed. This is most evident in relation to written forms of communication. In the past, letters would take days to arrive at their destination. In contrast, an email arrives almost instantaneously and can be read seconds after it was sent. In the past, if it was necessary to send a short message, for example at work, a memo could be passed around the office, which would take some time to circulate. This is different from the current situation, in which a text message can be sent immediately. Another significant difference is the range of communication methods. Fifty years ago, the tools available for communicating over long distances were primarily the telephone and the letter. By comparison, there are a vast array of communication methods available today. These include not only the telephone, letter, email and text messages already mentioned, but also video conferences via software such as Skype or mobile phone apps such as Wechat, and social media such as Facebook and Twitter. In conclusion, methods of communication have greatly advanced over the past fifty years. While there are some similarities, such as the forms of communication, there are significant differences, chiefly in relation to the speed of communication and the range of communication tools available. There is no doubt that technology will continue to progress in future, and the advanced tools which we use today may one day also become outdated. GET A FREE SAMPLE Like the website? Try the book. Enter your email to receive a free sample from the recently published title, EAP Foundation: Academic Presentations. Below is a checklist for compare and contrast essays. Use it to check your own writing, or get a peer (another student) to help you. You need to login to view the exercises. If you do not already have an account, you can register for free. Let's say your high school or college teacher haven't assigned the topic for your assignment. It means you can choose compare and contrast essay topics by conducting in-depth research, asking for advice, or hiring a professional academic writer to help. It is simpler than deciding on the most relevant argumentative or scientific subject. However, every high grade expects a quality content written on the interesting essay topic; it is critical to learn how to write a compare and contrast essay and choose appropriate ideas to discuss. Do not be trivial! The article you see now will help you to avoid confusing and banal essay topics. In addition to the list of the top-rated themes, we will share different links to websites with great examples and online writing help. BUY CHEAP ACADEMIC HELP Students will find some good points and ideas necessary for the development of a good school or college comparative essay. Online academic writing help is always available to lend a helping hand when it seems like the assignment is impossible to complete. How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay: Major Principles The answer to the disturbing question like how to write a compare and contrast essay begins with the structure of this type of academic writing. It has the same structure as other types of academic papers with the few major differences. Introduction with the powerful hook and thesis statement remains the same. In your conclusion, reword the thesis and summarize the arguments used to defend the main idea of the paper. The body paragraphs are different. It depends on whether the author focuses more on differences, similarities, or tries to balance with both. Take a look at a couple of images below to realize how to write a paper of this type based on our examples. How to Choose Compare and Contrast Essay Topics Wisely? The most effective, time-tested way to select essay topics in case your teacher did not give some is through researching different types of sources: - Newspapers. A student can find an endless source of great ideas. They are related to the ongoing world’s events, latest innovations, expert opinions, political fluctuations, and other fields. Pay attention to both columns, interviews, and analysis composed by an authoritative person from politics, economy, and other aspects of human life; - News channels. Turn on your favorite channel not to watch favorite TV show this time. Learn about the contemporary problems and try to think about an interesting topic idea spending something around half an hour of your precious time. - Magazines/Journals. If you are not a great fan of politics, religion, or economics, try to find some good ideas in the recent magazines/journals. Check the rubrics dedicated to entertainment, technology, teen life, and sports. - Internet. It should be the greatest source of all ideas collected in the previous types of primary sources altogether. - Do not forget to attend various seminars, conferences, meetings to learn more about the things going on in the world and recently discussed by the society. “Before starting the topic, organize the thoughts in a logical manner. Develop some kind of a chart/graph/table to have a visual picture of how the final draft should look like. In this type of academic writing, it is important to focus on the comparable qualities & characteristics of the subjects/events/people to impress the target audience. It means the author should pick original criteria to draw parallels or stressing the gap between the objects.” Professor Beverly Thompson, online English tutor and golden writer at NerdyMates Students will not understand how to write a compare and contrast essay without memorizing and using properly so-called signal words. Those are transition words. In other types of essays, it is important to join different sections like body paragraphs and conclusion in a whole piece with the help of special words/phrases. Find the list of signal words below. Compare and Contrast Essay Topics on Famous People It is time to answer the main question of our reader, “What are some good compare and contrast essay topics?” World-known people like different celebrities and political figures have always attracted the attention of ordinary citizens. It's a great chance for every writer to catch an eye of the reader by describing and comparing the life of various American authorities. You do not necessarily need to analyze the life of people from the same region or field of activity. Many students find it exciting to take a person from real life and a book or movie character. It leaves space for imagination. Have enough ideas to write your five-paragraph essay: - Madonna and Celine Dion. While the first woman is a self-made American singer, the same can be said about her Canadian fellow singer. By comparing these two, you draw parallels between the American and Canadian pop stage. - Adolph Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Even though these historical figures widely known to the public were from the opposing camps, there are more similarities between them than you can think. - Peter Griffin vs. Homer Simpson. The two American television shows, "The Simpsons" and "Family Guy" are alike by showing the disadvantages of the nation and laughing at the public stereotypes. However, one of the shows is still more radical. - Bugs Bunny and Charlie Chaplin. As the time passes by, these figures remain the symbol of their time and entire American culture. It would be interesting to write about the similarities and differences between their comic images. - Online ads VS traditional ways to promote goods/services. How these methods affect lives of different popular people - Hobbes or Locke. English philosophers’ roles regarding the contribution of each to the study of political science - Batman VS Superman. The reasons why Batman won in the famous movie - Start Wars modern episodes or episodes of 1970’s. Comparison of graphic, actors, plot, visual effects, music, sound effects, habits, etc - Plato or Socrates. Decide which one contributed more to the philosophical research - Putin & Obama. Differences in the political regime and economics offered by each president Religion, Anthropology, and AP World History Compare & Contrast Essay Topics Religion is often a taboo topic to discuss. Public schools and colleges have subjects dedicated to religion. Students are encouraged to write about it. Religion, history, and anthropology are closely related. You may choose AP world history compare and contrast essay that covers all three dimensions to enrich your essay. Here we go with several good examples recommended by high school and college students: - Discuss World War I and World War II. It is a traditional debate. Many people find the two wars similar, but historians point to a great number of differences such as main factors, actual causes, and consequences. Explain why World War II was much worse and terrifying. - President Obama and President Kennedy. Mass media tends to draw parallels between both political figures very often. It is time to find out why. - Ancient Greece Ancient Rome. All ideas related to the offered topic are good enough because these civilizations have a great impact on the modern world. Cover Greek and Roman mythology, describe their traditional public events, a way of living, differences and similarities in poetry, and influence on the modern American society. - 18th Century Living VS Modern Life. Are American people freer now and how is a modern society divided into classes? What are the advantages of e-mail in contrast to the traditional mailing they used back in the 18th century? - Frenemies. The way famous political competitors, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson acted often reminded of both friendship and rivalry – which one is correct? - American Revolution VS French Revolution. Both held back in the VIII century, and both are having similarities & differences. - The Salem Witch Trials & McCarthy Era in the US history. How they treated people accused of witchcraft in 2 different historical events. - The idyllic period in the US history is the middle of XX century while the 1960s is known as a tumultuous decade. - Ancient Greece VS Ancient Rome. Which civilization had a greater impact on the development of contemporary culture & art? - 3 different branches of Christianity. Common issues, major differences, similarities, examples of traditions, etc. MAKE YOUR STEP TO SUCCESS Political Essay Compare and Contrast Themes These topics cover political science and cultural life of different countries. It is time to evaluate political regimes of different countries. Analyze the countries with the echo of communism and those where capitalism dominates; countries where women and men have equal rights versus countries where women are limited to their rights and freedoms. - Classical Theory of Karl Marx against Modern Capitalistic Movement. Financial and political theories change with the flow of time. High school and college students have to understand the way economics work to get the ideas of different political regimes. - The war in Syria/Military Situation in Ukraine. The countries could make a union based on the fact they are both regularly attacked by two other hostile countries. However, Ukraine is not officially involved in the war, they say. Research what media shares and analyze the given cases. - The government of China VS The government of Korea. Both of these nations suffer from the consequences of communism. The second country, specifically North Korea, supports this political regime more than China. What is different and what's in common? - Welfare Programs in the United States vs. Welfare Programs in the United Kingdom. Although high school and college students believe that these countries look alike in many senses, any related book or movie will show how wrong they are. - Al Qaeda VS the Islamic State. Which of the terroristic organizations have a greater threat to the world’s peace? - Legal systems in the United States & Canada: Are they too different in terms of laws, regulations, preventive measures, and other? - Marriage VS civil union. Which of these types of a partnership between two people in love is less threatening to the image of political figure? - Debit cards and credit cards: The role of government in establishing various payment methods and responsibility it has in case of any rule break - Private & public companies. The obligations American government have concerning each of these types of organizations - Political regime today and back in the 1950s: Things that changed for better and situations that got worse Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for 6th Grade Students who study in the sixth grade have to receive the simplest homework assignments and compare and contrast essay topics for 6th grade as they lack the experience to analyze something more complex than these: - Winter or summer: More gorgeous season of year - Christmas in another country/Christmas at home - Juice VS water: While water may be healthier, juices are tastier and… - Dogs and wolves: Similarities & differences - Weeds and flowers: Why one cannot exist without another - Eastern or Western USA: Living in both parts in different period of time - Comic books or novels: The once which is more interesting to read - Tennis VS ping pong: Your favorite game out of two - Watching TV instead of reading a book: Difference/similarity in impressions - Male friends or female friends: Based on such factors as loyalty, sincerity, bravery, and more Compare and Contrast Topics for Middle School Have a look at the list of compare and contrast topics for middle school! - King Author VS Zeus. One of them is a way cooler than another one - Comparison of the role models in 1950s with modern role models - How does it feel to watch favorite movies in the cinema and watching films at home? - The correlation between famous dictators & school bullies - The consequences of tsunami might be worse than the consequences of hurricane - Prom Night, Halloween Night, & Christmas Night: Which holiday is more fun? - Car driving or bicycle driving: Which experience is more difficult? - 3-star hotels or 5-star hotels: Reasons to choose each of them - Things the early spacemen had in common with Christopher Columbus - People who influence teenagers most of all: Parents and celebrities Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for High School Students If you don't need specific ideas for academic papers, look at the list of general essay topics shared by successful college students. Now, we continue with compare and contrast essay topics for high school. - Fiction or Non-Fiction Literature: Write about which type of literary works is more helpful for college students and why. - Assess High School Examinations & College Tests. What is more important? Which styles are recommended to be used in academic writing when studying in different educational institutions? When is it easier to cheat? - Traditional Learning or Online Learning: Do you find it helpful to be able to take college courses online? Is a traditional way of teaching still better and more effective? - Atlanta Falcons or New England Patriots: Which of the professional sports clubs is more authoritative and loved by high school students? - Determine the effectiveness of online advertising and TV ads. What type of advertising channel is more influential on children? - Printed books/e-Books: Which type of material might be more useful for the modern high school students? - Wooden houses or story buildings. The significance of each type of construction - Major differences and similarities between Portugal & Spain: Where is it better to have a vacation nowadays? - American vision of beauty compared to Japanese vision of beauty: Discuss the standards based on the most recent beauty queens plus handsome men - How rock music has changed: Rock music of early XX century and nowadays Compare and Contrast Essay Topics for College Students Finally, there are many ways you can analyze the life with family and on a college campus; important things to consider while studying at school and in university; passing SAT and taking TOEFL; etc. Enjoy the list of 10 compare and contrast essay topics for college students! - Comparing Life with Parents to Living on Campus: In your essay, write the details about two ways of student's life. Share ideas on why you prefer one of the options (pros and cons of both). - Where is academic rigor the greatest when it comes to comparing high school education and college learning. - While Fall is the season of college arrivals, Spring is the time for student departures. Features of different educational seasons. - Having a look at the meals students get at high school/college and the food they obtain at home from their family members. Which is tastier? - The remote learning courses slowly replace conventional classes in college. Pros & cons of going technological. - Living at home with parents compared to living on the college campus on the example of laundry service, cooking, and other everyday household activities. - Manufacturing jobs against service sector jobs. A right choice of the college student - Part-time jobs VS seasonal jobs: Pros & cons of each option - Private colleges or public education: Reasons to make all educational institutions public in the United States - Advanced placement classes: Better or worse than honors classes? Easy Compare and Contrast Essay Topics If you do not want to go deep into the details breaking the head against the wall, choose one of the easy compare and contrast essay topics! - Twilight & Buffy, the Vampire Slayer. Analyze both shows’ characters - It by Stephen King: Review book with the film - Julius Caesar & Macbeth: Do these people have anything in common? - Realism & modernism. Simple similarities & differences - Poetry VS prose: List literary elements that make these genres different - Life in a big city compared to village life: Discuss where people are healthier, kinder, more honest, etc. - Donald Trump against Hilary Clinton: The one who should have won the latest presidential elections in the United States - Real Madrid & Barcelona: Advantages + disadvantages of both Spanish football clubs - iPhone VS Android mobile devices: Benefits Android users obtain against benefits iPhone users get - Tablets or textbooks in school: Advantages each of these devices have when it comes to the process of learning Things to Compare and Contrast The last category contains the names of subjects only. Those are some great things to compare and contrast! - Jails & Asylums - Renaissance and Baroque Art - Star Wars & Star Trek - American Dad VS Family Guy - Apple or Pineapple - Moon and Sun - Greek VS Scandinavian Mythology - Communism against Capitalism - New England Colonies or Southern Colonies (it is possible to add Middle Colonies) - Fiction VS Non-Fiction Compare and Contrast Essay Example from Writing Guru Students write better papers when they have some good examples in front of them. Looking for the compare and contrast essay example? Find many free samples on the professional academic writing websites or view these powerful papers shared by the top college writers with us. Is it possible to minimize a headache? Once you have read our helpful online article, we would like to offer something you could not even imagine. 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Baby talk is a type of speech associated with an older person speaking to a child. It is also called caretaker speech, infant-directed speech (IDS), child-directed speech (CDS), child-directed language (CDL), or motherese. CDS is characterized by a "sing song" pattern of intonation that differentiates it from the more monotone style used with other adults e.g., CDS has higher and wider pitch, slower speech rate and shorter utterances. It can display vowel hyperarticulation (an increase in distance in the formant space of the peripheral vowels e.g., [i], [u], and [a]) and words tend to be shortened and simplified. There is evidence that the exaggerated pitch modifications are similar to the affectionate speech style employed when people speak to their pets (pet-directed speech). However, the hyperarticulation of vowels appears to be related to the propensity for the infant to learn language, as it is not exaggerated in speech to infants with hearing loss or to pets. - 1 Terminology - 2 Characteristics - 3 Purpose and implications - 4 Universality and differences by region - 5 Vocabulary and structure - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 Further reading - 9 External links - The first documented use of the word baby-talk, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, was in 1836. - Motherese and parentese are more precise terms than baby talk, and perhaps more amenable to computer searches, but are not the terms of choice among child development professionals. Critics of gender stereotyping also prefer it to the term motherese, because all caregivers, not only female parents, use distinct speech patterns and vocabulary when talking to young children. Motherese can also refer to English spoken in a higher, gentler manner, which is otherwise correct English, as opposed to the non-standard, shortened word forms. - Child-directed speech (CDS) is the term preferred by researchers, psychologists and child development professionals. - Infant-directed speech (IDS) is also used. The terms are interchangeable. - Caregiver language is sometimes used. CDS is a clear and simplified strategy for communicating to younger children, used by adults and by older children. The vocabulary is limited, speech is slowed with a greater number of pauses, and the sentences are short and grammatically simplified, often repeated. Although CDS features marked auditory characteristics, other factors aid in development of language. Three types of modifications occur to adult-directed speech in the production of CDS — - linguistic modifications, particularly prosody, including the simplification of speech units as well as emphasis on various phonemes. - modifications to attention-gaining strategies, providing visual cues through body language (kinesics), particularly movements of the face, to more effectively maintain the attention of their infants. - modifications to the interactions between parents and infants. Parents use CDS not only to promote language development, but to foster a positive relationship with their infants. The younger the child, the more exaggerated the adult's CDS is. The attention of infants is held more readily by CDS over normal speech, as with adults. The more expressive CDS is, the more likely infants are to respond to this method of communication by adults. A key visual aspect of CDS is the movement of the lips. One characteristic is the wider opening of the mouth present in those using CDS versus adult-directed speech, particularly in vowels. Research suggests that with the larger opening of the lips during CDS, infants are better able to grasp the message being conveyed due to the heightened visual cues. Through this interaction, infants are able to determine who positive and encouraging caregivers will be in their development. When infants use CDS as a determinant of acceptable caregivers, their cognitive development seems to thrive because they are being encouraged by adults who are invested in the development of the given infants. Because the process is interactive, caregivers are able to make significant progress through the use of CDS. Purpose and implications Use with infants Studies have shown that from birth, infants prefer to listen to CDS, which is more effective than regular speech in getting and holding an infant's attention. Some researchers believe that CDS is an important part of the emotional bonding process between the parents and their child, and helps the infants learn the language. Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Wisconsin found that using basic “baby talk” may support babies in picking up words faster. Infants pay more attention when parents use CDS, which has a slower and more repetitive tone than used in regular conversation. CDS has been observed in languages other than English. Purposes and benefits of CDS include support the ability of infants to bond with their caregivers. In addition, infants begin the process of speech and language acquisition and development through CDS. CDS may also contribute to the modulation of infant attention, assist infants in determining relevant syntactic qualities including phonetic boundaries, and convey positive emotion to infants. Children learn fastest who receive the most acknowledgement and encouragement of what they say, who are given time and attention to speak and share, and who are questioned. Six-month-olds can discriminate between medial position syllables in words with multiple syllables when CDS is used. Infants are able to apply this to larger words and sentences as they learn to process language. CDS aids infants in bonding to caregivers. Although infants have a range of social cues available to them regarding who will provide adequate care, CDS serves as an additional indicator as to which caregivers will provide developmental support. When adults engage in CDS with infants, they are providing positive emotion and attention, signaling to infants that they are valued. CDS can also serve as a priming tool for infants to notice the faces of their caregivers. Infants are more sensitive to the pitch and emphasized qualities of this method. Therefore, when caregivers use CDS, they expand the possibility for their infants to observe and process facial expressions. This effect could in part be due to infants associating CDS with positive facial expressions such as smiling, being more likely to respond to CDS if they expect to receive a positive response from their caregiver. CDS may promote processing of word forms, allowing infants to remember words when asked to recall them in the future. As words are repeated through CDS, infants begin to create mental representations of each word. As a result, infants who experience CDS are able to recall words more effectively than infants who do not. Children of depressed mothers, who do not regularly use CDS, display delayed language development. Even when depressed mothers provide their infants with positive faces, infants do not respond to their attempts at CDS, and in turn do not benefit from this important route for language acquisition. Infants are unable to create the link between speech and visual face movements in situations such as these. When fathers who are not depressed are able to provide the stimulation of CDS, infants respond well and are able to compensate from the deficit left by their mothers. This too can inhibit language and speech development. Therefore, this deficit can be especially harmful to infants with depressed mothers and little contact with male caregivers. Socioeconomic status has been found to influence the development of vocabulary and language skills. Lower-status groups tend to be behind the development of children in higher-status families. This finding is thought to be due to the amount of time parents spend with the child and the ways they interact; mothers from higher-status groups are found to say more to their children, use more variety, and speak in longer sentences. Aid to cognitive development Shore and others believe that CDS contributes to mental development as it helps teach the child the basic function and structure of language. Studies have found that responding to an infant's babble with meaningless babble aids the infant's development; while the babble has no logical meaning, the verbal interaction demonstrates to the child the bidirectional nature of speech, and the importance of verbal feedback. Some experts advise that parents should not talk to young children solely in baby talk, but should integrate some normal adult speech as well. The high-pitched sound of CDS gives it special acoustic qualities which may appeal to the infant. CDS may aid a child in the acquisition and/or comprehension of language-particular rules which are otherwise unpredictable; an example is the reduction or avoidance of pronoun reversal errors. It has been also suggested that motherese is crucial for children to acquire the ability to ask questions. Use with non-infants The use of baby talk is not limited to interactions between adults and infants, as it may be used among adults, or by people to animals. In these instances, the outward style of the language may be that of baby talk, but is not considered actual "parentese", as it serves a different linguistic function (see pragmatics). Patronizing / derogatory baby talk Baby talk and imitations of it may be used by one non-infant to another as a form of verbal abuse, in which the talk is intended to infantilize the victim. This can occur during bullying, when the aggressor uses baby talk to assert that the victim is weak, cowardly, overemotional, or otherwise inferior. Flirtatious baby talk Baby talk may be used as a form of flirtation between sexual or romantic partners. In this instance, the baby talk may be an expression of tender intimacy, and may perhaps form part of affectionate sexual roleplaying in which one partner speaks and behaves childishly, while the other acts motherly or fatherly, responding in "parentese". One or both partners might perform the child role. Terms of endearment, such as poppet (or, indicatively, baby), may be used for the same purpose in communication between the partners. Baby talk with pets Many people speak to their dogs as if they were another human being. These actions are not providing communication with the dog, but social interactions for the speaker, usually in order to solve some problem.:304–306 The speaking style people use when talking to dogs is very similar to CDL, and has been referred to as Doggerel. People tend to use sentences of around 11 words when talking to another adult; this is reduced to four words when speaking to a dog. People employ more imperatives or commands to a dog, but ask twice as many questions of the dog as of other humans, even though they don't expect the dog to answer. Recordings show that 90% of pet-talk is spoken mostly in the present tense because people talk to dogs about what is happening now rather than the past or the future, which is twice as much as with humans. Also, people are 20 times more likely to repeat or rephrase themselves to dogs than they do to humans. A significant difference is that CDL contains many more sentences about specific bits of information, such as "This cup is red," because they are intended to teach children about language and the environment. Pet-speech contains perhaps half the sentences of this form, as rather than instructive, its primary purpose is as a social function for humans; whether the dog learns anything does not seem to be a concern.:308–310 As well as the raised vocal pitch, pet-speech strongly emphasizes intonations and emotional phrasing. There are diminutives such as "walkie" for walk and "bathie" for bath. Words and phrases may be modified to make them less formal, using words such as "wanna" and "gonna". Although there is no evidence that speaking to a dog in this manner helps the dog understand what is being said, there is evidence suggesting that talking to dogs in a normal, purposeful, and meaningful manner improves their receptive language abilities.[further explanation needed]:310 When addressing a listener not skilled in the speaker's language, people may simplify their spoken language in an attempt to improve understanding. Some use sign language to communicate with others, especially if they have a hearing problem, although this is not always understood by people, as some signs in sign language may be difficult to interpret by some people, especially if gestures have different meanings from place to place, so they may use a baby talk-like language to communicate, skipping out small words and possibly using demonstratives instead of pronouns, for example Do not cross the road becoming No cross road. While this kind of simplifications could be helpful for, say, foreign tourists, this type of communication is perceived as rude or offensive in some societies, because it may cause the foreigner to feel infantilized. It can also be considered insulting if the foreigner is skilled in the speaker's language. While not considered to be actual parentese,[original research?] it has aspects which make the two language styles similar. Baby-talk words taken into adult speech Sometimes baby-talk words are taken into adult speech. Examples are: - "nanny" = "children's nurse" to distinguish from "hospital nurse". - "nappy" for "diaper", in UK usage. - In Ancient Greek, "πάππος" ("grandfather") instead of expected *"ἄος" from Indo-European *h₂éwh₂os Universality and differences by region Researchers Bryant and Barrett (2007) have suggested (as have others before them, e.g., Fernald, 1992) that CDL exists universally across all cultures and is a species-specific adaptation. Other researchers contend that it is not universal among the world's cultures, and argue that its role in helping children learn grammar has been overestimated, pointing out that in some societies (such as certain Samoan tribes), adults do not speak to their children at all until the children reach a certain age. Furthermore, even where baby-talk is used, it has many complicated grammatical constructions, and mispronounced or non-standard words. Other evidence suggests that baby talk is not a universal phenomenon: for example Schieffelin & Ochs (1983) describe the Kaluli tribe of Papua New Guinea who do not typically employ CDS. Language acquisition in Kaluli children was not found to be significantly impaired. The extent to which caregivers rely on and use CDS differs based on cultural differences. Mothers in regions that display predominately introverted cultures are less likely to display a great deal of CDS, although it is still used. Further, the personality of each child experiencing CDS from a caregiver deeply impacts the extent to which a caregiver will use this method of communication. CDS has been seen in other languages such as Japanese, Italian, Mandarin, British English, American English, French, and German This is the basis[improper synthesis?]}} for claims that CDS is a necessary aspect of social development for children. Although found in many cultures, CDS is far from universal in terms of style and amount it is used. A factor found to influence the way adults communicate with children is the way the culture views children. For example, if they view children as helpless and unable to understand, adults tend to interact with children less than if they believe that children are capable of learning and understanding. Often, cultures lacking a form of CDS make up for it in other ways, such as involving the children more in everyday activities, though the reverse might also be a valid assessment. Vocabulary and structure With respect to English-speaking parents, it is well-established that Anglo-Saxon or Germanic words tend to predominate in informal speech registers, whereas Latinate vocabulary is usually reserved for more formal uses such as legal and scientific texts. Child-directed speech, an informal speech register, also tends to use Anglo-Saxon vocabulary. The speech of mothers to young children has a higher percentage of native Anglo-Saxon verb tokens than speech addressed to adults. In particular, in parents’ CDS the clausal core is built in the most part by Anglo-Saxon verbs, namely, almost all tokens of the grammatical relations subject-verb, verb-direct object and verb-indirect object that young children are presented with, are constructed with native verbs. The Anglo-Saxon verb vocabulary consists of short verbs, but its grammar is relatively complex. Syntactic patterns specific to this sub-vocabulary in present-day English include periphrastic constructions for tense, aspect, questioning and negation, and phrasal lexemes functioning as complex predicates, all of which occur also in CDS. As noted above, baby talk often involves shortening and simplifying words, with the possible addition of slurred words and nonverbal utterances, and can invoke a vocabulary of its own. Some utterances are invented by parents within a particular family unit, or are passed down from parent to parent over generations, while others are quite widely known and used within most families, such as wawa for water, num-num for a meal, ba-ba for bottle, or beddy-bye for bedtime, and are considered standard or traditional words, possibly differing in meaning from place to place. Baby talk, language regardless, usually consists of a muddle of words, including names for family members, names for animals, eating and meals, bodily functions and genitals, sleeping, pain, possibly including important objects such as diaper, blanket, pacifier, bottle, etc., and may be sprinkled with nonverbal utterances, such as goo goo ga ga. The vocabulary of made-up words, such as those listed below, may be quite long with terms for a large number of things, rarely or possibly never using proper language, other times quite short, dominated by real words, all nouns. Most words invented by parents have a logical meaning, although the nonverbal sounds are usually completely meaningless and just fit the speech together. A fair number of baby talk and nursery words refer to bodily functions or the genitals, partly because the words are relatively easy to pronounce.[original research?] Also, if a child is very young, bodily functions such as urination and defecation may be quite exciting for them. Scientific terms may be harder for them to understand and pronounce, so baby talk may be more convenient for a young child. Moreover, such words reduce adults' discomfort with the subject matter, and make it possible for children to discuss such things without breaking adult taboos. However, some, such as pee-pee and poo-poo have been very widely used in reference to bodily functions to the point that they are considered to be standard words, so ability to mention such subjects without adult negativity has recently faded. Sometimes baby talk words escape from the nursery and get into adult vocabulary, for example "nanny" for "children's nurse" or "nursery governess". Moreover, many words can be derived into baby talk following certain rules of transformation, in English adding a terminal /i/ sound at the end, usually written and spelled as ‹ie›, ‹y›, or ‹ey›, is a common way to form a diminutive which is often used as part of baby talk. Many languages have their own unique form of diminutive suffix (see list of diminutives by language for international examples). Still other transformations, but not in all languages, include elongated vowels, such as kitty and kiiiitty, (emphasized /i/) meaning the same thing. While this is understood by English speaking toddlers, it is not applicable with Dutch toddlers as they learn that elongated vowels reference different words. - Babbling – sounds that babies make before they learn to talk - Crib talk – toddlers talking to themselves - Developmental psychology - Elderspeak – the style of speech used by younger people when talking to older people - Mama and papa – the early sounds or words commonly used by babies - Girneys – sounds similar to baby talk that are used by some large monkeys - Hypocorism - diminutive shortening of titles such as pet names and reductions of longer words to a single syllables by adding -y or -ie to the end - Matychuk, Paul (24 April 2004). "The role of child-directed speech in language acquisition: a case study" (PDF). Language Sciences (27). - Berey, Adam (March 18, 2005). "Gender Differences in Child-Directed Speech". Lawrence University. - Herrera, E.; Reissland, N.; Shepherd, J. (2004). "Maternal touch and maternal child-directed speech : effects of depressed mood in the postnatal period". Journal of Affective Disorders. 81 (1): 29–39. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2003.07.001. PMID 15183597. - Ghada Khattab. "Does child-directed speech really facilitate the emergence of phonological structure? The case of gemination in Arabic CDS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2006. - Pinker on Motherese - http://courses.education.illinois.edu/edpsy313/notes/pinker_motherese.html - Fernald, Anne (1985). "Four-Month-Old Infants Prefer to Listen to Motherese". Infant Behavior and Development. 8 (2): 181–195. doi:10.1016/s0163-6383(85)80005-9. - Lam, C; Kitamura, C (2012). "Mommy, speak clearly: induced hearing loss shapes vowel hyperarticulation". Developmental Science. 15 (2): 212–221. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01118.x. PMID 22356177. - Burnham, D; Kitamura, C; Vollmer-Conna, U (2002). "What's New, Pussycat? On Talking to Babies and Animals". Science. 296 (5572): 1435. doi:10.1126/science.1069587. PMID 12029126. - Lam, C; Kitamura, C (2010). "Maternal interactions with a hearing and hearing impaired twin: similarities in pitch exaggeration but differences in vowel hyperarticulation". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 53 (3): 543–55. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0126). PMID 20220028. - Newport, E.L.; Gleitman, L. (1977). C.E. Snow & C.A. Ferguson (ed.). Talking to children: Language input and acquisition. pp. 109–150. - Lawrence Balter; Robert B. McCall (2000). Parenthood in America: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-57607-213-4. developmental psychologists refer to this kind of language to young children as child-directed speech - Harley, Trevor (2010). Talking the Talk: Language, Psychology and Science. Psychology Press. pp. 60–62. ISBN 978-1-84169-339-2. - Mcleod, Peter (July 1993). "What studies of communication with infants ask us about psychology: Baby-talk and other speech registers". Canadian Psychology. 34 (3): 282–292. doi:10.1037/h0078828. - Fernald, A. (1991). "Prosody and focus in speech to infants and adults". Annals of Child Development. 8: 43–80. - Singh, Leher; Best, Catherine; Morgan, James (2003). "Infants' Listening Preferences: Baby Talk or Happy Talk?". Infancy. 3 (3): 365–395. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.511.8150. doi:10.1207/s15327078in0303_5. - Green, Jordan; Nip,Ignatius; Wilson,Erin; Mefferd,Antje; Yunusova,Yana (December 2010). "Lip movement exaggerations during infant-directed speech". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 53 (6): 1529–1542. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0005). - Schachner, Adena; Hannon, Erin (January 2011). "Infant-directed speech drives social preferences in 5-month-old infants". Developmental Psychology. 47 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1037/a0020740. PMID 20873920. - Kathy L. Reschke, Ph.D. (2002), Ohio State University, "Baby Talk" Archived November 22, 2006, at the Library of Congress Web Archives Archived copy at the Library of Congress (November 22, 2006). - Shore, Rima. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development. New York: Families and Work Institute. - Baby Talk May Help Infants Learn Faster - Singh, Leher; Nestor, Sarah; Parikh, Chandni; Yull, Ashley (2009). "Influences of infant-directed speech on early word recognition". Psychology Press. 14 (6): 654–666. doi:10.1080/15250000903263973. - Waterson, N (1978). The development of communication. Chichester, UK: Wiley. pp. 199–216. - Kaplan, Peter; Jung, Paula; Ryther, Jennifer; Zarlengo-Strouse, Patricia (September 1996). "Infant-directed versus adult-directed speech as signals for face". Developmental Psychology. 32 (5): 880–891. doi:10.1037/0012-1622.214.171.1240. - Singh, Leher; Nestor, Sarah; Parikh, Chandni; Yull, Ashley (November–December 2009). "Influences of Infant-Directed Speech on Early Word Recognition". Infancy. 14 (6): 654–666. doi:10.1080/15250000903263973. - Goldstein, M.H.; Schwade, J.A. (2008). "Social Feedback to Infants' Babbling Facilitates Rapid Phonological Learning". Psychological Science. 19 (5): 515–523. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02117.x. PMID 18466414. - Kaplan, Peter; Dungan, Jessica; Zinser, Michael (March 2004). "Infants of Chronically Depressed Mothers Learn in Response to Male, But Not Female, Infant-Directed Speech". Developmental Psychology. 40 (2): 140–148. doi:10.1037/0012-16126.96.36.199. PMID 14979756. - Hoff, E. (2003). "The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech". Child Development. 74 (5): 1368–1378. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.324.4930. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00612. - (Goodluck 1991) - Kaznatcheev, Artem (2010). "A Connectionist Study on the Interplay of Nouns and Pronouns in Personal Pronoun Acquisition". Cognitive Computation. 2 (4): 280–284. doi:10.1007/s12559-010-9050-7. - Joseph Jordania (2006). Who Asked the First Question? The Origins of Human Choral Singing, Intelligence, Language and Speech. Tbilisi: Logos. ISBN 978-99940-31-81-8. - Green, Alison (May, 2018) Ask a Manager "Ask a Manager" - Coren, Stanley "How To Speak Dog: Mastering the Art of Dog-Human Communication" 2000 Simon & Schuster, New York. - Hirsh-Pasek, Kathy; Treiman, Rebecca (2008). "Doggerel: Motherese in a new context". Journal of Child Language. 9. doi:10.1017/S0305000900003731. - Bryant, G. A.; Barrett, H. C. (2007). "Recognizing intentions in infant-directed speech: Evidence for universals". Psychological Science. 18 (8): 746–751. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01970.x. PMID 17680948. - Fernald, A. (1992). "Human maternal vocalizations to infants as biologically relevant signals". In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 391–428). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. - Grieser, DiAnne; Patricia K. Kuhl (January 1988). "Maternal Speech to Infants in a Tonal Language: Support for Universal Prosodic Features in Motherese". Developmental Psychology. 24 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1037/0012-16188.8.131.52. - Ochs, Elinor and Bambi Schieffelin. (1984). "Language acquisition and socialization: Three developmental stories". Culture Theory Eds. R. Shweder and R. LeVine. pp. 276–320. - Cooper, Robin Panneton; Aslin, Richard N. (1990-01-01). "Preference for Infant-Directed Speech in the First Month after Birth". Child Development. 61 (5): 1584–1595. doi:10.2307/1130766. JSTOR 1130766. - Gallaway, C. Input and interaction in language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–73. - Quirk, R. (1974). The linguist and the English language. London: Arnold. (p. 138). - Phillips, J (1973). "Syntax and vocabulary of mothers' speech to young children: Age and sex comparisons". Child Development. 44 (1): 182–185. doi:10.2307/1127699. JSTOR 1127699. - Foley, W. A. and Van Valin, R. D. Jr. (1984). Functional syntax and universal grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Ninio, A. (2011). Syntactic development, its input and output. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Introduction accessible at "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-01. Retrieved 2012-07-15.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) - Travers, P.L. (1934). Mary Poppins. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. - "Native Language Governs Toddlers' Speech Sounds". therapytimes.com. 2007-10-23. Retrieved 2007-11-02. - Evans, Chris ([1196–1200]) Use on British Channel 4 program TFI Friday. e.g. the ickle drum kit. - The Uses of Baby Talk by Naomi S. Baron of the ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics

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Over time, cities originated wherever indigenous cultures agglomerated and planned links between their settlements and peri-urban ecosystems for the provision of water, food and other goods and services. Not by coincidence, these settlements often occurred in biodiversity hotspots—and we know that historically cities were hotbeds for innovation of all sorts. Yet indigenous knowledge on the sustainable use of biodiversity has largely been unutilized in city design. Here we propose to identify some “bright spots” in integrating traditional knowledge on environmental protection in cities. Indigenous urbanization, problems and solutions Like the rest of us, the majority of indigenous peoples all over the world now live in urban settings, and that proportion is increasing. Almost 60% of the indigenous population of Panama lives in its main city, as is the case of Maracaibo in Venezuela. Cities like La Paz (Bolivia), Santiago (Chile), San José (Costa Rica) and Fernheim (Paraguay) concentrate up to 40% of their country’s total urban indigenous population. This growing trend has implications for their lifestyles and culture, including risks of alienation and loss of traditional knowledge. Urban indigenous peoples often find it hard to pass these on to younger generations. Furthermore, many indigenous peoples in various regions are currently living in housing that is at odds with their cultural needs, which is evident by having to give up traditional and culturally specific housing when they migrate to cities. In fact, housing conditions offered to migrating indigenous peoples often do not meet even minimal local criteria for quality of life. This issue has been subject of the work of UN-Habitat in the past years, in particular, from the angle of urban migration, housing, traditional building knowledge and construction industry. Christophe Lalande, leader of the UN-Habitat Housing Unit, notes: “…cities are not always the destination of opportunities for indigenous peoples. Some indigenous peoples arrive in cities compelled to leave their ancestral lands due to necessity. Escaping natural disasters, conflict or dispossession, caused by large-scale development projects, engulfed in urban extension, indigenous peoples find themselves deprived of their resources and unable to carry out their traditional occupations and livelihood. Limited socio-economic opportunities in the cities result in indigenous peoples’ exclusion from economic gains of the growing cities. Cultural distinctiveness from the majority populations can lead to discrimination and further marginalization from processes affecting urban communities. Indigenous peoples do not constitute a homogeneous population. Worldwide there are 350 million indigenous people living in 70 countries, representing 500 distinct communities and speaking 400 different languages. In addition to culturally-driven discrimination, some indigenous populations also face the usual sex-, age-, disability-based discrimination. The disproportionate disadvantages affect women’s property rights and security of tenure; transitioning from childhood to adulthood, indigenous youth suffer face further transitions of reconciling the traditional ancestral ways with adaptation to the culture of the majority population. The work of UN-Habitat on urban indigenous issues seeks to explore ways to increase the socio-economic participation of indigenous peoples, improving the self-reliance of communities in urban centres and the realisation of their rights in cities.” Cooperating with UN-Habitat, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the principal UN agency in the field of the environment, assisting governments to address global, regional and national environmental challenges. It has an active agenda on green cities and urbanization, and develops a series of activities with indigenous peoples around the world on several topics such as the Post-2015 agenda, human rights, pastoralism, climate change, ecosystems, poverty, REDD, and TEEB among others. However, the potentially positive influences of traditional knowledge in urban planning have not been studied or generally included in urban planning. Value of past and present traditional knowledge: a “bright spots” approach When producing the booklet celebrating the 2014 theme of islands for the International Day on Biodiversity with the Global Islands Partnership (GLISPA), the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) was inspired by the “bright spots” approach proposed by Rare (“find what works and repeat it”). We’d like to propose the same reasoning to indigenous urbanization, as it can also present opportunities for traditional forms of land-use, ecosystem management and occupation of space to evolve into a source of new and creative ways for urban design and to achieve sustainable urbanization at a time cities around the world are facing the loss of their biodiversity. This will always be done through the full participation of indigenous peoples and traditional communities as urban citizens, planning urban spaces, diversifying landscapes and designing cities differently. In other words, traditional knowledge and diverse cultural identities have the potential to improve urban design, governance and enhance the quality of urban life inasmuch as indigenous peoples have the opportunity to fully participate in the city planning and governance process. Our efforts are to identify best practices on how indigenous peoples and traditional communities urbanize with nature, incorporating biodiversity and more sustainable forms of socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes into the urban fabric, and linking peri-urban and urban ecosystems into innovative city design and planning. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) states that traditional knowledge is both an element of biodiversity and a tool for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its components, which are two out of the three objectives of the Convention. Recent decisions of the Conference of the Parties (COP), which is the governing body of the Convention, provide a mandate for exploring ways and means for increasing indigenous engagement in urban planning and governance, as one of the steps to achieve Aichi Targets, especially target 18. Traditional knowledge and practices can make a significant contribution to sustainable development. Most indigenous peoples and traditional communities are situated in areas where the vast majority of the world’s biological and cultural diversities are found. Many of these indigenous peoples and local communities have cultivated and used biological diversity in a sustainable way for thousands of years. Some of their practices have been proven to enhance and promote biodiversity at the local level and aid in maintaining healthy ecosystems. As mentioned, the contribution of indigenous people’s traditional knowledge to urbanization is historical. For example, in Machu Picchu (Peru) the Inca developed a successful method which allowed the construction of the city in a mountain top with seismic activity using the chips which they carved off of the stones in their construction and as a method to avoid mud and landslides, as well as flooding, and an agriculture sector, where extensive terraces were used for agriculture and sophisticated channeling systems provided irrigation for the fields. The terraces were used chiefly to drain and syphon the water from rain, as well as to hold the mountain in place. Each terrace was multi layered: first top soil, then dirt, sand and finally stone chips. This meant that water which sat on the terraces would sift downward into the mountain, as opposed to overflowing and running down the mountain. Located on what today is in the central area of Mexico City, Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Aztec Empire and the largest city in pre-Colombian America with an estimated population over 200 thousand inhabitants by the time of the Spanish conquest. It had two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km long and made of terracotta, that provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec for cleaning and washing. A complex system of canals, extending throughout the city, provided the infrastructure for an efficient approach to sanitation. Over one thousand people worked to collect waste nightly, using barges to recycle organic waste for cultivation and dispose of other forms of waste. Contemporary Mexico City has even begun to imitate its practice of recycling waste for the fertilization. Over time indigenous peoples also accumulated knowledge from their failures in urbanization. Tikal, despite being one of the larger Mayan cities with almost 90 thousand inhabitants, had no water source other than the rain. For this reason its inhabitants built 10 reservoirs. However when the population reached its peak, most of it was urban. This led to intensive agriculture and environmental decline with erosion, deforestation and loss of nutrients leading to a subsequent population decline and the city collapse. Cahokia, which was the biggest pre-Colombian city north from Mexico, suffered from lack of supplies and with the waste disposal which made the city unhealthy. Its decline is also due to deforestation and a subsequent lack of wood. Today we see examples of communities in urban spaces that have gone ahead to secure their culture and livelihoods. In Cape Town, the NGO led project Healthy Streets – Healthy People: Mitigating the impacts of wild medicinal plant harvesting in Cape Town through research, engagement and inclusive partnership with Rasta herbalists brought conservation officials to work alongside Rasta bossiedoktors (bush doctors or herbalists) and other citizens to plant on the Seawinds open-access street garden. In this garden, 80-90% of the plants are indigenous. Developing a medicinal street garden in low income areas and strengthening biocultural ecosystem resilience built a communication and collaboration space for Rasta and conservation stakeholders. The gardens also add aesthetic, biodiversity, and direct use value to otherwise degraded residential streets. It should be noted, however, that some considered this project to have had a negative impact on biodiversity in the area because of the not-always-sustainable harvesting of a variety of indigenous plants for sale rather than personal medicinal/culinary use. Still, it is clear that opportunities arise from engaging indigenous people in urban planning, design and implementation. Their traditional knowledge has proven to contribute to higher quality of urban life. It is a source of new and creative ways to sustainable development, planning urban spaces, diversify landscapes and designing cities differently. Identifying these solutions can also be the task of indigenous universities, some of which in Latin America already offer degrees in city management. For instance in Mexico, the Universidad Autónoma Indígena de México offers a masters degree in municipal development. This program aims not only on those who work in the city administration but also in those who work on NGOs that deal with municipal development ensuring that indigenous peoples be prepared to participate in the city development in all levels. We have selected some examples of local governments which were either able to engage indigenous people in their urban planning solution and add their views to the city project, or were able to identify traditional knowledge bright spots and apply then on their cities. While links to biodiversity are not always direct, the potential of such engagements is clear. Auckland, New Zealand Auckland’s character has been shaped by the shared experiences of Maori and European peoples. Maori see themselves as belonging to the land, as opposed to the land belonging to them, and the natural environment plays a significant role in defining the Maori sense of place. The city council has an Independent Maori Statutory Board, whose objective is ensuring that the Council takes into account Maori views in decision making. In order to do so, the board elaborates a Maori priority list of issues (including environmental ones) relevant to the Maori in Auckland that will guide the development of the board working programme. The city also has a Pacific Peoples Advisory Panel. The Panel identifies and communicates to the Council the interests of Pacific peoples living in Auckland regarding Council’s strategies, policies, plans and bylaws or any other matter the Panel considers of interests of the pacific peoples in Auckland. The city also has a Maori Strategy and Relations department, which takes care of its obligations towards the Maori. With the participation of the Maori, the Auckland City Council developed an urban design framework, in which the number one goal is to reflect the city’s Maori, Pacific, and multicultural identity to be visibly identifiable as a place in the South Pacific. The use of Maori values in urban design and development is entirely consistent with low-impact urban design and development. The merging of Maori values, approaches and principles with Eurocentric based architecture, design, engineering, and planning disciplines results in greater integration between environmental aspects of urban design and more low impact, energy, resource and cost efficient design to achieve socially and culturally sensitive sustainable development in urban built environments. Baguio City, the Philippines With 60% of its total population comprised of indigenous peoples originally from Cordillera Villages, Baguio City has an indigenous mayor and is in the process of updating it Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) and the amended zoning ordinance which serves as the CLUP’s implementing tool. The City Council decided to include an indigenous peoples sector in the CLUP, with the proposed policy that “ancestral lands in the city shall be respected and shall be accorded the same rights and responsibilities appurtenant to private titles. Hence, all registered owners of legitimate ancestral domain/land titles shall formulate their respective sustainable development, protection and management plans pursuant to the provision of Republic Act 8371 and other pertinent laws”. Edmonton and Whistler, Canada Edmonton has created the Edmonton Urban Affairs Committee and an Aboriginal Relations Office. Edmonton is bringing aboriginal perspectives on environment to city projects, among them the land use review of a portion of Whitemud Park proposed by an indigenous organization to turn a farm site part of the park to become a permanent licensed site for indigenous activities. Another example of aboriginal perspective is the fund for the redesign of Walterdale Bridge in Rossdale, which is located near a traditional burial ground. In 1997 the Resort Municipality of Whistler met with the Lil’wat Nation to consult about opportunities for the Nation’s participation and presence. Out of these discussions, the idea of a world-class cultural centre was born and a relationship in the spirit of goodwill and cooperation evolved. The Squamish and Lil’wat Nations built a Cultural Centre to house and showcase indigenous art, history and culture. Indigenous builders have treated the site with respect, building on the northern side of the property and leaving the forested area mostly untouched. The building is designed to evoke the longhouses of our Squamish people and the Istken (traditional earthen pit house) of Lil’wat people with a modern architectural interpretation. The structure was awarded the CBD’s 2010 Indigenous Tourism and Biodiversity Award. Satoyama and satoumi, Japan Other approaches can be inferred from the studies linked to “satoyama” and “satoumi” in Japan. Satoyama and satoumi are kinds of socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS), and are effective models for reaching biodiversity targets without damaging human production activities and originally. As a traditional practice, Satoyama landscapes in peri-urban areas have been faced with new challenges, including conversion of land into built-up areas and the loss of traditional knowledge to manage the landscape. This is significant because the area near Tokyo has maintained relatively higher species richness compared to non-traditional models, suggesting the importance of traditional knowledge for environmental management. Nowadays satoyama landscapes in peri-urban areas in Japan have become very different from those in the past. Due to the breakup of nuclear families they are highly fragmented and there are fewer people who can continue farming and managing the forest. In urban settings, this traditional knowledge has been approached differently. Satoyama became an example of urban management and governance of a traditional knowledge bright spot that the local authorities have identified as offering a model to be applied by the city. Today it is largely applied by public authorities or urban volunteers, also in the designation as conservation areas or urban parks. It has provided opportunities where urban citizens can connect with nature and gain traditional knowledge. SEPLS can take many forms around the world where a significant amount of urban food production takes place, making production areas that include human settlements more resilient and sustainable through effective management by the people who rely on their products for their livelihoods. Often relying heavily on traditional knowledge and institutions, or, in the case of satoyama in Japan, employing rediscovered and reevaluated knowledge for landscape revitalization and maintenance, they also serve to link and strengthen both cultural and biological diversity. Examples are being collected and further studied by the United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), which hosts the International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI). Tjapukai Park in Cairns, Australia Founded more than 25 years ago, Tjapukai Aboriginal Cultural Park enables guests to immerse themselves in traditional Tjapukai culture with authentic music, dance and storytelling by the Tjapukai people. The world’s oldest living culture is brought to life by Aboriginal performances set in a uniquely sensitive architectural environment which highlights the central importance of biodiversity to ancestral culture. The Park has been built on traditional Tjapukai land in a beautiful rainforest setting. Since commencing operations, Tjapukai has been visited by more than 3 million people and injected in excess of $35 million to the local Aboriginal community in wages, royalties and through the purchase and commissioning of art and artifacts. * * * Many more examples can be found. The City of Guatemala has important indigenous communities, which have also brought some aspects of traditional knowledge into their urban architecture and functionalities. In Bolivia indigenous urban communities can enjoy two separate and complementary institutional systems. In Santa Cruz de la Sierra, several indigenous communities cooperate on a “Being Indigenous in a City”. The main elements of the project include institutional strengthening, capacity building, a set of proposed urban laws and a communications campaign. Cities like Saraguro in Ecuador offer indigenous cultural experiences in natural settings as one of its key tourism attractions. Mr. Lalande of UN-Habitat cautions that sustainable urban development models must take into consideration the diversity and possible sources of discrimination. A one size-fits-all approach to housing, urban policy and planning is not adequate to counter the inequalities apparent amongst the indigenous population of cities. However, the examples of bright spots that we have seen above show that it is possible to engage indigenous urban people in urban planning in ways that both the city government and its indigenous citizens benefit. These examples also indicate that urbanization of indigenous peoples does not necessarily mean only loss—there are gains where communities find their roots and apply their traditional knowledge to their new urban situation. We suggest that researchers look for even smaller scale solutions and analyze their success to apply to other places. One can apply the so-called ‘bright spots’ approach to finding solutions to using biodiversity in an urban context that come along with the (largely inevitable) challenges of urbanization of indigenous and traditional communities. This incubation of bright spots also means trying to further combine traditional approaches with new social-media empowered urban-community initiatives, and ask scientists and thinkers to look at what we can learn.. Questions to initiate a debate on this topic include: - There is an irresistible trend for the urbanization of indigenous peoples and traditional communities, with associated high risks of loss of traditional knowledge and social alienation. However, there are also significant best practices/bright spots/benchmarks of indigenous/traditional empowerment in urban design, social architecture, biodiversity-friendly urban landscape management, conservation partnerships and urban agriculture for food security. How could they be compiled and made available for replication? - Drawing on those examples, what guidelines and policies in community empowerment and governance systems could help mainstream these practices in biodiversity-friendly/sustainable design and construction guidelines related to landscape use, community area design and socio-cultural architecture originating from traditional knowledge into current urban design, construction and operation? - Could traditional practices associated with growing food and medicines in urban peripheries enhance a healthy diet for all city dwellers, conserve or even enlarge green spaces promoting biodiversity and also give indigenous families opportunities tosecure their livelihoods? We’d like to invite the TNOC community and the wider expert group behind it to offer constructive suggestions on how to identify, describe and offer those solutions as models for others to use and benefit from. Further on, in November 2015 in Montreal, the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity plans to hold a workshop on the topic as a laboratory for discussion. It will reflect the expertise of the broad range of actors involved in urban indigenous peoples and local communities and their traditional knowledge of relevance to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, with a view to access the current status of traditional knowledge in the cities, identify synergies between different experts and contribute to the achievement of Target 18 of the Strategic Plan on Biodiversity 2011-2020. Target 18 reads as follows: By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources, are respected, subject to national legislation and relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the implementation of the Convention with the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities, at all relevant levels. We invite contributions and comments via email [email protected]. Henrique Mercer, Viviana Figueroa, Andre Mader and Oliver Hillel with significant input from UNU-IAS, UN-Habitat and UNEP Note: The views expressed in this article are the personal views of the authors, and are not the official views of the CBD Secretariat.

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Aristocratic warrior class, retainer of the daimyo. They started to play an important role in Japanese society from the 12th-century wars between the Taira and Minamoto clans. Under the Tokugawa regime (1600-1867), the samurai were the highest of the four social classes. They were the only people allowed to carry swords, although the long Tokugawa peace and their erudition meant that they mostly worked as bureaucrats in the administration, to a point where their military skills came to be doubted. Samurai have been the objects of much admiration and idealization. Since the early 20th century, they have been seen as the incarnation of the values of the bushido of unfailing loyalty to their overlords and indifference to pain or death, but in fact rarely lived up to their romanticized image. The word samurai has origins in the pre-Heian period, being derived from the classical Japanese verb saburau, meaning to serve or attend. It was not until the early modern period, namely the Azuchi-Momoyama period and early Edo period of the late 16th and early 17th centuries that the word saburai became replaced with samurai. However, by then, the meaning had already long before changed. During the era of the rule of the samurai, the earlier term yumitori (“bowman”) was also used as an honorary title of an accomplished warrior even when swordsmanship had become more important. Japanese archery (kyujutsu), is still strongly associated with the war god Hachiman. The following terms are related to samurai or the samurai tradition: - Buke (武家) – A martial house or a member of such a house - Mononofu (もののふ) - An ancient term meaning a warrior. - Musha (武者) - A shortened form of Bugeisha (武芸者), lit. martial art - Shi (士) - A word roughly meaning "gentleman," it is sometimes used for samurai, in particular in words such as 武士 (bushi, meaning warrior or samurai). - Tsuwamono (兵) - An old term for a soldier popularized by Matsuo Basho in his famous haiku. Literally meaning a strong tsuwamono domo ga yume no ato All that remains Of soldiers’ dreams (trans. Lucien Stryk) The samurai used various weapons. Bushido taught that a samurai's soul is in the katana that they carried. Sometimes a samurai is pictured as entirely dependent on the katana for fighting. This is, much like difference between the role of a crossbow in medieval Europe and the role of sword to a knight, a symbol of being samurai rather than the actual importance of katana itself. Upon reaching the age of thirteen, in a ceremony called Genpuku (元服), a male child was given a wakizashi and an adult name and became a samurai. This also gave him the right to wear katana though it was usually sealed with strings to prevent accidental drawing of a katana. A katana and a wakizashi together are called daisho, lit. big and small. The samurai's weapon of choice was yumi or a compound bow and it was unchanged for centuries until the introduction of gunpowder and rifle in the 16th century. A Japanese style compound bow was a powerful weapon. Its size made it possible to shoot various projectiles like fire arrows and signal arrows over a distance of 100 meters with accuracy, over 200 meters when accuracy was not an issue. It was usually used on foot behind a tedate (手盾), a large wooden shield, but it could be used even from horseback. The practice of shooting from horseback became a Shintō ceremony of Yabusame (流鏑馬). In battles against Mongolian invaders, these compound bows were the decisive weapon outdistancing smaller compound bows and crossbows that Chinese and Mongolian preferred. Mongolians lacked horses that they had used so devastatingly against opponents and were forced to fight on foot, reducing their effectiveness. In the 15th century, the yari or spear also became a popular weapon. It displaced the naginata from the battlefield as personal bravery became a less of a factor and battles became organized. It was simpler and more deadly than a katana. A charge, mounted or dismounted, was more effective when using a spear and it offered better than even odds against a samurai using a katana. In the Battle of Shizugatake where Shibata Katsuie was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, then known as Hashiba Hideyoshi, the Seven Spearmen of Shizugatake (賤ヶ岳七本槍) played a crucial role in the victory. One of the biggest controversies surrounding the weapons of the samurai is whether samurai ever charged on horseback. Horses of that time were smaller yet durable but it was questionable how well they would perform carrying heavily armored samurai. A traditional belief held that samurai mainly fought on horseback acting as heavy cavalry and charged through hapless foot soldiers. It is currently believed that samurai mainly fought on foot and used horses for transportation and only occasionally charged on disarrayed and retreating enemies. The Battle of Nagashino was one of such battle where samurai supposedly charged on horseback. After the matchlock rifle was introduced from Europe, samurai started practicing this weapon. It became the favorite weapon for sniping on the battle field as samurai were awarded for every enemy he took down himself, though commanding was an important aspect of samurai. Conscripted soldiers also used matchlock rifles but instead fired in volleys to break up enemy ranks. Toward the end of the feudal period, some samurai organized dragoons as part of their troops and some were reportedly used in the Battle of Sekigahara and later battles. Some samurai were unarmed on the battle fields except for katana. Takeda Shingen was one such samurai. This did not mean that they fought using katana. Instead, they focused on commanding and were confident that they could trust those they commanded for protection. In one of the Battle of Kawanakajima, this almost got Shingen killed. A plan went wrong and troops of Uesugi Kenshin charged into troops under Shingen's command, who were unaware that his entrapment plan had been detected. With only half of his troops and completely surprised, Shingen himself had to defend his life with a wooden stick that he used to order attacks. The rest of his soldiers barely returned in time to save Shingen and the rest of his force from being completely wiped out. Other weapons used by samurai were jo, bo, grenade, catapult and cannon. However, specific samurai sometimes favored others. In battles around Meiji restoration, more modern weapons like Gatling gun and rifles were used. Origin of Samurai Before the Heian period, the army in Japan was modeled after the Chinese army and under the direct command of the emperor. Except for slaves, every able-bodied men had the duty of enlisting for the army. These men had to supply themselves, and many men got lost or gave up returning and settled down on their way home. This was treated as a part of taxation and it could be substituted with other forms of tax such as bolts of cloth. These men were called Sakimori (防人), lit. defenders but they are not related to samurai. In the early Heian, the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Emperor Kammu sought to consolidate and expand his rule in northern Honshu. The armies he sent to conquer the rebellious Emishi lacked motivation and discipline and were unable to prevail. He then introduced the title of Seiitaishogun (征夷大将軍) or shogun and began to rely on the powerful regional clans to conquer the Emishi. Skilled in mounted combat and archery, these clan warriors became the emperor's preferred tool for putting down rebellions. During the Heian period, the emperor's army was disbanded and the emperor's power gradually declined. While the emperor was still the ruler, powerful clans around Kyōto assumed positions of ministers and their relatives bought their positions of magistrates to collect taxes. To repay their debts and amass wealth, they often imposed heavy taxes and many farmers were forced to leave their lands. Regional clans grew powerful by offering lower taxes to their subjects as well as freedom from conscription. These clans armed themselves to repel other clans and magistrates from collecting taxes. They would eventually form themselves into armed parties and became samurai. The samurai came from guards of the imperial palace and private guards clans employed. They also acted as a police force in and around Kyoto. These forerunners of what we now know as samurai had ruler-sponsored equipment and were required to hone their martial skills. They were saburai, servants, yet their advantage of being the sole armed party increasingly became apparent. By promising protection and gaining political clout through political marriages they amassed power, eventually surpassing the ruling aristocrats. Some clans originally were farmers that had been driven to arms to protect themselves from the imperially appointed magistrates sent to govern their lands and collect taxes. These clans formed alliances to protect themselves against more powerful clans. By the mid-Heian, they had adopted Japanese-style armor and weapons and laid the foundation of bushido, their famous ethical code. Kamakura Shogunate and the Rise of Samurai Originally these warriors were merely mercenaries in the employ of the emperor and noble clans(kuge). But slowly they gathered enough power to usurp the aristocracy and establish the first samurai-dominated government. As regional clans gathered manpower and resources and struck alliances with each other, they formed a hierarchy centered around a toryo, or chief. This chief was typically a distant relative of the emperor and a lesser member of one of three noble families (the Fujiwara, Minamoto, or the Taira). Though originally sent to provincial areas for a fixed four year term as a magistrate, the toryo declined to return to the capital when their terms ended. Their sons inherited their positions and continued to lead the clans in putting down rebellions throughout Japan during the middle and later Heian. Because of their rising military and economic power, the clans ultimately became a new force in the politics of the court. Their involvement in the Hogen Rebellion in the late Heian only consolidated their power and finally pit the rival Minamoto and the Taira against each other in the Heiji Rebellion of 1160. Emerging victorious, Taira no Kiyomori became an imperial advisor, the first warrior to attain such a position, and eventually seized control of the central government to establish the first samurai-dominated government and relegate the emperor to a mere figurehead. However, Taira clan was still very much aristocratic than later Minamoto. Instead of expanding or strengthening its military might, Taira clan had its women marry emperors and attempted to control through the emperor. The Taira and the Minamoto once again clashed in 1180 beginning the Gempei War which ended in 1185. The victorious Minamoto no Yoritomo established the superiority of the samurai over aristocrats. In 1190 he visited Kyōto and in 1192 became Seii Taishogun, establishing the Kamakura Shogunate. Instead of basing its rule in Kyoto, he set up the Shogunate in the Kamakura, near his base of power. Over time, powerful samurai clans became warrior nobility (buke) who were only nominally under court aristocracy. When samurai begun to adopt aristocratic customs like calligraphy, poetry and music, some court aristocrats also began to adopt samurai skills. In spite of various machinations and brief periods of rule by various emperors, the real power was in the hands of the shogun and samurai. Ashikaga Shogunate and the Feudal Period Various samurai clans struggled for power over Kamakura and Ashikaga Shogunates. Zen Buddhism spread among samurai in the 13 century and it helped to shape their standards of conduct, particularly overcoming fear of death and killing. Zen Buddhism in Japan took Sakyamuni as the principal image and taught to be a living buddha with enlightenment by Zen meditation training. While major schools of Buddhism among populace took Amitabha Tathagata, a buddha is said to be capable of taking believers to paradise after death. In the 13 century, Yuan, a Chinese state of the Mongolian Empire, invaded Japan two times. Samurai unused to combating in group barely survived the first brief battle. However, they were prepared for the second invasion and samurai devastated large, but disorganized armies composed of Chinese, Korean and Mongolian. It is believed even without Kamikaze, they would have driven back these invaders. An innovation on Japanese sword was accomplished by a blacksmith called Masamune in the 14th century; the two-layer structure of soft and hard iron was adopted and the style spread rapidly with its amazing cutting power and endurance in continuous use. Since then, Japanese swords had been recognized as one of the invincible carry weapons during the pre-industrial era of East Asia. It was one of the top exported items, few even making its ways into as far as India. The issues of inheritance firstly caused family infighting because primogeniture became common while division of succession was designated by law before the 14th century. To avoid infighting, continuous invasion against neighboring samurais' territories was rather favored and bickering among samurai was constant problems to Kamakura and Ashikaga Shogunate. The Sengoku jidai ("warring-states period") was marked by the loosening of samurai culture, in a sense. Those born into other social strata could sometimes make names for themselves as warriors and thus become de facto samurai. In this turbulent period, bushido ethics became important factors to control and maintain public orders. Japanese war tactics and technologies improved rapidly in 15th and 16th century. Use of large infantry troop called Ashigaru , which was formed by the humble warriors or populace, with Nagayari (長槍) or long lance was introduced and combined with cavalry in maneuvers. The numbers of people mobilized in warfare were generally in the thousands to the over hundred-thousands. Harquebus or a matchlock gun was introduced by Lusitanians/Portugese on a Chinese pirate ship in 1543. Japanese succeeded nationalization of it within a decade. Groups of mercenaries with harquebus and mass produced rifles played a critical role. By the end of feudal periods, several hundred thousands rifles existed in Japan and massive armies over 100,000 crushed in the battles. The largest and most powerful army in Europe, Spanish armies had only several thousand rifles and could only assemble an army of 30,000. Ninja also played critical roles engaged intelligence activity. The social mobility of human resources was flexible, as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence. Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era. They declared themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans, Minamoto, Taira, Fujiwara and Tachibana. In most cases, however, it is hard to prove who their ancestors were. Oda, Toyotomi and Tokugawa Oda Nobunaga was the well-known lord of the Nagoya area (once called Ohwari) and an exceptional example of samurai of the Sengoku Period. He came within few years of and laid down the pass to the reunification of Japan. He made innovations on organizations and war tactics, heavily used harquebus, developed commerce and industry and treasured innovations ; the consecutive victories enabled him to realize the termination of the Ashikaga Shogunate and disarmament of the military powers of the Buddhist monks, which had inflamed futile struggles among the populace for centuries. Attacking from a "sanctuary" of Buddhist temples, they were constant headaches to any warlords and even the emperor who tried to control their actions. He died in 1582 by the assault of one of his follower Akechi Mitsuhide. Importantly, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (see below) and Tokugawa Ieyasu (//www.samurai-source.com/samurai-warriors/togukawa-ieyasu.htm), who made Tokugawa Shogunate, were Nobunaga's (//www.samurai-source.com/samurai-warriors/oda-nobunaga.htm) loyal followers. Hideyoshi was brought up from a nameless peasant to one of top generals under Nobunaga and Ieyasu had shared childhood with Nobunaga. Hideyoshi defeated Mitsuhide within a month and was regarded as the rightful successor of Nobunaga by avenging the treachery by Mitsuhide. The two were gifted with Nobunaga's previous achievements to build the unified Japan. So there was a saying: "The reunification is a rice cake; Oda made it. Hashiba shaped it. At last, only Ieyasu tastes it." (Hashiba is the family name that Toyotomi Hideyoshi used while he was a follower of Nobunaga.) Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became a grand minister in 1586, himself the son of a poor peasant family, created a law that the samurai caste became codified as permanent and heritable, and that non-samurai were forbidden to carry weapons. It is important to note that distinction between samurai and non-samurai was so obscure that during the 16th century, most male adults in any social class (even small farmers) belonged to at least one military organization of their own and served in wars before and during Hideyoshi's rule. It can be said that an "all against all" situation continued for a century. The authorized samurai families after the 17th century were the winners that chose to follow Nobunaga (source), Hideyoshi and Ieyasu (source). Large battles occurred during the times of change between regimes, and a number of defeated samurai were destroyed or absorbed into the general populace. During the Tokugawa era, samurai increasingly became courtiers, bureaucrats, and administrators rather than warriors. The daisho, the paired long and short swords of the samurai (source) (cf. 'katana' and wakizashi) became more of a symbolic emblem of power rather than a weapon used in daily life. They still had the legal right to cut down any commoner who did not show proper respect; in what extent this right was used, however, is unknown. When the central government forced daimyos to cut the size of their armies, unemployed ronin actually became a social problem. Bushido was formalized by many samurai in this time of peace much like how Chivalry was formalized after knight as a warrior became obsolete in Europe. The conduct of samurai became a favorable model of a citizen in Edo with the emphasis on formalities. With time on their hands, samurai spent more time on the pursuit of other interests becoming scholars. Samurai decline during the Meiji restoration The last hurrah of original samurai was in 1867 when samurai from Choshu and Satsuma provinces defeated the shogunate forces in favor of the rule of the emperor. The two provinces were the lands of the daimyos that submitted to Ieyasu after the war of Sekigahara (1600). Other sources claim that the last samurai were in 1877, during the Satsuma Rebellion in the Battle of Shiroyama. The main players of the revolt came from lower class samurai in every province. Their ultimate political goal was the same: to maintain the independence of Japan against Western powers. But the two daimyo clashed first and these bloody conflicts lasted for years. At last, they realized that a large serious civil war must be avoided because that was just what the foreign powers waited for. So the last shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu returned the governing to the emperor to avoid the war. Some resisted, believing this was coup d'etat by Choshu and Satsuma and the governing was in their hands. Groups of Tohoku samurai organized an armed resistance and they were eventually defeated. Emperor Meiji abolished the samurai's right to be the only armed force in favor of a more modern, western-style conscripted army. Samurai became Shizoku (士族) who retained some of their salaries but the right to wear katana on the street was eventually abolished. Post Meiji Restoration In defining how a modern Japanese should be, members of the Meiji government decided to follow the footstep of United Kingdom and Germany. It would be based on the concept of "nobles oblige" and samurai would not be a political force much like that of Prussia. The Imperial Japanese Armies were conscripted but many samurai volunteered to be soldiers and many advanced to be trained as an officer. These volunteers were highly motivated and trained hard. The Japanese empire won the Sino-Japanese War (1894) and the Russian-Japanese War (1904) and it could be reasoned that these volunteers and officers were behind these victories. Most soldiers of both Chinese and Russian armies could neither read nor write and after their officers were killed, these armies quickly disintegrated. Many early exchange students were samurai, not because they were samurai, but many were literate and well educated scholars. Some of these exchange students started private schools for higher educations. Some samurai took pens instead of guns and became reporters and writers to set up newspaper companies. Other samurai entered governmental services as they were literate and well educated. As de facto aristocrats for centuries, samurai developed their own cultures that changed the way Japanese acted. A samurai was expected to read and write, as well as to know some mathematics. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a great samurai yet a peasant at start, could only read and write in hiragana and this was his biggest drawback. Some hint that this was what prevented him from becoming a shogun. Samurai were expected, though not required, to have interests in other arts such as dancing, Go, literature, poetry, and tea. Ota Dokan who first ruled Edo wrote how he was shamed to realize that even a commoner had more knowledge of poetry than him and this made him study harder. Samurai culture ranged from a spartan Zen Buddhism influenced culture to an extravaganza Kano-style culture. Most samurai lived simply not due to preference, but necessity. As commerce developed in Edo period, samurai who were supplied with rice as income were faced with inflating prices of common goods. Some samurai did crafts and others farmed to make ends meet. These poor samurai still found money and time to teach their children to value education. By the middle of Edo period, samurai had to be ordered to practice their martial art skills. There were stories of samurai being threatened and forced to run away against well muscled workers, some were even beaten in a fight. As samurai were specialists in fighting, these troubles were never reported out of shame but were still documented. With time on their hands, many samurai began studying such topics as archaeology, botany, and literature. Samurai introduced vegetables like the potato and sweet potato to farmers who remained apathetic to these imported vegetables. Samurai also transcribed and studied historic books and records. Kojiki as well as Chinese classics were studied. Samurai also started studying anatomy and medical science looking not for a better way to kill, but simply because they were interested. In the late Edo period, they translated a Dutch medical book. A samurai usually was named by combining one kanji from his father or grandfather and one new kanji. Many samurai had intentionally phonetically same names as a great ancestors to honor their greatness and hope this samurai would be as good. This name was applied after genpuku. He also had a childhood name. Most samurai had a second name and also used his title as a part of his name. Oda Nobunaga would be officially called "Oda Kōzukenosuke Owarinokami Nobunaga" (織田上総介尾張守信長) and he would be refered as "Oda Kōzukenosuke" or "Oda Owarinokami". A marriage of samurai was done by having a marriage arranged by someone with same or higher rank than those marrying. While for those samurai in upper ranks were a necessity as most had few opportunities to meet a female, this was still done as a formality for lower ranked samurai. Most samurai married women from a samurai family but for a lower ranked samurai, a marriage with commoner were permitted. In these marriages, a dowry was brought by women and this was used to start their new lives. A samurai can have a mistress but she was strictly checked by higher ranked samurai on her background. In many cases, it was treated like a marriage and a kidnapping, common in many fictions, would have been a shame if not a crime. When she was a commoner, a messenger would be sent, with a betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax, and ask for her acceptance to her parents. Many parents gladly accepted, and if she gave a birth to a son, he could be a samurai. A samurai can divorce his wife for a variety of reasons with an approval from a superior. A divorce was, while not nonexistent, a rare occasion. An important reason would be if she could not produce a son but an adoption could be arranged. A samurai can divorce for a personal reason, even that he simply did not like his wife, but this was generally avoided as this would embarrass the samurai who arranged this marriage. Women could also arrange a divorce, although it would generally take the form of samurai divorcing her. In a divorce, samurai had to return the betrothal money and this often prevented a divorce. Some rich merchants had their daughters marry samurai to erase a samurai's debt and advance their positions. The eldest son of the previous leader became the next leader of the clan. If the eldest son had passed away before the succession, the eldest son of the eldest son became the next leader of the clan. If the eldest son did not have children, the second son became the next leader. These rules were sometimes bent with the wish of the former leader. When the next leader was too young or inexperienced, brothers and retainers of a previous leader acted as leader until the clan could be handed over. Dividing a domain had been popular in Kamakura and Ashikaga period but declined later as it often made the clan weaker. Many samurai changed their name not because they didn't like it, but because they were adopted into other clans. This was done for many reasons. The first and foremost reason is that many clans wanted a successor with high abilities and skills even if it meant throwing out sons of the previous leader. If that successor happened to be from a higher clan, so much better. While this had to be approved by shogunate or daimyo in Edo period, there were many instances. When the previous leader died without a son but with a daughter, it was common to adopt samurai from other clans into a clan and have him marry the daughter. Samurai had a lot of children and faced with disease and wars, this often caused succession problems. These sometime led to a decline or even a disintegration and eventual destruction of the entire clan. Several steps were taken to avoid this problem. The adoption was one step and other was called Kōkaku lit. decline in rank, where a son was given a new clan name and became a retainer and a vassal of their elder brother. Some samurai even became a merchants or farmers because of Kōkaku. Philosophies of Buddhism and Zen, to the lesser extent Confucianism influenced the samurai culture as well as Shinto. The meditation became an important teaching by offering a process to calm one's mind. Buddhism concept of reincarnation and rebirth led samurai to abandon torture and needless killing. Some samurai resigned from samurai and became Buddhist monks after realizing how fruitless their killings were. Bushido, codified during Edo period, was the way of samurai yet its deceptive simplicity led to countless arguments over its interpretation. Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai by Yamamoto Tsunetomo is a manual of instruction into the way of the samurai. Even as it was published, it raised number of reviews that criticized strict and impersonal interpretations. If the lord is wrong, for example if he ordered massacre of civilians, should he observe Loyalty to massacre as ordered or should he observe Rectitude to let civilians escape unharmed? If a man had sick parents but committed an unamendable mistake, should he protect his Honor by committing Seppuku or should he show Courage by living with dishonor and care for his parents? The incident of 47 Ronin caused debates about the righteousness of their actions and how bushido should be applied. They had defied shogun in ways by taking matters into their own hands but it was an act of Loyalty and Rectitude as well. Finally, their acts were agreed to be Rectitude but not Loyalty to the shogun. This made them criminals with conscience and eligible for seppuku. Explanations of shudo in Hagakure was highly controversial even at the time when such practices were common. It illuminates one of the samurai's practices of platonic love that were sometimes homosexual relationships between samurai. Even though this was not considered a crime at that time and was not exactly prohibited by religions, a notion that some samurai advanced by being sexually attractive was enough to raise an uproar. Samurai were not prostitutes and they advanced by having abilities and skills, not sleeping together. The most famous book of kenjutsu, or sword fighting, dates from this period (Miyamoto Musashi's The Book of Five Rings, 1643). But larger part of the book is focused on mentalities of fighting. Many kenjutsu book from Edo period also focused on spiritual aspects as well to cope with demands that a practice of kenjutsu to build characters. Samurai in Fiction Jidaigeki lit. historical drama had been a staple on movies and TV from the beginning. It usually futured a samurai with a kenjutsu who stood up against evil samurai and merchants. Mito Komon (水戸黄門), a fictitious stories of Tokugawa Mitsukuni's travel, is a popular TV drama where Mitsukuni travels disguised as a retired rich merchant with two unarmed samurai also disguised as his companions. He finds trouble where ever he goes, and after gathering evidences, he has his samurai knock around unrepenting evil samurai and merchants. He then reveals his identity which, if he wished to, can destory the entire clan and evils has no option but surrender and hope that his punishments would not extend to their families. The samurai-themed works of film director Akira Kurosawa are among the most praised of the genre, influencing many filmmakers across the world with his techniques and storytelling. Notable works of his include The Seven Samurai, in which a besieged farming village hires a collection of wandering samurai to defend them from bandits; Yojimbo, where a former samurai involves himself in a town's gang war by working for both sides; and The Hidden Fortress, in which two foolish peasants find themselves helping a legendary general escort a princess to safety. The latter was one of the primary inspirations for George Lucas's Star Wars, which also borrows a number of aspects from the samurai, such as in the Jedi Knights of the series. Samurai films and westerns share a number of similarities, and the two have influenced each other over the years. Kurosawa was inspired by the works of director John Ford, and in turn Kurosawa's works have been remade into westerns, such as The Seven Samurai into The Magnificent Seven and Yojimbo into A Fistful of Dollars. Another fictitious television series, Abarembo Shogun, featured Yoshimune, the eighth Tokugawa shogun. Samurai at all levels from the shogun down to the lowest rank, as well as ronin, featured prominently in this show. Shōgun is the first novel in James Clavell's Asian Saga. It is set in feudal Japan somewhere around the year 1600 and gives a highly fictionalized account of the rise of Tokugawa Ieyasu to the Shogunate, seen through the eyes of an English sailor whose fictional heroics are loosely based on William Adams' exploits. A Hollywood movie, The Last Samurai, containing a mixture of fact and fiction, was released in 2003 to generally good reviews in North America. The film's plot is loosely based on the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion led by Saigo Takamori, and also on the story of Jules Brunet, a French army captain who fought alongside Enomoto Takeaki in the Boshin War. The life style and the war tactics shown in the movie The Last Samurai are those of out-country samurai of the Sengoku jidai, precisely of the era before 1543; not those in the 19th century. An actual battle of that period was only a little different from that of American or European army, the only difference being a katana to be waved for soldiers to charge instead of a saber. Kill Bill by Quentin Tarantino can be described as a glorification of the samuari sword, katana. The samurai have also appeared frequently in Japanese comics (manga) and animation (anime). Most common are historical works where the protagonist is either a samurai or former samurai (or another rank/position) who possesses considerable martial skill. Two of the most famous examples are Lone Wolf and Cub, where the former proxy executioner for the Shogun and his toddler son become hired killers after being betrayed by other samurai and nobles; and Rurouni Kenshin, where a former assassin, after helping end the Bakumatsu era and bringing about the Meiji era, finds himself protecting newfound friends and fighting off old enemies while upholding his oath to never kill again through the use of a reversed-bladed sword. Samurai-like characters are not just restricted to historical settings, a number of works set in the modern age and even the future include characters who live, train, and fight like samurai. Notable examples include Goemon Ishikawa XIII from the Lupin III series of comics, television series, and movies; and Motoko Aoyama from the romantic comedy Love Hina. Samurai are also heroes and enemies in many games where they would either be greatest friends or worst nightmares. These samurai would use mostly katana and are devastating foot soldiers. An example is Age of Empires series. The concept of a samurai, as opposed to that of a knight, has lead to a major gap in how a fighter or a hero should be especially in a Role-playing game between Japan and rest of the world. A samurai does not have to be tall and heavily muscled to be strong. He can be barely five feet tall, seemingly weak and handicapped. He can even be "she". This means equating size with power and strength does not appeal to the Japanese aesthetic. This article was derived in part from an article on Wikipedia.org. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.

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We all have an obligation to undertake this inquiry to better understand our individual identities and our collective identity as Canadians sharing this land. These materials and ideas are part of this journey. May we find joy in this journey. May our youngest students see vibrant communities and strong people first, before they are introduced to the darker sides of our Canadian history that we must all face if we are to reconcile and make peace with the past. My grade 3 students are learning about soil. The first lesson I teach is a Smartboard lesson where I provide 7 reasons for soil. Here is the Smart Notebook file if you are a Smarboard user. At the end of the lesson, students are given 8 pictures and are asked to retell the 7 key reasons for soil. Students who need more support get the pictures below because they have the sentences on them. Most of my students get the slides without the sentences. Once students have these images in the camera roll, then we can open iMovie and bring these still images into a new iMovie project. Next, have students use the microphone and record the main point for each picture. Here is a link to examples: YouTube Playlist of student work: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLmteZ8LJoFVewE40Z3jFqERVoLFW_TkSG What is Computational Thinking (CT)? Mitch Resnick and Jeanette M. Wing are the two main people who best describe Computational Thinking (CT). Mitch Resnick, Director of the Lifelong Kindergarten group at the MIT Media Lab and creator of Scratch published this paper with Karen Brennan in 2012. Computational thinking has three main parts: Concepts, Practices, and Perspectives. - Concepts are the actual computer science ideas. - Practices are the ways of thinking and problem solving. - Perspectives are beliefs about oneself and having a mindset that is open to being a computer scientist and/or thinking like a computer scientist. Jeanette M. Wing, head of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University, explains Computational Thinking in a 2006 article Here are Wing’s everyday examples of people using computational thinking: When your daughter goes to school in the morning, she puts in her backpack the things she needs for the day; that’s prefetching and caching. When your son loses his mittens, you suggest he retrace his steps; that’s back- tracking. At what point do you stop renting skis and buy yourself a pair?; that’s online algorithms. How do Completely Automated Public Turing Test(s) to Tell Computers and Humans Apart, or CAPTCHAs, authenticate humans?; that’s exploiting the difficulty of solving hard AI problems to foil computing agents. Prefetching and caching, back-tracking, algorithms, and solving AI problems are all computer science concepts. All this takes place in your daily life. Wing suggests that computational thinking is not just about programming computers but thinking like a computer scientist. A computer scientist is a creative human problem solver that thinks with computers, not a boring human who tries to think like a computer, says Wing. Who is Teaching Computational Thinking? As coding and computational thinking have been written into curricula around the world, we are seeing people working to understand what it means. Here is a collection of sites and projects of people making sense of CT. Coding and CT in the United Kingdom Computing At School Barefoot (aka CAS Barefoot) is an project in England designed to support primary school teachers to understand and teach computational thinking. Here is how they define and explain CT. What does it look like in UK schools? Marc is a teacher and Apple Distinguished Educator in the UK has been integrating coding into his early years curriculum for several years. Here are some examples of the activities he has been doing: Unplugged Activities February 2, 2015 Programming Apps for Early Years July 13, 2013 He also has a book Enabling Environments: A Computing Curriculum Beginning in Early Years And, here is a blog post if you are looking for apps for teaching coding from a teacher in the UK. Coding and CT in the United States 33 states allow students to count computer science courses toward high school graduation. Google is conducting research in the area of computer science education in the US. Google has also put together a course on Computational Thinking for Educators. ISTE has compiled many resources to support educators and parents in understanding CT. Coding and CT in British Columbia, Canada British Columbia has recently launched a new curriculum that explicitly includes coding and computational thinking. Coding and CT are found within the new Applied Design, Skills and Technologies (ADST) curriculum, last updated June 27, 2016. Questions I have about Coding and Computational Thinking: - Is it a requirement to teach coding in order to teach Computational Thinking? - In Ontario, should we be teaching computational thinking and coding even if it is not in the curriculum? - If we decide to teach coding and CT in Ontario, do we have to cut back on something else? If so, what are we cutting back on? - Many subjects have habits of mind that we are trying to develop in students. In math we want to develop powerful math thinkers, in social studies we want critical thinkers, in language we want to be able to express ideas in sensitive and culturally responsive ways. How does focusing on CT help or hinder these existing habits of mind and ways of thinking that we are already trying to emphasize the in the existing curriculum? - Computational thinking and algorithmic thinking are all about logic and being highly systematic. Dr. Donna Kotsopoulos has asked whether this is counter to what we have been saying about divergent and creative thinking relating to 21st Century skills. Does computational thinking run in opposition to 21st Century learning ideals? In what ways does computational thinking compliment or detract from the 6Cs: character, citizenship, communication, critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity? - How often do we lead coding activities that teach coding concepts like sequencing and debugging but do not go deeper into thinking and beliefs? How do we go beyond the pure computer science concepts and into deep thinking? You should run a Google CS First Coding Club for kids. It’s easier than you think. Here’s what I learned from running a club at Stoney Creek Public School. First, listen to what my students had to say about the club: What is Google CS First? CS stands for Computer Science. Google CS First is a computer science club that is run through Google with everything you need. Google has created a portal that you and students will log into that keeps everything organized and holds all the content. There are 9 different themes like storytelling, animation, fashion and sports. Each club takes about 10 hours. Students will code using Scratch. Here is a video to welcome you to Google CS First. Click on the image below: How to get started? Go to Google CS First and sign in or click on “Start a Club Now.” Click on the “Start a New Club” button and follow the prompts. It takes 5 minutes and you will: - Pick a theme - Create a schedule - Order materials (US only) or print materials - Bonus: Find a Guru which is someone who will help you during the sessions. I was lucky to get a parent from my community who is a developer for IBM. Promote your club by putting up posters that are provided once you have picked your theme. Consider having an information meeting where you can show the slides below. Be sure to personalize and edit the slides before the meeting. Click on the image to see the Google Slides: Tip: Be sure to think carefully about the schedule. Do not just put in random dates. This is because the activities are linked to the dates. When students login, they will get the activity assigned for that date. So if your first club meets on Monday, December 12th and if you correctly entered December 12th in the schedule then students will login and get the Day 1 activities. If you get these wrong, kids will be looking at the wrong activities. What does a typical club meeting look like? My club ran for 8 weeks on Tuesdays and Thursdays after school for 20 students in grades 4-8. We met from 3:30-4:45pm. Students came to the library and logged into a Chromebook or desktop computer with the Google CS First username and password provided by the club (these are generated automatically and can be reused if kids join another club). Once all the coders had arrived, here is what the day looked like: - Showcase Selector: Two activities get randomly selected at the end of the last club meeting. We start each time with looking at two students’ Scratch projects. - Self-Paced Learning: Students then work at their own pace watching videos and working in Scratch. The leader and guru (the adults running the club) circulate to help students. - Wrap Up Video: We would end the club by collectively watching the Wrap Up video. Every day has a video that recaps the key computer science concepts and relates those concepts to the real world and real people’s jobs. We would watch these as a group, though you could have kids watch on their own too. - Showcase Selector: The last task is to do the Showcase Selector to pick two projects to kick off the next club meeting. 3 Tips for Running a Successful Coding Club: 1) Manage Student Expectations Many students came to club expectations that they would learn how to make an app or become hackers. One of my club members was on HackerTyper.com instead of working through the activities. It is important to set reasonable expectations so students aren’t disappointed that they aren’t taking over the Internet by the end of the first club meeting. Explain the goals and what computer science concepts will be taught up front. 2) Get a Guru or it’s all you! Get a Guru! Having another adult there was so helpful. Having another adult with a background in computer science was tremendous. The students were able to get a lot more out of the club because Mr. Rozon was able to explain what they were doing and why it was important. If you can’t get someone to help who has experience in coding, make sure to do all the activities ahead of time. 3) Emphasize Collaboration One thing I did not like about the Google CS First Coding club was that it felt a lot like I was supervising some sort of call centre. I looked out over a library full of students all wearing headsets and plugged into computers. It was quiet and students largely worked alone. Next time, I want to emphasize more collaboration and team work. I want to force everyone to stop every 10 minutes and talk to the person next to them. I want to have more time to share more projects and get students to give each other feedback. How to give feedback on Scratch projects? Helping students improve their code can be tricky. They can make their projects more complex by using more sprites and fewer more powerful blocks, but even this advice doesn’t always work. Check out Dr. Scratch. This is a website that analyzes projects. You enter in the URL associated with the Scratch project and paste it into Dr. Scratch. Dr. Scratch provides feedback on the program, like this: **Updated January 4 2017 with information about artsy.net and seeing more Miro art.** This blog post includes a 5 minute video, a lesson plan and examples of student that show integration of visual art curriculum and Computational Thinking in my grade 3 classroom. Thank you to Bea Leiderman, Carolyn Skibba, Douglas Kian and my experience at the Apple Institute in Berlin for this idea. Using Keynote and Kandinsky is Bea’s idea. It’s brilliant. Bea, Carolyn and I went to the Bauhaus Archive in Berlin where we saw Kandinsky’s work. We also had in depth workshops on Keynote. The combination of these experiences at the Apple Institute in Berlin lead to this idea and a project. Bea, Douglas and I are currently working on a project where we are investigating how these ideas of art, coding, and Computational Thinking might fit together. This is the early stage of this team project. This video gives an overview of the lesson and a chance to peak inside my grade 3 classroom: Visual Arts Expectations These are the expectations from the Ontario Arts Curriculum that apply to this lesson: Elements of Design: • line: variety of line (e.g., thick, thin, dotted) • shape and form: composite shapes; symmetrical and asymmetrical shapes and forms in both the human-made environment and the natural world Principles of Design: • variety: slight variations on a major theme; strong contrasts (e.g., use of different lines, shapes, values, and colours to create interest) Creating and Presenting: D1.1 create two- and three-dimensional works of art that express personal feelings and ideas inspired by the environment or that have the community as their subject D1.2 demonstrate an understanding of compo – sition, using principles of design to create narrative art works or art works on a theme or topic D1.4 use a variety of materials, tools, and techniques to respond to design challenges Reflecting Responding and Analysing: D2.2 explain how elements and principles of design are used to communicate meaning or understanding in their own and others’ art work Exploring Forms and Cultural Contexts: D3.2 demonstrate an awareness of a variety of works of art and artistic traditions from diverse communities, times, and places Computational Thinking Goals Karen Brennan and Mitch Resnick published a paper in 2012 describing a framework for teaching and assessing Computational Thinking (CT). I learned about this paper from a presentation by Julie Mueller at a CT event for teachers in August 2016. Based on this framework, these are the CT goals of this lesson: Coding Concepts (actual computer science concepts): Sequencing and Debugging. Practices (thinking habits): Being incremental and iterative, testing and debugging, reusing and remixing. Perspective (beliefs about self): Using technology to express oneself. - iPad with Swift Playgrounds, Keynote, iMovie, and Seesaw - Mac with Keynote and iMovie (for the teacher) - Example Keynote File (this is Bea’s creation): Example Miro Kandinsky Art.key - Colouring Pages - Pictures of Kandinsky and Miro Art Source: Wassily Kandinsky [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Source: The Smile of the Flamboyant Wings, 1953 by Joan Miro For more information on Joan Miro, check out this artsy.net site here. Thank you Louise L. for letting me know about this site.The page I have linked “provides visitors with Miró’s bio, over 400 of his works, exclusive articles, and up-to-date Miró exhibition listings. The page also includes related artists and categories, allowing viewers to discover art beyond our Miró page.” The rest of artsy.net is very much worth looking at also. Teacher Prior Knowledge/Experience: Student Prior Knowledge/Experience: - Time to play with Keynote Lesson Part 1: Bell-work and Minds On: As students enter the classroom, give them the option of taking either a Miro or Kandinsky colouring sheet. While the students settle and the teacher takes attendance, students colour the colouring sheets anyway they like. Introducing the Project and Meeting Miro and Kandinsky: Introduce the project by showing an example. This was created by Bea: Next, show examples of Kandinsky and Miro works. Ideally show the same art work as the colouring pages and several more. Explain how the art is abstract. Show how the example has movement that happens with just a single click. Go over the success criteria: Teach Art Concepts: Have students compare their colouring pages to the actual artists’ works. Notice the main differences. Miro uses curved lines and primary colours whereas Kandinsky uses many different colours but has more geometric shapes and straight lines. Teach Coding Concepts: Introduce the coding concepts of sequence and debugging. Working On It: Now it’s up to students to create their own Kandinsky or Miro style art, or a mixture of both. You should model how to find shapes, lines, and how to add animation. There are two ways to animate and they are shown in the screenshots below. Or, tap on the object you want to animate and tap on “Animate.” Warning: Many students will figure out how to add the animations but won’t be able to link them together. I skip telling them this step so they are confronted with having to problem solve and debug. Once they have a need for this information, I show them how, though many figured it out on their own. The screenshot below shows how to link the animation. To sequence the animation tap on the object, then tap Animate, then tap the heading to get the options you see in the screenshot. Notice that you have to change “Start Build” from “On Tap” to “With Previous Build” or “After Previous Build.” Once students have completed their projects ask them to share the Keynote files with you. You could do this by using Airdrop or having them save the Keynote file to Google Drive. This is the end of the first part of the lesson. Now you will need some time to convert those Keynote files on your Mac to mP4. This part was time consuming. I wish I could export keynote files to iMovie on iPad. But, at this point you can only send a copy As Keynote, PDF, or PowerPoint. Teacher’s Homework Prior to Part 2: This part is not fun. - Open each file in Keynote on a Mac and export the file as a Quicktime. (File>Export To>QuickTime…) - Then, open each file in iMovie and export as MP4. - Share these files with students. I used Google Drive. Lesson Part 2: Bell-work and Housekeeping: Give students instructions to retrieve the MP4 file you created with the Keynote files. Ask students to open the file in iMovie. Review the success criteria. Teach Art Concepts ~ Reflection: Students use iMovie to create a voice over audio recording explaining why Miro or Kandinsky would like their art work. Review the key elements and principles of design for each artist. Give students time to do their reflection and upload videos to Seesaw. Teach Coding Concepts: When students are finished uploading their art reflection, have students use Apple Swift Playgrounds Learn to Code 1 to reinforce coding concepts. Have students work on the Command puzzles. Examples of Student Work: Here are examples of the animations prior to students adding reflections. Here are examples including the reflection: What is Swift Playgrounds? Swift Playgrounds is a free app that runs on iPad, as long as that iPad is running iOS 10 or later. It’s such a large and powerful programming app that it needs the power of an iPad to run. This is why you can’t get it on a Chromebook and why it is not web-based. What makes Swift Playgrounds special? - It will help your students bridge the gap from block based coding to real programming. Working with block based programming tools like Blockly and Scratch is a great way to get started, but how do kids learn to write actual lines of code? Swift Playgrounds is designed to solve that problem. Users can tap on lines of code and drop them into the project or use a keyboard to actually type out commands. - Swift Playgrounds is a modern programming language designed to be simple and intuitive yet powerful. You can develop an app completely on iPad using Swift Playground except for the final step of preparing the app for the app store using XCode. - Swift Playgrounds works on both an iPad and Mac. With Swift Playgrounds, you can start a project on iPad and transition to using a Mac. How to get Started In Swift Playgrounds you can develop your own Playgrounds from a template (I found this too hard for me at this stage) or you can interact with pre-made Playbooks. Start by downloading Learn to Code 1, 2 and 3. Each one is a series of puzzles that you need to solve using lines of Swift code. The objective is to get Byte or one of the other avatars to move through a 3D world to collect gems, toggle switches and more. You and your students will learn: “the fundamentals of Swift, the programming language used to create apps for Apple products.” Fun fact: I’m working through Learn to Code 1 and I have completed all the puzzles for the following computer science concepts: Commands, Functions, and For Loops. Next up: Conditional Code. Are there lessons and resources? Puzzles are grouped by computer science (CS) concepts such as Commands, Logical Operators and Conditionals. At the beginning of each set of puzzles there is a mini lesson explaining to the user the CS concept. In addition, there are free Teacher Guides and an iTunes Course that include complete lessons, videos and Keynote slides to help teachers guide students through learning computer science concepts in Swift Playgrounds. The Teacher Guides also include all the solutions to the puzzles. The Learn to Code 3 Teacher Guide has just been released too: Hour of Code There is also a Facilitator’s Guide for the Hour of Code: What do students say? I ran a Swift Playgrounds coding club for 8 weeks and here is what some of my students had to say about learning with Swift Playgrounds: What else can you do in Swift Playgrounds? If you know about Tickle then you already know that you can use other apps to program robots and smart-toys. Just like Tickle, Swift Playgrounds can be used to interact and program robots. Wonder Workshop, the makers of Dash, have created a Playbook that works with Dash called Dashbook. Read about and download the Playbook here. Below is a screen shot of what the Dashbook looks like: This is one of the activities I will be doing this week with my class to celebrate Computer Science week which is December 5-9 2016. Going even Deeper with Swift Computer Science Education Week is December 5th-9th. Classrooms across Ontario, throughout Canada and around the world will be diving into Hour of Code activities. As we do this, I would like to ask a couple of questions: 1) Should students learn to code? 2) Should teachers teach coding? 3) Is coding in the curriculum? 1) Should students learn to code? What would your students say if asked? Members of my coding club share their thoughts in the video below (their answers may surprise you): 2) Should teachers teach coding? Yes: We should use coding as a teaching tool if we think that it is the most powerful and efficient tool to teach a concept. John Hattie says that almost every single intervention and tool in education can be found to be effective. He encourages us to “Ask not what works, but what works best.” Listen to John Hattie’s keynote from the Education On Air event held on Friday, December 2nd 2016 (watch from 19:23-19:50) to hear these very words and other related ideas: No: We should not be using coding as a teaching tool if there are other more effective ways to teach the curriculum expectations. Yes: We should teach coding because it is an opportunity to develop computational thinking. Computational thinking is modern problem solving. George Polya’s four step problem solving method was introduced in 1945. Remember these four steps: - Understand the Problem - Make a Plan - Carry out the Plan - Look Back This method for problem solving has been effective for teaching math for a long time, but will it be an effective model of problem solving for the future? The problem solving skills and habits of mind listed below are more fruitful for the current world we live in and the types of problems our students may face now and in the future: Yes: By 2020, there will be over 200,000 unfilled jobs in Information Technology says ICTC. 50% of those jobs will be indirectly or directly related to app development. If one of the roles of education is to prepare our students for employment, then we should be giving all students opportunities to learn to code since students are likely to get work where they are either coding or working with a developer/programmer. It is up to us to ensure that all students, including ones in my video above, to understand that learning to code is relevant to their lives. 3) Is Coding in the curriculum? The short factual answer is no. If you look more creatively at the curriculum the answer might be yes. The only place I found anything close was a reference to computational strategies, which is not the same as computational thinking. However, teachers can use coding as a tool to teach the curriculum, just like you might use a chocolate sundae making activity to engage students and teach about procedural writing or you would use a ruler when working on measurement. According to people like Dr. Julie Mueller, coding and computational thinking is “hiding in plain sight” in the curriculum. This is a perspective that was presented by Dr. Mueller and her research collaborator at a session in August 2016. The same thinking and problem solving that is foundational to science, math, inquiry in social studies is also foundational to computational thinking. Also, some have found that there are many expectations in many documents, such a math, that can be explicitly taught with and through coding. See for example Integrating Coding into the Elementary Curriculum by Lisa Floyd, secondary school teacher. And, while coding is not in the curriculum, Ontario Premier Kathleen Wynne has written an open letter to the minister of Education Mitzie Hunter encouraging educators to dip a toe, ever so gently, into computer coding: Show Up and Refuse to Leave Keynote Net Smart by Howard Rheingold Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks by Nicholas Christakis Presence by Amy Cuddy Mindfulness by Ellen Langer Websites/Apps: (Also mentioned in Demo Slam) GoNoodle Body breaks and meditation for kids The Hidden Influence of Social Networks TED Talk by Nicholas Christakis 21 minutes Your body language shapes who you are TED Talk by Amy Cuddy Let it Go ~ Think About it by GoNoodle GAFE and iPad: BFFs 4EVR This is a beginner session. Please bring an iPad. View GAFE and iPad: BFFs 4EVR slides here or at bit.ly/gafeipadbff Get your own copy of GAFE and iPad: BFFs 4EVR slides here Get Google to Give you Time ~ Productivity Tips This is an Intermediate session. A lap top or Chromebook is recommended. View Productivity slides here or at bit.ly/GAFEgivemetime Get your own copy of the Productivity slides here Copies of Book Talk assessment (to use with Autocrat Mail Merge) here Assessment and Pedagogical Documentation with iPad This is a beginner session. Please bring an iPad. View Assessment with iPad slides here or at goo.gl/ToU8rS (Case Sensitive) Get your own copy of the Assessment with iPad slides here Thank you Lucy Gray, Steve Hargadon and your colleagues for organizing this event. I suspect that Julie Lindsay also helped out, so thank you goes to you too Lindsay! Thank you to these people for pushing my thinking. This was my first visit to any kind of Global Education event. The day alternated between ignite talks and round table discussions. I have organized my notes to share some highlights from the day. You’ll get some quotes and key points from the ignite talks and round table discussions that resonated for me. I hope you enjoy them too. His message was that Global Education should be for all students. He would like to see more people engaging in global education. He believes it should be integrated throughout the grades and curriculum. Key points from his talk were: - Very few students have the opportunity to engage in global education despite the desire from the world of work to have workers that are globally engaged, aware and active. - Global education should not be an add-on, it should be the lense through which we teach and learn everything at school. - All teachers should teach from a global perspective. - Technology allows us to bring global education to all. - Digital badging can provide acknowledgement of skills developed in this space. Lisa Parisi‘s ignite included these gems: - “At first it was about the technology, then it became about collaboration and globalization.” - “It is impossible to ignore the global issues we face each day.” - “People study in schools about animals, climate and other things from other countries but almost never about the people.” Round Table Conversation Leader: Julie Lindsay How do you support discussions between students from classrooms all over the world? Do you communicate asynchronously and synchronously. Do you have teacher directed conversations or less structured time for kids to be kids and just talk? Perhaps not surprisingly, the experienced people in this group believe that a balance of approaches is ideal. Due to time zone challenges, sometimes a synchronous conversation is not possible. Some teachers would have evening events at their school with students and families to Skype or Google Hangout with other classrooms. I thought this was a clever solution. As for the conversations, students need some unstructured time to be themselves and let a bond develop. However, participants in the discussion warned that you need to get past the “I like pizza, you like pizza” type discussion and into deeper topics. Near the end of the time together, people talked about Student Personal Learning Networks. “Who do you have in your online network that you don’t see everyday?” Is a question Julie Lindsay thinks all students should be able to answer. Terry Godwaldt from The Center for Global Education and Bob LaRocca from Primary Source were also part of this round table. These are new-to-me people with new-to-me organizations. Later in the day Terry talked about Taking It Global. Near the end of the hour together, Julie talked about A Day in the Life. She says she puts students into a virtual classroom for synchronous communication. But also has students connecting asynchronously through various blogging and social media services. I love how she said: “It all works, *just*.” Time zones are a challenge, probably the biggest. Someone in the group asked where to get in touch with people to get started. Here is what people shared: Cultural Relay Fitness for young girls! Julie Lindsay’s ignite was titled “Putting the Global into Online Collaboration.” She has lived and worked in six different countries. She is global, and yet, she has a dilemma with the term. Her supervisors for her doctoral program told her to drop the word ‘global’ from her dissertation. So, she has been thinking about what global really means. Is the use of the word ‘global’ acceptable, necessary or redundant when talking about learning online. Great question. Favourite Quotes and thought bites: - What does the word ‘global’ add to online learning. - Is ‘global’ a mirage? - What happens when we put ‘global’ into online collaboration? What is different? Is there a new understanding of time differences, cultural and daily life? - Global is all-embracing and covering the entire world. - ‘Global’ and affirmative action. Julie proclaims that the ‘Global’ in ‘Online Global Collaboration’ is not redundant. Then, she got ground level and practical by outlining the Norms of Online Global Collaboration: - Being prepared to connect and communicate. - Having a purpose shared outcomes. - Paraphrase use clear common language. - Perceive: ask for help and share knowledge. - Participate and be visible online. - Positive and encouraged DC, build empathy, assume best intentions. - Produce. Productively co-create and encourage learners to compare, contrast and create. - Be open to the potential and serendipitous learning that will happen if you let it. Up next was Amy Shaffer from Connected World. She is intelligent and also quite darling. Her slides are here. “Do you consider yourself as a creator?” she asked right off the top. She believes that when you bush buttons and see things happen, that we then build faith in the world around us. She uses doorknobs as an example. The doorknob is a button you bush everyday, and it works every time. So you trust that it works. This is the idea behind The Wonderment. “It’s a space that gives kids that button to push” she says. A sense of belonging is important in working to make change. And this is the ethos behind The Wonderment. Amy Shaffer wants to give kids a way to actively engage in their own world at their level. More great quotes from Amy: - You can’t leave behind the possibility for genuine human interactions. - The world is waiting and wanting to hear from our students. - Education without action is like food without exercise. Round Table Conversation Topic: Beyond Mystery Location Calls Leader: Billy Krakower (Who brought his own power cord!) - Pro tip: Use TouchCast to practice Mystery Skype. Use a green screen to upload a different picture so it appears that you are coming from another country. - When mystery Skyping, have students keep the same job for 3 times. - Skype around the world in two hours. - If time difference is a challenge have the Skype at night and make it an event with parents! - Link to check out Sharks for Kids Friends I was delighted to see: New connections and First Face2Face Meetings: Do you use the Daily 5 and CAFE in your class? Perhaps you are familiar with this series of books: I attended “Hacking the Daily Five” presented byVictoria Olson MsVictoriaOlson and Sara Boucher @MsGeekyTeach. Victoria and Sara demonstrated how to integrate technology with the Daily 5. They focused on Google and iOS Apple tools. To get session resources, go to the links below: They gave a Daily-5-Disclaimer saying they don’t follow every aspect of the Sister’s Approach. They hack it. Victoria and Sara do stick with the 5 parts of the program. In each of these areas, I learned something new. Read to Self New Learning: - Literably A website where students can read text and the online service provides a running record. I think this is pretty cool, but I like that Victoria emphasized that nothing beats the classroom teacher sitting down with a student. Nothing. - Google and Explain Everything: Victoria fills a Google folder full of books she has downloaded from Reading A-Z. Students can then bring those books into Explain Everything and record their reading. The key idea for me was the idea of using Google and Explain Everything to make a library of things for students to read. I would like to put in shared reading from the previous week, books I have written, classbooks, as well as texts I have access to use. Read to Someone New Learning: - Have two students record their reading and then switch iPad devices. - Invite guest authors via Skype and Google Hangout or even invite parents to read to students if they can make a short break during their work day! Listen to Reading New Learning: - Tools and Websites for Listening to Reading: Work on Writing New Learning: Word Work New Learning: Websites for Word Work: - Spelling City (also an iOS App) - Funbrain and play Mad Libs - Florida Center for Reading Research

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Daguerreotypes includes images captured with one of the earliest photographic techniques. The images show portraits of politicians and activists (including Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas), laborers, early views of the U.S. Capitol, and African Americans who became leaders in Liberia. These online exhibits provide context and additional information about this collection. These historical era(s) are best represented in the collection although they may not be all-encompassing. - The Civil War and Reconstruction, 1850-1877 Related Collections and Exhibits - Civil War Photographs, 1861-1865 - Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920 - The Gettysburg Address - "Votes for Women" Suffrage Pictures, 1850-1920 Recommended additional sources of information. There are currently no other resources for this collection Specific guidance for searching this collection. Search on American Colonization Society for portraits of African Americans who colonized Liberia. Search on congressman, senator for portraits of elected officials. Search on occupational portrait for images of laborers with the tools of their trades. Search on individuals by name. For help with search words and names, go to America's First Look at the Camera: Daguerreotypes, 1839-1864 Subject Index. For help with general search strategies, see Finding Items in American Memory. The daguerreotype marked a milestone in photographic history as portraits became popular among politicians, celebrities, and the growing middle class. America's First Look into the Camera contains hundreds of portraits of both famous and anonymous men and offers insight into the people and policies of the nineteenth-century United States including politicians, the colonization of Liberia, effects of the Industrial Revolution, and reactions to high mortality rates. America's First Exposure to Photography: The Daguerreotype Medium Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre invented the daguerreotype in 1839. Within a few years, daguerreotype studios appeared in United States cities and the popularity of the medium grew through The 1850s. A brief history of the daguerreotype medium, its camera, and its image processing are available in the collection's,"The Daguerreotype Medium." The collection's Glossary provides a list of relevant terms. Daguerreotypes were popularly and primarily used for portraits. Unlike most photographs today, in which images are printed from transparent negatives onto paper, the daguerreotype was a polished copper plate upon which an image was directly exposed. No negative used in the process and so each daguerreotype was a unique, one-of-a-kind object. With its brilliant, mirror-like surface and its ornate case, small enough to hold in the hand or carry in the pocket, the daguerreotype was suited to a vivid and intimate representation of a loved one. Despite its value as a means of memorializing friends and family, photography did not have an immediate market. In fact, it was photography's almost magical ability to reproduce life that elicited fear and suspicion from many people. In an effort to assuage anxieties about the medium and to gain public credibility, photographers sought to take and to display portraits of America's elite. In an age when phrenologists offered to read a person's character based on their physical characteristics, portraits of society's leaders were thought to have an edifying and moralizing influence on the viewer. Portraits of esteemed personages such as Lyman Beecher, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Dolley Madison, and Abraham Lincoln drew the public to the photographers' studios and provided the genesis for a cult of celebrity that would grow with the evolution of photography. - Why do you think that portraiture was the most popular use of the daguerreotype? How might precedents in painting and drawing, the business needs of the studios, and the constraints of the medium have contributed to this popularity? - Why do you think that more men were photographed than women? - Why would portraits of prominent Americans encourage the public to sit for their own portraits? - Why would the display of these portraits lend the photographer credibility? - Why might early photographers have had a difficult time being taken seriously as professionals? Who would their competitors have been? - How might an early photographer have convinced an esteemed political or social leader to sit for his or her portrait? - How might an early photographer have distinguished himself from his competitors? Some artists brought the daguerreotype outside of the portrait studio to capture images of buildings and places. In addition to hundreds of portraits, this collection also contains pictures of Niagara Falls, an American Indian camp, and a monument commemorating a battle from the War of 1812. Washington, D.C. locations featured in the collection include the General Post Office, and the Patent Office. Many daguerreotype images were later reproduced as engravings and drawings in newspapers and other periodicals. - How do you think that the realism of these images impacted the value of illustrations and written descriptions of these people and places? - How do you think that people might have responded to such images? - How do you think that the daguerreotype medium may have set a precedent for subsequent attempts at documentary photography? For an understanding of how portrait photography evolved after the daguerreotype, browse American Memory collections, including William P. Gottlieb: Photographs from the Golden Age of Jazz, America from the Great Depression to World War II, Creative Americans: Portraits by Carl Van Vechten, 1932-1964, and By Popular Demand: "Votes for Women" Suffrage Pictures, 1850-1920. - How did elements within a portrait (clothing, backgrounds, props, etc.) change over time? - How did expressions and mannerisms change over time? - How do the subjects affect the nature of the portrait? - Do you think that portraits are an accurate reflection of a person in a specific historical era? Many galleries displayed images of politicians to entice the public to visit and to sit for a portrait. Searches on terms such as Democrat, Whig, and Republican yield portraits of some of the major figures from the U.S. political parties. Images of Democratic presidents such as Andrew Jackson and James Polk might be compared to ideological adversaries such as Henry Clay, a Whig senator and 1844 presidential candidate, and the 1848 Whig candidate President Zachary Taylor with his cabinet. Republican Abraham Lincoln is also represented in portraits as a clean-shaven senator and as a familiar presidential figure. Additional searches on terms such as senator, congressman, and governor also produce a number of local politicians from the different parties. - Do you think that these portraits reflect the ideological differences between politicians or do they present a standard image? - To what degree is each person's uniqueness represented in these portraits? - How do these portraits compare to the occupational portraits and other images in the collection? - What do you think the comparison implies about the role of politicians in American society? - How are politicians represented in today's media? How does their representation compare to other "celebrities" who frequently appear in the media? - What is the value of a photograph of a historic figure to researchers? In 1817, the American Colonization Society established the settlement of Liberia on the west coast of Africa. This colony was created in part for free African Americans to enjoy the civil rights denied to them in the United States. While some documents in the American Memory collection, From Slavery to Freedom, question whether Liberia was a land of opportunity or an opportunity to avoid civil rights issues in the United States, it is clear that many African Americans moved to the colony to start a new life. The American Memory collection, Maps of Liberia, 1830-1870, features a timeline history of Liberia from its early days as a colony to its recognition as an independent nation in 1847. A search on Liberia in this collection yields a number of portraits from the American Colonization Society. Images include Liberian presidents Joseph Jenkins Roberts and Stephen Allen Benson, senators Edward Morris and Edward Roye, Senate Chaplain Philip Coker, and a number of anonymous colonists. - Many daguerreotype galleries showcased portraits of United States politicians to attract interest from the public. Do you think that it was likely that portraits of Liberian politicians were used in the same manner? Why or why not? - Are there any other images of African Americans in this collection? - What do you think the relationship of the Liberian portraits to the rest of the collection suggests about how they may have been used? What does it suggest about the status of African Americans in the early nineteenth-century? - Senator Edward Roye appears with his left hand raised in the air. What do you think might be the significance of this pose? - How do the clothing, facial expressions, and poses of these Liberian politicians compare to those of white politicians featured in this collection? - Why might differences in these aspects of the portraits exist? - What might such differences imply about the efforts of the American Colonization Society? - How do you think that the American Colonization Society might have used these images? Tools of the Trade Workers during the first half of the nineteenth century faced a series of transitions in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. Inventions such as the steam engine and the cotton gin prompted the creation of assembly lines and factory systems as Americans began discovering the benefits of mass production. At the same time, many craftsmen faced a transitional time as mechanization threatened their livelihoods. A search on occupational portrait yields a number of images documenting the different disciplines of this industrial age. Traditional workers such as a blacksmith, carpenter, latch maker, watchmaker, clergyman, and stonecutter are featured along with people whose jobs were byproducts of the Industrial Revolution such as a woman working at a sewing machine, a man in front of an engine, and men on a crank handcar on the tracks of a railroad. - How do different workers pose with their tools? - How are these people dressed compared to other people featured in this collection? - What do you think that the clothes and mannerisms of these craftsmen imply about their social class? - How do these images of craftsmen differ from others in the collection (clothing, facial expressions, etc.)? - What do you think is the relationship between the worker and his or her tools? - Do you think that there is a difference between the depiction of traditional crafts and new industrial efforts? Why or why not? - Considering that these workers are anonymous, do you think that the people or the trades are the real subject of the portraits? - How do these portraits reflect nineteenth-century attitudes towards the value of work? - How do these images compare with how tradesmen are depicted today? - Do you think that these portraits appeared in studios alongside images of politicians and other famous people? - How does the way these portraits may have been presented impact their significance? Death and Memorialization in the Victorian Era People living in the nineteenth-century United States endured a higher mortality rate than subsequent generations and the memorialization of loved ones held special importance in the all too frequent grieving process. Those with more money could afford to have portraits of family members drawn or painted. Death masks placed over a person's face, shoulders, and sometimes hands just after death were also popular. The advent of photography made it possible for the middle class to afford portraits as well. If a portrait was not made prior to death, it was not unusual to obtain one after the fact. Portraits drawn or photographed just after death were often said to capture a heavenly look of serenity, suggesting that the horrible inevitability of death also held a beauty. Daguerreotypes often required a subject to remain still for several minutes to ensure that the image would not blur. Some subjects were more still than others. It is unclear exactly when Mary Gideon sat for her portrait in 1853, but the notes in this collection indicate that she died the year that the image was taken. Such a memorial was likely to have been displayed in a special place in the family's home or embedded on a tombstone. Another potential post-mortem daguerreotype comes in the form of the Adams family portrait featuring a somber couple dressed in black holding what appears to be their sleeping daughter on their lap. Animals, too, may have been so cherished as to have been memorialized in photographs such as that of an unidentified man with a cat in his lap. - In what ways does a portrait memorialize a loved one? Why would memorials such as photographs help a friend or family member cope with the loss of a loved one? - Is a portrait of the deceased different from a portrait of the living? If so, how? - What impact would you expect the Civil War to have had on the use of photography for memorialization? - How have notions of death and memorialization changed over time? To what might these changes be attributed? - How might the increased ease of taking and duplicating photographs have affected the value of portraits and the meaning of memorialization? The daguerreotypes available in America's First Look into the Camera provide an opportunity to assess the value of research tools such as timelines and visual biographies. The subtle details within occupational portraits of tradesmen and other working classes can be interpreted to determine the status of each group in the nineteenth-century United States. Portraits of politicians provide a starting point to gain a better understanding of the rise and fall of the Whig Party. These and other images also allow a number of opportunities for future historical research. Chronological Thinking: Timeline and Biography The collection's Timeline of the Daguerrian Era provides a brief history of the United States from 1839 to 1860. It also provides the opportunity to understand that timelines are interprative tools that enhance the study of history by focusing on select events at the expense of other historical moments. Assess this collection's timeline by identifying the specific themes and ideas that it emphasizes and those themes and ideas that are left out. - What themes are represented in this timeline? How are these themes related to each other? - Do you think that this timeline is helpful in understanding the collection? Why or why not? - What other events or themes could have been included in a timeline for this collection? Chronological thinking can also be practiced in biographical projects. Select a photograph of a famous person represented in the collection. Research what was going on in this person's life in the year that the photograph was taken. Determine what the main events were in this person's life. Take on this individual's persona, and write a journal entry for the year in which the photograph was taken. Try to make the entry reflect the significance of this time in the person's life. Historical Comprehension: The Whig Party The Whig Party's history coincided with the era of the daguerreotype. Its origin and dissolution were based on various political conflicts. In 1834, Henry Clay and other members of the National Republican party joined forces with disgruntled Democrats to establish the Whig Party in opposition to President Andrew Jackson's policies. Six years after the party's formation, William Henry Harrison won the presidential election on the Whig ticket, but he died one month into serving his term. His successor, Vice President John Tyler, demonstrated loyalties to the Democrats and was kicked out of the party. Henry Clay earned the 1844 Whig nomination but his refusal to discuss the issue of the annexation of Texas as a slave state prompted many northern abolitionists to leave the party. This ensured victory for Democratic candidate James K. Polk. Whig candidate Zachary Taylor won the presidency four years later but his opposition to admitting California prompted debates over what would be known as the Compromise of 1850. Taylor died in the midst of the debate and his successor, Millard Fillmore, supported the Compromise despite objections from within the party. The debate over the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which nullified the ban on slavery in U.S. territories established by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, ultimately caused the remaining members of the Whig Party to split and join the Democrats, the new Republican Party, or the anti-immigrant Know-Nothing Party. Searches on Whig and Democrat provide a number of portraits of various Congressmen associated with both parties. These portraits can be organized according to political affiliation and used to create an illustrative timeline documenting the rise and fall of the Whig Party. Historical Analysis and Interpretation: Portraiture A search on occupation portraits results in a number of images of anonymous workers such as a blacksmith and a tinworker posing with the tools of their trade. These portraits are filled with subtle details such as the workers' facial expressions and their clothes and tools. An analysis of these visual details provides information about the subjects in these portraits and their relationship to other groups featured in this collection. Such groups might include military and religious figures. Searches on terms such as army and military yield portraits of men such as U.S. Army General Hugh Brady in both his civilian clothes and his military uniform and a photograph of the U.S. Military Commission to Crimea. A search on terms such as clerical results in portraits of men such as Bishop Frederic Baraga and Cardinal Nicholas Patrick Wiseman. - What are the similarities and differences between the portraits of these different types of people? - What do the subjects' clothing suggest about their occupations and social status? - What do the subjects' poses and props (or lack thereof) suggest about their occupations and social status? - Do the captions shed any light on the subjects and their status? - How do these portraits compare to the collection's images of politicians and authors? - How do you think that these visual details influenced the way viewers responded to the images? - What kinds of values would you expect the society that created these portraits to have had? Historical Issue-Analysis and Decision-Making: The Rise of Photography to an Art The business potential of the new daguerreotype technology attracted many tradespeople who, once having acquired the right equipment, needed only to acquire a new skill. Even the more amateur photographers could make a profit as itinerant daguerreotypists, selling cheap portraits in one town after another. Most of these former jewelers and druggists lacked any kind of artistic training and their photographs were more affordable than aesthetic. Given the proliferation of mediocre photographs, the money-making motives of many early photographers, and the mechanical nature of their medium, photography was considered inferior to the true arts of painting and drawing. Mathew Brady was working as a jewel-case manufacturer in New York City in the early 1840s when he learned about the daguerreotype process from inventor Samuel Morse. Brady soon established himself as a portrait photographer with his New York City Daguerrean Gallery. Brady longed to raise the status of photography to an art. He improved the quality of his images to appeal to customers of high taste and sought out only the most esteemed subjects. This collection contains hundreds of portraits attributed to Brady's studios including images of presidents Andrew Jackson and James Buchanan, senators Sam Houston (Texas) and Daniel Webster (New Hampshire), authors Washington Irving and Nathaniel Hawthorne, and celebrities such as Tom Thumb. Brady never operated the camera himself, but was celebrated as the designer of the portrait, posing his subjects and eliciting the desired expression. Brady was soon heralded as the champion of a growing art form that not only reproduced the subject's image, but also expressed the subject's true character. By the 1860s, the popularity of celebrity portraits had developed into a craze for collecting small copies of these portraits and organizing them into albums. These small portraits, or cartes-de-visite, sold well, but Brady never liked these cheap copies. He preferred the Imperial portraits he had created when paper photographs replaced daguerreotypes. These large-format portraits were often retouched with inks and paints to give them the uniqueness and status of paintings. The uniqueness of the Imperials gave them a higher value, but one that was not easily marketable. Eventually, Brady's business failed as he refused to put aside his artistic pretensions to cater to middle-class customers. - What is the difference between art and a craft? - Does the money-making motives of itinerant daguerreotypists disqualify them from the status of artists? How does the creator's motives relate to his or her status as an artist? - Is the ability to draw an income from one's craft necessary to qualify it as an art form? - What does the fact that Brady was renowned for his design of his portraits but did not have to operate the camera imply about the role of the artist and the definition of art? - What is the value of the artistic effort put into the design of a work? What is the value of the effort put into the implementation of the design in crafting the work? Is the value of one greater than the other? - What is implied by the fact that the status of daguerreotype portraits was elevated when they were thought to express the subjects' inner characters? Does an image need to have moral value in order to be considered art? - Is the status of photography different from that of painting or drawing because the image is created through a chemical and mechanical process? - Are the demands upon the photographer different from the demands upon the painter or illustrator? If so, how? Does one medium require more artistic skill than another? Historical Research Capabilities The portraits in this collection offer an ideal opportunity for further biographical research. Images of renowned individuals can be printed and organized by any number of themes such as politics, presidents, authors, artists, or women. Relevant biographical information can be placed on the back of each printed portrait to create biographical flash cards that might include the following details: America's First Look into the Camera offers portraits of authors, politicians, tradesmen, and other people in the nineteenth-century United States. These images can be used to spark biographical and critical assessments of an author's work. Other portraits can be used in creative writing projects and can prompt the analysis of the evolution of media outlets from their origins in the 1830s. Walt Whitman and the Picture Gallery In a July 2, 1846, edition of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, editor Walt Whitman described daguerreotype portraits as a spectacle: In whatever direction you turn your peering gaze, you see naught but human faces! There they stretch, from floor to ceiling--hundreds of them. Ah! what tales might those pictures tell if their mute lips had the power of speech! How romance then, would be infinitely outdone by fact. Whitman celebrated the connection that a viewer has with the subject of a portrait and noted, "An electric chain seems to vibrate. . . between our brain and him or her preserved there so well by the limner's cunning. Time, space, both are annihilated, and we identify the semblance with the reality." Whitman made reference, again, to this spectacle in his poem, "My Picture Gallery." In a little house keep I pictures suspended, it is not a fix'd house, It is round, it is only a few inches from one side to the other; Yet behold, it has room for all the shows of the world, all memories! Here the tableaus of life, and here the goupings of death; Here, do you know this? this is cicerone himself, With finger rais'd he points to the prodigal pictures. - In "My Picture Gallery," what does the metaphor of the "little house" represent? - What does the metaphor of the pictures represent? Why are they described as "prodigal"? Whitman's biographer, David S. Reynolds, observed in Walt Whitman's America, that "photography was an essential metaphor behind [Whitman's] democratic aesthetic." This collection provides the opportunity to examine Whitman's work with an understanding of the impact of early photography in mind. I believe the likes of you shall stand or fall with my poems, and that they are my poems. Man's, woman's, child's, youth's, wife's, husband's, mother's, father's, young man's, young woman's poems. "I Sing the Body Electric" (1855) - In what ways does Whitman's poetry resemble photography or a picture gallery? - Do his poems annihilate time and space? - What are some examples of what Reynolds calls Whitman's "democratic aesthetic"? - What does photography have to do with democracy? This collection can be used for creative writing projects based on an imagined visit to a daguerreotype gallery. In 1840, the first commercial portrait gallery, New York's Wolcott and Johnson, used large mirrors mounted outside the studio to project as much sunlight onto the customer as possible, in a sitting that could last for as long as eight minutes. As daguerreotype technologies improved, sitting times decreased and attention to artistry increased. Photographer, Mathew Brady, achieved fame for his skill in posing his subjects, eliciting from them the desired expression, and then telling the camera operator when to take the picture. Portraitist Napoleon Sarony was known for dramatic poses made possible by an innovative posing machine with separate controls for the sitter's back, arms, head, etc. Like Brady, Sarony employed a camera operator while he elicited a pose and expression from his subject, in one case sparring with a boxer to evoke the image of a prizefighter. Browse the collection's photographs and imagine either what it would have been like to see such images in a daguerreotype gallery or to sit for a portrait. Describe this experience as if writing about it in a letter to a friend. - Was this the first time that you were in a daguerreotype gallery? What is it like to see all of these portraits hanging on the walls? - Which people do you recognize? Why? - How did you pose for your portrait? What objects did you include in the picture? What clothes did you wear? Why? - What was the photographer and the studio like? This collection contains portraits of literary figures from the nineteenth century including poet, William Cullen Bryant, authors, Samuel Goodrich, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Washington Irving, and publisher, James Brown of Little, Brown & Company. The lives of these people can be researched and serve as the basis for a biographical sketch that includes a discussion of the subject's major contribution to nineteenth-century American literature. - What is the social and educational background of the writer? - Do you think that the writer's personal life is reflected in his or her work? - If so, to what extent does it influence the story or poem? Does it play out in a semi-autobiographical fashion or is it merely reflected in the work's themes? Authors often choose names for their characters that reinforce certain qualities about them. When Washington Irving wrote his classic tale, "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," he named the protagonist, terrorized by the Headless Horseman, Ichabod Crane. This collection, however, contains a portrait of the real Ichabod Crane, a U.S. Army colonel who Irving met when the soldier was stationed in Sackett's Harbor, New York during the War of 1812. - How does the portrait of the real Ichabod Crane compare to the author's description of his protagonist? - When you hear the name, "Ichabod Crane," what types of qualities do you imagine this person possessing? Why? - Do you think that these qualities can be attributed to the person in the portrait, to Irving's character, or to Walt Disney's portrayal of the protagonist? - Do you think that the character would be different if his name was "John Smith" or "Thomas Wintergreen"? - How does the effect of a name compare to the influence of a person's appearance? - What is the difference between the ways that characters are developed in fiction and in dramatic arts such as theater or film? - What types of techniques are used to introduce a character? - When is it necessary to introduce the name of a character to further the plot? - When is it necessary to introduce the name of a character to develop the character? - Why do you think that Irving used the name of a real person? - What qualities do you think of in regard to your own name? Why? Mass-produced newspapers costing a penny per issue entered United States cities in the 1830s. Their emphasis on sensational stories of criminal activity and general human depravity established a loyal readership. In 1835, Scottish immigrant James Gordon Bennett entered the growing market by founding the New York Herald. Within two years, he sold approximately 20,000 copies each day. The New York Herald and other "penny papers" often competed with papers of integrity such as Horace Greeley's New York Tribune. Greeley founded the Tribune in 1841 and provided space for intellectual discussions of politics, social reform, and news. Searches on editor and journalist provide portraits of newspapermen such as Horace Greeley, James Gordon Bennett, and members of the New York Tribune editorial staff. A search on news also results in an 1853 image of a man stranded on a log in Niagara Falls that provides an early example of a news photograph. - What sort of information does this news photograph of Niagara Falls convey to the viewer? - Why do you think that Greeley posed with a copy of a newspaper on his lap? - Why do you think that Bennett did not appear holding a paper? - Do you think that these portraits are more similar to the collection's occupational portraits or its presidential portraits? - Do you find sensational newspapers today similar to the "penny papers" of the nineteenth century? - Do you think that certain media outlets attempt to establish an audience through sensational stories? - Which forms of reporting (radio, print, television) are more sensational than others? - What do you think are the potential benefits and potential dangers of sensational reporting?

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Matron, Mother, Hostess: Senior USO Hostesses and the Care of American Soldiers in World War II American involvement in World War II marked a shift in American lives as the country prepared to enter the fight. The United States government had mobilized its male fighting force, shifting familial dynamics and creating issues of morale and home front employment. This extensive mobilization included women, as popular images of Rosie the Riveter or the Women’s Auxiliary Corps recruitment posters created the illusion that every able-bodied woman entered into the workforce. In reality, Rosie workers only embodied a small percentage of women who joined the workforce. Meanwhile the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps gave women the opportunity to travel abroad and serve their country like the boys, but its creation was met with heavy opposition over fears of “masculinizing” American women through the traditionally masculine roles they took. A large percentage of women did not feel comfortable being either a Rosie or a WAC. Balancing the work of the housewife with a factory work day could be incredibly difficult, in addition to challenging traditional gender roles. For those women who wanted to combine war work with traditional ideas of femininity, the United Service Organizations (USO) was an excellent choice. There, they could exercise their feminine influence as hostesses– women who hosted servicemen at USO events and service clubs– in ways they felt would still contribute to the war effort. It was their own form of patriotic duty. Created out of the Salvation Army, Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), National Catholic Community Services (NCCS), National Travelers Aid Association, and the National Jewish Welfare Board, the USO sought to lift troop morale and grow support for the war on the home front. Historians have often ignored the contributions of USO hostesses, focusing on the debate between whether the war did or did not lead to gains in women’s economic and social independence. One need only to search for women’s work during World War II to see a plethora of articles about women in the military or war work, but hardly any results for USO hostesses or their contributions to the war effort. Historian Meghan Winchell describes these women as a stabilizing force for established gender roles– proverbial “good girls”– at a time when war work and military groups such as the WACs challenged those roles. Junior hostesses took on the role of single, sexually respectable women while senior hostesses became the mothers of the USO. Both types of women acted as ties to the home front. By bringing comfort to servicemen, the USO worked toward creating an environment reminiscent of home, the war a long way off. Of interest in this paper, however, are the senior hostesses as it applies to the letter collection used. The life and influence of one such senior hostess brings the experience of the USO hostess to life. Examining letters sent to her, a clearer picture of hostesses, as viewed by soldiers, begins to emerge. Lola Cannon Pefley was thirty years old at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack. She would later go on to volunteer for the USO and act as a senior hostess for the war’s duration, working at a USO club in Camp Bowie in Brownwood, Texas. Little else can be found about her; but the letters she received from soldiers around the world illuminate her life just enough to get a glimpse of who she was and her role as a hostess. In this examination, letters express implicit feelings, rather than solely explicit facts or details about combat. Historian Paul Fussell argues that letters are unreliable as they are prone to self-censorship, censorship by the government, and are often too formulaic to be of any real value. Soldiers often could not and did not reveal much about the combat experience in their correspondence. The letters from the soldiers in the Pefley collection, however, do reveal their perceptions of Lola and their relationships with her. In this way, they are useful by suggesting men’s broader views on gender in regard to USO hostesses and how their work boosted morale among soldiers. USO hostesses could be both women and Americans in their roles, despite the occasionally strict gender stereotypes they embraced. Women’s roles are often painted with a broad brush, reduced to stereotypes, people hardly worth exploring in the larger narrative of World War II. Fussell sums it up best: women were “the female, consisting of a mother, grandmother, and sister, on the one hand, and, on the other, agents of sexual solace.” Yet, Lola’s letters from soldiers suggest a need to reconsider Fussell’s type-casts. Women, hostesses specifically, occupied, a central place in the soldier’s narrative. But what was their role? On a broader scale, how did they feature in the narrative the government tried to create surrounding USO women, junior and senior hostesses alike? And, finally, were these type-casts responsible for the way in which hostesses’ contributions were remembered? Between the years 1942 and 1945, Lola Canon Pefley received over eighty letters from soldiers previously stationed at Camp Bowie in Texas. All had come to meet her through her USO service club located at the camp or through their letters to her. Many discussed homesickness and their desire for a girlfriend when they returned home, but one consistent theme throughout was Lola herself. Her companionship, her letters, and gifts; the soldiers never failed to mention how grateful they were for her. She was a presence even though no letters she sent were part of the collection. Though that would have been ideal, there is enough in the soldiers’ letters to piece together how she came to take such a large role in the lives of these men. Often, soldiers “missed the support and attention of [their] wife, mother, or girlfriend” according to Kindsvatter, so the USO provided with pseudo-wives, mothers, and girlfriends. USO hostesses were the better and wholesome alternative to other forms of entertainment, such as brothels. In this respect, junior hostesses were the most important. These young women, usually in their 20s, were expected to be “good, clean girls” who kept the soldiers away from women who could give them venereal diseases. They danced with men at USO dance halls and provided companionship, a reminder of their sweethearts waiting back home. While Lola was most likely a senior hostess, it is important to understand how senior hostesses became the equally feminized foil of junior hostesses. Most senior hostesses were married women, usually thirty-five years or older. Ultimately, these women served the matronly role, performing such services such as baking cookies for the soldiers, sewing patches onto their uniforms, and lending an ear to the soldiers’ anxieties. Senior USO hostesses were also expected to provide their boys with young female pen pals and dates. Heterosexual relationships were seen as important to keep up morale. The senior hostesses served as advisors for– or more likely, against– relationships as servicemen went abroad. One paratrooper in Australia, Edward “Black Eddie” Rivas and hereafter referred to as Rivas, wrote to Lola about the Australian girls and how they reminded him of the blonde-haired, blue-eyed girls from Texas. If he survived the war, he said, he’d “bring one of them back so [Lola could] meet her.” There is no letter attesting to what Lola advised, but based on the responses of other USO hostesses of the time, she most likely discouraged such a relationship. Hostesses were supposed to encourage servicemen to seek the American girls. There was worry within American society that their sons would become corrupted by foreign women, especially those who could transmit venereal diseases. As a result, soldiers were discouraged from relations with foreign women. Senior hostesses acted as the mothers to call their soldiers back from those places and keep them safe. From other soldiers who wrote to her, there was often talk about relationships and arranging dates for when these soldiers returned home from the war. Morasco asked Lola about an unnamed girl she had told him about, writing, “Tell me more about her and when you see her, tell her what a heel I am and see if she would care to correspond with me.” At the time of this letter, he had already returned to the United States and was on furlough in an unnamed military camp. Earlier, in March, he wrote, “Here I thought I could depend on you and what do you do? I’m asking you. You let me down.” This was in response to Lola’s promise to set him up with a girlfriend when he returned to Texas. Another example of this matchmaking phenomenon comes from a letter Alfalfa sent to Lola. He bluntly says, “Have me a girlfriend too,” after telling Lola of his return to Brownwood, Texas on his furlough. These are just a few of the letters in which soldiers asked about such possibilities, emphasizing the soldier’s need for female companionship. Senior hostesses were also expected to provide emotional services. Most often, this included listening to any anxieties the soldier might have. These could range from the war and the loss of friends to worries about their families and girlfriends back home. In Lola’s case, the soldiers often talked about illnesses and especially the death of their friend, paratrooper Rivas, who died in September of 1943. Before Rivas’ death, the men mentioned little in the way of their feelings other than homesickness or the occasional sad spell. Charles E. Harlan, known as “The Squirt,” wrote much about how there is little to do, stationed in the South Pacific on an unknown island, even going so far as to say, “Would almost relish [some war action]– just to break the monotony.” Boredom was a major issue for soldiers, but it could also be used to disguise unease in combat. Harlan discussed little about his job overseas, as did many other soldiers, yet there were occasional letters, such as that from Bill Owings, which read, “I’m definitely lonesome acutely so for both of you,” referring to Lola and a man by the name of Beebe. Only one line in a letter, it speaks volumes about how the men trusted Lola to be their emotional support. Similarly, Kent Thorton wrote, “I’m in the hospital, battered up a little– be up and around in a few days tho’. Mental depression was pretty bad. It seemed like a nightmare now.” At a time when mental health was rarely discussed, a soldier admitting his depression is highly unusual and a sign of trust. In USO clubs, younger junior hostesses often referred men who appeared to be in low spirits to the senior hostesses. The purported “natural,” nurturing qualities of more mature women were supposed to help provide counseling services to these men. Intriguingly, publications at the time emphasized that women would not be able to understand the masculine culture of soldiers. The job of the hostess was to provide counsel, but her ability was only good enough to ease anxieties, not understand them. A double standard emerged, where the government encouraged USO hostesses to provide a listening ear to these men yet said they could not possibly understand. Yet, Rivas’ death created a shared sense of loss between Lola and the men. “I couldn’t keep from crying (down deep) that this has happened,” wrote Harlan in December of 1943. “I know that he loved you as we do… that you were a bright and happy spot in his brief life– as in ours.” He expresses and shares his grief with Lola, who presumably wrote about her own grief regarding Rivas’ death. In this same sentence, however, Harlan also explicitly states the effect hostesses could have on the men through their care packages and camaraderie. Given that was the mission of the hostesses, it shows Lola fulfilling her duties while also expressing the importance of having someone like her to act as an emotional caretaker. The death of a fellow friend and soldier affected everyone greatly in the group, however, not just Harlan. “It hurt a little to unwrap [the package] and see Black Eddie’s address on it and also on the enclosed Christmas card. I feel very sorry every time I think about him. We had so many things planned for the future,” said Captain Charles E. Stewart, known as “Lil’ Eddie” and hereafter referred to as Stewart, in a letter several months after Rivas’ death. While this event prompted them to talk more openly, it is telling that these soldiers were able to talk about it at all. In the masculine culture of the soldier, emotion wasn’t something expressed often in letters, especially when talking about the death of a friend. Even with censors, who could have cut out these parts about the front, these men found solace in telling Lola about their heartache. Lola was their motherly figure. The men talk about how she comforts them by sending packages and praying for them as the war enters another year. “I wish you could realize how much we Eddie’s do love and appreciate, to the fullest, your devotion and wonderful friendship,” wrote Harlan in the same letter where he discussed the profound grief he felt over Rivas’s death. Lola was “a swell gal” and a good friend to them, and Rivas’s death highlights the strongest sentiment the men have toward her during the war. Rivas’s death and the continuation of the war brought out even more appreciation from the men. In each letter to Lola, Harlan makes sure to tell Lola how much he appreciates her letters and how he is fondly reminded of how much he means back home. “Thanksgiving day I thought of the lovely dinner I had with you last year, brought back memories,” he wrote just after Thanksgiving, 1943. She had cooked for everyone at the service club, providing them a holiday dinner far from home. Her motherly demeanor led her to be popular among the men. It even got her an article in the Camp Bowie newspaper, a piece focused on her contributions to the war effort. Historian Paul Kindsvatter wrote soldiers wanted mothers most when they were sick or wounded. It can be argued that this statement can be extended to encompass emotional wounds as well. The war took a toll on many soldiers psychologically, and they reached out to Lola voluntarily. Another aspect of the senior hostess relationship with servicemen involved mail. Senior hostesses often helped soldiers with their gift wrapping and package mailing when it came to the holidays. Lola was one of those hostesses who wrote and sent packages to men she had met in her service club in Camp Bowie. Many letters to Lola mention how happy they are to have received a letter, especially when they have not received any other form of mail. In January of 1943, Morasco wrote, “Since I got your package, my hopes of getting the rest of my packages has gone up a lot.” Similarly, Stewart wrote one holiday season that, “it is swell of you to remember me every year like this,” and how much he appreciates Lola’s thoughtfulness in sending a Christmas card. Even far away, Lola and senior hostesses like her could extend their hospitality and emotional services to the servicemen they volunteered to help. Additionally, letters could be used to share information about friends and family while the men were away. Lola’s job allowed her to tell the men where she thought their friends had been sent. “Have you heard if Alfalfa and the gang have left the states yet?” is a question exemplary of the similar questions Lola received in many of her letters. Men were provided relief when they knew where their friends were. Again, this became another extension of the emotional support women could offer as hostesses. The group was important to soldiers, often focusing on those that were in his platoon or company. In the case of Lola’s soldiers, they considered those of the 36th division, later divided into different components, part of their larger family. Her job was to make sure everyone kept in contact with each other, while also keeping in contact with them. Nowhere was that a part of the USO guidelines, but it provided a form of emotional work in which Lola provided security of mind. The “maintenance of morale,” explained one USO bulletin was largely “a housekeeping job,” or rather, a job left to the homemakers found in the USO hostesses. Letters to Lola served this purpose, providing both an escape from their circumstances and a means of staying involved in the lives of those they’d left behind. Women who worked in the USO bridged the masculine world of war and the feminine world of the home. They supported men like their sons or husbands, sending just as many packages and letters as anyone else. Senior hostesses, especially, were welcomed as mother figures to these young men being sent off to war. As one of these hostesses, Lola provided comfort and a tie to home, making sure her soldiers felt loved and remembered in a time of chaos as so many other senior hostesses did during World War II. The letters she received exemplify the importance of her role for the soldiers whom she met at her service club, regardless of whether she served in the role of emotional confidant or doting mother figure. While some historians might argue that their restrictive role granted them little autonomy, the opposite is true. Within these roles, women did their best to exercise what rights they had to better aid those serving. These senior hostesses, Lola included, used their skills in homemaking as tools with which to support the war effort. Perhaps if these women had received an award for their hard work, they would have been talked about more, by historians and laypeople alike. Their work, like that of other women during World War II, has proven to be just as important to the war effort. Karen Anderson, Wartime Women: sex roles, family relations, and the status of women during World War II (Contributions in women’s studies, vol. 20. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 23. Meghan K. Winchell, Good Girls, Good Food, Good Fun: The Story of USO Hostesses During World War II (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 1. Anderson, Wartime Women, 10. Leisa D. Meyer, “Creating G.I. Jane: The regulation of sexuality and sexual behavior in the women’s army corps,” (Feminist Studies 18, no. 3, Autumn 1992), 581. Anderson, Wartime Women, 11. Winchell, Good Girls, 5. “About Us,” USO website, USO Inc., accessed November 4, 2017, https://www.uso.org/about. Winchell, Good Girls, 11. Winchell, Good Girls, 13. Terese Schlacter, “In the USO’s Early Years, Hostesses Provided a Wholesome Morale Boost,” USO (blog), USO Inc., February 4, 2016, https://www.uso.org/stories/149-in-the-uso-s-early-years-hostesses-provided-a-wholesome-morale-boost. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 181. Fussell, Wartime, 116. Peter S. Kindsvatter, American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003), 96. Winchell, Good Girls, 7. Winchell, Good Girls, 12. Winchell, Good Girls, 3. Goodman, “Patriotic Femininity”, 287. Edward “Black Eddie” Rivas to Lola Pefley, 28 April 1943, Pefley Correspondence. Yellin, Our Mothers’ War, 25 Winchell, Good Girls, 114. However, the government often tacitly allowed foreign sexual relations with certain races of women– chiefly, white women. For more information, see Beth Bailey and David Farber’s The First Strange Place. Ben Morasco to Lola Pefley, 31 July 1945, Pefley Correspondence. Ben Morasco to Lola Pefley, 19 March 1945, Pefley Correspondence. Lynn “Alfalfa” Wells to Lola Pefley, 13 January 1946, Pefley Correspondence. Charles E. Harlan to Lola Pefley, 1 September 1943, Harlan (Charles E.) Second World War Correspondence (2017.013.w.r), Center for American War Letters, Chapman University, CA. Yellin, Our Mothers’ War, 25. (hereafter Harlan Correspondence). Bill Owings to Pefley, 25 October 1942, Pefley Correspondence. Yellin, Our Mothers’ War, 25. Kent Thorton to Lola Pefley, 8 September 1942, Pefley Correspondence. Yellin, Our Mothers’ War, 25. Winchell, Good Girls, 12. Hartmann, “Prescriptions for Penelope,” 230. Charles E. Harlan to Lola Pefley, 3 December 1943, Pefley Correspondence. Edward C. Stewart to Lola Pefley, 29 May 1944, Pefley Correspondence. Kindsvatter, American Soldiers, 125. Charles E. Harlan to Lola Pefley, 3 December 1943, Pefley Correspondence. Charles E. Harlan to Lola Pefley, 29 November 1943, Pefley Correspondence. Lynn Wells to Lola Pefley, 1 December 1942, Pefley Correspondence. Kindsvatter, American Soldiers, 96. Winchell, Good Girls, 39. Ben Morasco to Lola Pefley, 26 January 1943, Pefley Correspondence. Edward C. Stewart to Lola Pefley, 26 December 1944, Pefley Correspondence. Ben Morasco to Lola Pefley, 29 January 1943, Pefley Correspondence. Kindsvatter, American Soldiers, 100. The USO Bulletin as quoted in Good Girls, Good Food, Good Fun (Meghan K. Winchell). Sasha Conaway received her BFA in Creative Writing from Chapman University. Her work has been published in the Spring 2017 and 2018 editions of Calliope Literary & Art Magazine. Currently, she is pursuing an MA in War and Society and researching for her thesis, which examines the roles and memory of women in the Easter Rising of 1916. The research in this article emerged from a graduate course and was presented at the Society of Military History conference in Louisville, Kentucky. Anderson, Karen. Wartime Women: sex roles, family relations, and the status of women during World WarII. Contributions in women’s studies, vol. 20. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982. Bailey, Beth, and David Farber. The First Strange Place: Race and Sex in World War II Hawaii. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1992. Fussell, Paul. The Great War and Modern Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. Fussell, Paul. Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Goodman, Phil. “‘Patriotic Femininity’: Women’s Moral and Men’s Morale during the Second World War.” Gender & History 10, no. 2 (July 1998): 278-293. Academic Search Premier Kindsvatter, Peter S. American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003. Litoff, Judy Barrett, and David C. Smith. “‘Will He Get My Letter?’: popular portrayals of mail and morale during World War II.” The Journal of Popular Culture 23, no. 4 (1990): 21-43. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-3840.1990.2304_21.x Meyer, Leisa D. “Creating G.I. Jane: The regulation of sexuality and sexual behavior in the women’s army corps.” Feminist Studies 18, no. 3 (Autumn 1992): 581-601. Academic Search Premier (accessed November 2, 2017), http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.chapman.edu/stable/3178084. Pefley, Lola Cannon, Second World War Correspondence (2017.013.w.r), Center For American War Letters, Chapman University, CA. Winchell, Meghan K. Good Girls, Good Food, Good Fun: The Story of USO Hostesses During World War II. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2008. EBSCOhost eBook Collection. Yellin, Emily. Our Mothers’ War: American Women at Home and at the Front During World War II. New York: Free Press, 2004.

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The Hopi maintain a complex religious and mythological tradition stretching back over centuries. However, it is difficult to definitively state what all Hopis as a group believe. Like the oral traditions of many other societies, Hopi mythology is not always told consistently and each Hopi mesa, or even each village, may have its own version of a particular story. But, "in essence the variants of the Hopi myth bear marked similarity to one another." It is also not clear that those stories which are told to non-Hopis, such as anthropologists and ethnographers, represent genuine Hopi beliefs or are merely stories told to the curious while keeping safe the Hopi's more sacred doctrines. As folklorist Harold Courlander states, "there is a Hopi reticence about discussing matters that could be considered ritual secrets or religion-oriented traditions." In addition, the Hopis have always been willing to assimilate foreign ideas into their cosmology if they are proven effective for such practical necessities as bringing rain. The Hopi had at least some contact with Europeans as early as the 16th century, and some believe that European Christian traditions may have entered Hopi cosmology at some point. Indeed, Spanish missions were built in several Hopi villages starting in 1629 and were in operation until the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. However, after the revolt, it was the Hopi alone of all the Pueblo tribes who kept the Spanish out of their villages permanently, and regular contact with whites did not begin again until nearly two centuries later. The Hopi mesas have therefore been seen as "relatively unacculturated" at least through the early 20th century, and it may be posited that the European influence on the core themes of Hopi mythology was slight. Most Hopi accounts of creation center around Tawa, the sun spirit. Tawa is the creator, and it was he who formed the "First World" out of Tokpella, or endless space, as well as its original inhabitants. It is still traditional for Hopi mothers to seek a blessing from the sun for their newborn children. Other accounts have it that Tawa, or Taiowa, first created Sotuknang, whom he called his nephew, and sent him to create the nine universes according to his plan. Sotuknang also created Spider Woman, who served as a messenger for the creator and was an intercessor between the deity and the people. In some versions of the Hopi creation myth, it is she who creates all life under the direction of Sotuknang. Yet other stories tell that life was created by Hard Being Woman of the West and Hard Being Woman of the East, while the sun merely observed the process. Masauwu, Skeleton Man, was the Spirit of Death, Earth God, door keeper to the Fifth World, and the Keeper of Fire. He was also the Master of the Upper World, or the Fourth World, and was there when the good people escaped the wickedness of the Third World for the promise of the Fourth. Masauwu is described as wearing a hideous mask, but again showing the diversity of myths among the Hopi, Masauwu was alternately described as a handsome, bejewelled man beneath his mask or as a bloody, fearsome creature. He is also assigned certain benevolent attributes. One story has it that it was Masauwu who helped settle the Hopi at Oraibi and gave them stewardship over the land. He also charged them to watch for the coming of the Pahana (see section below), the Lost White Brother. Other important deities include the twin war gods, the kachinas, and the trickster, Coyote. Maize is vital to Hopi subsistence and religion. "For traditional Hopis, corn is the central bond. Its essence, physically, spiritually, and symbolically, pervades their existence. For the people of the mesas corn is sustenance, ceremonial object, prayer offering, symbol, and sentient being unto itself. Corn is the Mother in the truest sense that people take in the corn and the corn becomes their flesh, as mother milk becomes the flesh of the child." Hopi legend tells that the current earth is the Fourth World to be inhabited by Tawa's creations. The story states that in each previous world, the people, though originally happy, became disobedient and lived contrary to Tawa's plan. They engaged in sexual promiscuity, fought one another, and would not live in harmony. The most obedient were delivered (usually by Spider Woman) to the next higher world, with physical changes occurring both in the people in the course of their journey, and in the environment of the next world. In some stories, the former world was then destroyed along with their wicked inhabitants, whereas in others the good people were simply led away from the chaos which had been created by their actions. Entrance into the Fourth WorldEdit Two main versions exist as to the Hopi's emergence into the present Fourth World. The more prevalent is that Spider Grandmother caused a hollow reed (or bamboo) to grow into the sky, and it emerged in the Fourth World at the sipapu. The people then climbed up the reed into this world, emerging from the sipapu. The location of the sipapu is given as in the Grand Canyon. The other version (mainly told in Oraibi) has it that Tawa destroyed the Third World in a great flood. Before the destruction, Spider Grandmother sealed the more righteous people into hollow reeds which were used as boats. On arrival on a small piece of dry land, the people saw nothing around them but more water, even after planting a large bamboo shoot, climbing to the top, and looking about. Spider Woman then told the people to make boats out of more reeds, and using island "stepping-stones" along the way, the people sailed east until they arrived on the mountainous coasts of the Fourth World. While it may not be possible to positively ascertain which is the original or "more correct" story, Harold Courlander writes, at least in Oraibi (the oldest of the Hopi villages), little children are often told the story of the sipapu, and the story of an ocean voyage is related to them when they are older. He states that even the name of the Hopi Water Clan (Patkinyamu) literally means "a dwelling-on-water" or "houseboat". However, he notes the sipapu story is centered on Walpi and is more accepted among Hopis generally. Upon their arrival in the Fourth World, the Hopis divided and went on a series of great migrations throughout the land. Sometimes they would stop and build a town, then abandon it to continue on with the migration. They would leave their symbols behind on the rocks to show that Hopi had been there. Long the divided people wandered in groups of families, eventually forming clans named after an event or sign that a particular group received upon its journey. These clans would travel for some time as a unified community, but almost inevitably a disagreement would occur, the clan would split and each portion would go its separate way. However, as the clans traveled, they would often join together forming large groups, only to have these associations disband, and then be reformed with other clans. These alternate periods of harmonious living followed by wickedness, contention, and separation play an important part of the Hopi mythos. This pattern seemingly began in the First World and continues even into recent history. In the course of their migration, each Hopi clan was to go to the farthest extremity of the land in every direction. Far in the north was a land of snow and ice which was called the "Back Door", but this was closed to the Hopi. However, the Hopi say that other peoples came through the Back Door into the Fourth World. "Back Door" could refer to the Bering land bridge, which connected Asia with North America. The Hopi were led on their migrations by various signs, or were helped along by Spider Woman. Eventually, the Hopi clans finished their prescribed migrations and were led to their current location in northeastern Arizona. Most Hopi traditions have it that they were given their land by Masauwu, the Spirit of Death and Master of the Fourth World. Sacred Hopi tabletsEdit Hopi tradition tells of sacred tablets which were imparted to the Hopi by various deities. Like most of Hopi mythology, accounts differ as to when the tablets were given and in precisely what manner. Perhaps the most important was said to be in the possession of the Fire Clan, and is related to the return of the Pahana. In one version, an elder of the Fire Clan worried that his people would not recognize the Pahana when he returned from the east. He therefore etched various designs including a human figure into a stone, and then broke off the section of the stone which included the figure's head. This section was given to Pahana and he was told to bring it back with him so that the Hopi would not be deceived by a witch or sorcerer. This one is Truth, the stone has an Indian face of black, white and grey with black feathers, and it is not etched but looks more like ink that soaked into the stone. Around 1325 CE Kachina masks and Kachina dancers appear as rock art. However, it remains an open question among scholars as to whether the kachina religion was an indigenous creation, or an import from Mexico. The similarity of many aspects of Hopi religion to that of the Aztecs to the south strongly suggest the latter to many scholars. Raymond Friday Locke discusses the Hopi legend of the Pahana writing that "The Hopis...had long anticipated the coming of Pahana and, either by coincidence or because of a common root of the legends, Pahana was due to visit the Hopi in the very same year that Quetzalcoatl was expected to return to the Aztecs. He arrived some twenty-one years later in the person of the Spaniard Pedro de Tovar, one of Coronado's conquistadors, and was the first white man to be seen by the Hopis and very probably the Navajo. Unlike the Aztecs, the Hopis put this Spanish Pahana to a series of tests, and when he failed them they sent him on his way." To the Hopi, kachinas are supernatural beings who represent and have charge over various aspects of the natural world. They might be thought of as analogous to Greco-Roman demi-gods or Catholic saints. There are literally hundreds of different kachinas, which may represent anything from rain to watermelon, various animals, stars, and even other Indian tribes. However, the kachinas are also thought to be the spirits of dead ancestors, and they may come to the Hopi mesas in the form of rain clouds. The Hopi say that during a great drought, they heard singing and dancing coming from the San Francisco Peaks. Upon investigation, they met the Kachinas who returned with the Hopi to their villages and taught them various forms of agriculture. The Hopi believe that for six months of the year, Kachina spirits live in the Hopi villages. After the Home Dance in late-July or early-August, the Kachinas return to the San Francisco Peaks for six months. The Hopi believe that these dances are vital for the continued harmony and balance of the world. It serves the further and vital purpose of bringing rain to the Hopi's parched homeland. The true Pahana (or Bahana) is the Lost White Brother of the Hopi. Most versions have it that the Pahana or Elder Brother left for the east at the time that the Hopi entered the Fourth World and began their migrations. However, the Hopi say that he will return again and at his coming the wicked will be destroyed and a new age of peace, the Fifth World, will be ushered into the world. As mentioned above, it is said he will bring with him a missing section of a sacred Hopi stone in the possession of the Fire Clan, and that he will come wearing red. Traditionally, Hopis are buried facing east in expectation of the Pahana who will come from that direction. The legend of the Pahana seems intimately connected with the Aztec story of Quetzalcoatl, and other legends of Central America. This similarity is furthered by the liberal representation of Awanyu or the Paluliikon, the horned or plumed serpent, in Hopi and other Puebloan art. This figure resembles Quetzacoatl, the feathered serpent, of Mexico. In the early 16th century, both the Hopis and the Aztecs believed that the coming of the Spanish conquistadors was the return of this lost white prophet. Unlike the Aztecs, upon first contact the Hopi put the Spanish through a series of tests in order to determine their divinity, and having failed, the Spanish were sent away from the Hopi mesas. One account has it that the Hopi realized that the Spanish were not the Pahana based upon the destruction of a Hopi town by the Spanish. Thus when the Spanish arrived at the village of Awatovi, they drew a line of cornmeal as a sign for the Spanish not to enter the village, but this was ignored. While some Hopi wanted to fight the invaders, it was decided to try a peaceful approach in the hope that the Spanish would eventually leave. However, Spanish accounts record a short skirmish at Awatovi before the Hopis capitulated. In popular cultureEdit - "If we dig precious things from the land, we will invite disaster." - "Near the day of Purification, there will be cobwebs spun back and forth in the sky." - "A container of ashes might one day be thrown from the sky, which could burn the land and boil the oceans." The novel by Tony Hillerman, The Dark Wind, first published in 1982, discusses Hopi mythology throughout the story, as key characters are Hopi men, and events of the story occur near important shrines or during an important ceremony. The fictional Navajo sergeant Jim Chee works with fictional Hopi Albert "Cowboy" Dashee, who is a deputy for Coconino County, Arizona, and speaks Hopi and English, translating for Chee on occasion, as well as explaining shrines and ceremonies to him. In the 2001 novel American Gods by Neil Gaiman, Mr. Ibis (an incarnation of the ancient Egyptian god Thoth) discusses the reluctance of scientists to accept evidence of pre-Columbian visitors to the Americas, and refers to the sipapu story as historical fact: "Heaven knows what'll happen if they ever actually find the Hopi emergence tunnels. That'll shake a few things up, you just wait." - Christopher Vecsey. The Emergence of the Hopi People, in American Indian Quarterly, vol. 7, no. 3, American Indian Religions, 70 (Summer 1983). - Harold Courlander. The Fourth World of the Hopis: The Epic Story of the Hopi Indians as Preserved in their Legends and Traditions, 201 University of New Mexico Press, 1987 - Susan E. James. "Some Aspects of the Aztec Religion in the Hopi Kachina Cult", Journal of the Southwest (2000) - Harold Coulander. The Fourth World of the Hopis: The Epic Story of the Hopi Indians as Preserved in their Legends and Traditions, 17 University of New Mexico Press, 1987 - Louise Udall. Me and Mine: The Life Story of Helen Sekaquaptewa, 7 (University of Arizona Press, 1969) - Recorded in the 1950s by Oswald White Bear Fredericks and his wife Naomi from the storytelling of older Hopi at the village of Oraibi, reproduced in Creation Stories from around the World (2000) 4th ed. - H.R. Voth. The Traditions of the Hopi, 1 (Chicago, 1905) - Harold Courlander explains that this version of the story is an attempt to amalgamate two conflicting Hopi traditions dealing with two female deities, Spider Grandmother and Huruing Wuhti (Hard Being Woman). Spider Grandmother has a central role or myth where the Hopi arrive in the Fourth World via the sipapu, whereas Hard Being Woman is related to Hopi legends that they arrived in the Fourth World by boat. The Fourth World of the Hopi, 205. - Harold Coulander. The Fourth World of the Hopis, 22. - Hamilton A. Tyler. Pueblo Gods and Myths, 5-7 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1964) - Dan Kotchongva. Where is the White Brother of the Hopi Indian?, in Improvement Era (1936). - Dennis Wall and Virgil Masayesva, "People of the Corn: Teachings in Hopi Traditional Agriculture, Spirituality, and Sustainability", American Indian Quarterly, Summer/Fall 2004, pages 435–453. - Harold Courlander. The Fourth World of the Hopis, p.205. - See, e.g. Harold Courlander. The Fourth World of the Hopi, 35. - Harold Courlander, The Fourth World of the Hopi, 31. - Robert Layton (2012). "Rock art, identity and indigeneity". In McDonald, Jo; Veth, Peter (eds.). A Companion to Rock Art. Wiley. p. 448. ISBN 978-1444334241. - Locke, Raymond Friday (2002). The Book of the Navajo. Mankind Publishing Company. p. 140. ISBN 978-0876875001. Retrieved 18 February 2016. - Pecina, Ron and Pecina, Bob. Hopi Kachinas: History, Legends, and Art. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2013. ISBN 978-0-7643-4429-9. - Harold Coulander. The Fourth World of the Hopis, 31. - Raymond Friday Locke. The Book of the Navajo, 139-140 (Hollaway House 2001). - Harold Courlander. The Fourth World of the Hopis, 176. - Courlander, Harold, The Fourth World of the Hopis: The Epic Story of the Hopi Indians as Preserved in Their Legends and Traditions (University of New Mexico Press, 1987). - Dozier, Edward, The Pueblo Indians of North America (Case Studies in Anthropology, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970). - Gunn Allen, Paula, The Sacred Hoop (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992). - Hultkrantz, Ake, “The Religion of the Goddess in North America,” The Book of the Goddess Past and Present: An Introduction to Her Religion, Carl Olson, editor (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1990). - McLeod, Roxie, Dreams and rumors: a history of "Book of the Hopi" Thesis (M.A.) (University of Colorado, 1994). MLA. - Pecina, Ron and Pecina, Bob. ‘’Hopi Kachinas: History, Legends, and Art’’. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2013. ISBN 978-0-7643-4429-9. - Wall, Dennis, and Virgil Masayesva, “People of the Corn: Teachings in Hopi Traditional Agriculture, Spirituality, and Sustainability,” American Indian Quarterly, Summer/Fall 2004, Vol. 28, Issue ¾, pp. 435–453.

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Attention Deficits ADD : Tips Teachers Should Know Over 100 suggestions on teaching children with attention deficit problems and/or learning disabilities. Research shows there are an estimated 3 to 5 percent of school-age children with Attention Deficit Disorder. In response to the needs expressed by teachers for teaching strategies that work with these children, the U.S. Department of Education has supported research in classrooms to determine successful teaching techniques employed by elementary school teachers to keep children focused and on task. The following tips, for experienced and inexperienced elementary school teachers alike, are tried and true methods for reaching children with ADD. Children with ADD typically have problems with inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity. They often have difficulty paying attention in class and seem to shift aimlessly from one unfinished activity to another. These children generally appear restless, fidgeting constantly in their seats, playing with pencils or other objects, or disturbing nearby students. Many children with ADD also have difficulty following their teachers' instructions or forming friendships with other children in the class. Like other children with disabilities, children with ADD learn best when their teachers understand their special needs and individualize their educational program to meet these needs. "Attention Deficits: What Teachers Should Know" is a how-to guide with instructional practices you can use to help children with ADD in your class. The practices themselves should be part of an educational program based around three key components-classroom accommodations, behavior management, and individualized academic instruction. To make this book as valuable a resource as possible, you should consider these steps in developing an effective educational program for your students with ADD: Evaluate the Child's Individual Needs Assess the unique educational needs of a child with ADD in your class. Working with a multi-disciplinary team, consider both academic and behavioral needs, using formal diagnostic assessments and informal classroom observations. Select Appropriate Instructional Practices Determine which instructional practices will meet the academic and behavioral needs you have identified for the child. Select practices that fit the content, are age appropriate, and gain the cooperation of the child. Integrate Appropriate Practices Within an Individualized Program Combine the practices you have selected into an individualized educational program. Plan how to integrate the educational activities provided to other children in your class with those selected for the child with ADD. Because no two children with ADD are alike, no single educational program, practice, or setting will be best for all children. Children with ADD often have difficulty learning and achieving academically in school. Effective teachers constantly monitor the child and adapt and individualize academic instruction. General Instructional Principles Effective teachers help prepare their students to learn when they introduce, conduct, and conclude each academic lesson. These principles of effective instruction, which reflect what we know about how to educate all children in the class, will especially help a child with ADD to stay focused on his assigned tasks as he transitions from one lesson to another throughout the school day. Students with ADD benefit from clear statements about their teacher's expectations at the beginning of the lesson. Consider these strategies. - Review Previous Lessons. Review information about previous lesson on this topic. For example, remind children that yesterday's lesson focused on learning how to regroup in subtraction. Review several problems before describing the current lesson. - Set Learning Expectations.State what students are expected to learn during the lesson. For example, explain to students that a language arts lesson will involve reading a story about Paul Bunyan and identifying new vocabulary words in the story. - Set Behavioral Expectations.Describe how students are expected to behave during the lesson. For example, tell children that they may talk quietly to their neighbors as they work on a seatwork assignment or raise their hands to get your attention. - State Needed Materials.Identify all materials that the child will need during the lesson. For example, specify that children need their journals and pencils for journal writing or their crayons, scissors, and colored paper for an art project; rather than leaving children to figure out on their own the materials required for a lesson. - Explain Additional Resources.Tell students how to obtain help in mastering the lesson. For example, remind the children to refer to a particular page in the text book to get help in completing a worksheet. When conducting an academic lesson, effective teachers use some of the following strategies. - Use Audio-visual Materials.Use a variety of audio-visual materials to present academic lessons. For example, use an overhead projector to demonstrate how to solve an addition problem requiring regrouping. The students can work on the problem at their desks, while you manipulate counters on the projector screen. - Check Student Performance.Question individual students about their mastery of the lesson. For example, you can ask a student doing seatwork to demonstrate how he or she arrived at the answer to a problem or ask individual students to state, in their own words, how the main character felt at the end of the story. - Ask Probing Questions.Probe for the correct answer before calling on another student and allow children sufficient time to work out the answer to a question. Count at least 15 seconds before giving the answer and ask follow-up questions that give the child an opportunity to demonstrate what he or she knows. - Perform On-going Student Evaluation.Identify students who need additional assistance. Watch for signs of lack of comprehension, such as day-dreaming or visual or verbal indications of frustration. Provide these children with extra explanation or ask another student to serve as a peer tutor for the lesson. - Help Students Self-Correct Their Own Mistakes. Describe how students can identify and correct their own mistakes. For example, remind students that they should check their calculations in mathematics problems and reiterate how they can do that; remind students of particularly difficult spelling rules and how students can watch out for "easy-to-make" errors. - Focus DawdlingStudents.Remind students who dawdle to keep working and redirect these students to focus on their assigned task. For example, you can provide follow-up directions or assign learning partners. These practices can be directed at individual children or at the entire class. - Lower Noise Level.Monitor the noise level in the classroom and provide corrective feedback, as needed. If the noise level exceeds the level appropriate for the type of lesson, remind all students -- or individual students -- about the behavior rules stated at the beginning of the lesson. Preparing for Transition Students with ADD often have difficulty refocusing their attention as they end one academic lesson and move on to the next lesson. Effective teachers help their students prepare for these transitions when concluding a lesson. - Provide Advance Warnings.Provide advance warning that a lesson is about to end. Announce five or ten minutes prior to the end of the lesson (particularly for seatwork and group projects) how much time remains. You may also want to tell students at the beginning of the lesson how much time they will have to complete it. - Check Assignments.Check completed assignments for at least some students. Review with some students what they have learned during the lessons, to get a sense of how ready the class was for the lesson and how to plan the next lesson. - Preview the Next Lesson.Instruct students how to begin preparing for the next lesson. For example, inform children that they need to put away their textbooks and come to the front of the room for a large group spelling lesson. Individualized Instructional Practices Effective teachers individualize their instructional practices based on the needs of their students in different academic subjects. Students have different ways of getting information, not all of which involve traditional reading and listening. Individualized lessons in language arts, mathematics, and organizational skills benefit not only children with ADD, but also other children who have diverse learning needs. Language Arts Reading Comprehension To help children with ADD who are poor readers improve their reading comprehension skills, try the following instructional practices: - Silent Reading Time. Establish a fixed time each day for silent reading (e.g., DEAR: Drop Everything And Read). - Follow -Along Reading.Ask the child to read a story silently while listening to other students or the teacher read the story out loud to the entire class. - Partner Reading Activities. Pair the child with ADD with another student partner who is a strong reader. The partners take turns reading orally and listening to each other. - Storyboards. Ask the child to make storyboards that illustrate the sequence of main events in a story. - Storytelling. Schedule "storytelling" sessions where the child can retell a story he or she has read recently. - Play-acting. Schedule "play-acting" sessions where the child can role play different characters in a favorite story. - Word Bank. Keep a word bank or dictionary of new or "hard-to-read" sight vocabulary words. - Board Games for Reading Comprehension. Play board games that provide practice with target reading comprehension skills or sight vocabulary words. - Computer Games for Reading Comprehension. Schedule computer time for the child to have "drill-and-practice" with sight vocabulary words. Phonics and Grammar To help children with ADD master phonics and grammar rules, the following are effective: - Mnemonics for Phonics and Grammar. Teach the child mnemonics that provide reminders about hard-to-learn grammatical rules such as (a) correct punctuation, (b) irregular verb tenses, and (c) correct capitalization. - Word Families. Teach the child to recognize and read word families that illustrate particular phonetic concepts (e.g., "ph" sounds). - "Everyday" Examples of Grammar Rules. Take advantage of naturally occurring events to teach grammar rules skills in the context of everyday life. For example, ask a boy and a girl who are reading a story together questions about the proper use of male and female pronouns. - Board Games for Phonics and Grammar. Play board games that practice phonetically irregular words. - Computer Games for Phonics and Grammar. Use a computer to provide opportunities to have "drill-and-practice" with phonics or grammar lessons. - Structured Programs for Phonics and Grammar. Teach phonics and grammar skills through a structured program such as Sandy Rief's "Simply Phonics" program. Writing and composition In composing stories or other writing assignments, children with ADD benefit from the following practices: - Standards for Writing Assignments. Identify and teach the child classroom-wide standards for acceptable written work. - Recognizing Parts of a Story. Teach the student how to describe the major parts of a story (e.g., plot, main characters, setting, conflict, and resolution). - Post Office. Establish a "post office" in the classroom and provide students with opportunities to write, mail, and receive letters to and from their classmates and teacher. - Visualizing Compositions. Ask the child to close his or her eyes and visualize a paragraph that the teacher reads aloud. Another variation of this technique is to ask a student to describe a recent event while the other students have their eyes closed. - Proofreading Compositions. Require that the child proofread his or her work before turning in written assignments. Provide the child with a list of items to check when proofreading his or her own work. To help children with ADD who are poor spellers master their spelling lessons, the following have been found to be helpful: - Teaching Frequently Used Spelling Words. Assign spelling words that the child routinely uses in his or her speech each day. - Creating a Dictionary of Misspelled Words. Ask the child to keep a personal dictionary of frequently misspelled words. - Using Partner Spelling Activities. Pair the child with another student. Ask the partners to quiz each other about how to spell new words. Encourage both students to guess the correct spelling. - Working with Manipulatives. Use cut out letters or other manipulatives to spell out hard-to-learn words. - Using Color-Coded Letters. Color code different letters in "hard-to-spell" words (e.g., receipt). - Using Movement Activities. Combine movement activities with spelling lessons (e.g., jump rope while spelling words out loud). - Using "Everyday" Examples of Hard-to-Spell Words. Take advantage of naturally occurring events to teach difficult spelling words in context. For example, ask a child eating a cheese sandwich to spell "sandwich." Students with ADD who have difficulty with manuscript or cursive writing benefit from these instructional practices. - Individual Chalkboards. Ask the child to practice copying and erasing the target words on a small, individual chalkboard. Two children can be paired to practice their target words together. - Quiet Places for Handwriting. Provide the child with a special "quiet place" (e.g., on a table outside the classroom) to complete his or her handwriting assignments. - Spacing Words on a Page. Teach the child to use his or her finger to measure how much space to leave between each word in a written assignment. - Special Writing Paper. Ask the child to use special paper with vertical lines to learn to space letters and words on a page. - Tape Recorders. Ask the student to dictate writing assignments into a tape recorder. - Dictating Writing Assignments. Have the teacher or another student write down a story told by a child with ADD. - Structured Programs for Handwriting. Teach handwriting skills through a structured program such as Jan Olson's "Handwriting Without Tears" program. There are several individualized instructional practices that can help children with ADD improve their basic computation skills. The following are just a few: - Recognizing Patterns in Mathematics. Teach the student to recognize patterns when adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing whole numbers. - Partner Mathematics Activities. Pair a child with ADD with another student and provide opportunities for the partners to quiz each other about basic computation skills. - Mnemonics for Basic Computation. Teach the child mnemonics that describe basic steps in computing whole numbers. For example, "Don't Miss Susie's Boat" can be used to help the student recall the basic steps in long division (i.e., divide, multiply, subtract, and bring down). - "Real Life" Examples of Money Skills. Provide the child with naturally occurring, "real life" opportunities to practice target money skills. For example, ask the child to calculate his or her change when paying for lunch in the school cafeteria. - Color Coding Arithmetic Symbols. Color code basic arithmetic symbols such as +, -, and = to provide visual cues for children when they are computing whole numbers. - Using Calculators To Check Basic Computation. Ask the child to use a calculator to check his addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. - Board Games for Basic Computation. Ask the child to play board games to practice adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing whole numbers. - Computer Games for Basic Computation. Schedule computer time for the child for "drill-and-practice" with basic computation facts. - Structured Programs for Basic Computation. Teach basic computation skills through a structured program such as Innovative Learning Concepts' "Touch Math" program. Solving Word Problems To help children with ADD improve their skill in solving word problems in mathematics, try the following. - Rereading the Problem. Teach the child to read a word problem two times before beginning to compute the answer. - Using Clue Words. Teach the child "clue words" that identify which operation to use when solving word problems. For example, words such as "sum," "total," or "all together" may indicate an addition operation. - Mnemonics for Word Problems. Teach students mnemonics that help remind them of basic questions to ask in solving word problems (e.g., what is the question asked in the problem, what information do you have to figure out the answer, and what operation should you use to compute the answer). - "Real Life" Examples of Word problems. Ask the student to create and solve word problems that provide practice with specific target operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. These problems can be based on recent, "real life" events in the children's lives. - Using Calculators to Check Word Problems. Ask the student to use a calculator to check his or her answers to assigned word problems. Some children with ADD benefit from using special materials to help them complete their mathematics assignments. - Number lines. Provide a number line for the child to use when computing whole numbers. - Manipulatives. Use manipulatives to help students gain basic computation skills such as counting poker chips when adding single-digit numbers. - Graph Paper. Ask the child to use graph paper to help organize columns when adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing whole numbers. Many students with ADD are easily distracted and have difficulty focusing their attention on assigned tasks. However, there are several practices that can help children with ADD improve their organization of homework and other daily assignments. - Assignment Notebook. Provide the child with an assignment notebook to help organize homework and other seatwork. - Color-Coded Folders. Provide the child with color-coded folders to help organize assignments for different academic subjects (e.g., reading, mathematics, social science, and science). - Homework Partners. Assign the child a partner to help record homework and other seatwork in the proper folders and assignment notebook. - Cleaning Out Desks and Book Bags. Ask the child to periodically sort through and clean out his or her desk, book bag, and other special places where written assignments are stored. Children with ADD who have difficulty finishing their assignments on time can also benefit from individualized instruction that helps them improve their time management skills. - Using a Wristwatch. Teach the child how to read and use a wristwatch to manage his or her time when completing assigned work. - Using a Calendar. Teach the child how to read and use a calendar to schedule his or her assignments. - Practicing Sequencing Activities. Provide the child with supervised opportunities to break down a long assignment into a sequence of short, interrelated activities. - Creating a Daily Activity Schedule. Tape a schedule of planned daily activities to the child's desk. Study Skills - Using Venn Diagrams. Teach a child with ADD how to use Venn diagrams to help illustrate and organize key concepts in reading, mathematics, or other academic subjects. - Note-Taking Skills. Teach a child with ADD how to take notes when organizing key academic concepts that he or she has learned with a program such as Anita Archer's "Skills for School Success." - Developing a Checklist of Frequent Mistakes. Provide the child with a checklist of mistakes that he or she frequently makes in written assignments (e.g., punctuation or capitalization errors), mathematics (e.g., addition or subtraction errors), or other academic subjects. Teach the child how to use this list when proofreading his or her work at home and school. - Using a Checklist of Homework Supplies. Provide the child with a checklist that identifies categories of items needed for homework assignments (e.g., books, pencils, and homework assignment sheets). - Preparing Uncluttered Workspace. Teach a child with ADD how to prepare an uncluttered workspace to complete his assignments. For example, instruct the child to clear away unnecessary books or other materials before beginning a seatwork assignment. - Monitoring Homework Assignments. Keep track of how well your students with ADD complete their assigned homework. Discuss and resolve with them and their parents any problems in completing these assignments. For example, evaluate the difficulty of the assignments and how long the children spend on their homework each night. Children with ADD often are impulsive and hyperactive. Effective teachers use behavior management techniques to help these children learn how to control their behavior. Students with ADD benefit from frequent reinforcement of appropriate behavior and correction of inappropriate behavior. Verbal reinforcement takes on the form of praise and reprimands. In addition, it is sometimes helpful to selectively ignore inappropriate behavior. - Verbal Praise. Simple phrases such as "good job" encourage a child to act appropriately. Praise children frequently, and look for a behavior to praise before -- not after -- a child is off task. - Verbal Reprimands. Do not hesitate to request that a child change his or her behavior. The most effective reprimands are brief and directed at the child's behavior -- not at the child. - Selective Ignoring of Inappropriate Behavior. Carefully evaluate whether to intervene when a child misbehaves. In some instances, it is helpful to ignore the child's inappropriate behavior, particularly if a child is misbehaving to get your attention. Effective teachers also use behavioral prompts with their students with ADD, as well as with other students in the class. These prompts help remind students about your expectations for their learning and behavior in the classroom. - Visual Cues. Establish simple, non-intrusive visual cues to remind the child to remain on task. For example, you can point at the child while looking him or her in the eye, or hold out your hand, palm down, near the child. - Proximity Control. When talking to a child, move to where the child is standing or sitting. Your physical proximity to the child will help the child to focus and pay attention to what you are saying. In some instances, children with ADD need counseling to learn how to manage their own behavior. - Classroom Interviews. Discuss how to resolve social conflicts with classroom interviews. Conduct impromptu counseling sessions with one student or a small group of students in the classroom where the conflict arises. In this setting, ask two children who are arguing about a game to discuss how to settle their differences. Encourage the children to resolve their problem by talking to each other, while you quietly monitor their interactions during the interview. - Social Skills Classes. Teach children with ADD appropriate social skills using a structured pull-out class. For example, you can ask the children to role play and model different solutions to common social problems. It is critical to provide for the generalization of these skills, including structured opportunities for the children to use the social skills they learn. For some children with ADD, behavioral contracts, tangible rewards, or token economy systems are helpful in teaching them how to manage their own behavior. Because students' individual needs are different, it is important for teachers to evaluate whether these practices are appropriate for their classrooms. - Behavioral Contract. Identify specific academic or behavioral goals for the child with ADD. Work together with the child to cooperatively identify appropriate goals such as completing homework assignments on time and obeying safety rules on the school playground. Take the time to ensure that the child agrees that his or her goals are important to master. - Tangible Rewards. Use tangible rewards to reinforce appropriate behavior. These rewards can include (a) stickers such as "happy faces" or sports team emblems or (b) privileges, such as extra time on the computer or lunch with the teacher. In some cases, you may be able to enlist the support of parents in rewarding the children at home. - Token Economy System. Use token economy systems to motivate a child to achieve a goal identified in a behavioral contract. For example, a child can earn points for each homework assignment completed on time. In some cases, students also lose points for each homework assignment not completed on time. After earning a specified number of points, the student receives a tangible reward such as extra time on a computer or a "free period" on Friday afternoon. Many children with ADD benefit from accommodations that reduce distractions in the classroom environment. These accommodations, which include modifications within both the physical environment and learning environment of the classroom, help some children with ADD stay on task and learn. Accommodations of the physical environment include determining where a child with ADD will sit in the classroom. There are two main types of special seat assignments. - Seat Near the Teacher. Assign a child a seat near your desk or the front of the room. This seat assignment provides opportunities for you to monitor and reinforce the child's on-task behavior. - Seat Near a Student Role Model. Assign a child a seat near a student role model. This seat arrangement provides opportunities for children to work cooperatively and learn from their peers in the class. Effective teachers also use different environmental prompts to make accommodations within the physical environment of the classroom. - Hand Gestures. Use hand signals to communicate privately with a child with ADD. For example, ask the child to raise his or her hand every time you ask a question. A closed fist can signal that the child knows the answer; an open palm can signal that he or she does not know the answer. You would call on the child to answer only when he or she makes a fist. - Egg Timers. Note for the children the time at which the lesson is starting and the time at which it will conclude. Set a timer to indicate to children how much time remains in the lesson and place it at the front of the classroom; the children can check the timer to see how much time remains. Interim prompts can be used as well. For instance, children can monitor their own progress during a 30-minute lesson if the timer is set for 10 minutes three times. - Classroom Lights. Turning the classroom lights "on and off" prompts children that the noise level in the room is too high and they should be quiet. This practice can also be used to signal that it is time to begin preparing for the next lesson. - Music. Play music on a tape recorder or chords on a piano to prompt children that they are too noisy. In addition, playing different types of music on a tape recorder communicates to children what level of activity is appropriate for a particular lesson. For example, play quiet classical music for quiet seat activities and jazz for active group activities. Effective teachers make accommodations in the learning environment by guiding children with ADD with follow-up directions. - Follow-Up Oral Directions. After giving directions to the class as a whole, provide additional, oral directions for a child with ADD. For example, ask the child if he or she understood the directions, and repeat the directions together. - Follow-up Written Directions. Provide follow-up directions in writing. For example, write the page number for an assignment on the blackboard. You can remind the child to look at the blackboard if he or she forgets the assignment. Effective teachers also use special instructional tools to modify the classroom learning environment and accommodate the special needs of their students with ADD. - Highlighting Key Words. Highlight key words in the instructions on worksheets to help the child with ADD focus on the directions. You can prepare the worksheet before the lesson begins or underline key words as you and the child read the directions together. - Using Pointers. Teach the child to use a pointer to help visually track written words on a page. For example, provide the child with a bookmark to help him or her follow along when students are taking turns reading aloud. - Adapting Worksheets. Teach a child how to adapt instructional worksheets. For example, help a child fold his or her reading worksheet to reveal only one question at a time. The child can also use a blank piece of paper to cover the other questions on the page.

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Welcome to Class Willow Pharaohs and the River Nile In our English sessions, we will be reading Tutankhamun and sections of ‘Orphan of the Sun’, both by Gill Harvey. We will carry out reciprocal reading challenges, looking at the elements of prediction, clarification, questioning and summarising and use shared writing techniques to help us plan and write non-chronological reports and recounts. We will review the grammar we have learnt this year, with particular focus on types of subordinate clauses. We will continue to learn new spellings with our sounds and syllables approach. This term we will be focussing on statistical reasoning, Roman numerals and time, proportional reasoning, measures and describing patterns, as well as topics on problem solving and financial maths and enterprise. GEOGRAPHY and HISTORY Our topic is ‘Pharaohs and the River Nile’. We will: In Computing, the children will become cryptographers. They will transmit information by semaphore, use Morse code, create and crack codes, as well as reviewing online security and password strength. In Science, we will carry out research based on the question - how do humans develop and mature? We will also investigate whether we slow down as we get older. We will be exploring Muslim families and beliefs looking at: - Fast during Ramadan This half term our topic is all about healthy and safer lifestyle choices. Children will find out about things that cause harm to our bodies and discuss how to respond to tricky situations. Linked to our topic of Egyptians, we will learn about hieroglyphics and complete writing in this style, as well as using clay to create model Canopic jars. During this term, we will learn rules for striking and fielding games and review skills such as short and long fielding techniques, short and close catching, and driving through with a hit. Some children will also complete their swimming sessions. This half term we will continue to work with Madame Balestra. Children will learn vocabulary and key phrases for a variety of sports and games. This term we will continue to work with Mr Tryner developing our skills on the Ukulele. We will review pitch and pulse, and continue to apply our skills to play songs as a group Peasants, Princes and Pestilence This term we will be focussing on spatial reasoning looking at volume and capacity, proportional reasoning of scaling and ratio, positional reasoning of angles and translations and fraction problem solving. In our English sessions, we will be reading the text ‘Children of Winter’ by Berlie Doherty, which takes us back in time to what it might have been like to live through the plague in the Derbyshire village of Eyam. We will carry out reciprocal reading challenges for each chapter and use shared writing techniques to help us plan and write first person recounts such as letters and diary entries, as well as descriptive writing. We will review the use of apostrophes for possession and contractions, changing the formality of a text, uses of the colon and semi-colon, determiners, dialogue, adverbials and active and passive voice. We will continue to learn new spellings with our sounds and syllables approach. During our topic of pilgrimages, we will focus our learning on: What are people of faith’s special places? What are pilgrimages? Where are important pilgrimage places? Why is Jerusalem a special place of pilgrimage for different religions? Where else do Christians go on pilgrimages and why? Where do Muslims go on pilgrimages? What happens at the Hajj? Where do Sikhs and Hindus go on pilgrimages? We will also focus on the special time of year for Christians – Easter – reviewing: What happened in Jesus’ last week and what is the meaning of the cross? How does the issue of forgiveness fit into the story? Our science work will focus on micro-organisms and life-cycles. We will study: What micro-organisms are and how they grow How germs are easily transferred The bacteria Yersinia pestis The life cycles of rodents and fleas We will also describe and investigate helpful and harmful micro-organisms. GEOGRAPHY and HISTORY Our topic is ‘The Great Plague’. We will: Research and record the main events of the great plague Use sources of information to research plague remedies and their effectiveness Use historical sources to debate an event from the past Present historical data as graphs Use maps to locate and label places of interest Compare and contrast our village with Eyam, Derbyshire Linked to our topic of The Great Plague, we will research and create our own medieval bread recipe. In Computing, the children will become market researchers where they will collect, record and present their own data. Spring Term 1 Road Trip to the USA This term we will be focussing on geometric reasoning, reviewing our understanding of 2d and 3d shapes and applying this to problem solving. We will be revisiting fractions, decimals and percentages, looking at finding percentages and fractions of amounts. We will deepen our understanding of formal methods for division, using known multiplication facts to help. We will review our understanding of area and perimeter and apply this to problems, as well as multiplying and dividing with fractions. In our English sessions, we will be focussing on Native American myths and legends. We will carry out reciprocal reading challenges on a variety of myths and use shared writing techniques of boxing up the tales to help us plan and write our own. We will review the use of colons, semi-colons and dashes, as well as modal verbs and punctuation of dialogue. We will continue to learn new spellings with our sounds and syllables approach. During the Spring term, we will become detectives, investigating the life and teachings of Jesus. We will ask questions such as: What were his relationships like? Was he a good friend? Who were his disciples & why did they follow him? What miracles did Jesus perform and why? Our science work will focus on electricity. We will study: Circuits and circuit diagrams We will also investigate how to tell whether a circuit will light a bulb or series of bulbs from a diagram. GEOGRAPHY and HISTORY During our topic on ‘Road Trip to the USA’, we will: study maps of north and south America review lines of longitude and latitude learn about physical geography of regions in America compare physical and human geography of areas in America to our local area research and learn about lifestyles of Native American tribes The children will use software to create art work such as tessellations and create programs to design their own artwork. Our topic is ‘Alchemy Island’. In geography sessions, the children will investigate and explore maps using 4 and 6 figure grid references to locate places on a map of the island, recognise and describe human and physical features, use a scale to calculate distance, as well as combining all of this knowledge to create their own island map. Art work will focus on creating views through a portal using digital images as a starting point. They will use these to create an imaginary painting of a landscape, using watercolours and different brushes for purpose. They will build up the picture in layers, looking at distance, middle ground and foreground, and use cold colours and shades to recreate a Narnia style scene, relating to their own island. In our English sessions, we will be using ‘The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe’ by CS Lewis as a stimulus for descriptive writing of settings and characters. We will be writing dialogue between two characters, as well as first person accounts. Grammar and punctuation work will link into our writing. It will focus on direct speech, parenthesis, use of semi-colons, colons and dashes to join main clauses and different types of subordinate clauses. We will continue to think about amazing men and women in the Old Testament of the Bible, looking into the lives of Noah, Abraham, Esther, Daniel, David, Hannah & Samuel. Our science work will focus on reversible and irreversible changes around us. The children will plan investigations such as: How much gas is produced from a non-reversible change? How long do candles take to burn? How long does it take for a nail to rust? What are the bubbles in honeycomb? In our English sessions, our writing will focus on the life of Charles Darwin. We will be writing diaries from first person perspectives, non-chronological reports and using pictures to aid our descriptive writing. Texts that will support our writing are: GEOGRAPHY & HISTORY Our topic is ‘Darwin’s Delights’. We will research and plot on a timeline the key events of Charles Darwin's life and track his travels on the HMS Beagle, naming and locating key oceans and continents. We will research and compare the Galapagos Islands, the Falkland Islands and the Cape Verde Islands. In addition, we will explore the lines of longitude and latitude of each place. Our science work is all about evolution and inheritance. We will look at how organisms can be bred to create certain characteristics, we will observe and investigate the effects of the environment on plants, explore how living things adapt to their environment, as well as how they adapt over time, look at how fossils help us to learn about the past and describe the process of natural selection. Children will create their own sketch books in the style of Charles Darwin, using graded pencils, pen and ink and water colours for their observational drawings. During the Autumn term, we will be thinking about amazing men and women in the Old Testament of the Bible. identify aspects of Esther’s story and some of the events at the festival of Purim. In our English sessions, we will be writing a biography about Albert Einstein, as well as using Ripley’s Mighty Machines to help us structure and write our own non-fiction texts. All grammar and punctuation will be reviewed alongside and linked to our writing challenges. Our science topic will focus on forces. The children will: Review balanced and unbalanced forces. Investigate air and water resistance. Review what friction is and carry out investigations. This term in Geography, linked to our topic ‘Scream Machine’, the children will research: The main theme parks in the UK and where they are located. Where they are in relation to urban, rural and transport links. Which theme park is nearest to home and plan the route for a particular mode of transport. Visit websites of parks outside of the UK. Take virtual tours and analyse maps and plans. Compare the parks to the UK in terms of size, capacity, cost and transport links. In DT, we will be investigating fairground rides and how they work, looking at levers, pulleys and gears. The children will design, plan and make their own mechanism. This term in maths, we will be reviewing the following: converting units, position and direction, as well as volume, area and perimeter. We will be applying our learning to problem solving situations and using the bar model to help us. In RE, we will continue to explore the Bible. We will be asking questions such as: How is the Bible made up? How was the Bible written? What can be learned from the Bible? What is in the New Testament? Who were the main people that taught about Jesus after he died? How do Christians use Jesus’ teachings? What are features of the Bible? In Computing, the children will become Web Developers - planning, designing and creating their own webpages. In Music sessions, the children will listen to and appraise ‘Happy’ by Pharrell Williams, comparing and contrasting it to other songs of a similar theme. They will discuss pulse, rhythm and tempo when making comparisons. Our PSHCE work will focus on ‘managing changes’ and we will be supporting children with their transition into Y6 or Y7. PE sessions will focus on net and wall games. Please make sure appropriate footwear (supportive trainers) and school PE kit is in school each week. Children have also been given their timetable for swimming sessions if they have them this term. This half term in French, we will continue to work with Madame Balestra learning about phrases and vocabulary linked to our homes. What was life like in Britain before the Roman invasions? Why did the Romans invade? How did people feel about this? During our topic entitled 'I am Warrior', children will learn about the impact of the Roman invasions on Britain. They will research: Celtic tribes in Britain before the Roman invasions. Roman invasions and the spread of the Roman Empire. How Roman roads were built and why. Hadrian’s Wall and Emperor Hadrian. Gods and Goddesses. This half term we will be exploring the Bible. We will be asking questions such as: Why is the Bible important to Christians? What characters are there in the Bible and what stories are there about them? What is God like? What does God like and dislike? How is the Bible made up? How was the Bible written? What can be learned from the Bible? The children will be developing their own apps by assembling assets, establishing algorithms, coding, debugging, refining and testing. Our science topic will focus on sound. The children will: Learn about the parts of the ear and how we hear. Explore how sound travels. Investigate ways to absorb sound. The children will continue to have ukulele lessons this half term looking at pitch, following musical scores and learning new songs. This half term, we will be exploring patterns in the form of Roman mosaics, as well as sculpting Roman style oil lamps from clay. During this term our PE sessions will focus on striking and fielding games. Please ensure long hair is tied up and earrings are removed for PE. Please also make sure warm outdoor clothing is in school. This half term we will learn about food, using French vocabulary to ask for and buy a variety of foods from different shops. This term our topic centres on ‘Healthy Lifestyles’. We will discuss how to maintain a healthy mind and body, as well as ways of receiving support if needed. Our 'Take 5' breathing will help us with maintaining a healthy mind and body. Guilty or not guilty? It is 1830 the Defendant, Isabella Makin, is 11 years old. She has been charged with stealing three coats, two waistcoats, a pair of breeches, a pair of boots and a table cloth. The defendant lives in Narrow Marsh, an area of Nottingham, with her family. Isabella must help her family out as her father is ill and cannot work. Her mother must look after Isabella’s younger sisters and cannot go to work because there in no-one to care for them. They are very poor and have very little money to live on. This is not Isabella’s first time in court. If she is found guilty this time, she will be punished harshly. Isabella has been found guilty of stealing on four previous occasions. She has been imprisoned four times. Will our jury find her guilty of theft? Will our judge sentence her to prison for a fifth time? What fate will await her? Our English work this half term will focus on William Shakespeare's Macbeth. We will look at different adaptations of this play for children, use drama activities to help us understand and interpret the play and complete writing activities such as first person accounts and newspaper reports, using our talk for writing techniques to support us. This term we will be focussing on averages, area, perimeter and volume, as well as angles. All of our learning will be linked with prior knowledge and applied to problems solving contexts. This half term our topic is about Jewish celebrations and we will be learning about the Shabbat experience. We will also be looking at the story of Easter and what happened to Jesus in the last few days of his life. We will discuss how it must feel to have your friends disown you, as well as discussing how Peter (& the other disciples) disowned Jesus. We will use ‘photostory’ to import and arrange pictures, adding captions and voice overs to show the changes in crime and punishment throughout British history. Our science topic will focus on classification in terms of families and inheritance. We will ask questions such as: Why are things classified? How does inheritance work? As part of our topic on ID, we will look at changes in crime and punishment throughout British history, ranging from the Roman era to Victorian Britain. We will also discuss how our knowledge of the past comes from a variety of sources and that different interpretations of stories exist. Class Willow will have ukulele lessons again this term and will continue to look at pitch, follow musical scores and learn new songs. This half term, we will be researching and critically analysing the artwork of David Hockney. We will recreate pieces of his work to show light and shadow, as well as using ‘pic stitch’ to alter images in his ‘joiners’ style. During this term our PE sessions will focus on physical challenges and athletics. Please ensure long hair is tied up and earrings are removed for PE. Please also make sure warm outdoor clothing is in school. This half term we will continue to work with Madame Balestra learning about family, using French vocabulary to describe our own families. Our topic centres on ‘Myself and My Relationships’. We will discuss how to recognise emotions in ourselves and others, coping strategies for difficult times and how to manage our changing emotions. As part of our topic this term, we will be comparing and contrasting different mountains, looking at their locations and statistics such as their height & temperature at different levels. We will also be learning about the water cycle. We will be researching the life of Edmund Hillary to determine why he is a key figure in history and using photographs as sources of historical data. We will also be looking at the life of the Adi people, a mountain dwelling community and comparing their lifestyle with our own. We will also be researching and replicating their weaving designs. Our Science topic will focus on states of matter. We will be investigating questions such as: We will be using the story of 'A Bottle of Happiness' by Pippa Goodhart as a basis for our story writing, as well as the fantastic illustrations by Ehsan Abddollahi as stimuli for our descriptive writing. RE work will take us on a journey of our lives to share and discuss key times of celebration. We will then look into the religions of Christianity, Hinduism and Judaism to see what key ceremonies are celebrated and how these religions prepare children for adult life. This term we will be continuing to find out about our digestive systems. We will investigate how each part works and look at the role of spit in the digestive process. Our DT topic will focus on chocolate! We will carry out market research to establish the type of products that our customers want to buy. We will design, plan and make chocolates based on our research, to sell at the Christmas Fair! We will learn about 'Fair Trade', why it is important and how it has helped farmers all over the world. We will look at the process of chocolate being made, from bean to bar, and write an explanation text. Our RE work will centre on 'Arts in the Faiths'. We will learn about music, dance, drama and much more throughout a range of religions. This half term, our English, geography and history work will be based on our topic about Mexico. We will be learning about and writing our own Maya creation stories, creting a powerpoint presentation to compare England with Mexico in a country comparison study, as well as researching what life was like for the ancient Mayans.... We will also be designing and making our own tortilla based pizzas! Our science work is all about burps, bottoms and bile! Children will review what constitutes a healthy, balanced diet, learn about teeth names and functions, as well as oral hygiene and investigate the digestive system. The year is 2050 and the children have been commissioned by the Government ministers to investigate and explore the problems and solutions that could be encountered in sending 30 people into space for five years. For the next 7 weeks, the children will become ‘Space explorers’ and will seek information about a mysterious Planet called Earth and its Solar System. During the duration of their commission, they will be given a number of ‘Space Missions’ to complete. At the end of their mission, they will present their findings to Government Ministers! Work will also include an exciting visit to the National Space Centre to find out more about the Space Race and the Earth, Moon and Sun, the stars and our Solar System. Our English work will link into our space topic with 'Cosmic' by Frank Cottrell Boyce and 'Cosmic Disco' a collection of poetry. Our Topic this half term is ‘Tomorrows World.’ During the term, we will explore the rapidly changing new technologies that shape our world. We will investigate how technology affects the lives of people across the planet and their impact on natural resources. We will meet four families living in China and think about how one country is trying to overcome the pollution problems created by its rapid expansion of industry. We will become software designers. The children will start by playing and analysing educational computer games, identifying those features that make a game successful. They will then plan and design a game, with a clear target audience in mind. They will create a working prototype, and then develop it further to add functionality and improve the user interface. Finally, they will test their game and make any necessary changes. We will explore the work of the artist Eric Joyner and the robot sculptor, Clayton Bailey. Using modroc, we will design and make our own robots. Our English lessons this half term will focus on the text ‘Floodland’ by Marcus Sedgwick. We will be writing in role, writing formal persuasive letters to a character, composing instructional writing for rules to live on Eel Island, as well as narrative and report writing. Spring Term 2 2017 Under Our Feet! This term we will review our knowledge of fractions, decimals and percentages, looking at equivalence, mixed and improper fractions and converting amounts. We will be working on algebraic formulae and geometry, focussing on angles, properties of shapes and direction & position. In addition, we will be converting between different units of metric measures and solving problems. Our English lessons this half term will focus on the short story ‘The Giant’s Necklace’ by Michael Morpurgo. Writing will include using descriptive language, writing setting descriptions for contrasting coastal images, newspaper reports and diary entries. We will also be writing explanation and instruction texts. History and Geography This half term we will research our local area to find out about the impact on the mining community and the effects of pit closures. We will begin our topic with a visit to the National Coal Mining Museum, learning about the life of a miner. We will investigate the conditions of working in a Coal mine over time, for both adults and children. Art and Design We will be sketching buildings and artefacts linked to our visit to the National Coal Mining Museum. We will use powder paints to build up paintings of imaginary landscapes and industrial buildings. In addition, we will research and design our own Miner’s lunchbox. We will become interface designers sketching, planning and developing ideas for our App interface. We will source and develop backgrounds, images, sound effects and a video for the App. This half term, we will become geologists, looking at what is under our feet! We will research fossil fuels and investigate the formation of coal and fossils. We will learn about the different rock types and how they are formed. We will also become ‘Plant Detectives’, learning about how plants reproduce and whether all flowering plants are the same. This term the children will continue to explore different religions in our local area. They will develop positive attitudes and thoughtfulness through the investigation of non-violence and recognise the consequences of actions. They will explore freedom of beliefs, harmony and respect. This half term we will be thinking about ‘Financial Capability’. The children will explore what money means in a broader context, as well as learning how jobs are paid depending on skill set. We will introduce children to pensions, insurance and tax, as well as thinking about how the future can be planned for. We will discuss the difference between essential resources and desirable resources. This term we will become Historical Detectives and travel back in time to research a time when Victoria was Queen and Albert was Prince Consort. A time when some people lived in slums while others prospered. We will examine first hand evidence including photographs, paintings, diaries, artefacts and census material. We will take on the role of an important reformer and present our good causes to the Queen. Will we be able to cause a revolution of change? During our English lessons, we will be studying the book 'Street Child' by Berlie Doherty. We will discover what happens to Jim when he finds himself all alone in the workhouse and desperate to escape. Life in Victorian times was very different to today. Our Science learning will focus on our investigative skills linked into the topic of light. We will learn about the eye and how we see, investigate shadows, coloured light and refraction, as well as making our own light bulb. We will be looking closely at the work of the Victorian artists L.S. Lowry and William Morris. We will sketch Victorian artefacts, developing our skills using pencil, pastel and pen and ink. We will draw close up views of bicycles and enlarge them into detailed pen/ink sketches. Follow Erik the Viking to discover: In English we will be writing our own sagas, using 'The Saga of Erik the Viking' by Terry Jones to help us, as well as writing a recipe for Viking bread. We will map out where the Vikings came from and where they travelled to raid and trade, as well as looking at the place names they left behind. Our Science topic is based on 'Light'. We will study how light travels, shadows and how they change. RE learning will centre on Christian and Muslim charities that help people throughout the world. Our Music learning this half term will be based on the nativity story and we will be studying the poem 'Bethlehem' by Carol Ann Duffy in the build up to Christmas. Have a look at our class newsletter below for additional information. This is a project aimed to last throughout the half term. Each child will present their project to the rest of the class in the last full week of school. A timetable will be organised nearer the time. There will be weekly 'Mathletics' challenges set for each child which are linked to the learning in class. Each child has been given their own username and password to access this. Please also continue to embed all times tables. Each child also has a username and password for 'Education City'. Class learning zones have been set up to help with multiplication facts. This term our learning will be centred around our topic 'The Blue Abyss'. During our residential trip to Boggle Hole, we will be visiting Whitby and the Captain Cook Museum. Children remaining at school will also be researching his life and voyages, so that we can write a biography. We will also be finding out about Whitby and the surrounding area and writing persuasive texts in the form of holiday brochures. We will also be learning about 'Oceanography' and the HMS Challenger, as well as learning about threats to our coastline and sea creatures and what can be done to help. Our writing focus will be on information texts and reports. Our artwork will follow on with our sea theme, where we will be researching famous artists and their seascapes. During DT sessions, we will design, plan, make and evaluate fish cakes and submarines, keeping to our ocean theme. Science sessions will focus on classification of living things, life cycles and reproduction of plants and animals. We will ask and investigate questions such as:

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PART A –Today’s technology Television, film and computer games are already playing a role in educating young children but there is significant potential to capitalise on their ability to enhance development and learning. Media technology is pervasive and covers: This paper focuses primarily on children under the age of eight who are less involved with the communicative media. Research suggests most children acquire many of their media literacy functional skills early and without much formal instruction. Children under age 6 already have good media skills – by themselves: A recent Australian Communications and Media Authority survey of media use (ACMA, 2007) found that children aged 0-4 spent: That makes a total viewing time average of 5 hours 48 minutes per day for the youngest children who are the heaviest viewers of television in the family. Programs made for these children are often inadequate and the children are regularly viewing adult programs for much of the day. Comparable figures for 5-12 year olds were: This represents a total viewing time average of 4 hours 50 minutes per day. This average is arguably too much for young children who need a variety of physical and social experiences for healthy development. Averages also hide the extensive viewing by children at the upper limit of the normal distribution curve that takes up a large proportion of a child’s day. The Australian Institute of Family Studies’ Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) provides an indication of variations in media use by different social groups in Australia. For example: Between 2000 and 2005, young children’s use of computers and the internet rose from 7% to 23%, with children showing a strong preference for educational interactive games. (Children Now Report, p. 10). The latest figures on computer-based games come from a survey of 1600 Australian households conducted by Bond University for the Interactive Entertainment Association of Australia (October, 2008). This is a rapidly growing area of media involvement, with: According to the Cartoon Network’s New Generations 2008 survey, since 2004 the number of seven- and eight-year-olds surfing the web daily has jumped from 7% to 22%. (Emily Power, 2008) The 2008 Norton Online Living Report said 96% of Australian children now find information for their school projects on the internet. Television can be a wonderful story-teller. The benefits that flow to children from good storytelling are many and television’s learning outcomes need to be considered as part of the 0-8 curriculum. Children have always been drawn to drama over factual children’s programming. (SPAA, 2008) Stories are the glue that binds the community together. They give children a shared purpose, a roadmap for their lives and teach them about their feelings, their tribe, their culture and their place in the world. A cohesive national culture and identity that requires development through education from an early age would not be possible without shared cultural experiences which film and television programs enable. That is why Australian and local programming is important for children. When done well, television programs can stimulate a child's imagination and open up the infinite opportunities that life presents. Like good books, good television programs can extend children’s understanding of their world. Stories are particularly effective in helping children develop emotionally. In Howard Gardner’s terms they develop their inter- and intra-personal intelligences. Several studies have demonstrated, for example, the strong link between Sesame Street and children’s readiness for kindergarten, regardless of socio-economic status, and those effects can last well into high school. In more recent years, Sesame Street has gone beyond the basics of number and the alphabet to incorporate elements of Gardner’s ‘multiple intelligences’. Children will watch good programs repeatedly, and keep watching them as they grow older, learning different things each time because they can engage with quality content in increasingly sophisticated ways. The young brain’s plasticity, its capacity to learn through repetition and reinforcement and the forging of new connections, make good media experiences a potent learning and developmental tool. Play is important in children’s emotional development. A young child can try out roles not yet possible in the real world; television can expand their world of play and take them to places they could not imagine. The 0-5 age group is moving from a self-centred view of the world to a more social outlook, so observing the experience of others in stories on television can enhance their understanding of their world. Preschoolers are also forming their personal style, their sense of identity within their family, in a sex role, outside the family and within an ethnic or racial group. Television programming feeds into this emerging social-self and can be used to present a wide range of role models and images that show different cultures, styles and environments. Good children's television comprises programs made especially for children that reflect the complexity of the emotional changes within the age group and honestly deal with conflicts that such diversity demonstrates. These programs can help clarify emotions, reflect anxieties and hopes and recognise problems while suggesting solutions to overcome hardships and worries. In their early years preschoolers need to be hearing and seeing stories which help them work through their fears in a positive manner. They need to learn to share, to appreciate others, to know that jealousy, greed and anger are feelings we all have that we must learn to control. They are on a journey to discover how to connect emotions and motivations of characters to their actions. Zimmerman (2007) says programs such as Blue’s Clues ‘cleverly use the medium of TV to expand not only the child’s understanding of, but also his or her interaction with the real world’. Television is well placed to provide such experiences. Programs such as Barney & Friends, Sesame Street, Blue’s Clues, Dora the Explorer and others claim to combine more than 100 potential teaching elements and enhance children’s performance in social skills, imagination, singing and dancing through active engagement with program content. Cognitive gains include numbers, letters and vocabulary; social learning such as taking turns, sharing and cooperation; physical improvements in small and large motor skills; and emotional lessons in dealing with anger, disappointment, feeling sad or happy. (Weber & Singer, 2004). Unlike some curriculum and media approaches which rigidly separate what experiences are appropriate for infants compared with toddlers and older children, the evidence is that quality TV programs and games can be designed for three to eight-year-olds and understood by them at different levels. The younger ones take in messages that match their level of cognitive development and older children interpret them at a more sophisticated level. Technology makes it possible to design programs that are not only appropriate to a particular age group, but also to different developmental levels within that age group. The computer is inherently adaptable to different learning styles, but there is as yet little evidence of that adaptability being harnessed in the cause of more individually appropriate learning. Gaming has come a long way over the past decade. Early games were played on a dedicated video device; now platforms range from personal computers to small hand-held devices. Equipped with user-friendly screens, mobile phones, PDAs, graphing calculators, GPS receivers, MP3 players, digital cameras and watches can be used to play games on-line or off-line. This increased accessibility has helped create a huge explosion in gaming, leading to many young gamers drifting away from television to spend time with interactive play. Games can be used with positive results to assist learning from 3-8 but so far there have been relatively limited attempts to integrate game-playing into the classroom in Australia. There are games being sold to teach times-tables, numbers, letters, reading and comprehension. Such materials can be overtly didactic with content that is little more than drill with graphics rather than carefully and well developed curriculum content. Puzzle games, however, are now beginning to realise the promise of technology and learning. For example, Nintendo’s Brain Age and Big Brain Academy, based around maths, logic and visual exercises are research-based games that develop skills and they are regarded as quality entertainment. Quality educational games can be developed for preschoolers around shapes, colours, numbers, counting and reading. Games are particularly useful for children with learning disabilities and enhance hand and eye coordination. (Novak and Levy, pp.222-3). There is now, however, a growing body of evidence demonstrating that narrative-based games are effective and valuable tools for learning. Narrative-based games have an enthusiastic following with children from a very early age and across all ages. The iterative strategies developed through game-playing include the following elements: Game players can acquire these skills at a very early age. Four- and five-year-olds play such games as The Sims (the most popular computer game ever made, which is essentially a ‘living dollhouse’) and Roller Coaster Tycoon where the basic goal is to create a successful theme park. Children Now sums up the research on children’s use of interactive media saying thatchildren who use computers show superior spoken communication and cooperation, can play better within a set of rules, share leadership roles, take turns, and initiate interactions. Children learn to use more complex speech patterns and higher levels of verbal communication because they tend to narrate what they are doing as they play. They have better phonological awareness, tell more sophisticated stories and have better writing skills. Interactive story books allow children to control the story and ask for help and get it. (Cassell, 2004; Foster, Erickson et al 1994; Ryokai et al, 2003; Chera & Wood, 2003; Lewin, 2000) For most children, using the computer does not isolate them but helps to connect them with others. Computer activity motivates and produces a longer attention span and enhances self-concept and attitudes to learning because it insists on mastery from level to level. In 2006, the Federation of American Scientists issued a statement supporting the use of computer and video games in classrooms: “…educational games are fundamentally different than prevailing instruction because they’re based on challenge, reward, learning through doing and guided discovery in contrast to the ‘tell and test’ methods of traditional instruction … Games offer attributes important for learning – clear goals, lessons that can be practiced repeatedly until mastered, monitoring learner progress and adjusting instruction to learner level of mastery, closing the gap between what is learned and its use, motivation that encourages time on task, personalisation of learning, and infinite patience.” There is no research with pre-schoolers that documents their capabilities with technology and the potential for learning games can engender. But there is an interesting case study reported by Professor James Paul Gee, Professor of Reading, University of Wisconsin, USA: “Gee described his nine-year-old son's progress with technology which began at age three with him sitting on his father’s lap with one of the Winnie the Pooh books on the computer. The father would control the mouse and the son would tap the screen. The three-year-old soon learnt how to use the mouse, the conventions of a computer, how the screen worked and that some things on the screen were clickable. Eventually the child wanted to take over much more control of the game itself. “Gee bought his son two plastic Pokémon figures from the supermarket; he was given a few Pokémon books, activity books and sticker books which introduced him to the whole Pokémon universe, including the game. They got him a Game Boy but because the boy couldn't read he was unable to play. His mother sat with him and they played the game together. Pokémon motivated the son very strongly to want to read the names of the Pokémon, play the game by himself and do a lot more on the Internet. “By the end of his first year at kindergarten the boy was able to read. He became interested in evolution because of the evolution of Pokémon characters. This led to his dinosaur craze and he went on to other games. By the age of seven in First Grade, the son wanted to play Age of Mythology. His father told him he felt it was over his head. The response was that there were several children in first grade playing it. And in fact there were. He and his friends got books out of the school library – fifth and sixth grade books. They went onto a lot of web sites about mythology and wanted to visit museums. By age nine the son started to play Yu-Gi-Oh on Game Boy. To play you need to read the back of the card to negotiate what you are going to do; this game playing is done in a very social setting.” Marc Prensky, Don't bother me mom - I'm learning!, pp. 161- 167) Children up to age eight are learning many cognitive skills which can be assisted by games, including: Mark Prensky (2006) shows in his book Don’t bother me Mum, I’m learning! how games help cognitive development in progressively complex ways. Prensky says games teach children about: Learning and Teaching Scotland (LTS) has analysed the effect of playing a brain-training game every day on the dual-screen handheld Nintendo game console. The study, which involved more than 600 pupils in 32 schools across Scotland, found the game improved pupils’ concentration and behaviour with less time needed to complete the tests. The improvement in the games group doubled that of the control group. LTS said the results offered the first independent, academic evidence that this type of computer game could improve attainment when used in an educational context. (BBC News 25/9/08, http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/hi/scotland/7635404.stm As a lucrative industry, games are developing apace. As the production values of video games have improved over the years, both in visual appearance and depth of storytelling, the creators have produced more and more lifelike, complex games that push the boundaries of the traditional gaming genres and make them an increasingly important communication, entertainment and educational medium. Through such games young people are learning how to play, express themselves and collaborate in large-scale communities. But according to Professor Henry Jenkins from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology there is another skill often missing in games – judgment. Few children ask about the motives or accuracy of the way games depict the world or the ethics underlying the choices both game players and game creators are making. This is a subject for a media literacy program. Another area of exponential growth is that of social networking and virtual worlds. Social networking is used by children as young as 12 months old who use virtual communication tools such as webcams to interact with parents or others who are in a remote location. On www.superclubsplus.com.au, which is popular among six- to twelve-year-olds, children can build their own web pages and talk in forums and by e-mail, with online mediators monitoring the site and ensuring that content is age appropriate. It is estimated that more than 200 virtual world projects are in development globally. (McIntyre, 2008) Children love the idea of virtual playgrounds, places where they can create their own identities, or avatars and interact with others in new digital environments. This section draws on The Developing Child, a publication produced by the Children's Programme Committee of the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal in 1980, which was based on a Children's Programming Report produced by the Children's Programming Department WNET/13 New York in 1978. This publication was adapted for Australian producers to assist their understanding of the C classification for children's productions and became the underlying philosophy for programs produced by the Australian Children's Television Foundation during the 20 years Patricia Edgar was Director.) Professor Jenkins is the principal investigator of a project on Games to Teach. This project is an interdisciplinary collaboration across the humanities, sciences and engineering disciplines, developing a series of conceptual prototypes for games to teach science and engineering subjects. The family is the most significant context for early learning and the home is a media-saturated environment. Parents are doing their child no favour by keeping them away from the internet. Technology is part of a child’s life and learning today and is a growing part of their identity, connectedness, community participation and future civic engagement. Given the recent research on the significance of learning experiences in the early years for brain development, any curriculum for children up to the age of eight must place a heavy emphasis on informal learning in the home and the ways family members mediate the impact of media content and media usage by young children. Whereas access to quality child care and pre-school programs is unequal, access to the mass media is ubiquitous. Increasingly, television, videos and computer games are used as babysitters as parents have become two-income households, with less time for parenting. Single-parent households have increased; there are fewer siblings and neighbourhood friends so media have become a companion for more hours in the day than ever before. (Edgar, 2008) The potential of media is lost if children are left to observe commercialised programming that makes little sense to them but is, nonetheless, shaping their values and behaviour. At this critical age their brains are being wired and re-wired, not just through parental words and actions but through the repeated images, patterns, sounds, music, stories, emotions and behaviour they see on the screens in their homes. The new digital media are shaping children in ways their parents could never have imagined. Repeated research emphasises that children learn most when their parents or other adults ‘mediate’ what they are seeing or doing, whether that is on the TV screen or in the kindergarten classroom. (Dens, Pelsmacker & Eagle, 2007; Buijzen & Mens, 2007; Evans Schmidt, 2006; Barr, Muentener & Garcia, 2007) The main point about learning via the media is much the same as for any other mode of learning: assistance from a parent, carer or teacher needs to be ‘scaffolded’ – in Vygotsky’s terms, targeted at the learner’s ‘Zone of Proximal Development’, which is the difference between the child’s actual level of development and the level he or she could achieve with the assistance of a more competent adult or peer (see Berk and Winsler, 1995). In the early years children naturally love to learn as they love to play and appropriate video and computer games can very effectively combine these experiences. Pre-schoolers are inducted into many forms of technology before they can read, write or even talk clearly, particularly if they have older siblings. With the right software there are gains for pre-schoolers in intelligence scores, nonverbal skills, manual dexterity and long-term memory and there are better learning gains from home use of interactive technology compared with limited use at school. (Calvert et al, 2005; Lewin, 2000; Labbo & Kuhn, 2000: Haugland, 1992; Van Scoter et al, 2001; Frei, Su, Mikhak & Ishii, 2000; Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2001) Good programming can teach valuable lessons about living in a community. Children need to learn that they are part of a group; they can’t always win and life is not a competition, that trying and effort are admirable. They need to see human endeavour at its best, not just the side that produces conflict. Parents and early childhood educators can control and regulate the amount of time spent watching television or on the computer, guiding children towards a balanced, responsible use of technology. Censorship or banning is not effective because children need to learn how to use new technologies to become effective citizens in the digital age. An oft-expressed concern is that of the link between children’s viewing of violent television and computer games and aggressive behaviour (Clements, 1994; Haugland & Wright, 1997; Wartella, O’Keefe & Scantlin, 2002; Calvert, Stron & Gallagher, 2005; Van Scoter et al, 2002;. Lewin, 2000, Luckin, Connolly, Plowman & Airey, 2003). Such causality is, however, disputed across many research studies. It has some support if viewing hours are high (Bushman & Heusman, 2001) but other family-related factors are at play and children are just as likely to be influenced by positive social messages in television programs, learning and internalising messages about friendliness, altruism, cooperation, self-control, delay of gratification and the reduction of stereotypes. (Fisch, 2004) Children are not just passive users, victims of media effects. They are, today, active users eagerly exploring the new media technologies to learn about the world and express themselves in new ways. The goal must be to help children make informed choices about how they use the media and for how long, and how much they can trust and be informed by what they see. This is a preparation for a citizenship model of media literacy. (Penman & Turnbull, 2007, p. 15) If the task of early childhood is defined as ‘learning to find your way around in the world’, then the mass media and the tools of modern technology have the potential to help in this task by taking every child well beyond the intimate confines of the family home to a wealth of ‘life experiences’ to discover who they are in relation to the wider human family and their social and physical environment. Media provide visual, verbal, emotional, social and even physical modes of dealing with the world. They also offer a pervasive set of commercial values which may not be what is needed for citizenship in the digital age. The internet age has ushered in ‘a powerful new combination of technological, social and economic trends which has placed children and youth at the centre of digital politics, commerce and culture’.(Wartella & Jennings, 2000, p. 4) This is a big step forward from previous discussions about media literacy that have focused on the basic technological know-how needed to use it, a mechanistic, analytical approach, and a fairly negative form of critical understanding of the processes of media production. Ofcom, the British communication regulatory authority (Buckingham, 2006) calls for media literacy in three main areas, covering children’s ability to: This is a useful framework around which to build a national approach to the development of media literacy in all young Australians. However, it is necessary to now go further and add a fourth dimension: 4. Learn through the media - this involves having parents, carers and teachers build on the content of what children view to enhance child development and learning in the areas of physical growth and health, language and communicative competence,self-understanding and interpersonal skills, cognitive skills and general knowledge. To fully realise this potential of the media as a tool for learning will, however, require the development of new media content that will serve as both a resource and an agent in the cause of a meaningful education revolution. New media content is needed to deliver the kind of high-quality television programs and games that provide rich learning experiences and so further the objective of universal access to high-quality education for early childhood development. Together, these four areas provide the basis for a forward-looking framework that will address the emerging as well as existing potential of the media as a tool for learning.More ...

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|Applied and experimental| - 1 Need for language education - 2 History of foreign language education - 3 Teaching foreign language in classrooms - 4 Online and self-study courses - 5 Learning strategies - 6 Teaching strategies - 7 Language education by region - 8 Language study holidays - 9 Minority language education - 10 Acronyms and abbreviations - 11 See also - 12 Notes - 13 References - 14 Further reading - 15 External links Need for language education Increasing globalization has created a large need for people in the workforce who can communicate in multiple languages. The uses of common languages are in areas such as trade, tourism, international relations, technology, media, and science. Many countries such as Korea (Kim Yeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) and China (Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education policies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels. However, some countries such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Philippines use a second official language in their governments. According to GAO (2010), China has recently been putting enormous importance on foreign language learning, especially the English language. History of foreign language education Ancient to medieval period Although the need to learn foreign languages is older than human history itself, the origins of modern language education are in the study and teaching of Latin in the 17th century. Latin had for many centuries been the dominant language of education, commerce, religion, and government in much of the Western world, but it was displaced by French, Italian, and English by the end of the 16th century. John Amos Comenius was one of many people who tried to reverse this trend. He composed a complete course for learning Latin, covering the entire school curriculum, culminating in his Opera Didactica Omnia, 1657. In this work, Comenius also outlined his theory of language acquisition. He is one of the first theorists to write systematically about how languages are learned and about pedagogical methodology for language acquisition. He held that language acquisition must be allied with sensation and experience. Teaching must be oral. The schoolroom should have models of things, and failing that, pictures of them. As a result, he also published the world's first illustrated children's book, Orbis Sensualium Pictus. The study of Latin diminished from the study of a living language to be used in the real world to a subject in the school curriculum. Such decline brought about a new justification for its study. It was then claimed that its study developed intellectual abilities, and the study of Latin grammar became an end in and of itself. "Grammar schools" from the 16th to 18th centuries focused on teaching the grammatical aspects of Classical Latin. Advanced students continued grammar study with the addition of rhetoric. The study of modern languages did not become part of the curriculum of European schools until the 18th century. Based on the purely academic study of Latin, students of modern languages did much of the same exercises, studying grammatical rules and translating abstract sentences. Oral work was minimal, and students were instead required to memorize grammatical rules and apply these to decode written texts in the target language. This tradition-inspired method became known as the grammar-translation method. Innovation in foreign language teaching began in the 19th century and became very rapid in the 20th century. It led to a number of different and sometimes conflicting methods, each trying to be a major improvement over the previous or contemporary methods. The earliest applied linguists included Jean Manesca, Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorff (1803–1865), Henry Sweet (1845–1912), Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), and Harold Palmer (1877–1949). They worked on setting language teaching principles and approaches based on linguistic and psychological theories, but they left many of the specific practical details for others to devise. Those looking at the history of foreign-language education in the 20th century and the methods of teaching (such as those related below) might be tempted to think that it is a history of failure. Very few students in U.S. universities who have a foreign language as a major manage to reach something called "minimum professional proficiency". Even the "reading knowledge" required for a PhD degree is comparable only to what second-year language students read and only very few researchers who are native English speakers can read and assess information written in languages other than English. Even a number of famous linguists are monolingual. However, anecdotal evidence for successful second or foreign language learning is easy to find, leading to a discrepancy between these cases and the failure of most language programs, which helps make the research of second language acquisition emotionally charged. Older methods and approaches such as the grammar translation method or the direct method are dismissed and even ridiculed as newer methods and approaches are invented and promoted as the only and complete solution to the problem of the high failure rates of foreign language students. Most books on language teaching list the various methods that have been used in the past, often ending with the author's new method. These new methods are usually presented as coming only from the author's mind, as the authors generally give no credence to what was done before and do not explain how it relates to the new method. For example, descriptive linguists[who?] seem to claim unhesitatingly that there were no scientifically based language teaching methods before their work (which led to the audio-lingual method developed for the U.S. Army in World War II). However, there is significant evidence to the contrary. It is also often inferred or even stated that older methods were completely ineffective or have died out completely when even the oldest methods are still used (e.g. the Berlitz version of the direct method). One reason for this situation is that proponents of new methods have been so sure that their ideas are so new and so correct that they could not conceive that the older ones have enough validity to cause controversy. This was in turn caused by emphasis on new scientific advances, which has tended to blind researchers to precedents in older work.(p. 5) There have been two major branches in the field of language learning, the empirical and theoretical, and these have almost completely separate histories, with each gaining ground over the other at one point in time or another. Examples of researchers on the empiricist side are Jesperson, Palmer, and Leonard Bloomfield, who promote mimicry and memorization with pattern drills. These methods follow from the basic empiricist position that language acquisition basically results from habits formed by conditioning and drilling. In its most extreme form, language learning is seen as basically the same as any other learning in any other species, human language being essentially the same as communication behaviors seen in other species. On the theoretical side are, for example, Francois Gouin, M.D. Berlitz, and Elime de Sauzé, whose rationalist theories of language acquisition dovetail with linguistic work done by Noam Chomsky and others. These have led to a wider variety of teaching methods ranging from the grammar-translation method to Gouin's "series method" to the direct methods of Berlitz and de Sauzé. With these methods, students generate original and meaningful sentences to gain a functional knowledge of the rules of grammar. This follows from the rationalist position that man is born to think and that language use is a uniquely human trait impossible in other species. Given that human languages share many common traits, the idea is that humans share a universal grammar which is built into our brain structure. This allows us to create sentences that we have never heard before but that can still be immediately understood by anyone who understands the specific language being spoken. The rivalry of the two camps is intense, with little communication or cooperation between them. Teaching foreign language in classrooms Language education may take place as a general school subject or in a specialized language school. There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful insights. While sometimes confused, the terms "approach", "method" and "technique" are hierarchical concepts. An approach is a set of assumptions about the nature of language and language learning, but does not involve procedure or provide any details about how such assumptions should be implemented into the classroom setting. Such can be related to second language acquisition theory. There are three principal "approaches": - The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar). - The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something. - The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This approach has been fairly dominant since the 1980s. A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned, and should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system must be designed considering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students, and the roles of teachers. - Examples of structural methods are grammar translation and the audio-lingual method. - Examples of functional methods include the oral approach / situational language teaching. - Examples of interactive methods include the direct method, the series method, communicative language teaching, language immersion, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, the Natural Approach, Total Physical Response, Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling and Dogme language teaching. A technique (or strategy) is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from the controlling method, and less directly, from the approach. Online and self-study courses Hundreds of languages are available for self-study, from scores of publishers, for a range of costs, using a variety of methods. The course itself acts as a teacher and has to choose a methodology, just as classroom teachers do. Audio recordings and books Audio recordings use native speakers, and one strength is helping learners improve their accent. Some recordings have pauses for the learner to speak. Others are continuous so the learner speaks along with the recorded voice, similar to learning a song. Audio recordings for self-study use many of the methods used in classroom teaching, and have been produced on records, tapes, CDs, DVDs and websites. Most audio recordings teach words in the target language by using explanations in the learner's own language. An alternative is to use sound effects to show meaning of words in the target language. The only language in such recordings is the target language, and they are comprehensible regardless of the learner's native language. Language books have been published for centuries, teaching vocabulary and grammar. The simplest books are phrasebooks to give useful short phrases for travelers, cooks, receptionists, or others who need specific vocabulary. More complete books include more vocabulary, grammar, exercises, translation, and writing practice. Also, various other "language learning tools" have been entering the market in recent years. There are as simple examples as Vocabulary Stickers, but also technologically complex augmented reality translation apps. Internet and software Software can interact with learners in ways that books and audio cannot: - Some software records the learner, analyzes the pronunciation, and gives feedback. - Software can present additional exercises in areas where a particular learner has difficulty, until the concepts are mastered. - Software can pronounce words in the target language and show their meaning by using pictures instead of oral explanations. The only language in such software is the target language. It is comprehensible regardless of the learner's native language. Websites provide various services geared toward language education. Some sites are designed specifically for learning languages: - Some software runs on the web itself, with the advantage of avoiding downloads, and the disadvantage of requiring an internet connection. - Some publishers use the web to distribute audio, texts and software, for use offline. - Some websites offer learning activities such as quizzes or puzzles to practice language concepts. - Language exchange sites connect users with complementary language skills, such as a native Spanish speaker who wants to learn English with a native English speaker who wants to learn Spanish. Language exchange websites essentially treat knowledge of a language as a commodity, and provide a marketlike environment for the commodity to be exchanged. Users typically contact each other via chat, VoIP, or email. Language exchanges have also been viewed as a helpful tool to aid language learning at language schools. Language exchanges tend to benefit oral proficiency, fluency, colloquial vocabulary acquisition, and vernacular usage, rather than formal grammar or writing skills. Many other websites are helpful for learning languages, even though they are designed, maintained and marketed for other purposes: - All countries have websites in their own languages, which learners elsewhere can use as primary material for study: news, fiction, videos, songs, etc. In a study conducted by the Center for Applied Linguistics, it was noted that the use of technology and media has begun to play a heavy role in facilitating language learning in the classroom. With the help of the internet, students are readily exposed to foreign media (music videos, television shows, films) and as a result, teachers are taking heed of the internet's influence and are searching for ways to combine this exposure into their classroom teaching. - Translation sites let learners find the meaning of foreign text or create foreign translations of text from their native language. - Speech synthesis or text to speech (TTS) sites and software let learners hear pronunciation of arbitrary written text, with pronunciation similar to a native speaker. - Course development and learning management systems such as Moodle are used by teachers, including language teachers. - Web conferencing tools can bring remote learners together; e.g. Elluminate Live. - Players of computer games can practice a target language when interacting in massively multiplayer online games and virtual worlds. In 2005, the virtual world Second Life started to be used for foreign language tuition, sometimes with entire businesses being developed. In addition, Spain’s language and cultural institute Instituto Cervantes has an "island" on Second Life. Some Internet content is free, often from government and nonprofit sites such as BBC Online, Book2, Foreign Service Institute, with no or minimal ads. Some is ad-supported, such as newspapers and YouTube. Some requires a payment. Language learning strategies have attracted increasing focus as a way of understanding the process of language acquisition. Listening as a way of learning Clearly listening is used to learn, but not all language learners employ it consciously. Listening to understand is one level of listening but focused listening is not something that most learners employ as a strategy. Reading as a way to learn Many people read to understand but the strategy of reading text to learn grammar and discourse styles can also be employed. Translation and rote memorization have been the two strategies that have been employed traditionally. There are other strategies that also can be used such as guessing, based on looking for contextual clues, spaced repetition with a use of various apps, games and tools (e.g. DuoLingo, LingoMonkey and Vocabulary Stickers). Knowledge about how the brain works can be utilized in creating strategies for how to remember words. Code switching, that is, changing between languages at some point in a sentence or utterance, is a commonly used communication strategy among language learners and bilinguals. While traditional methods of formal instruction often discourage code switching, students, especially those placed in a language immersion situation, often use it. If viewed as a learning strategy, wherein the student uses the target language as much as possible but reverts to their native language for any element of an utterance that they are unable to produce in the target language (as, e.g., in Wolfgang Butzkamm's concept of enlightened monolingualism), then it has the advantages that it encourages fluency development and motivation and a sense of accomplishment by enabling the student to discuss topics of interest to him or her early in the learning process—before requisite vocabulary has been memorized. It is particularly effective for students whose native language is English, due to the high probability of a simple English word or short phrase being understood by the conversational partner. Blended learning combines face-to-face teaching with distance education, frequently electronic, either computer-based or web-based. It has been a major growth point in the ELT (English Language Teaching) industry over the last ten years. Some people, though, use the phrase 'Blended Learning' to refer to learning taking place while the focus is on other activities. For example, playing a card game that requires calling for cards may allow blended learning of numbers (1 to 10). When talking about language skills, the four basic ones are: listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, other, more socially based skills have been identified more recently such as summarizing, describing, narrating etc. In addition, more general learning skills such as study skills and knowing how one learns have been applied to language classrooms. In the 1970s and 1980s, the four basic skills were generally taught in isolation in a very rigid order, such as listening before speaking. However, since then, it has been recognized that we generally use more than one skill at a time, leading to more integrated exercises. Speaking is a skill that often is underrepresented in the traditional classroom. This is due to the fact that it is considered harder to teach and test. There are numerous texts on teaching and testing writing but relatively few on speaking. More recent textbooks stress the importance of students working with other students in pairs and groups, sometimes the entire class. Pair and group work give opportunities for more students to participate more actively. However, supervision of pairs and groups is important to make sure everyone participates as equally as possible. Such activities also provide opportunities for peer teaching, where weaker learners can find support from stronger classmates. In foreign language teaching, the sandwich technique is the oral insertion of an idiomatic translation in the mother tongue between an unknown phrase in the learned language and its repetition, in order to convey meaning as rapidly and completely as possible. The mother tongue equivalent can be given almost as an aside, with a slight break in the flow of speech to mark it as an intruder. When modeling a dialogue sentence for students to repeat, the teacher not only gives an oral mother tongue equivalent for unknown words or phrases, but repeats the foreign language phrase before students imitate it: L2 => L1 => L2. For example, a German teacher of English might engage in the following exchange with the students: - Teacher: "Let me try - lass mich versuchen - let me try." - Students: "Let me try." Mother tongue mirroring Mother tongue mirroring is the adaptation of the time-honoured technique of literal translation or word-for word translation for pedagogical purposes. The aim is to make foreign constructions salient and transparent to learners and, in many cases, spare them the technical jargon of grammatical analysis. It differs from literal translation and interlinear text as used in the past since it takes the progress learners have made into account and only focuses upon a specific structure at a time. As a didactic device, it can only be used to the extent that it remains intelligible to the learner, unless it is combined with a normal idiomatic translation. This technique is seldom referred to or used these days. Back-chaining is a technique used in teaching oral language skills, especially with polysyllabic or difficult words. The teacher pronounces the last syllable, the student repeats, and then the teacher continues, working backwards from the end of the word to the beginning. For example, to teach the name ‘Mussorgsky' a teacher will pronounce the last syllable: -sky, and have the student repeat it. Then the teacher will repeat it with -sorg- attached before: -sorg-sky, and all that remains is the first syllable: Mus-sorg-sky. Language education by region Practices in language education may vary by region however the underlying understandings which drive it are fundamentally similar. Rote repetition, drilling, memorisation and grammar conjugating are used the world over. Sometimes there are different preferences teaching methods by region. Language immersion is popular in some European countries, but is not used very much in the United States, in Asia or in Australia. The languages being learned differ; in the United States, Spanish is the most popular language to be learned, whereas the most popular languages to be learned in Australia are Italian and Mandarin Chinese. Language study holidays An increasing number of people are now combining holidays with language study in the native country. This enables the student to experience the target culture by meeting local people. Such a holiday often combines formal lessons, cultural excursions, leisure activities, and a homestay, perhaps with time to travel in the country afterwards. Language study holidays are popular across Europe (Malta & UK being the most popular because almost everyone speaks English as a first language) and Asia due to the ease of transportation and variety of nearby countries. These holidays have become increasingly more popular in Central and South America in such countries as Guatemala, Ecuador and Peru. As a consequence of this increasing popularity, several international language education agencies have flourished in recent years. With the increasing prevalence of international business transactions, it is now important to have multiple languages at one's disposal. This is also evident in businesses outsourcing their departments to Eastern Europe. Minority language education Minority language education policy The principal policy arguments in favor of promoting minority language education are the need for multilingual workforces, intellectual and cultural benefits and greater inclusion in global information society. Access to education in a minority language is also seen as a human right as granted by the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the UN Human Rights Committee. Bilingual Education has been implemented in many countries including the United States, in order to promote both the use and appreciation of the minority language, as well as the majority language concerned. Materials and e-learning for minority language education Suitable resources for teaching and learning minority languages can be difficult to find and access, which has led to calls for the increased development of materials for minority language teaching. The internet offers opportunities to access a wider range of texts, audios and videos. Language learning 2.0 (the use of web 2.0 tools for language education) offers opportunities for material development for lesser-taught languages and to bring together geographically dispersed teachers and learners. Acronyms and abbreviations See also: English language learning and teaching for information on language teaching acronyms and abbreviations which are specific to English. - ALL: Apprenticeship Language Learning - CALL: computer-assisted language learning - CLIL: content and language integrated learning - CELI: Certificato di Conoscenza della Lingua Italiana - CLL: community language learning - DELE: Diploma de Español como Lengua Extranjera - DELF: diplôme d'études en langue française - EFL: English as a foreign language - ELL: English language learning - ELT: English language teaching - FLL: foreign language learning - FLT: foreign language teaching - HLL: heritage language learning - L1: first language, native language, mother tongue - L2: second language (or any additional language) - LDL: Lernen durch Lehren (German for learning by teaching) - LOTE: Languages Other Than English - SLA: second language acquisition - TELL: technology-enhanced language learning - TEFL: teaching English as a foreign language N.B. This article is about travel-teaching. - TEFLA: teaching English as a foreign language to adults - TESOL: teaching English to speakers of other languages - TPR: Total Physical Response - TPRS: Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling - UNIcert is a European language education system of many universities based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. - American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages - Eikaiwa school - Error analysis (linguistics) - Foreign language anxiety - Foreign language writing aid - Foreign language reading aid - Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas - Language festival - Linguistic rights - List of language acquisition researchers - Monolingual learner's dictionary - Self access language learning centers - Richards, Jack C.; Theodore S. Rodgers (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00843-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Diller, Karl Conrad (1978). The Language Teaching Controversy. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. ISBN 0-912066-22-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "Reviews of Language Self-Study Courses: Comparison, Problems, Ratings". Lang1234. Retrieved 17 July 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "Good Accents". Lang1234. Retrieved 5 August 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "Shadowing Step by Step". ForeignLanguageExpertise.com. Retrieved 17 July 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Amazing Hear-Say, by Donald Rivera, Penton Overseas Inc., ISBN 1-56015-677-5, ISBN 1-59125-350-0, ISBN 1-59125-353-5, ISBN 1-59125-349-7, ISBN 1-59125-351-9 - "Lessons for Beginners in English, mp3". 15 August 2013. 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Retrieved 3 May 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Dorveaux, Xavier (15 July 2007). "Study and teach in Second Life". iT's Magazines. Retrieved 15 July 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Dorveaux, Xavier (15 July 2007). "Apprendre une langue dans un monde virtuel". Le Monde. Retrieved 15 July 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Andrew Weiler: focused listening - Andrew Weiler: strategy of reading - Andrew Weiler: How to remember vocabulary - Butzkamm, Wolfgang (1998). "Code-Switching in a Bilingual History Lesson: The Mother Tongue as a Conversational Lubricant". International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 1:2, pp.81-99. - Holden, Susan; Mickey Rodgers (1998). English language teaching. Mexico City: DELTI. ISBN 968-6820-12-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - "Backchaining." Glossary. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/backchaining.html - "Backchaining." Teaching English. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/backchaining - "Travel agents missing out on profitable language travel holidays – Sprachcaffe". TravelWeek. Retrieved 2015-03-04.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Sachdev, I; McPake, J (2008). "Community Languages in Higher Education: Towards realising the potential". Routes into Languages. p. 76. Retrieved 26 June 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - de Varennes, Fernand (2004). "The right to education and minority language". EUMAP: EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program Online Journal. Archived from the original on 4 April 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning (July 1999). "Two-Way Bilingual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Local Perspective". Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved 26 June 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Sachdev, I; McPake, J (2008). "Community Languages in Higher Education: Towards realising the potential". Routes into Languages. pp. 61–62. Retrieved 26 June 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Diouri, Mourad (2009). "Language learning 2.0 in action: web .0 tools to enhance language learning" (PDF). 4th Plymouth e-Learning Conference 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Ikeda, A. Sho; Doty, Christopher (14 March 2009). "New Roles for Technology in Language Maintenance and Revitalization". 1st International Conference on Language Documentation and Conservation (ICLDC). Retrieved 26 June 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Pérez-Milans, M (2013). Urban schools and English language education in late modern China: A Critical sociolinguistic ethnography. New York & London: Routledge. - Gao, Xuesong (Andy). (2010).Strategic Language Learning.Multilingual Matters:Canada, 2010 - Kim Yeong-seo (2009) "History of English education in Korea" - Kirkpatrick, A & Zhichang, X (2002).”Chinese pragmatic norms and “China English”. World Englishes. Vol. 21, pp. 269–279. - Kubota, K (1998) “Ideologies of English in Japan” World Englishes Vol.17, No.3, pp. 295–306. - Bernhardt, E. B. (Ed.) (1992). Life in language immersion classrooms. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. - Genesee, F. (1985). Second language learning through immersion: A review of U.S. programs. 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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. - Swain, M. & Johnson, R. K. (1997). Immersion education: A category within bilingual education. In R. K. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion education: International perspectives (pp. 1–16). NY: Cambridge University Press. - Language Education at DMOZ - LANGWISER - Social platform for online language learning - CILT UK, The National Centre for Languages - The REALIA Project - UCLA Language Materials Project

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A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body (sporocarp or reproductive structure) of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The term "mushroom" also is used to designate the entire fungus with a fruiting body. While the term mushroom is often associated with fungi that have a stem (stipe or stalk), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamella, the papery ribs under the cap of a mushroom), the term can refer to a wide variety of gilled fungi with or without stems and more generally any fruiting body. Mushrooms provide culinary, commercial, aesthetic, and ecological values. Since prehistoric times, people have consumed them. Edible varieties can be flavorful and provide B vitamins and minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, selenium, and iron; but mushrooms do not have many calories. Mushroom growing and sales have been an important industry, and the diverse forms and colors of mushrooms add to the wondrous nature for humans. Ecologically, various animals, such as rodents and birds, eat mushrooms, this makes mushrooms an important source of nutrition and energy in terrestrial food chains. On the other hand, many species of mushrooms contain toxins that can cause human sickness or even death. Among the most deadly mushrooms are the destroying angel and the deathcap, members of the genus Amanita, which have killed many mushroom hunters. A fungus is a eukaryotic organism that digests its food externally and absorbs nutrient molecules into its cells. Fungi make up one of the kingdoms into which living things are classified by biologists. Mushrooms are unique because they differ from bacteria, which do not have a cell nucleus; they are not a plant because mushrooms do not make their own food through photosynthesis; and they differ from animals because they are not mobile and do not absorb nutrition externally. Mushrooms are, however, related to other fungi organisms such as, yeasts, molds, and mildews. Fungi may be single-celled or multi-cellular. Multi-cellular fungi are composed of networks of long hollow tubes called hyphae. The hyphae often gather in dense networks known as mycelium. The mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, and consists of the mass branching, thread-like hyphae. The mycelium grows through the medium on which the fungus feeds. Because most fungi are embedded in the medium in which they grow, most often soil, they are often not visible. Although fungi lack true organs, the mycelia can become organized into more complex reproductive structures called fruiting bodies, or sporocarps, under the right conditions. The sporocarp or fruiting body is a multi-cellular structure in which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruiting body is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cycle, the rest of the life cycle is characterized by its vegetative mycelial growth. The sporocarp of a basidiomycete (club fungi, one of the major divisions of fungi) is known as a basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an ascomycete (sac fungi) is known as an ascocarp. Mushroom is the common name given to the fruiting bodies of many fungal species. Although these typically above-ground structures are the most conspicuous to humans, they make up only a small portion of the entire fungal body. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, hence the word mushroom is most often applied to fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella) on the underside of the cap just as do store-bought white mushrooms. Stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. The pileus is the technical name for what is commonly known as the cap of a fungal fruiting body, which is often umbrella shaped, but may take many forms. A gill or lamella is one of the papery ribs under the cap of a mushroom. However, "mushroom" can also refer to a wide variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, and the term is used even more generally to describe both the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota and the woody or leathery fruiting bodies of some Basidiomycota, depending upon the context of the word. Forms deviating from the standard form usually have more specific names, such as "puffball," "stinkhorn," and "morel," and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "agarics" in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their placement in the order Agaricales. By extension, "mushroom" can also designate the entire fungus when in culture or the thallus (called a mycelium) of species that form the fruiting bodies called mushrooms. The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" date back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on its application. There is no scientific distinction between these terms. The term "toadstool" has often but not exclusively been applied to poisonous or inedible mushrooms, but has also been applied to those mushrooms that are edible and have the classic umbrella-like cap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 C.E., the terms tadstoles, frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode stoles, toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol, toadstoole, and paddockstooles were sometimes used synonymously with mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns (Ramsbottom 1954). The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word mousseron in reference to moss (mousse). There may have been a direct connection to toads (in reference to poisonous properties) for toadstools. However, there is no clear-cut delineation between edible and poisonous fungi, so that a "mushroom" technically may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The term "toadstool" is currently used in storytelling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is Amanita muscaria. Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language, including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In actuality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruiting bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids. The cultivated mushroom as well as the common field mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia. Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that literally appear overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They "mushroom" to full size. The slang term "mushrooms" has served as a gang-related term for victims accidentally shot as collateral damage simply because they popped up suddenly, as do fungal mushrooms (Sherman et al. 1989). Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off of basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruiting body is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print, is used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and cream, but almost never blue, green, or red. While modern scientific identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era. This ancient art is combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by mycologists, amateur and professional alike. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens. Chemical spot tests are also used for some genera. In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in the field using a local mushroom guide. Identification to species, however, requires more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spore prints. Two of the five major divisions (phyla) of fungi (Kingdom Fungi) are the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota. The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This division includes morels, some mushrooms and truffles, as well as single-celled yeasts and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Typical mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris. The order Agaricales is placed in the class Agariomycetes of the phylum Basidiomycota. Agaricales is commonly known as the "gilled mushrooms." However, in modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales have gills or produce mushroom fruiting bodies. Furthermore, many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders in the class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles like Gomphus are in the Gomphales, milk mushrooms (Lactarius) and russulas (Russula) as well as Lentinellus are in the Russulales, while the tough leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales, but Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera, are in the Hymenochaetales. Within the main body of mushrooms, in the order Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom (Marasmius oreades), shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics, and other amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe, paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, and so forth. An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom (Hypomyces lactifluorum), which is an ascomycete that parasitizes other mushrooms, such as the Russula or Lactarius. This may result in a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored outside from the lobster mushroom and the white flesh of the parasitized basidiomycete muchroom on the inside (Volk 2001). Other mushrooms (those with fruiting bodies) are non-gilled. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus the term mushroom has more than one common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies and associated organisms than one having precise taxonomic meaning. According to Chang and Miles (2004), there are approximately fourteen thousand described species of mushrooms. Edible mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, European, and Japanese). Though mushrooms are commonly thought to have little nutritional value, many species are high in fiber and provide vitamins such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), biotin (B7), cobalamins (B12), and ascorbic acid (C), as well as minerals, including iron, selenium, potassium, and phosphorus. Mushrooms have been gaining a higher profile for containing the antioxidants ergothioneine and selenium. Most mushrooms that are sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. The most popular of these, Agaricus bisporus, is safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments, though some individuals do not tolerate it well. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portabello. Other cultivated species now available at many grocers include shiitake, maitake or hen-of-the-woods, oyster, and enoki. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply "mushrooming." Of central interest is the chemical properties of mushrooms and the fact that many species produce secondary metabolites that render them toxic, mind-altering, or even bioluminescent. There are a number of species of mushroom that are poisonous, and although some resemble certain edible species, eating them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should not be undertaken by individuals unknowledgeable in mushroom identification, unless the individuals limit themselves to a small number of good edible species that are visually distinctive. More generally, and particularly with gilled mushrooms, separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. Though there are only a small number of deadly species, several have particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: The mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit (see emetics) the meal or avoid consumption altogether. Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. They are commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or "shrooms" and are available in many parts of the world, though a number of countries have outlawed their sale. Some mushrooms are eaten for their psychoactive effects, such as fly agaric, which is used for shamanic purposes by tribes in northeast Siberia. They have also been used in the West to enhance religious experiences. Because of their psychoactive properties, some mushrooms have played a role in native medicine, where they have been used to effect mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the Velada ceremony. A representative figure of traditional mushroom use is the shaman and curandera (priest-healer) María Sabina. As with many psychoactive substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and unpredictable, with the effect ranging from exhilarating to distressing. Currently, many species of mushrooms and fungi used in thousand-year-old folk medicine practices are under intense study by ethnobotanists and medical researchers. Maitake, shiitake, chaga, and reishi are prominent among those being researched for their potential anti-cancer, anti-viral, or immunity-enhancing properties. Psilocybin, originally an extract of certain psychedelic mushrooms, is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from mental disease, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches (Sewell et al. 2006). Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushrooms are organic compounds that produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the primary source of textile dyes. This technique has survived in Finland, and many Middle Ages re-enactors have revived the skill. Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi). Ötzi the Iceman (a well-preserved natural mummy of a man from about 3300 B.C.E.) was found carrying such fungi. Mushrooms and other fungi will likely play an increasingly important role in the development of effective biological remediation and filtration technologies. All links retrieved October 31, 2018. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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Sherry Norfolk describes herself as a “teaching artist.” In her own words, “someone who uses their art form to teach the curriculum.” Putting stories to work in classrooms is her creative passion, and she is committed to helping educators discover the myriad resources available to them in this endeavor. Discover how to integrate folktales and the oral tradition into the curricula and why they are the foundation for human communication. Raven: In your writing, you’ve stated that there is no way to effectively tell a story in a classroom without addressing multiple aspects of the Common Core Standards. How can teachers easily use stories to address these standards? Sherry: Okay, I’ll give you an example of a typical lesson plan that I use. First, I talk with the teachers about what standards are the highest priority to address. Then I choose a folktale that addresses those themes or those standards. On the first day, I tell that story to the children. Now we’re addressing listening skills, right off the bat. Then we discuss the pattern of that story. Folktales have wonderful, clear patterns that we can define and follow. Patterning is in the Math standards, as well as the Language Arts standards. Next, we work together to create a story based on that pattern—we generate new ideas. Those new ideas are generated collaboratively. In every single grade level, the ELA standards require children to collaborate. The kids are generating those stories collaboratively, and they are building off of prior knowledge – that’s another ELA Standard: generating ideas based on prior knowledge. It might be prior knowledge based on their own experiences, it might be based on events that are happening in the world, or something from another story they just read. The important point for students in aligning their learning with the ELA Standards is that they’re making connections to themselves, to literature, and to the world. I tell them the story that we’ve generated; then, each student creates his/her own story and they then tell their new story to a partner so we’re back to collaborating, listening, and evaluating. R: With folktales and the oral tradition, teachers are able to implement more interactive classroom assignments? Sherry: Exactly, and that leads to asking the children to start writing so we’re incorporating the writing standards, as well. As they begin writing, they start to revise, and they’re revising for word choice, for vocabulary, for clarity. In addition, they are working with others to evaluate and revise their work together so they’re working collaboratively again. Eventually they publish their work and that can be done very easily using technology. It depends on the teacher, the amount of time we have, and the support resources that are available, but often the kids will do their final drafts on a computer so that we can also include a technology component. Then, having published the story, we start rehearsing and learning about a good audience. That component transitions into civic lessons and the Social Studies Standards. The children actually perform the stories, so now we’re back to listening, evaluating, and being a good audience. The children are required to provide positive peer feedback for every story. That requires each child to evaluate, assess and also reflect on specific elements that work well in a story. In this lesson plan, we’ve easily addressed well over a dozen Common Core Standards. R: It sounds like the students, and the teachers, are really getting a lot out of this method of teaching. Sherry: The Common Core State Standards really, really emphasize the integration of the curricula. It’s fun to see how you can look at all these different standards and integrate them, making the class more interesting and more creative for the students. It’s absolutely possible with the way that the Common Core Standards are organized. Now, whether or not teachers are allowed to do that in their school system is another issue. Sometimes, administrators don’t recognize these opportunities and that learning can actually be more effective this way, even though all the research says it is. They’ll come into the classroom and see the students are actually having fun, and then things clamp down. But the truth is that the standards can contribute to an environment that is better and more conducive to learning. If you read the introduction to the Common Core state standards, it actually encourages integrated learning. R: How would you convince administrators that using the oral tradition and folktales is extremely beneficial in learning these different skills? Sherry: There’s a growing body of research that says when children are interested, when their curiosity is piqued, they will pay more attention, comprehend more and retain more knowledge.... When we are interested, when we are curious, we simply learn more—it’s intuitive. In order to engage listeners, to engage our audience, our kids, our learners... we need to apply the principles of play. All types of play have some kind of underlying learning going on. But it doesn’t have to be just frivolous. The lesson plan and sequence of assignments sounds like fun to kids. They think they are simply having fun, and they’re also actively involved in the process of learning new skills. Even the kids who refuse to write a sentence, end up writing a story, an entire story. During the revision, even though they hate making revisions, they do it because it feels like a game and they see their progress. R: What do you do when a child feels frustrated and they’re having difficulty engaging in the creative process? How do you help them through that phase? Sherry: Brainstorm with them. We all process information at different rates of speed, so yeah, every once in a while, there’s a kid who just kind of stalls out. They sit there, stare at the wall, chew on things. Part of what I do in the classroom is constant, constant moving around the room, checking on kids, making sure they’re progressing, helping them get through that stall. When I encounter a kid who is stuck, I brainstorm with him. I’ll give him, like, forty-two different ideas. Usually he won’t take one of mine, but it helps him move out of that stalled place, keeps him off the wall. Then he comes up with an idea he likes and he starts to move forward. It’s very rare that I encounter a kid who can’t come up with a story. I mean, it just doesn’t happen. Recently, I’ve been doing more work in special education with self-contained classrooms that serve children with fairly profound disabilities. About nine of the classrooms I worked with last year were middle school kids with severe behavioral and emotional disorders. The teachers don’t believe we’ll be able to help these kids write. Yet in every single one of those classrooms, every single kid wrote and told a story. The teachers were amazed. There was a comment that I got back, and I love this comment: “Kids who passionately hate to write are now passionate writers.” And that was so exciting because it was from the teacher’s perspective! It wasn’t me saying that’s what I observed. It was the teachers who were seeing a profound change in their kids. That’s the impact storytelling can make in the classroom. Storytelling changes the whole learning paradigm in the classroom. R: That’s amazing. What do you think made the difference? Sherry: We came at the writing assignments from a different perspective. One of the key points that I encourage teachers to do is not immediately say, “Okay, come up with an idea and start writing.” Instead, I’ve found that it works much better when a teacher asks the students to start telling a story. Talk about the story with the other children before they try to put it into writing. For most of us, it’s so much easier to be creative out loud. You’re not worried about forming the letters on the page, not worried about spelling, not worried about grammar. You’re just telling a story. Once you’ve shared the story out loud, you have a chance to assess, “Well, let’s see what worked?” They’re actually doing the first revision before they ever put pencil to page. This fundamental shift makes a huge difference, especially for kids who’ve had a lot of negative experiences in writing. That’s one of the real benefits, I find, that storytelling brings to the classroom: the oral creative process. R: It makes perfect sense. I find that I need to share my thoughts out loud because I have these ideas buzzing in my head, but I can’t formulate them into a coherent message until I can speak to someone and get feedback. Sherry: In the arts they call it the “authentic audience.” There’s got to be a real reason for doing this work: you get to tell it to somebody. You’re going to get feedback from that audience. Unfortunately, kids often perceive the work they do at school as “busy work”. We know they’re “practicing the skills” and they’re learning and making progress as they “practice the skills” but it just feels like busy work to them. Typically, the feedback they receive is maybe just a grade. But if they know their work is going to get published, it’s going to get listened to, their story is going to be shared with other people, then there’s an authentic purpose for doing the work. It makes it all real and it’s exciting to them. R: When I’m working with the student that I mentor for the writing program, there are times when he is trying to come up with an idea for his story and he has to process his ideas verbally with a partner. It really helps him to problem-solve, and he’ll take those skills with him. Sherry: Yes, but if you’ve already written all of the story down, especially by hand – which is what most kids have to do in school, right? – if you’ve written all that down and then people begin asking you questions, you don’t want to go back and change all that work. No one does. The kids can get all stubborn and uncooperative. When it’s on a computer, you can go in and add sentences or move passages around, but it is a pain if it’s all been done by hand. I have horrid memories of doing everything by hand and trying to revise things and hating the process really badly. I completely understand why kids feel that way, but teachers have been basically told, “Keep the classroom quiet.” Since language is very much predicated on oral language, it’s actually counter-productive to keep classrooms quiet. It’s one of the practices that I really try to impress upon teachers when I’m in their classrooms. (The other thing is not to constantly badger the kids when they’re doing a rough draft. When they’re actively involved in the creative phase of their work, leave them alone.) If the processing is oral, then kids can take note of those ideas and change the story immediately. By the time they get around to actually writing the story down, most of the revisions are done, so the story is already in pretty good shape. The oral processing is essential, and it’s something that most classrooms preclude these days. When you bring storytelling into the classroom, all of a sudden it becomes recognizable as a strategy that works. R: Let’s talk about your work with helping students retain factual information. Your website references Freeman Tilden’s Interpreting Our Heritage. It includes a brief dialogue on how to “weave a basket of storytelling to hold the grains of facts.” Could you explain this concept? Sherry: Research tells us that we don’t retain factual information as well as we do the elements of a story. If you put the facts into story, we tend to retain it. For example: one time I was asked to teach about the differences between the Brazilian rainforest and the Madagascar rainforest (I have no idea why, it’s just what I was asked to do), so I did the research. Then I thought, okay, I’m a teaching artist, it needs to be taught through story. I started by finding a folktale about a little girl walking through the rainforest and meeting up with a big monster. In my version of the story, she’s walking through the rain forest with her sister and as she notices things, she would say something like, “Look at that! There are butterflies everywhere and they’re all different colors of the rainbow.” And her sister would say, “Bimwili, there are over 300 kinds of butterflies in the rainforest. If we stop to look at every one, we’re never going to get where we’re going.” So they keep going. Then she says, “Ah, look at that great big lizard! It’s got eyes that are going in both directions and– hey! it just changed colors! And look at those toes!” “Yeah, that’s a chameleon. Chameleons can change colors because of their moods. Right now, he’s scared. That’s why he just changed colors. Let’s go!” The sisters keep on going back and forth through the story and I’m describing the animals and plants that live in the rainforest. Then I would go back a week, sometimes two weeks later, and I ask the kids, “What were the things that Bimwili saw in the rainforest?” They would tell me the entire list. They retained it, and I swear that if I had given them a list of facts without Bimwili experiencing it through story, they wouldn’t have retained half of that information. That’s what I mean when I say weaving the facts into a basket of story. R: Do you see that same phenomenon with other folktales? Is it applicable to other stories? Sherry: I’ve seen this effect so many times. Another great example is a story Bobby tells of westward expansion, the Lewis and Clark Expedition through the eyes of York, the only African-American who was on that expedition. In the forty-five-minute story, the number of facts has to be somewhere up in the thousands. This is something he’s studied for over twenty years, and he knows this stuff backwards and forwards. He embeds all of these facts, weaves them into the basket of story. After he performs the story in an auditorium, I follow the kids back into the classroom and I ask them to research and write a story from the perspective of some other explorer on the expedition. Remember, most of these kids have never heard of Lewis and Clark and it’s certainly the first time they’ve ever heard of York. It’s really interesting to watch the kids who don’t write and read very well. They always choose York. Because they just heard his story, right? They can repeat back almost word for word the details that Bobby put into the story. All those facts, they will come right back out with them, almost as if they had a tape recorder and they had taped what Bobby was saying. However, if he had presented those points just as a list of facts they probably would not have remembered half of them. R: You also noted how there are many different ways to tell a story orally. Could you discuss how teachers need to be able to perceive what is needed from their class? Sherry: A good teacher is always very much aware of what their students need. They can do so by looking at body language and facial expressions. One of the interesting observations that teachers have shared with me over the years, is that when they watch their kids listening to a story, the teachers are able to observe things that they don’t normally see in the classroom. It’s probably because they are not actively engaged in the actual teaching at that point, so they can really focus on their kids. When I’m telling a story for the first time in a particular classroom, I can start to figure out the learning styles of every single kid. R: Just in that one day? Sherry: Just in that one story. If you’re really observant, you can figure out, very accurately, the learning styles of every child. For example: the kid who never looks at you is certainly not a visual learner. He’s probably auditory, so just looking and watching is a distraction to him and he’ll tend to look away. That doesn’t mean he’s not paying attention. It just means that’s the way he processes information. The kid who is mimicking every single thing you do, she’s a kinesthetic learner. She needs to move around in order to learn. Children who are repeating every single sound effect and doing the kinesthetic stuff, they probably have a really good combination of all of the of the styles. They’re actively watching, listening, mimicking. Then there are the kids who don’t ever look away, who don’t move a muscle and are carefully monitoring every move, every gesture - they’re typically visual learners. Over and over again, I see it. And I can even begin to figure out which child is ADHD and which one has different types of disabilities because the symptoms manifest during that one five-minute story. Storytelling allows you to observe them just as they are. R: As children are getting to be more deeply immersed in digital media, what are some of the challenges in adapting a story or making it appealing for children who are used to more high-intensity stimulation? Sherry: Nowadays when telling stories to kids, I find that I have to use more dramatic character voices, more sound effects, more action and movement to mimic, in some ways, what happens on television or on small screens. Because kids are not used to paying attention to just the words. R: That’s a little discouraging. Sherry: Well, it is. I’ve been doing this for, well, years, and over those years I’ve observed – and anybody who’s been working with the oral tradition for any length of time has observed – a significant change in children’s ability to sit still and listen. It’s not necessarily what the kids are listening to that is different, I can still tell the same story I told twenty or thirty years ago, but now I have to ramp up the production quality to keep the audience’s attentions. It’s never been true that you could just tell a story passively, at least not in my experience. You couldn’t just read the words without dramatic interpretation and then expect kids to listen intently. You need to put your own energy into each story. You have to be engaged in the story yourself. I think that nowadays it requires a higher level of energy and engagement in order to keep the kids involved in the story or you’ll lose them very quickly. R: I was wondering if you have any tips for educators who want to use folktales and the oral tradition in their classrooms, but they’re not yet comfortable with telling stories. What advice would you give them? Sherry: A good way to start is to observe other people, especially professional storytellers who have been performing for years. You’ll pick up some tips from them, and then think about how you can apply those aspects to your particular curriculum, to the lessons that you need to teach. My biggest recommendation for anyone who is thinking about using the oral tradition in their classroom is to just do it. Just sit down and tell a story. Put down the book, look at the eyes of your children and tell them a story. Then all of a sudden you will realize you can do this. R: Okay, but why should teachers use folktales to begin with? Why is it so important for children to grow up with oral traditions? Sherry: I guess the best answer is to refer you to the foreword that Carmen Deedy wrote for our social studies book: “When a child grows up without hearing family stories, she enters adulthood with an incomplete sense of her personal history. This is loss enough. But when a child grows up without hearing folktales and fairytales, she enters adulthood with an imperfect sense of what it means to be a member of the human family.... These tales carry deep within them the wit and wisdom of ancient cultures. Most are hundreds—some thousands—of years old. And they are an essential part of a complete education.” Really, it is all about – for her, for me, for all of us who work with children – the idea that any child who grows up without hearing family stories, has an incomplete childhood. She doesn’t really know her own history. A child who grows up without hearing folktales and fairy tales has no idea of the human family, not just her own family but the whole human family. Folktales carry the whole message about who and what we are as human beings. R: It sounds like folktales show us how to interact with other people, especially as we live in an increasingly diverse world. Sherry: Yes, and folktales, the ones that have survived through generations of being told and retold and reinterpreted, have survived because they carry universal messages. When we tell those stories, to the children and to each other as adults, they reinforce those values and help us to understand that children who don’t hear those stories not only don’t know their own heritage but don’t know, really, how the world thinks, what the world values. R: How do you see this happening in your work with schools? Sherry: I just returned from Taiwan. I was working with children, using folktales to help them learn conversational English and to become more confident in their abilities to communicate in English. We were using universal folktales. That’s all we used, the entire time. It was amazing to see those children absolutely came alive to Western stories that they had never heard. It happens because these stories still carry those universal truths. The concept that we’re wired for stories as human beings is not just an abstract idea, it’s not just a metaphor - it’s absolutely true. Research has proven that. We have to, as human beings, share those stories. We simply have to. R: So telling stories is not just a moral obligation to preserve a family history. Sharing stories also helps us maintain and sustain our values as human beings? Sherry: Yes, it’s to maintain our humanity.

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Can you tell the difference between text written by a human versus a robot? Take a look at this example text in response to a prompt: “Why should I buy your pair of sneakers? What makes them amazing?” Can you tell if a human or robot wrote A or B? The answer is GPT-3 wrote them both. How about this example, in response to another prompt: “What is the future of writing for humans?” Who wrote what? The answer is a human wrote A and a GPT-3 wrote B. Could you honestly tell the difference between them? Most can’t tell. In one study, researchers gave test subjects 200-word news articles written by either humans or GPT-3 and asked them to state which one had written them. On average, they chose right only 52% of the time, which is basically by chance. And if you ask GPT-3 itself what it thinks about the difference between a human vs. robot author, it’ll tell you: Researchers at the University of Miami have developed an algorithm to detect whether a piece of writing is from a human or a machine. The team, made up of computer scientists and psychologists, used a dataset that contained more than 2.5 million articles, collected from more than 150,000 distinct websites. From that data, they were able to determine how humans and machines write differently in terms of word choice and structure. To test their system, the team asked the public to complete nearly 48,000 sentences written by robots and humans without knowing what was written. Humans were able to correctly identify texts written by humans and text written by robots more than 95% of the time. The research was published in Science Advances earlier this month. While it’s not entirely clear why the team decided to put this algorithm together or what they plan to do with it going forward, it’s still an interesting development when it comes to machine learning capabilities. It could potentially be helpful for identifying fake news online (an increasingly relevant issue) or in other scenarios where AI is being used—but not as transparently as we think. It’s all coherent. It sounds like an interesting study. But it never happened. Other studies like it may have taken place, or will take place in the future. But this particular study that GPT-3 is referencing? Nope, not real. Setting aside a penchant for creative license with reality… GPT-3 can write text that reads as well as what a human could write. The sheer volume and variety of what it can produce is staggering. GPT-3 analyzed billions upon billions of lines of text, figured out how language works, and can now produce text of its own, practically on command. While the quality of the output breaks down once you get past some 300-500 words (if you don’t provide any more prompts), GPT-3 is better at creating content than anything else that has come before it. Which leads us to an interesting question: If a computer can write text that’s indistinguishable from humans, where does that leave writers? We’re already seeing a glimpse of the future in journalism. Instead of writing short news reports of 200-500 words at a time, a journalist can just write a title, a subtitle, and let a computer fill out the rest. AI and GPT-3 is taking up more space in newsrooms and media companies There are several automated journalism applications being used in newsrooms around the globe from speeding up research to fact-checking, comment monitoring, streamlining workflow, eliminating fake news and even writing content. Several media organizations including The New York Times, Associated Press, Reuters, Washington Post, and Yahoo! Sports already use AI to generate content. The Press Association, for example, can now produce 30,000 local news stories a month using AI. The software can scan the data and determine insights from, for example, a game, that are important for the reader to know. The Washington Post uses its in-house NLG tool to create news articles and social media posts. What will this do to the news and media over the next few years? How will this change production and consumption? It’s not just newsrooms – AI text software is used in finance, too To cut research time and costs, German bank Commerzbank is using artificial intelligence to create equity research reports. This process is not yet completely automated, but the technology is already able to perform about 75% of what a human equity analyst would have done. Many financial institutions are churning out 10- to 15-page financial reports in an instant by using Narrative Science’s NLG platform Quill. It also creates content for Groupon, Forbes, USAA and more. Artificial intelligence helps create text summarizations, short and coherent versions of longer documents. Text or content that is written, produced, or manipulated by AI is becoming more ubiquitous. And it’s already available to anyone for the most mundane of tasks. Take email, for example. Don’t want to write them? Give GPT-3 some instruction, and it’ll take care of the rest: GPT-3 is going to change the way you work.— OthersideAI (@OthersideAI) July 22, 2020 Introducing Quick Response by OthersideAI Automatically write emails in your personal style by simply writing the key points you want to get across The days of spending hours a day emailing are over!!! Beta access link in bio! pic.twitter.com/HFjZOgJvR8 It goes beyond just writing emails. By day, GPT-3 is a coder. For example, by tweaking GPT-3 so that it produced HTML rather than natural language, web developer Sharif Shameem showed that he could make it create web-page layouts just by giving it prompts: This is mind blowing.— Sharif Shameem (@sharifshameem) July 13, 2020 With GPT-3, I built a layout generator where you just describe any layout you want, and it generates the JSX code for you. W H A T pic.twitter.com/w8JkrZO4lk And by night, GPT-3 is a poet. Are writers and creatives at risk of being replaced? In fact, creative uses for GPT-3 and other AI text tools covers not just poetry but scriptwriting, impersonation, fiction, songs, guitar tabs, and more. It can write Dr. Seuss poems about Elon Musk. Want to chat with Shakespeare? He’ll chat with you. Need a Seinfeld script? Done. Unlike that OTHER guy who just wrote silly things and lied to pass them off as the work of an AI, I actually DID get the GPT-3 language model to generate new Seinfeld scripts. Behold: 4 New Puffy Shirt Episodes. (The first 5 lines are canon, the rest new) pic.twitter.com/pG3iy69J9b— Ryan North (@ryanqnorth) July 7, 2020 It’s excellent at pretending to be historical figures, so you can ask a fake Jane Austen how her characters would use social media. Want to know how Alfred Hitchcock would compare Interstellar with 2001: A Space Odyssey? Just ask Alfred. Curious where H.G. Wells got the inspiration for The Time Machine? He’ll tell you. AI and GPT-3 are great for summarizing movies with emojis, writing songs, stories, press releases, guitar tabs, interviews, technical manuals – and a lot more. It can also imagine Professor Richard Feynman explaining a quantum computer in great detail and improvise Sir Isaac Newton talking about gravity. GPT-3 can also imitate particular writers. Mario Klingemann, an artist who works with machine learning, shared a short story called “The importance of being on Twitter,” written in the style of Jerome K. Jerome. Klingemann says all he gave the AI was the title, the author’s name and the initial “It.” Another attempt at a longer piece. An imaginary Jerome K. Jerome writes about Twitter. All I seeded was the title, the author's name and the first "It", the rest is done by #gpt3— Mario Klingemann (@quasimondo) July 18, 2020 Here is the full-length version as a PDF:https://t.co/d2gpmlZ1T5 pic.twitter.com/1N0lNoC1eZ AI-driven plot generators like Story Generator and DeepStory are readily available to anyone who needs a little inspiration to get their creative writing project going. The creative uses of AI are never-ending. All these examples (and I’m not even covering everything) make it seem like GPT-3 is a rival, and there’s little to no use for humans in the creative and writing process. But nothing could be further from the truth. GPT-3 is an excellent copywriter who’s beat my copy multiple times In my own work as a copywriter, I’ve been using GPT-3 and other AI tools for a couple of years. And the impact has been profound. It’s not about churning out a ton more copy or content. It’s not about writing faster. The true, and lasting, impact of GPT-3 is ideation: coming up with new angles, ideas, and themes for writing ads, emails, landing pages, sales pages and more. Over the past few years, incorporating AI, and more recently GPT-3, with client work has paid off in spades. We can quickly and easily generate raw copy that turns into control-beating, conversion-boosting copy–with only minor editing. And sometimes GPT-3 spins up ads or emails that can be used as they are, with zero editing. My clients have experienced conversion lifts on pages, emails or ads that were once considered “dead” or impossible to beat. Normally, as a copywriter, you rely on hours, days or weeks of research and immersing yourself in a product or service, with qualitative and quantitative analysis, interviews and surveys. These are all still useful. But there’s nothing quite like getting ideas for 50 or 100 ads with a click. And there’s nothing quite like getting that “first shitty draft” taken care of in mere seconds. I’ll get back to the creative impact on not just copywriting but all writing in a minute. What is GPT-3 and how does it work? Generative means that the model’s goal is to generate text. It wants to predict what word comes next in any given sentence. Pre-trained means that the weights of the algorithm are already set for you based on the massive piles of data it has consumed. Transformer is the algorithm the model uses. It specializes in being able to process long pieces of text and understand how words are used in natural language. (The “3” means it’s the third version of the tool to be released). In short, GPT-3 has been fed with, and trained on, an enormous amount of data that it uses to predict and generate the next word in a sentence. The training data acts as a “memory” it can use to carry out tasks. What data, specifically, has GPT-3 been fed with? Pretty much everything. GPT-3 has read the entire internet. It’s read all of Wikipedia. It’s consumed popular Reddit posts, news articles, and fan fiction. It’s gone through all of Google Books. It’s read conspiracy theories, propaganda manuals, celebrity stories, gossip, politics, and the top 10 spots for your dream vacation. It’s read every month of the Common Crawl dataset (which is an archive of the internet) from 2016 to October 2019, comprising every piece of writing on the web during that time. GPT-3 devoured it all. It has digested 45 terabytes of text, which equals a book about 3,375,000,000 pages long. If the average length of a book is about 400 pages, then GPT-3 read 8,437,500 books. That’s over 3 times the number of books you’ll find in the New York Public library. And based on all this, it writes everything. But one key thing to keep in mind is how it writes. Simply put, GPT-3 spits out the next word that fits in with everything that came before it. It produces different probabilities for different words, and then picks the one with the highest likelihood of “fitting in” with the text. You give an input – any text, however much or little you want to give – and then it tries to predict what words would come after that, based on everything it has read and the rules it has learned. In other words, it predicts and replicates human text. That’s all and good, but how is this the future of writing? The shape of writing to come (for humans) For humans, our role in the creative process and writing is shifting–and we’re liberated in a new way. Instead of shouldering the burden of “originality” or coming up with something on our own, we are more like editors, copy chiefs, or simply “creative directors”. AI, and GPT-3, can be more like our “creative assistants”, handling much of the brunt work–or a trusted collaborator, with contributions of its own that can turn into ever more interesting works of art. That doesn’t mean AI will automatically produce a new, perfectly formed work of art (or story or piece of music), ready for human consumption and appreciation. There’s no reason to expect that level of work–yet. But it does put us way ahead in terms of experimentation with existing language and formulas. The real question is not if, or how, a tool like GPT-3 can replicate, write, produce and eventually replace human writing. It will replace some forms of writing. The question that matters is: How AI, and GPT-3 specifically, augment our creativity and writing? AI can help us improve our creative process by making it easier to discover new ideas, new directions and new concepts that were not previously obvious to us. It can help us find more unusual and unexpected connections between ideas and concepts in a way that we could not do on our own. The way it does this is by making possible a method of “trial and error” that “human style thinking” is not capable of. AI can be used to generate new concepts and new ideas by stripping away all the details from an initial concept or idea. From there, AI can begin to generate new concepts by combining different aspects of the original concept into new ideas. In this way, AI can be used to create a large number of new ideas from a single original concept or idea. And from these new ideas, we can then select the ones we want to focus on, and further develop. Jus so you know, everything in the last five paragraphs was written by GPT-3. I made no edits. But it still rings true to the creative process, and how GPT-3 can augment our creativity. We think, write our thoughts, and end up thinking our thoughts as we write them, which in turn often leads to new thoughts and ideas. If an algorithm can help in generating new thoughts, in the form of a string of words, this can help us think new thoughts–thoughts that we might’ve otherwise missed. And this is where our writing and creative process can work well with GPT-3. It doesn’t care about the meaning of words. It cares about the patterns of language. If it can find the patterns, it can then rearrange them in new ways. There are a few practical ways GPT-3 can shape writing and the creative process for us. #1: Developing our “taste” and judgement A common claim amongst copywriters, writers or creatives will chime in and make the claim that your best ideas come from getting your hands dirty with the muck of research and inputs. This may be true to some extent. But what do you need in order to turn that muck into gold? Taste. A developed and refined judgement of what, precisely, in the muck is useful in an advertisement or work of fiction. When you can get, say, raw copy for 100 different ads with just a few clicks, you need to make a decision (judgement) on what potential ads could actually work. But don’t stop there. Make use of wildcards, ads that you’d never in a million years think could convert. The biggest wins in conversions or impact of any piece of writing is often from the unexpected. And the more exposure you get to surprising ideas, the sharper your judgement and taste will become. #2: Faster, deeper synthesis that results in true innovation A huge part of human creativity involves exploration and experimentation. And this requires absorbing a lot of information, ideas, and models — and then putting it all together in new ways by synthesizing parts into a whole. This new “whole” then becomes a new piece of writing or work of art. GPT-3 (and other AI tools) can augment this whole process, leading to new ideas and innovation that we might’ve never seen before. While there are still some glitches to work out before there will be full confidence that machines can actually write with the same creativity and ingenuity as humans, what’s possible, right now, is nothing short of amazing. What GPT-3 can do for you, as a writer, thinker or “creative” person, is almost limitless. Let GPT-3 supply an endless stream of new thoughts and ideas. And you synthesize it together. #3: Writing breakthroughs on demand, curing “writer’s block” At the very least, GPT-3 can “cure” writer’s block and expand your imagination. For the record, I think writer’s block is largely a myth as it’s commonly understood (being stuck in the writing process). But it’s common for writers to feel stuck Imagine if your biggest challenge is simply starting a sentence or a paragraph. Even if you’ve done research, have a stack of notes, or thought through a topic. Getting those first words out of your head and into a document is still hard. But with GPT-3 at your disposal, input a few words or a couple of sentences, and watch it complete your thoughts before your eyes. From there, you can curate, edit, organize, ideate, and repeat until you have something that works. #4: Instant access to outsourced creativity It’s a playground for creativity, thinking, reasoning and writing. And it’s available instantaneously. There’s no training. No massive data uploads. No complicated set format. You can tune a few parameters. You can cause GPT-3 to be more creative in its answers, not to repeat earlier text, and to use particular tokens to start and end. The possibilities here are endless, not least because these AI platforms don’t always generate the same output from the same input. You can use the same three prompts in GPT-3 for “ideas to try out with GPT-3” (very meta) and get a different list every time. If you have time to sift through a lot of AI-generated output, you just might see something that sparks your own creativity. And using that as a jumping off point is no different from being inspired by something you’ve read or seen. #5: AI is creative leverage AI has an advantage. It can digest exponentially more data than any human ever could. They have more information and more models to play with. So whatever the creative pursuit — visual arts, music, poetry, fiction writing, movie plots — AI can do some serious heavy-lifting to surface new combinations of existing forms and language, in ways that one human cannot. Which brings me to my final point. The GPT-3 writing tools of tomorrow The writing tools of tomorrow are already very different, and more powerful, than the writing tools of today. Instead of just grammar and spell checking, a new breed of editors can guide unstructured thought into structured thought. Forget simple auto-completion. Think fresh idea generation, on demand. As a writer–and as a human–you’ll spend less time fighting with a blank Google document and more time thinking, ideating, and exploring. In other words, you’re a curator and editor of an idea and thought stream that you can shape into content. Imagine using a text editor with not just predictive text, but predictive thoughts. Instead of a limited amount of ideas your brain can expend energy to think of, there’s effortless creative amplification. This will give rise to new roles and jobs, more so than any jobs the robots might steal. That’s why you should think of AI as your “creative collaborator,” not as your rival. After all, it wrote 87% of this article for me.

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Literacy skills include all the basic skills that are required for the process of reading, writing, and interpreting everything that goes around us. There are so many literacy skills, including reading, writing, speaking, listening, and other aspects related to these, that make up the complete skill set and allow a person to be more aware of the happenings around them and how to make perceptions and interpretations about them. Here we have discussed some of the main literacy skills that are required for students to be able to fully gain knowledge from the elements around and you can also learn these skills from our private tutors. What are literacy skills? In order to gain knowledge from our surroundings, there is a need for us to have a basic skill set with which we can absorb and give out the learned info. We can not gain knowledge by simply having a single literacy skill. For instance, if we are aware of what a word sounds like but we have no idea how to read it when we see it in a sentence in front of us, we lack the basic skills of literacy, due to which we will not be able to gain all the knowledge that we are supposed to otherwise. There are many literacy skills that make up the whole skillset. Let’s discuss how each of these literacy skills needed can be beneficial in individual aspects for the process of gaining knowledge in a child’s everyday environment. The process of reading is quite simple yet a bit complicated. Reading is a process that involves visually observing the written elements and interpreting the meaning behind them by analyzing the connection and relation between them. Usually, it has been observed that reading skills can have a major impact on the academic life of students. If they get a grip of reading skills at an early stage, they are more likely to perform better in their academic field because reading is considered the basic step involved in the process of gaining knowledge. Children should be encouraged through classroom activities if they like reading books, articles, journals, etc. The reading skill is further divided into some other basic skills related to reading as discussed below: Decoding is the skill involved in the process of reading in which a person tries to read out a written word that they have heard before but haven’t seen in a written form. In this way, when a person sees a word in the written form for the first time, they are actually decoding the word because they are analyzing how to read that word correctly. Being able to decode is an important part of the reading process because you will encounter words that are new to you, and to know how to read them, you will have to know how to decode them. To decode a word, you need to know what different letters look like, how they sound like, and how a relationship is established between them. When children are aware of these basic things, they will be able to decode the words written in front of them. Being aware of phonics is also an essential component of the reading process. It involves the knowledge of the sounds that are made by certain letters, alphabets, and their connection with each other. Each alphabet makes a certain sound that distinguishes them from each other. When these letters are written together, along with the meaning, the sound of the whole word is also changed. In order to know the sound made by the word, students need to be aware of the sound made by each letter present in the word. In this way, we can figure out how to say out aloud the written word. For better understanding, you can start with any children’s book you like. To Be able to read properly, we need to be aware of what a certain letter or word sounds like. Otherwise, we will be spelling out the words wrong, which will make the whole reading process wrong. Grammar and vocabulary In order to be able to read perfectly and have ease in word recognition, students need to have a good grip on grammar and vocabulary. This involves knowing the meaning of words that are being read. Being able to merely read without knowing what the meaning of the word that has been written is is quite useless and does not help in the process of gaining knowledge. The knowledge-gaining process will remain bland if you are unaware of what you are reading, and knowing about that, you need to get a solid grip on grammar and vocabulary. For this, you need to keep a check on any new word you encounter and search about what it means so that the next time you are reading it, you will know the meaning of it and what you are actually reading. When you have gotten a grip on other main components of the reading process, then you need to be fluent in your reading in order to easily read, understand and comprehend the text. Without fluency, you will be taking many breaks in the process. You wouldn’t be able to read properly and understand the meaning of the text if you are not reading it in a fluent way; rather, you are taking a pause after every second. In order to gain maximum knowledge while reading something, you should be able to read it in a flow and without breaking the tempo you are reading in. This makes it easy for you to gain knowledge from your reading material. This refers to the process of understanding the text you are reading. Whatever text has been written, there will be some meaning behind it. It could be a fictional story or a newspaper; there will be a meaning behind the words that have been assembled together. Reading a text and not being able to understand what it means is not quite useful. It is equally important that you know what you are reading by understanding the meaning behind all the words and their connections with each other. From reading a storybook to reading an academic one, there is no point in reading it if you do not understand the meaning present behind the words. So this is one of the basic steps if you have gained the grip over reading skills; getting to know the meaning of what you are reading. The process of writing mainly involves the idea of sharing thoughts and ideas through the use of words and letters written down. A person writes down his thoughts using letters, grammar, punctuation, and more so that the other person can read and understand the thoughts. Just like reading is quite essential for the process of gaining knowledge, the skill of expressing your thought process through writing is equally important beginning from the time of a child’s primary education. There are several skills that collectively make up the whole skillset of writing and help children achieve better. Let’s discuss these skills that are quite important if you wish to gain excellency in writing and eventually gain maximum knowledge. This is one of the major skills required to write correctly. You need to know what you are writing about before you start writing. You can’t simply write words that have no connection with each other. Whenever you start writing down about something, you make sure that whatever you are writing makes sense; otherwise, your literacy skills will lack a major element. In this way, it is important to find out about the things you are writing about so that you can actually gain knowledge through your writing skills and ensure literacy development. Grammar and vocabulary You don’t want your writing to be bland and composed of simply a few kinds of words all over. This requires you to have an expanded vocabulary. Writing good content means adding a diversified range of words and connecting them in a way that the reader would be engaged and willingly invest their time reading it all. Your grammar and vocabulary are going to decide whether your written material is good, average, or not engaging at all. You can express your thoughts and ideas with simple wordings too, but when you choose to express them with good grammar, your expression will be much better. So in order to enhance your literacy skills and knowledge, you need to work on improving your grammar and vocabulary. Working on your grammar will help you to come across new words to be used. Structure and outline Good writing material starts with a proper structure and outline. The outline basically decides what you are writing about and gives structure to your material. Without an outline, your content will have no direction, and I will lead nowhere. Even if you are writing a single sentence, there needs to be structure in it that defines the purpose of the whole line. When there is no structure, there will be no purpose, and eventually, for the reader, there will be no meaning of what they are reading. In order to make sure that you are making sense of what you are writing about, create an outline first, either in your head or in a written form, then form up the structure for it and start writing. Connection and relativity You need to know how to rightly make a good connection between different words to rightly express and convey your message. If your words are not connecting right or if you have not used them in the right way, the message you have written down will be conveyed and perceived in a different way. You don’t want the reader to get a totally different message from your text, nor do you want them to be lost trying to figure out what they are reading. For this purpose, you need to know how to rightly build up a connection between words. This is a major part of improving your writing skills, getting to know how to rightly build a relation between the given words and sentences. Punctuation is one of the basic elements when it comes to writing. The context of your sentence highly depends on your usage of punctuation in it. The small punctuation elements like a comma or full stop have the power of changing the whole context of your line. You need to make sure that you are using the right punctuation in the right place to make the reader know the correct meaning behind the sentence. For this purpose, you need to improve your skills related to punctuation and its usage so that your written text will not be misleading for the reader. Whenever you are done writing something, you need to proofread it and look for any mistakes you might have made or any places where you might have missed to add something important. Proofreading allows you to analyze your own written material, which is very important when it comes to improving the quality of your writing. Instead of making someone else proofread and recheck your work, make sure you do it on your own because finding your own mistakes and correcting them will help you know what things you should avoid while writing and what things you need to keep in mind. Lately, it has been observed that people having good listening skills usually have good reading skills. When children are listening and comprehending the meaning of what they listened to, this improves their literacy skills overall and enables them to comprehend better when it comes to reading and writing. Children who lack the ability to listen, observe and comprehend what they hear often tend to be behind when it comes to other literacy skills such as reading or writing. There are several skills related to the process of active listening that makes up the whole skillset of listening. Teachers can help students work on these skills in their early years. Let’s discuss some of these skills. Varying sounds awareness The basic skill involved in the process of active listening is the ability to distinguish between different sounds. For this, a child needs to be aware of the varying sounds. Different species have different sounds, as a human voice differs from the sound of a cat or a dog. Similarly, the voices of two persons differ from each other. The voice of the two alphabets in the English language differs from each other as well. This can be taught to students from early years through classroom activities. You must know how to differentiate between two varying sounds so that you focus on the source of the meaning of the sound rather than being lost when trying to figure out what kind of sound it is. The meaning of the sound will not be interpreted right if you don’t know what you are listening to. In this way, this skill becomes the base of your listening skills. This is also an important aspect of listening. Children who tend to have good communication skills are often good at listening and understanding what they are hearing. We often tend to gain knowledge from what we hear, and for that, we need to have good hearing skills to comprehend the right meaning. For this purpose, you need to make sure that when you are communicating with someone, listen to them carefully too. Listen and observe to understand what the a=other person is saying. This can help you greatly in enhancing your communication skills, and eventually, your literacy skills will be improved as well. Attention and response Your ability to listen attentively matters a lot when it comes to good listening skills. If you are not paying attention to what you are listening to, you won’t be able to know the real meaning of the sound you are hearing. If you want to develop good reading or writing skills, you first need to make sure that you are listening to the sounds around you with more attention. Listen to documentaries from web resources. Make sure to listen attentively as this will help you to listen properly. On the other hand, your response after listening greatly depends on what and how you have listened. The extent of your attention will determine your perception of what you have heard, and in turn, your response will be dependent on that. Your response basically shows the level of your literacy skills, and if that is disturbed because you weren’t paying attention to what you were listening to, then your literacy skills as a whole will be disturbed. Comprehension of what you listen to highly depends on your ability to perceive something. When two people are listening to the same thing, they will comprehend it differently. Suppose there is a loud thud voice in a class that was heard by all students without knowing the source. Some would perceive it to be a fallen desk, and some would say that it was a book that fell down, and so there will be different perceptions of the sound. In this way, the way you comprehend the meaning of what you have heard matters a lot when it comes to your listening skills because, in the end, it’s only the meaning that will determine what you have gained from listening to the material. In order to understand the meaning of what they are listening to, students need to improve their comprehension skills so that they are not merely consuming knowledge without any meaning. The ability to speak effectively and having good speaking skills make people communicate efficiently and make the other person understand the information you have conveyed in a better way. The perception or comprehension of your message by another person mainly depends on how you are conveying it using the speaking skills you have. The expression of the knowledge you have gained depends on how you let the other person know about it by spoken language. If you fail to do it right based on poor speaking skills, it will simply demonstrate that you lack basic literacy skills. Let’s some of the basic speaking skills that are required to improve your whole skillset related to speaking. Phonics awareness refers to the ability to distinguish between different sounds made by the letters and alphabets. To speak in a fluent way correctly, you must know what the different sounds made by the letters and how they change when they are combined with other letters to make a word or a sentence are. If you are making the wrong sound of a particular letter in a word, it will automatically change the sound of the whole word. In this way, the meaning of that word will be lost. In the early stage, children should be made aware of the sounds made by the alphabet for early literacy development. With a child, you can practice this by singing songs like baba black sheep or Old Mcdonald because such things help to learn faster. When they say out the word with the right sound, they will eventually be able to speak very fluently and in the right way rather than wrongly pronounced words. Pronunciation is the key element of speaking. If you are able to read the word correctly, but you fail to speak it right, the listener will not understand what you are trying to convey. They will simply assume that you are unaware of the matter even when you have the knowledge of it. In this way, if you want to express your knowledge rightly, you have to make sure that you are pronouncing the word correctly. There are certain ways through which common words and letters are pronounced, and that pronunciation is used by many people. They will only understand the common pronunciation of that word and will fail to understand if you pronounce it in some other way. While you are speaking, you need to be aware of your surroundings, and your concentration must stay. You will only speak in a fluent way if you are concentrated on what you are speaking. Losing concentration will make you forget about what you are going to say or what’s the meaning behind your conversation. Whatever you are speaking about will simply lose its meaning if you have lost your concentration. So in order to speak and talk in the right way to convey your message to the listener, you will have to keep your concentration right in place. Volume and clarity Your volume should be moderately adjustable during your speaking. You need to adapt the volume level in accordance with your surroundings. You need to be aware of being loud or too low. If you are being too loud in a setting where you should speak low or in a high volume required setting, you are speaking too low; in both scenarios, you won’t be able to convey your message in an effective way. To make your message be vivid and audible, you should make sure that you are speaking at the right volume that is not too high and not too low. In this way, the meaning of your message will be rightly heard. On the other hand, your voice should be clear. Make sure that your voice is not breaking off while you are talking. An unclear voice will convey a rather unclear message properly. Pace and rhythm While you are speaking, you need to have a normal pace that can easily be understood by the listener. If you are speaking too fast, the one who is listening will not be able to grasp the meaning of what you are saying. In the same way, if you are speaking too slow, the listener will lose interest in it. The pace of what you are saying will determine the rhythm of your message. If you want to keep a normal rhythm going on, there should be an acceptable pace. The two extremes of pace are too fast and too slow. It is known that talking at a pace that lies between these two extremes is the best way to keep the rhythm right and convey your message properly. Importance of literacy skills Basic literacy skills are very important in education and general life setting. From the beginning of learning, the development of literacy skills helps the students to score better, and then eventually, it helps them create a liveable life for themselves. Let’s discuss some ways that make literacy skills important for us. To score well The academic life of students requires good knowledge of literacy skills. For the purpose of scoring well in the class, all literacy skills are interrelated. A child who has good literacy skills will be able to score well in the class in comparison to the student who lacks these skills. You should not only be consuming knowledge, but you should also be able to use it to score well. To communicate effectively Effective communication requires good literacy skills. If you lack basic literacy skills, you won’t be able to communicate and convey your message correctly. In this way, you will end up conveying a misleading message which you didn’t plan in the first place. Whether you wish to communicate with your peers, parents, or teachers, you need to be good with literacy skills. To explore and score opportunities People with good literacy skills tend to pick up more relevant and rewarding opportunities in comparison to those who lack the basic skills. Landing on a perfect opportunity will require you to have the basic skill set that ensures that you did not only find the opportunity but are also ideal for it, whether in the education field or practical one. To stay aware Basic literacy skills allow you to be aware of your surroundings. Listening to understand everyday news and current affairs, reading the labels of the products you are using, being engaged in a conversation with someone, all these mentioned examples require you to be well aware of what your response is based on the literacy skills. Being a responsible citizen You need to be responsible citizens aware of their rights and responsibilities. A person who has literacy skills can effectively be aware of it, and they will also be able to rightly implement it in their daily life routine. In this way, being a responsible citizen is highly dependent on your literacy skills and how you use them. Earn and survive In order to earn well and provide for themselves and their family, a person needs to have some basic literacy skills. Not only will it help them to land a good job, but it will also help them to perform well in it and reach higher positions. Without the skills, they would not be able to understand and convey the work in an ideal way. Tips to improve your literacy skills Improving your literacy is all about observation, analysis, practice, and conclusion. Constantly working on your literacy skills from a young age can help you achieve so much more in life. Here are some of the tips that can help you to improve your literacy skills. Read more often Try reading about everything! Yes, by everything, we mean things that catch your interest, the things that are beneficial to read. Or simply anything to pass your time. Reading is always helpful for students to improve their literacy skills and focus. While you are reading, you need to keep your focus straight on the content so that you can read and understand as well. Be it a magazine or novel you like or a newspaper telling you about current affairs with a column on the side stating the reason behind things or articles from web resources or the back of cereal boxes or even road signs, reading these things can greatly impact the level of your literacy skills. You will not only be able to read better, but it will also allow you to be well aware of everything going on around you. Look for meaning behind the text Whenever you are looking at a particular text, try to look for its meaning and how you can relate it to your thought process. Looking for the meaning behind it will help you increase your knowledge horizons. Your grammar and vocabulary will be enhanced as well. Being a teacher, you can ask children the meanings of different words. In this way, children develop the habit of comprehending the written, read, heard, or spoken words, whether in the English language or any other language. Develop the habit of storytelling Children should be encouraged to develop a habit of storytelling. During bedtime, there should be 10 to 15 minutes given to children to either make up a story or talk about a story they know about. This will improve the speaking skills of children, also enabling them to be more creative with their thoughts and promoting literacy development. While you are reading or looking at something, try making notes or short references about it. This will help you to write better and to make your observations stronger. This is quite important for students to bring improvement to their overall literacy skills. With the notes you make, you will be able to keep track easily and increase your concentration span. Making notes requires you to focus closely on everything so that you don’t miss something important. In this way, your ability to focus on things is improved, and note down vocabulary words that you need to remember. Summarize your readings Whenever you finish reading something, try to summarize it on paper. It will enhance your writing ability. Other than this, it will enable you to observe and analyze your readings in a better way. You will be able to reflect on different things around you. Write down what you have read or seen and what your thoughts were behind the matter. With this habit, you will be able to convey your message better. Language is associated with the acquisition of literacy skills. If you want to master your literacy skills, you need to be proficient language learners at the same time because if your language knowledge is incomplete, you won’t be able to completely convey your literacy skills. Hence to master all the skills, you need to start being a language learner. If you are a second language learner, the skill acquiring process might be a bit difficult for you, but with practice, you gain momentum. In this way, the learning of a basic language is an integral part of literacy and education. There are several second language learners who can read children’s books with easy to understand active vocabulary to eventually master the English language literacy skills. Literacy skills are important for everyone, especially students, to carry out the basic tasks in life. If you need to succeed in life, be a better person, or convey an impactful message across the room, then tour literacy skills must be good enough. The level of your literacy skills will determine how good you are at something. This can include the way you speak, read, listen, write, and more. Practice can help you to improve the basic literacy skills that can take you forward in life. If you wish to improve your literacy skills or are looking to get a strong grip on your grammar, our certified private English tutors can help you achieve your goals in the best way possible. Find Top Tutors in Your Area

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Planning to look at vocabulary in a reading session should not be a laborious task. A quick annotation of the text should allow you to choose the key vocabulary that you would like to look at and discuss with the students. This week I looked at Survivors by David Long with a group of Y6 children. I decided to focus on vocabulary with the children in this short 15-20 minute reading session. The class theme at the moment is Mountains so I chose the text to tie in with this. I asked – was this avalanche expected? They answered no. I asked them to highlight or underline three phrases which show that the events happened quickly or rapidly. They underlined: ‘Within seconds,’ ‘With no time,’ ‘sudden’ and we discussed how using all three of these in quick succession intensified the feeling of speed. We read the next section and I instructed the students to find any evidence that the avalanche was very powerful. We then collected synonyms that the children knew could be used to describe the powerful avalanche. We then discussed which other natural phenomena could be described using these words. The savage ocean, a ferocious earthquake, an awesome eruption (of a volcano) Ask a teacher to name a book about WW2 and they can usually throw around the names of quite a few. ‘The Silver Sword’ (classic one), ‘Good Night Mr. Tom’ (Heart-warming one), ‘Boy in the Striped Pyjamas’ (shocking one) and ‘Once’ (graphic one). Ask though, which of these books describes the setting of a bomb crater the best and less books may be suggested. It is imperative though, that teachers have a good working knowledge of the texts, the language used and the structures in order to weave them skilfully into English lessons. For this to happen, a wide range of texts need to have been read by the teacher or teachers so that they can recall features, concepts and even sentences which they can use with their students as model texts. Take the examples below, each of them is from a different text but each of them describes a forest. It doesn’t really matter what genre the children are writing; a good description can be utilised across a range of writing episodes. In a hypothetical classroom, somewhere around Year 5 or Year 6, a child is writing about ‘waiting in a forest ready to go into battle during WW2’ based on a picture, film or other stimulus that the teacher has provided. If the class teacher wants to show them a model, they generally have two options – try and find a book where the exact same scenario is occurring (this may not even exist) or write their own model. (Some teachers find difficult). However, much of the language used in the extracts below would be useful, as would some of the sentence structures and techniques such as building atmosphere or using similes. None of the books below are about World War 2 or are from battle scenes though. With some slight adjustments they can be adapted to work for any narrative which needs a description of a forest. The Wizards of Once Perhaps you feel that you know what a dark forest looks like. Well, I can tell you right now that you don’t. These were forests darker than you would believe possible, darker than inkspots, darker than midnight, darker than space itself, and as twisted and as tangled as a Witch’s heart. They were what is now known as wildwoods, and they stretched as far in every direction as you can possibly imagine, only stopping when they reached a sea. Cowell, Cressida. The Wizards of Once: Book 1 (Kindle Locations 32-35). Hachette Children's Group. Kindle Edition. In this description the teacher can discuss how Cowell has directly addressed the reader, used rhetorical devices and repeated the word darker and how this effects the audience. Tanglefern Forest was vast, with some trees so old and tangled that few had passed beneath their branches. But there were places you went and places you didn’t. The Ancientwood in the north of the forest was safe: there was the glade of brilliant spring bluebells and yews beyond Oak’s camp, then a grove of crab-apple trees, and beyond that, after the forest, the farm itself and Tipplebury village. But south . . . Well, south was another place altogether. So she’d heard. The Deepwood was rumoured to be full of shady trees and rotting undergrowth and, when it ended, the heathland, with it sinking bogs and soggy marshes, began. Elphinstone, Abi. The Dreamsnatcher (Dreamsnatcher 1) (pp. 9-10). Simon & Schuster UK. Kindle Edition. I like in this extract how Elphinstone paints a positive picture of the forest in the North but then lets the reader imagine what the forest to the South is like. Think back to the scenario of world war 2. The soldier is in the forest and using Elphinstone’s technique, they could say something like: ‘The North side of the barbed wire was safe. The animals went about their daily business, birds were in the trees feeding worms to their chicks, fox cubs frolicked in the long grass of the clearing and a few of us managed to take off our boots and clean ourselves in the babbling brook. But on the other side of the barbed wire? Well that was another place altogether, from what he had heard it was worse than hell, a mud filled hell…’ The Lie Tree Faith walked through a midnight forest. The trees were pure white, and rose high above her head, disappearing into a blue-black darkness. There was no wind, and yet the snow-white leaves shivered and whispered. She raised one hand to push aside low-hanging foliage, and felt her fingertips brush paper. The trees were flat and pale. The ragged-torn ferns stroked the skin of her hands, paper-cutting her, slyly cruel. She was not alone. Hardinge, Frances. The Lie Tree (pp. 234-235). Pan Macmillan. Kindle Edition. The colours that Hardinge uses here are interesting and the last line. 'She was not alone' could be utilised in the scenario above to describe the soldier as well as in many other narrative scenarios. The Spell Thief (Little Legends Book 1) The air in the dark woods was thick and damp. Anansi stopped in front of a fallen tree. The roots rose above him like huge dead claws. Percival, Tom. The Spell Thief (Little Legends Book 1) (pp. 41-42). Pan Macmillan. Kindle Edition. This is a great example of simile, but it is from a book that most teachers would use with Year 3 and Year 4. Having a knowledge of books from other year groups and other key stages, including books for adults is also useful. I am working on collecting some texts around a number of themes like these which I will continue to blog and discuss in my CPD sessions. I am currently updating my CPD courses and the range which I offer for the next academic year so keep your eyes peeled for updates here www.literacyshed.com/cpd Click the book covers for more information about each About 3 years ago I decided to write a novel. A historical novel for children set in and around Norwich Cathedral. At this point you may be wondering 'Why?' There are a number of reasons but basically I had an idea and I fancied pursuing it. I have some time on my hands, it is purely for my own pleasure and it allows me time to drop out of the hectic day to day running of The Literacy Shed and sit quietly. It also allows me to visit as many cathedrals as I possibly can which is a secondary pleasurable benefit. These are some of the key points that I have learned during the VERY slow process. - No one needs to read this writing in order for the process to be enjoyable. - Not everything that I write will be published anywhere except in my own private notebooks. - Not everything will go as planned because ideas ebb and flow as the ink runs across the page. - There is no need to stick rigidly to planned structures at the sentence level either. They are fluid and will change through the process. - The quality of the writing isn't dependable on a narrow set of grammatical conditions. - It is useful to write in small chunks and add them into the narrative. - Characters come alive once the writing begins and take on a whole new personality sometimes. The biggest lesson really is that it is OK to start again. The story has been set in Middles ages Norwich, which at one point became the fantasy city of Nearwich. I experimented with the same story being set during the industrial revolution and then in a strange 'steam-punkish' industrial/medieval landscape and now me and Tom (main character) are back in the medieval period. How does this affect the teaching of writing? - Remind the children that their writing may not be published but give them the choice whether to have people read it or not. - If you have a great idea you do not need to stick to the plan. - Experiment with language and grammar structure and go with what sounds best. - Write in small chunks and build up towards a finished piece. - Allow time to go back and add in more small chunks (or even big chunks) into the narrative. - It is ok to start again! Writing like this has really given me an insight in both the processes we force the children to go through and the way in which we help them to build narratives around given characters and themes. I will continue to reflect upon this process and blog about how this can aid the teaching of writing. WICKED, the award-winning West End musical that tells the incredible untold story of the witches of Oz, together with the National Literacy Trust celebrates its eighth year of the prestigious WICKED YOUNG WRITER AWARDS. As in previous years, entrants can enter one of five different age categories; 5-7, 8-10, 11-14, 15-17, 18-25. In addition, the 2018 Awards see the third year of the FOR GOOD Award for Non-Fiction, encouraging 15-25 year olds to write essays or articles that recognise the positive impact that people can have on each other, their communities and the world we live in. The WICKED FOR GOOD programme supports the charitable causes at the heart of the stage musical. There is a 750-word limit (not including the title words) on any theme. In the fiction categories, any creative writing will be accepted, a story, play or poem, it can be something written at school or home that has not be entered into a competition before. If you prefer to write non-fiction, you may like to enter the Wicked: For Good Award for Non-Fiction and write an article, essay, biography, review or letter, to name a few! A shortlist of 120 entrants from across the UK will see their work published in the WICKED YOUNG WRITER AWARDS Anthology. They are also invited to an exclusive ceremony at London’s Apollo Victoria, home to the hit musical since 2006, where judges and members of the WICKED cast will read the winning stories and poems and announce who has won in each category. For T&C’s and full prize fund structure please see Wicked Young Writer Awards website. www.wickedyoungwriterawards.com Here are the rules: · Entrants must be aged between 5-25 years old when entering the Wicked Young Writer Awards · Entries can be hand-written or typed · Writing must be original and your own ideas · Judges criteria: originality, narrative, descriptive language, characterisation. · Ensure that all students include their name, surname and age on the entry form · Open to UK residents only · Win four tickets to see the London production of WICKED at the Apollo Victoria Theatre. · Meet cast members after the show along with an exclusive backstage tour. · £50 worth of books/eBooks tokens to spend. Other prizes for each category: 5-7 also win: · A creative writing workshop for your class · £100 worth of books for the winners' school library donated by Hachette Children's Books. 8-10 and 11-14 also win: · An annual subscription to First News · £100 worth of books for the winners' school library donated by Hachette Children's Books. 15-17 also win: · A writing masterclass with a professional author 18-25 also win: · A self-publishing package from Spiderwize, to publish your very own work. Award for Non-Fiction also win: · Work experience at First News newspaper, shadowing the editor Nicky Cox, MBE. · The 3 schools that submit the most entries also win creative writing workshops. · All finalists’ entries get printed in the Wicked Young Writer Awards anthology. A flamboyance of flamingos This week I came across a collective noun that I had not heard before, ‘A flamboyance of flamingos’ and this reminded me of some of others which I already knew: a business of ferrets, a murder of crows and a parliament of owls. I then started to share them each day on twitter using the hashtag #collectivenouns and sharing the most unusual examples that I could find, such as a dazzle of zebras. The posts garnered lots of interest, so I began to think about how I would use the collective nouns in writing. Many of the words are incredibly descriptive and could be used when writing setting descriptions in order to help convey a mood. For example, when creating a peaceful mood, perhaps to describe a quiet country walk, the following examples could be used: As I crossed the dew-kissed meadow, the sun rose above the distant hills and a wisp of snipe took flight from the long reeds. The word ‘wisp’ used here adds to the peaceful mood whereas an example such as a ‘pandemonium of parrots’ or ‘a band of plovers,’ or even a ‘parliament of owls’ would shatter the peace. It isn’t only birds that can lead us to imagine a peaceful moment. Barely a sound could be heard, except the gentle ruffling of the breeze-blown leaves in the trees and a prickle of hedgehogs snuffling for worms. As well as peace, they could help children to include some atmospheric language in their writing: A murder of crows nestled on the black, skeletal branches above, almost invisible now as the darkness descended. The word murder will have connotations for the reader as will the word skulk in the following example: A skulk of foxes prowled through the town, silently illuminated only by the weak moonlight. Taking it further... To take it further, collective noun can be used as similes – see the examples below: The gang prowled the estate like an ambush of tigers. The snowy mountains nestled together on the horizon like a giant aurora of polar bears. The models took to the catwalk like an flamboyance of flamingos; tall, thin and colourful. The children alighted the bus like a troop of monkeys Another interesting activity would be to ask children to create their own collective nouns. We asked on social media for a collective noun for teachers and amongst my favourites were: As always thanks for reading! Please share! This is the second list of Primary focussed teachers that I have produced. These are people that I have interacted with and followed rather than a list of people that I have looked up. Apologies if you haven't made the list but I am sure there will be a further list very soon. The first 50 can be found here. @AllanaG13 - Secondary Leader in Primary Ed - #BAMEed Founder @Brogan_Mr - #WhatItaughttoday Deputy Head @cazzash - Deputy head and children's book fan @ChrisChivers2 - Francophile and all round knowledgeable guy @Claresealy - Primary Head Teacher in that there London @DaisyMay29 - Teacher, Reader, Writer, Dreamer @Darynsimon - Teacher often at the heart of the debate @etaknipsa - Curiosity hasn't killed this primary teacher... yet! @ey_inspiration1 - Early years duet @GalwayMr - Part of the amazing Herts for Learning team @gareth_metcalfe - He sees maths! @geordiecat2012 - Cat lady teacher @hengehall ICT Master Wizard @HeyMissPrice - Always sharing great Literacy ideas @HopeStreetBlues - Member of the optimistic SLT society @isright - I wouldn't want to walk a week in his shoes he runs too far! @JulesDaulby Literacy, SEND and a penguin @librarymice - School Librarian sharing great books @Libwithattitude - with attitude like this the books are never late back @lobroo - My oldest Antipodean twitter pal! @macfin76 - Y1 teacher who likes a ramble @Marygtroche Almost legendary critical thinking bookworm @MaryMyatt - Hopeful about schools @Mr_P_hillips - Friend, Teacher, Entertainer (in that order) @MrBKing1988 - A thoroughly entertaining twitter feed @MrBReading - One of my 'go to' book peeps @MrBoothY6 - Computing lead who loves books even more than computers! @MrEFinch - Generally irritated except when on a reading spree @MrGPrimary - his bio says incompetent but I can't believe that! @MrMarchayes - holder of multiple learning powers @nancygedge - SEND legend! @NikkiGamble - Off exploring children's literature @OldPrimaryHead1 - <--Does what it says on the tin! @Parky_teaches - Love of books, StarWars and Night Zoos @pickleholic - Headteacher of Hogwarts @pivotalpaul - Teacher wrangler @primarypercival - Genius behind the Ladybird book of Edutwitter @rachelrossiter - SENDco checking your ladder is against the right wall @RobertsNiomi - Laminating Queen ;) @Sarah_Jayne1982 - Teaching the next generation @Sarah_Wright1 - Enthusiastic Senior Primary Edu Lecturer @Skippity_doo - Another awesome librarian sharing awesome books @Thatboycanteach - Positive teacher knocking out some great blogs @theprimaryhead - the definite article @trainingtoteach - filled with positivity for the job - will he change his twitter handle soon? @Vocabularyninja - Creeps up behind you and shares words of the day (PS I know there are only 45 but I have left some space for when people inform me who I have missed out) As always I welcome your comments. Plus follow the new subject specific Primary Rocks threads for themed ideas and discussions. #primaryrocks (more coming soon too) I have been thinking about and researching how to improve comprehension skills using a range of high quality texts, images, picture books and of course film. After a number of sessions with children in schools using the new content domains, which can be found on the gov.uk website, I found that all of the key comprehension skills were being covered through the domains. As some of you who follow this blog will know, I like a mnemonic. So I set about thinking about a mnemonic that could be used by teachers, other adults who read with children and also the children themselves. My first attempt - MR SIP TEA was not the catchiest so we have come up with Reading Vipers. Vipers cover the key comprehension skills in line with the 'new' content domains. At Literacy Shed the minions are now busy making a whole host of resources that will link to Reading Vipers. There are now 30+ Film VIPERS on www.literacyshedplus.com We are also creating a range of comprehension materials based on extracts from classic texts such as Black Beauty, The Time Machine, Robinson Crusoe and many more which will soon be available here. www.literacyshedplus.com Until then you can download The Time Machine sample (as seen below) by clicking here. = The same key viper skills can be rehearsed effectively using single images or picture books. Take a look at this example using the picture book 'Return' by Aaron Becker. There are over 30 sets of VIPERS questions for the Literacy Shed films now on www.literacyshedplus.com The question stem documents can be downloaded by click on the relevant image below. As always comments are welcome! Click the text below for further reading. “Don’t tell me the moon is shining; show me the glint of light on broken glass.” Anton Chekov talking about the use of a well know literary device called ‘Show, don’t tell’ and more recently ‘Show, not tell.’ This method which has many proponents in the world of literature is not a new phenomenon. Ernest Hemingway opens his novel ‘To have and have not’ written in 1937 with the following lines: You know how it is there early in the morning in Havana with the bums still asleep against the walls of the buildings; before even the ice wagons come by with ice for the bars? Here Hemingway is painting a picture of early morning in Cuba, he could have easily written ‘One very early morning…’ some writers may argue that these examples are still ‘telling’ although somewhat elaborately. Calling it ‘Show, not tell though does simplify it for our students and is a great way of getting them to use vivid description. Evan Marshall from http://themarshallplan.net/ says: Don’t just write “The subway station was shabby.” Write: “Near the edge of the platform, a man with knotted hair held out a Dixie cup to no one in particular, calling, ‘Spare some change? Spare some change?’ Swirls of iridescent orange graffiti covered the Canal Street sign. The whole place smelled of urine and potato chips.” Perhaps both are telling but one is telling in much more detail. The latter has much more detail and drama. I use film widely in my teaching and I use film to demonstrate this technique. The following two extracts are from a music video called 'Titanium' by David Guetta. These two excerpts are from one of my favourite films on The Literacy Shed, called 'Catch a Lot.' There are many other examples in the films on www.literacyshed.com and I may follow this blog up with them if people think it is useful. Thanks for reading and I hope you leave a comment. On Tuesday I had the pleasure of speaking at a conference in Coventry, I was followed by Roger Black MBE who delivered a keynote speech about his career. I sat and wondered what the relationship between his career and teaching would be. Roger spoke at length about overcoming adversity and teamwork, the type of thing that teachers do on a daily basis. One thing, however, struck a chord with me. Roger discussed his 'fear of failure' how this fear pushed him from excellent to outstanding. I wondered... Do we instil this fear in children? Should we? Would our children in school perform better if they had a fear of failure? I thought about my own classroom setting, are my children striving to achieve at all times? No. Do they have a fear of failure? The majority don't. I then began to think about how I deal with failure on a daily basis. In my Year 5 class what happens if a child delivers a substandard piece of work? The answer: not a lot! If they have been lazy, they may have to do the work again, but only if the work is substantially below standard. If they have failed to achieve due to carelessness, I will probably warn them about their effort or concentration levels. Is it my fault that these children do not have an intrinsic fear of failing? Do they just think they can get away with it or is there another underlying problem? I have met a number of children throughout my career who don't seem to care about their work, who don't care about achieving. These children lack ambition, it could be down to social pressures, family traditions or a lack of aspiration. We need to engage these children in a way that makes them care. We need to make sure they care about achieving and instil in them a fear of failure. The question is how? [I will blog about this at a later date.] I am forming some ideas....

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Picturebooks provide a rich and motivating resource to develop children’s early language learning such as basic understanding, vocabulary and phrases related to the content of a story, but they can also be used to develop multiple literacies. These include visual, emotional, cultural, nature, digital, moving image literacy and ‘learning’ literacy, which is linked to learning how to learn and learner autonomy. ‘Learning’ literacy is described as an ethos, a culture and a way of life and involves being ready to develop learning capacities and the behaviours individuals need, including being willing to learn continuously, as competencies essential to thriving in a globally connected, digitally driven world. The Important Book (Brown & Weisgard, 1949) is used as an example of how learning literacy can be integrated into primary English language pedagogy by applying the Plan, Do, Review model of reflection. Working through the three stages of the Plan Do Review cycle, children are informed of the aims of the activity; they identify success criteria, draft and refine their own paragraphs about an important object, review what they did, what they learnt and how they learnt and then assess their performance to identify next steps. This process enables the teacher to create learning environments that develop learning literacy, by providing opportunities for systematic reflection and experimentation and the development of metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies. Keywords: Picturebooks, multiple literacies, learning how to learn, metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies, reflection, primary English language pedagogy Gail Ellis is Adviser Young Learners and Quality for the British Council and based in Paris. Her publications include Learning to Learn English, The Primary English Teacher’s Guide, Tell it Again! and Teaching children how to learn. Her main interests are children’s literature, young learner ELT management and inclusive education. [End of Page 27] I began using picturebooks as my main teaching resource in state primary schools in Paris in 1989, as they provide a rich, motivating and authentic source of meaningful input to develop children’s early English language learning. However, I soon realised they can be used to develop much more than children’s basic understanding, vocabulary and phrases related to the content of a story. They can also be used to help children develop other ways of interpreting, understanding and making meaning, since picturebooks lend themselves to developing multiple literacies. The term multiple literacies extends the traditional view of literacy, often referred to as functional literacy, which is the ability to read and write. It focuses beyond alphabetical representations and brings into the classroom multimodal resources, as well as those typical of the new, digital media. Meaning is made in ways that are increasingly multimodal in which written-linguistic modes of meaning interface with oral, visual, audio, gestural, tactile and spatial patterns of meaning, to include the interpretation and understanding of information presented via different modes. Multiple literacies encompass many forms of literacy that require learning how to interpret and decode information conveyed through multiple modes. For example, information conveyed through visual images is an important means of communication, so helping children interpret and understand illustrations in a picturebook develops their visual literacy. Interpreting and understanding facial expressions, gestures and body language helps children develop emotional literacy. Interpreting and understanding similarities and differences between the culture depicted in a picturebook and the child’s own cultural reality helps them develop cultural literacy. Interpreting and understanding the natural world as depicted in a picturebook helps children develop nature literacy. Interpreting and understanding information conveyed through different digital modes integrated into activities to complement learning around a picturebook helps children develop digital literacy. Using animations of picturebooks helps children develop moving image literacy. We can see that the term multiple literacies embraces the notion that there are multiple ‘modes of representation’ which are much broader than language alone (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000, p. 5). Multiple literacies pedagogy ‘encourages a broader perspective of [End of Page 28] the student as a learner and values diverse ways of knowing, thinking, doing and being’ (O’Rourke, 2005, p. 10). It is underpinned by multimodal theory, which asserts that children create meaning using a ‘multiplicity of modes, means and materials’ for self-expression’ (Kress, 1997, p. 97). In the early years and primary language classroom, this involves acknowledging and recognising children’s drawings, constructions, arts and crafts and actions as alternative ways of communicating with the teacher about their world in a foreign language. It also invites the teacher to use multimodal input and resources. Using picturebooks allows the teacher to provide multimodal input as they offer a springboard for a range of associated activities, such as songs and chants, realia, film, actions and drama, and digital technologies. These enable children to make meaning, develop and extend language. Multilple literacies and The Snowman One of the first picturebooks I used with a class of 9-year-olds was Raymond Briggs’ The Snowman (1978), a wordless picturebook, as I was sure the children would be enchanted by the story and images, given their limited English. They would be able to ‘read’ the pictures and construct their own meaning and find their own words to shape the story. I found the children were more aware of their contribution in making the pictures tell a story as they entered into a partnership with the illustrator. A wordless picturebook offers an open invitation where personal interpretation counts rather than finding a right or wrong answer, and they promote a sense of power, creativity and freedom. The Snowman enabled the children to exercise their imaginations and to become personally, actively and creatively involved in the story as they identified with the characters. It also coincided with the type of weather formally typical of November and December in parts of Europe, and it provided potential for Christmas-related activities. After the first lessons, I soon realised that children were developing much more than vocabulary and phrases related to colours, clothes, parts of the body, the weather, etc. As they interpreted the picture narrative, they were developing their visual literacy. They were developing emotional literacy as they interpreted the gestures and facial expressions in the illustrations, which enabled them to empathise with the boy in the story, especially in [End of Page 29] the final illustration where the boy is looking down on a pile of melted snow. As one child said: ‘The Snowman story makes me cry. I don’t want him to melt. I don’t want the story to end’. For children to cry at the end of The Snowman shows they have come to empathise with a distinctive and believable character. The children were aware that the Snowman was the boy’s dream or fantasy, which enabled them to explain their sorrow at the end of the story – it was not only the melting snowman but also the end of the boy’s dream. They were also developing cultural literacy as they noticed details about the setting or how the characters greeted each other, and made comparisons with their own culture; and nature literacy, as they learnt about winter weather, snow and how snowflakes are formed. Creative Writer (Microsoft Kids, 1994) was used to develop digital literacy as children created Snowman menus, and the accompanying film of The Snowman was used to develop moving image literacy. I also realised that children were developing ‘learning’ literacy as they sought clues to meaning via the illustrations, predicted what was going to happen next, organised their learning materials and reviewed their learning. ‘Learning’ literacy is a relatively new term and is linked to learning how to learn and to learner autonomy. It involves developing awareness and understanding of one’s own learning processes, personal preferences and learning strategies. In her blog posting entitled The Global Search for Education: Learning How to Learn (20.01.2016), Rubin describes learning literacy as follows: ‘Being ready to develop our own learning capacities, being able to develop the behaviors we now need as individuals, including being willing to learn continuously, are competencies essential to thriving in a globally connected, digitally driven world’. Rubin’s interviewee, Jim Wynn, co-founder of EducationFastForward offers this definition: ‘Learning literacy is an ethos, a culture and a way of life’. Moreover, learning literary is also about developing an inquisitive mindset and using resources that ignite curiosity and enable experimentation. Learning literacy is an important aim of most curricula throughout the world, since it underpins learning in all areas of the curriculum and life, and is one of the EU’s eight key competencies for lifelong learning (EU, 2006). It is an important aspect of a child’s overall educational development from a very early age. As Tina Bruce (2011, p. 47) states: [End of Page 30] ‘Children learn best when they are given appropriate responsibility, allowed to make errors, decisions and choices, and respected as autonomous learners’. The Early Years Foundation Stage Profile 2017 Handbook (Standards & Testing Agency, 2016, p. 13) states: ‘Practitioners should involve children fully in their own assessment by encouraging them to communicate about and review their own learning’, since even very young children do possess a considerable degree of metacognitive knowledge and ability (Nisbet & Shucksmith, 1986; Whitebread, Coltman, Anderson, Mehta & Pasternak, 2005). Children’s ability to reflect on and talk about their learning should not be underestimated. They are competent, insightful and spontaneous commentators on their own learning experiences if they are given the opportunity to do so. So picturebooks can provide an ideal resource to develop children’s language learning as well as their learning literacy, and instil the ethos expressed by Wynn (see Rubin, 2016). Developing ‘Learning’ Literacy with Picturebooks Learning literacy can be integrated into a story-based approach with children where between six and twelve hours are spent on a picturebook (Ellis & Brewster, 2014) by applying the Plan Do Review model of reflection. For a list of picturebook titles suitable for English language learning, see Wilbur’s storybook recommendations (Ellis & Ibrahim, 2015a). The Plan Do Review model originates from the HighScope approach to early childhood education (Hohmann, Epstein & Weikart, 2008), which is a child-initiated approach to learning. It provides a consistent, predictable routine that structures the learning sequence and gives children a sense of control over what happens next, and contributes to a stable and secure emotional environment within which they are free to make choices and initiate activities. The Plan Do Review model of reflection consists of three stages that can be applied to an overall scheme of work around a picturebook where we use the familiar pre- while- and post-storytelling activities. It can also be applied to each lesson and to each activity. This model provides opportunities for systematic reflection, experimentation and further reflection, thereby developing both metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies (O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper & Russo, 1985). Metacognitive strategies are strategies that involve children in reflecting on their learning in order to plan, [End of Page 31] monitor and evaluate their learning. Cognitive strategies are task-specific and involve children in doing things or experimenting with the language and their learning material and relate to the skills areas. Children usually get a lot of implicit practice in developing cognitive strategies as the requirement for the use of a particular strategy is embedded within the activities. Examples are sorting or classifying, listening for specific information, predicting and sequencing. But most classroom situations or materials rarely inform children explicitly about the strategies they are using and why, and they are not encouraged to reflect on their learning. In other words, the metacognitive dimension is missing. So in order to develop learning literacy the teacher needs to take on an expanded role and incorporate this missing metacognitive dimension into her lessons. Developing ‘Learning’ Literacy with The Important Book I discovered Margaret Wise Brown’s The Important Book (1949, illustrated Leonard Weisgard) only relatively recently (see Recommended Reads, CLELEjournal, 4/1, 2016 http://clelejournal.org/recommended-reads-may-2016/). Each double spread is illustrated alternately in black-and-white and then colour and dedicated to an everyday object. The illustrations have a slightly surreal feel to them. A poetic paragraph describes the major attributes of each object, such as a spoon, a daisy, the rain, grass, snow, an apple, the wind, the sky, and a shoe. Each paragraph begins and ends with the key attribute, adding repetition. For example: ‘The important thing about a spoon is that you eat with it. It’s like a little shovel, you hold it in your hand, you can put it in your mouth, it isn’t flat, it’s hollow, and it spoons things up. But the important thing about a spoon is that you eat with [End of Page 32] it’ (Brown & Weisgard, 1949: np). The rhythmic paragraphs assign a dream-like quality to reality, ‘the important thing about a daisy is that it is white’, ‘the important thing about the sky is that it is always there’ and ‘the important thing about glass is that you can see through it’. The format of the book provides children with a perfect model for how to write a good paragraph, with a topic sentence and supporting sentences about an object of their own choice. The book encourages creating and thinking critically as it invites children to construct their own opinions about everyday things in their diverse social and cultural contexts. It also provokes discussion as peers may or may not agree with the key attribute assigned to an object. The Important Book is a timeless book, it encourages children to look at things in different ways, consider multiple perspectives and opinions of their classmates and value everyday things. The Important Book can be read aloud by the teacher and understood and enjoyed by younger children because there is plenty of repetition, a predictable pattern and simple, clear sentences and visual support. Older children can read the book independently as the illustrations and text interact to create meaning. I have used the book with a group of 9-year-olds who have had three years of English. I introduced the book by showing the cover and asking children to say what they thought was important about some of the things they could see, for example, an apple, water, glass, the sky, a butterfly, a cloud, asking them to begin, ‘The important thing about an apple is ………’ I then read the picturebook aloud, showing the illustrations and encouraging prediction as appropriate. I elicited how the paragraphs were organised, for example, - The paragraphs start with a topic sentence stating the main important thing. - There are supporting sentences describing the object and giving details three times. - The final sentence repeats the main important thing. As a follow-up activity, the children wrote a paragraph about an object of their own choice. Plan Do Review model: Plan stage. The children were informed of the learning aims: ‘We’re going to learn how to write a paragraph with a topic sentence and supporting sentences.’ I integrated an assessment for learning approach (Black and Wiliam, 1998), and [End of Page 33] negotiated the success criteria with the children. Success criteria are the parts of the learning activity that are essential in achieving the learning aims. For example, - Identify the pattern in the paragraph - Use the pattern to structure your own paragraph. - Use a dictionary or ask your teacher if necessary. Plan Do Review model: Do stage. This stage involved children in producing their first draft of their paragraph, self- and peer-reviewing and editing until they were satisfied, and ready to produce and ‘publish’ their final version, see the example in Figure 1. Figure 1: The important thing about a floor tile. As a final outcome, the children collated their paragraphs into their own class ‘Important Book’, which they displayed in the story area of their classroom to return to and read during free-choice time. Plan Do Review model: Review stage. Reviewing is an important aspect of the learning process, but this stage is often omitted from classroom practice. Reviewing can be used to work out how to improve a situation or learn from an experience. As John Dewey [End of Page 34] (1916) stressed, we do not learn from experience but from reflecting upon experience: ‘Such reflection upon experience gives rise to a distinction of what we experience (the experienced) and the experiencing – the ‘how’ (p. 196). Reviewing is important because it develops self-awareness and maximises and enhances learning time. This makes learning more efficient and effective as it improves the children’s understanding of their own learning processes so they can become better learners. The Plan Do Review model of reflection ensures that this important aspect of the learning process is not neglected. The Review stage involved the children in reflecting on their learning in order to become aware of and understand their learning by responding to five reflection questions: - What did you do? - What did you learn? - How did you learn? - How well did you do? - What do you need to do next? Question one encouraged children to refer back to the success criteria and assess to what extent they followed these to complete the task. This helped them become more aware of the processes involved and what they needed to do to complete the task successfully. To make reviewing interesting and memorable, it was linked to the language and topic of the activity, which provided further consolidation and maintained the children’s interest and motivation. For example: The important thing I did was ………………… The important thing I learnt was ………………… Question four encouraged children to assess their performance. Self-assessment is viewed as one of the pillars of learner autonomy (Harris, 1997). It can increase awareness of individual progress as it can help children locate their own strengths and weaknesses and get them to think about what they need to do next. Through self-assessment children understand that they each learn different things and each have their own preferences about content and learning. Children begin to look forward to this part of their learning and taking on responsibility for assessing how well they did and when what they say matters. Figure 2 shows how the self-assessment was linked to the content of the activity. Children [End of Page 35] chose a comment that best reflected how well they did and then completed the sentence in order to reflect further and personalise their self-assessment. Some chose to complete it in the style of The Important Book and wrote a paragraph. It is important that children discuss their self-assessment with their peers and their teacher to fully extend the potential for reflection, otherwise there is a risk that self-assessment may become a repetitive and mechanical task of ticking boxes, circling smiley faces or colouring traffic lights with no further reflection. Figure 2: The Important Book – self-assessment (Ellis and Ibrahim, 2015b) This reflection is important as it drives improvement in performance. However, it cannot be assumed that by reflecting, performance automatically improves. Children need to act upon their reflections and justify their self-assessment and discuss with their peers or their teacher. Action based upon reflection is critical, so question five involved children reflecting on what they needed to do next. Thus learning literacy, in addition to English language learning, can be developed through picturebooks, if children are encouraged to plan and review their learning so they become aware of and understand the processes involved and of their own personal preferences and learning strategies. Further Review Activities to Develop ‘Learning’ Literacy There are many other ways children can reflect on their learning in a story-based approach and also give their personal response to a narrative. For example, they can complete a book mark by responding to questions about a story, drawing pictures about their favourite [End of Page 36] characters and illustrations, saying which part of the story they liked most and why, as well as evaluating their performance. Figure 3 on Pat Hutchins’ The Doorbell Rang (1986) demonstrates how children’s attention can be focussed on the learning strategies they used. Figure 3: Personal response to a story Figure 4 shows how children used Lego to construct a model of their favourite cat in Eve Sutton and Lynley Dodd’s picturebook, My Cat Likes to Hide in Boxes (1974), which involved them kinaesthetically and creatively in reflecting on their learning. Figure 4: The cat from Spain flew an aeroplane [End of Page 37] These techniques use a variety of modes so reviewing becomes multimodal – for example, drawing, photo and film, constructing models, movement and puppets. Reviewing is often considered a solitary activity, although it can be made interactive and collaborative by having children work in pairs or groups so they learn with and from each other. This can help develop social skills and creativity. In order to develop learning literacy through picturebooks, teachers need to create a learning environment which provides opportunities for reflection, experimentation and further reflection. This can be achieved by applying the Plan Do Review model of reflection to both the overall scheme of work and to individual activities in a story-based approach. In this way, learning literacy can be systematically and explicitly developed through the combination of both metacognitive and cognitive strategy training. In addition, using multimodal resources makes learning inclusive by accommodating children’s learning differences and preferences, and enabling them to express their views and opinions about language learning in their preferred mode. Through doing so, children become more engaged in their English language learning as they gradually develop an awareness and understanding of their own learning processes. This equips children with the mindset required to learn new things in a rapidly diverse and changing world so learning literacy indeed becomes, as Wynn urges, ‘an ethos, a culture and a way of life’. Briggs, R. (1978). The Snowman. Harmondsworth: Hamish Hamilton. Brown, M.W. (1949). The Important Book. Leonard Weisgard (Illus.). New York: HarperCollins. Hutchins, P. (1986). The Doorbell Rang. Harmondsworth: Puffin Books. Sutton, E. (1974). My Cat Likes to Hide in Boxes. Lynley Dodd (Illus.). Harmondsworth: Puffin Books. [End of Page 38] Black, P., Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148. http://weaeducation.typepad.co.uk/files/blackbox-1.pdf Bruce, T. (2011). Early Childhood Education. 4th edition. London: Hodder Education. Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (2009). ‘Multiliteracies’: New literacies, new learning. Pedagogies: An International Journal. 4, 164-195. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: The Macmillan Company. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Democracy_and_Education Ellis, G. & Brewster, J. (2014). Tell it Again! The Storytelling Handbook for Primary English Language Teachers. London: British Council https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/D467_Storytelling_handbook_FINAL_web.pdf Ellis, G. & Ibrahim, N. (2015a). Teachers’ toolkit. Wilbur’s storybook recommendations. Retrieved from http://www.deltapublishing.co.uk/content/uploads/2016/02/Wilburs-storybook-recommendations.pdf Ellis, G. & Ibrahim, N. (2015b). Teaching Children How to Learn. Peaslake, Surrey: Delta Publishing. EU. (2006). Key competences for lifelong learning – A European framework. Official Journal of the European Union, 30 December. http://www.alfa-trall.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/EU2007-keyCompetencesL3-brochure.pdf . Harris, M. (1997). Self-assessment on language learning in formal setting. ELT Journal, 51(1), 12-14. Hohmann, M., Epstein, A. S., & Weikart, D. (2008). Educating Young Children: Active Learning Practices for Preschool and Child Care Programs. 3rd Edition. Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press. Kress, G. (1997). Before Writing: Rethinking the Paths to Literacy. New York: Routledge. Microsoft Kids. (1994). Creative Writer. Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Press. Nisbet, J., & Shucksmith, J. (1986). Learning Strategies. Boston: Routledge. O’Malley, J.M., Chamot, A., U., Stewner-Manzanares, G, Kupper, L. & Russo, R. P. [End of Page 39] (1985). Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESLstudents. Language Learning, 35, 21-46. O’Rourke, M. (2005). Multiliteracies for 21st Century Schools. Lindfield, NSW: The Australian National Schools Network Ltd. Rubin, C. M. (2016, Jan 20). The global search for education: Learning how to learn. CMRubinWorld. Sustainable Solutions Through Global Discourse. Retrieved from http://www.cmrubinworld.com/the-global-search-for-education-learning-how-to-learn Standards & Testing Agency (2016). Early Years Foundation Stage Profile 2017 Handbook. UK: Department for Education. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/564249/2017_EYFSP_handbook_v1.1.pdf Whitebread, D., Coltman, P., Anderson, H., Mehta, S. & Pasternak, D.P. (2005). Metacognition in young children: Evidence from a naturalistic study of 3–5 year olds. Paper presented at the 5th Warwick International Early Years Conference, March 2005, and the 11th Biennial European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI) Conference, Cyprus, August 2005. https://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/cindle/Cyprus%20paper%202.doc [End of Page 40]

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Adolescence is one of the most difficult stages in life. It is a period filled with both physical and emotional growth, a turbulent, confusing passage from childhood to adulthood. The teen years are rife with anger, self doubt, frustration, confusion, and alienation. Adolescents are in constant pursuit of independence. Every human being must pass through this stage of youth, for it is during adolescence that the child becomes the adult. Autonomy is the desired end result and obtaining this freedom is vital and necessary for future survival in the adult world. This unit will look at the emotional and cognitive aspects of adolescents as they are found in the world of children’s literature. The fictional young people examined here are all looked at in the context of their family situation. Four novels ( By the Shores of The Witch of Blackbird Pond Nobody’s Family Is Going ) will serve as the foundation of this teaching unit, which will also look at the developmental and intellectual needs of the middle school student. The average middle school student is just entering adolescence. When these students enter junior high as 5th graders, they are still children interested in toys, games, make-believe play, and the latest cartoon shows. In just three short years, an amazing transformation takes place. When the 8th graders graduate, they leave behind their dolls and trucks and replace them with records, dances, make-up, clothing, and serious thoughts of the opposite sex. The subject that interests these young people most is “themselves” or stories and situations about other people the same age and going through similar experiences. The students’ interest in teenage encounters can be used successfully to motivate and encourage them to read, write, analyze, discuss, and to express themselves. At the Conte Arts Magnet School, I want to provide my students with educational opportunities that will be meaningful. This curriculum unit has been designed to meet the needs of my average level 6th grade English students, who are right on the edge, developmentally, between childhood and adolescence. As we meet only 3 1/2 hours per week, this unit will serve as the year’s curriculum. Though supplemental activities will be needed in the areas of grammar and spelling, most of the class work will come from the chosen works of literature and the topic of family. 1 encourage other teachers to mold this unit to fit the needs of their students. They might easily adapt this project for use with older students or substitute different novels, yet still employ the same philosophies, objectives, and activities. The unit has been purposely designed in an open-ended manner. The children will take from it what they need and teachers should feel free to do the same. The heart of this unit is the adolescent, himself, and his relationship to his family. The adolescent will be viewed within the context of the family because the family plays a vital role in a teenager’s search for self. Much of the frustration a teenager feels while passing through adolescence is unrecognized and ambiguous. The child blames not himself, but his parents and siblings for much of his uncertainty. Parents, in particular, are singled out. Just a short time ago, Mom and Dad were seen as benevolent protectors but now they are interfering persecutors. This is because they are the people who set the limits, who must say “no.” The teenager, in seeking independence, will constantly test and push those limits, thus causing conflict. These conflicts are necessary for the child’s growth, but all too often cause pain and turmoil within the family structure. Since the early Greeks, literature has explored the crisis of the adolescent within the family. The need to assert oneself and to be an autonomous individual can be seen in with the plight of Telemachus and his concern over his birthright to the throne and his fatherless kingdom being consumed by too many suitors. The Greek play wrights often had as piyotal characters, youths having to make challenging decisions that went against their families’ codes. This is true in Sophocles’ , and Aeschylus’ trilogy, Oresteia. In these tragedies, children become men and women as they seek revenge for a father’s murder or break the King’s law in honoring a dead brother. Much of modern psychology is based on the primitive and primal feelings the Greeks explored in their mythological literature. Shakespeare wrote of the classic adolescent rebellion in . Both the young lovers ignore the quarrels of their parents as well as the family law about fraternizing. They meet, fall in love, and marry in secret. Their rebellion brings about their deaths, but it also allows them to grow up. For Juliet, it is the first time she stands on her own and makes independent decisions. The other teens in the play can be seen as “classic” images of youth that have been repeated again and again in literature just as Romeo and Juliet have often become the stereotype for the young, star-crossed lovers. Mercutio is the smart-alecky, sharp-tongued, clever yet glib young man. Benvolio is the loyal pal who tries to keep the peace, but is still quick to act and should not be crossed. Tybalt is the hot-headed firebrand who tries to solve his problems with his fists. Modern novelists for teens, such as S.E. Hinton in her book, , owe much to William Shakespeare. Many novelists have used adolescence and the rites of passage as the text for their work. These writers run the gamut from Jane Austen ( Pride and Prejudice ) and Charles Dickens ( s) to 20th century novelists such as Alice Walker ( ) and Harper Lee ( To Kill A Mockingbird ). Many of the authors who write exclusively for young people have explored adolescence from the child’s point of view. Judy Blume is number one among young people for her books that deal with the peculiar problems of growing up. She has covered almost every subject that young adolescents could possibly be interested in and has made a fortune doing it. Her books include Are You There God? It’s Me, Margaret (being the odd man out), Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing (sibling rivalry), and (insecurity over one’s physical appearance). This unit will look at the novels of four recognized and respected authors of literature for young people. These authors have often been honored with the highest award for children’s literature, the Newberry Medal. Their books may not be as “relevant” as Judy Blume’s but once children have been exposed to them, they are as loved. These authors are all excellent writers who may choose to write for children yet do not talk down to them or puree their work to make it more palatable. These men and women write gutsy, fun, interesting, meaningful, and literary books to be read by children of all ages. The authors are William H. Armstrong ( ), Louise Fitzhugh ( Harriet the Spy The Long Secret Nobody’s Family Is Going to Change), Elizabeth George Speare ( The Bronze Bow The Sign of the Beaver The Witch of Blackbird Pond ), and Laura Ingalls Wilder ( By the Shores of Silver Lake and the other books in the “Little House” series). This unit is literature-based because I see a real need for young people to be exposed to the classics of children’s literature. Many students in the lower grades experience reading only through the use of basal readers. This unit is designed to introduce them to reading and interpreting novels while giving them the background and foundation they will need when they begin to read adult literature in the 7th and 8th grades. I have created this unit to fill several needs I see in my classroom. I know that other teachers will find these objectives to be similar to their own. They are indicative of a developmental approach to education. ONE: to present students with challenging, interesting, and stimulating pieces of literature to read, analyze, and discuss. TWO: to make the classroom literature meaningful, yet to also stimulate the students’ interest in books and good authors so that they will continue to read outside of school and during their free time. THREE: to explore the developmental learning levels the students are working on using the criteria of the child psychologist Jean Piaget. Knowledge of these levels will assist the teacher in planning educational activities that will stimulate students and give them work that is developmentally appropriate. FOUR: to assist students in understanding some of the changes they will undergo in entering adolescence and to see these changes in relationship to the family. The family will be viewed from not only a personal perspective, but s historical and sociological perspective as well. By the end of the school year, students should feel more comfortable about themselves and have a better understanding of how families function. FIVE: to listen to the students and to plan activities based on their needs, ideas, and interests. This unit is teacher-designed but will work successfully only if the students are an integral part of the planning. Since a primary goal is for the child to develop into a motivated self-learner as a result of reading and exploring these family works of literature, this unit must be child-centered. It can only skeletally be planned far in advance. Specific activities must grow directly out of students’ interests and needs. therefore, the teacher and her class must be very flexible and willing to work together. SIX: to encourage students to express themselves and their opinions and to share their ideas about the families presented in the four novels. The students should be made aware that their choices are important and vital to this course of study. Their feelings and reflections will be discussed in small and large groups, written about in journals and other creative writing assignments, dramatized in class improvisations and playlets, and explored in projects such as oral and written reports. Students should also be urged to communicate their feelings about and perceptions of their own families. The philosophical approach I am taking in the teaching of this unit is somewhat unique. Literature is usually taught in a Read-Analyze-Discuss-Evaluate pattern. I will follow this traditional method of teaching, yet at the same time I have developed a new thrust in using it. Recently, I was exposed to the educational theories of the Swiss child developmentalist and psychologist, Jean Piaget. His learning theories are most often applied to young children and the study of math and science, yet I discovered his work could also be applicable and meaningful in the teaching of literature. My ideas about using Piaget’s theories are based on the teachings of Dr. Catherine Fosnot, a professor at Southern Connecticut State University. She is gifted in her ability to translate Piaget’s theories into layman’s terms and to make them viable for the average classroom teacher. I have found his theories to be very relevant. Implementing classroom activities based on his ideas has made me a better teacher. My unit will attempt to share with other teachers how this developmental approach to learning can be taught and why it is so important. Jean Piaget was a gifted observer who devised several of his learning theories after watching his own children at play. He found many traits and behaviors to be common among children. For instance, all three year olds are animistic in that they give human qualities to inanimate objects; e.g. dolls are thought to be alive, clouds have feelings and it rains when a cloud cries, etc. In grouping these behaviors and the common ages at which they occurred, Piaget devised four levels of learning that all human beings progress through in their cognitive development. The stages are sensorimotor (Age 0-2), pre-operational (Age 2-7), concrete operational (Age 7-11) and formal operational (Age 11-Adult). The average middle school student is well into the concrete operational stage and is preparing to enter formal operations. A child who is using concrete operational thinking patterns is very structured. He is into the “here and now” and can not yet think hypothetically. He is very logical and will only be able to solve problems using schemes he has already mastered. He can classify and likes to put things in order. He likes to work with patterns and organizational tasks such as picture puzzles, word finds, building blocks, models, paper dolls, and coloring books. There must be a tangible end-result to all activities. The concrete child likes games with rules. He needs to know and understand the boundaries. This child likes true or realistic stories about characters similar to himself. Beverly Cleary is a very popular author with concrete children, as she writes honestly about being a child in books such as Ramona Quimby, Age 8 . The concrete operational child can differentiate his own ideas, feelings, and points of view from others. He is not completely egocentric, yet he cannot really empathize with people unlike himself. He has problems slipping inside someone else’s shoes. Concrete operational children can sometimes be an enigma. They love fairy tales and worlds of make-believe as can be seen in their passion for the t.v. characters, He-man and Rainbow Brite, yet they accept these fantasies in an unquestioning manner. They do not want to discuss the greater meanings found in folklore. They think you are crazy if you want to analyze a fairy tale. Fairy tales are blindly accepted, they are simply what they are. Older children, though, who can think hypothetically, love to interpret the tales of the oral tradition. They are fascinated with the theories of Bruno Bettelheim and like to discover the deeper, hidden meanings found in all fairy tales. This is not to say that the concrete child is not imaginative and cannot pretend as in make-believe, but some of the uniqueness we see in a younger child’s play has been left behind in this quest for order and rationale. The concrete child is always experimenting with his new found logic and trying to make the world fit into the prescribed patterns he’s already discovered. Here lies the difference between the formal adolescent and the concrete child. People who think concretely must have solid reasons based on their own experiences for proof. When they believe a fact to be true, it is true, never to be fully developed or questioned. People who think formally must look at all the angles, compare and contrast, and they are driven to discover the hidden truths behind facts. The child who achieves formal operational thinking can now think like most adults. He can reason, hypothesize, and think what if. He is able to look at all the possible solutions to a problem and systematically try all the elements to see which ones fit. This child can compare and contrast. He will enjoy and understand works of literature such as science fiction. He will be able to tackle logic puzzles and to understand basic concepts of abstract reasoning. He will be able to tackle subjects such as physics. He can now empathize and relate to others unlike himself. Not all people enter the formal operations stage. Many adults do not progress any further than concrete operations in their ability to think and reason. People cannot be taught to think hypothetically. This is a process that must be learned through interaction with the world around you and through the inner distillation of knowledge. People enter the different phases of learning at their own pace. But even though a teacher cannot directly teach hypothetical reasoning, she can do much to guide a student to that ultimate end. Teachers can help children to move from concrete thinking to formal operations by constantly challenging them. Children need to learn in an environment that is flexible, open, daring. They need to be shaken up; their logic confronted while they are exposed to situations that will allow them to flip-flop on previous held notions. Students should share their opinions often so that they can see how others think and feel. They need to explore open-ended questions; exercise their brains by reading, thinking, speaking, and writing and, as a class, analyzing the end results of all this work. The study of literature can be an important tool in getting children to think hypothetically. Literature comes from the collective consciousness of all men. Reading allows the child to experience life in a manner that may not be possible for him in any other way. Through books a reader can travel through time, to new and fantastic worlds, and he can meet people that have much to share. Literature forces the reader to compare and contrast, to identify, to personify, to question, and to wonder why. The four novels presented in this unit will serve the needs of the teacher attempting to use Piagetian philosophies. Because the leading characters are interesting, sympathetic adolescents these books will appeal to the concrete child, but each child will relate to the hero’s family situation in his own way. Each student will find elements that connect directly to his real life, and yet definite challenges to the current mode of thinking exist. These books were selected because they cover a wide range of heroes, time spans, situations, and family problems. Each book has a pivotal theme that students will respond to. These books with the discussions and activities that will follow each reading, will shake the students up, forcing them to interpret character motivations and to form opinions. This thinking and exercise will give further opportunities for the concrete child to think formally. BY THE SHORES OF SILVER LAKE by Laura Ingalls Wilder I have chosen this book to begin the unit for several reasons. Other teachers should feel free to teach these novels in whatever order works best for them and their students. As 5th graders, my 6th grade students read On the Banks of Plum Greek , the novel that precedes By the Shores of Silver Lake in the “Little House” series. Starting with this book allows my students to reacquaint themselves with the Ingalls family which they already know and love. It is also at a fairly easy reading level and will not frustrate those children who are not “readers.” I want to hook them now before we move on to the books on a more difficult level. The book is still exciting enough for those students who are stronger readers; no one will be bored with it. By the Shores of Silver Lake is a very sweet book that deals positively with difficult family issues (serious illness, moving, parents in disagreement, money troubles). It is fiction grounded in fact as Laura lngalls based this and her other books on her own childhood as a pioneer girl in the 1880’s. It is a realistic portrayal of frontier life. The book begins as Laura is just about to turn 13. The idyllic life seen in the earlier books has turned into a harsher reality. Laura is no longer the “Little Half-Pint” who can play in the creek or have other adventures. She is being asked to grow up and assume adult responsibilities even though she is still a child. This is a theme that many modern children will be able to relate to. They come home to empty houses and often have to start supper, clean, and look after younger siblings. Like Laura, these children have many adult responsibilities to assume that they are not yet ready for. Class discussions and writing assignments will focus on this issue. The students will start to keep journals at this time that they will write in throughout the year. The journals should be approached from a developmental point of view and writing topics should not be assigned by the teacher. Children need to be encouraged to write about whatever they would like to. One class period a week can be set aside exclusively for journal keeping. Students will write for the entire period independently, but they can sign up to meet with the teacher for a writing conference. During the writing conference the teacher reads the child’s work and makes appropriate comments while analyzing the child’s needs. The teacher and student then set goals for the child to work on in future writing sessions. These goals could include drafting, working on grammar or spelling errors, choosing a new topic, or simply continuing with the present piece. These journals are not to be treated simply as diaries. Using this approach allows a child to keep all of his ideas in one place. It is easier for him to analyze and keep track of his work when it is done in one notebook. In his journal the child will explore, through writing, the topics of most importance to him as he also refines his changing thoughts about growing up and being part of a family. By the Shores of Silver Lake is like a journal in that it chronicles Laura’s last days of childhood and her passage into adolescence. It is a story of how one family unites to fight life’s hardships. Laura’s sister, Mary is recently blind after a bout with scarlet fever that has left the whole family weak. Times have been hard for the farmer and Pa must sell their beloved homestead to take a job with the railroad. Too many years of drought and grasshopper plagues have destroyed the family’s dream. But Pa is not down and out. He wants to move west and stake a claim share in the Dakotas, but Ma wants her girls to go to school and be civilized. Ma particularly wants Laura to go to school, for she must now be Mary’s “eyes” and take over the family’s goal of one girl becoming a schoolteacher like Ma. Laura deals with the disappointment and changes in her life very maturely. My students will be asked if they would behave in the same manner. The differences in the Ingalls family as they are seen in the novel and on the T.V. series, Little House on the Prairie , will also be topics for class discussion. Some Questions and Issues for Discussion 1. How does Laura feel about being Mary’s “eyes”? Do you have to look out for a brother or sister? 2. What are some of Laura’s new responsibilities? What responsibilities do you have at home? 3. Does Laura still want to play or is she really as grown-up as her parents wish her to be? Do you ever want to play? If so, how? 4. How does Laura feel about moving again and leaving behind her house at Plum Creek? Have you ever had to leave behind something you were fond of? 5. Does Laura want to be a school teacher? What do you want to be when you are older? What do your parents want you to be? THE WITCH OF BLACKBIRD POND by Elizabeth George Speare This second novel to be read makes a strong connection to the 6th grade Social Studies curriculum which is a study of Connecticut. “Witch” is set in Wethersfield in the late 1600’s. It presents a strong contrast to family life today as the book looks at life among the rigid Puritans. This novel will be used to look at the family from a historical perspective and will give the students a chance to see how family life has not always been as it is today. The historical period of this book could be used by the children to report on the aspects of this long ago life they are most interested in. Following the reading of The Witch of Blackbird Pond , the students will divide themselves into small groups. Each group will reflect on the novel and select an aspect they wish to explore in detail and then present orally to the class. The book operates on so many levels the children will have a rich variety of topics to choose from. Students may wish to research the lifestyle of the Puritans looking at their clothing, food, homes, skills, weapons, etc. They might want to pursue the history of sailing and the trade ships or look at witchcraft and present information on the Salem witch trials. Others might want to compare the family of the 1680’s with the family of the 1980’s. Whatever the choice, each group will research its subject and present its findings to the class. Visual aids such as models and charts will be required. This type of exploration will greatly enhance the reading of “Witch” and make it more meaningful for the students. The Witch of Blackbird Pond is the story of a 16 year old orphan named Kit. This novel reads like a beautiful fairy tale and students may want to compare it to actual fairy tales and the families presented there. Kit has had to flee Barbados and is forced to live with her only relatives, her Aunt Rachel and her Uncle Matthew. She leaves Barbados because her grandfather’s fortune has been lost and she is at the mercy of an old lecher’s proposal. She has jumped from the frying pan into the fire. In her new Wethersfield home, Kit is a bright bird among pigeons. Hers is a story about not belonging, not being accepted. Her aunt and uncle do not know what to do with her, and Kit feels lonely and homeless until she meets the old Quaker woman, Hannah Tupper. The discussion of this book will center around this theme of not belonging to a family unit, even one you may be part of. Kit is put to many tests and challenges, as are many heroes of fairy tales, before she is accepted by her adopted family. The book ends with her autonomous and starting a family of her own. There is much in this novel to explore. When is someone worthy of your family’s respect? Why is it so hard to earn? What does it take to be alone? Why does Kit earn her own family only when she has learned to stand on her own and be an individual? The questions this novel raises will make interesting class discussions. Students should also be asked to act out scenes from the book. Its exciting action and fairy tale characters lend themselves to the creation of rich dramatizations. Other Questions for Discussion 1. What was Kit’s life like in Barbados with her grandfather? What was her life like in Connecticut with the Woods family? Which family would you choose to live with? 2. Why doesn’t Kit fit in with the people of Wethersfield? How is she different? How is she the same? What would it feel like to be an orphan like Kit and to not fit into a family? 3. Which girl, Mercy or Judith, tries hardest to be a sister to Kit? Why is Judith jealous of Kit? Have you ever been jealous of your brother or sister? 4. Several people fall in love in this novel. How do they behave towards one another? What was a date like in 1687? How do people fall in love and marry today? 5. How is The Witch of Blackbird Pond like a fairy tale? What fairy tales does the book remind you of? In this tale who is the wicked witch? Who is the fairy godmother? Who is Prince Charming? What character in a fairy tale would Prudence be? Where does Kit fit in? NOBODY’S FAMILY IS GOING TO CHANGE by Louise Fitzhugh This novel is very witty, painful, and modern in dealing with sex roles. The heroine, Emma, is seeking acceptance like Kit. Emma never finds it from her family, though. She learns that first she must love herself. Her family may never change its attitudes about what girls and boys should be, but she can change. She has to change or she will not survive. Emma is a concrete child at the beginning of the novel, just beginning to explore her own possibilities. She is too content and accepting of her painful existence. She blames everything on her father. But as she begins to wrestle with her own demons she can see the brighter days ahead. Emma grabs ahold of herself and realizes that she is the one in charge. Nothing will change unless she envisions her own future goals and strives to achieve them. In wondering why and thinking what if, Emma saves herself. Students will quickly identify with Emma. Her inner voice, as presented in the book, is perfect for dramatizations. Students will be asked to write monologues using Emma’s thoughts as they are presented in the book. These speeches will be performed with students acting as Emma. Taking these monologues one step further, the class will be asked to write their own monologues based on personal experience. This book presents an excellent opportunity for students to discover how a novel becomes a drama. Nobody’s Family Is Going to Change was first transformed into a teleplay for an ABC afterschool special. It also became the Broadway musical, . Students should read and view these professional dramatizations because in the musical there is a song Emma sings that is an excellent example of the inner-voice monologue. Nobody’s Family Is Going to Change is the story of a present-day black family living in Manhattan. Emma is the oldest child in the family and the only daughter. She is fat, very bright, lonely, and disgusted with herself. She wants to be a lawyer and fantasizes about it constantly. Her father is a lawyer who doesn’t encourage her because “women don’t make good lawyers.” Emma desperately wants her father’s approval but they just do not seem able to understand one another. They are too much alike. Emma’s little brother, Willie, also has a sex role dilemma. He wants to be a dancer like his Uncle Dipsey and is good enough to be offered a role in a Broadway show. But his father disapproves and this brings all the family tension out into the open. Because this novel deals with a modern family in a modern situation, I feel students will really empathize with the children in this family. In fact, the author stacks the deck so the parents are all too often two-dimensional. This problem was solved in the ABC afterschool special based on the novel. Like the broadway play, it is called The Tap Dance Kid The Tap Dance Kid the parents are seen as real people and their problems are brought out into the open. Students should look at this family’s dilemma from both the children’s and parent’s points of view. Viewing the t.v. show (which is available on VCR) will present the important issues the novel raises in a more sensitive and realistic manner. Some Questions and Issues for Discussion 1. Why doesn’t Emma’s father want her to be a lawyer? Why doesn’t he want Willie to be a dancer? Do parents always want what is best for their children? 2. Is Emma a “nice” person? Do people like her? Would you want to be her friend? Does she allow people to get close to her? Is she like her father or mother? How? 3. Why does Willie want to dance? How does it make him feel? Does anything make you feel this way? 4. What is Emma’s and Willie’s relationship like? Do they love one another? Do they like one another? What is your relationship with your brother or sister like? 5. Will this family change? Will they solve their problems? How? Do some families stay the same? Why or why not? BY William H. Armstrong The final novel to be read and explored is a very serious, somber piece. It is haunting and the best written book of the four. found it very sad and I think that will move students profoundly. The novel is set in the 1930’s and is the tragic story of a black sharecropping family. The title comes from the name of the family hunting dog, but it is symbolic of the themes the book sensitively presents. Sounder is the family pet and best friend of the leading character, “the boy,” When Sounder is wounded and the boy’s father is arrested for stealing a ham to feed his starving family, the boy becomes the family’s “Sounder.” Overnight he is no longer a child but a man of the house, “sounding out” the world around the small family cabin. He searches for food and a job to support the family, earning an education along the way. His most important quest is for his father who has been forced from home to work on a chain gang. With each journey away from home the boy grows stronger. When his father finally does return, beaten and maimed, the boy is now the man who takes care of not only himself, but also of his family. ’s prose is sparse and bare. It is harsh for life is harsh for the boy and his family. The novel deals with prejudice in a very affecting way. The reader also sees how a family can still love and hang together in times of great adversity. Family obligations and responsibilities are important themes in This book was made into a very fine film about ten years ago. Students will view this film and discuss it. The harsh reality of the prejudice shown here and a family’s ability to rise above it will be important topics of discussion. Some Questions and Issues for Discussion 1. Why doesn’t the author of , William H. Armstrong, tell the reader the boy’s name? 2. How does the boy become “the sounder” for his family? Would you be able to leave home and be “the sounder” for your family? 3. How are the dog, Sounder, and the boy’s father alike? Can animals be so close to people that they become part of the family? 4. Was the punishment the boy’s father was given fair? Was it right of him to steal the ham? Why did he do it? What would you have done if you were in the father’s situation? 5. Where do we see people’s prejudice in the novel? How do these incidents affect the family? Are the members of this family strong or weak? How do you think your family would behave if it were in a similar circumstance? The unit will culminate with a sharing of the writings, dramatic pieces, and other works that have grown from the exploration of these four family novels. A final discussion would include comparing and contrasting the adolescents found in the books with ourselves. I would particularly like to see Emma and her egocentric behavior compared to the boy in and his unselfish actions. The characters in these novels begin as concrete children and move into the realms of abstract thinking and in coping with life’s dilemmas. Like my students, Emma, Laura, Kit, and the boy are all on the verge of thinking hypothetically. They are learning to be independent and autonomous; to think like an adult. At first all children are overwhelmed, but through perseverance and with endurance they are able to conquer their fears and to win their own battles. As my students share these problems and experiences with growing up in the family, I hope they will begin to look at their own lives and start to move from the concrete to the abstract; to think what if, to dream whatever is necessary to create the solutions to their own problems.

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Identification. Syria is the name that was given to the region by the Greeks and Romans and probably derives from the Babylonian suri. Arabs traditionally referred to Syria and a large, vaguely defined surrounding area as Sham, which translates as "the northern region," "the north," "Syria," or "Damascus." Arabs continued to refer to the area as Sham up until the twentieth century. That name still is used to refer to the entire area of Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and the West Bank and has become a symbol of Arab unity. Location and Geography. Syria borders Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Israel and Jordan to the south, and Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. It is 71,000 square miles (183,900 square kilometers) in area. One-third of the land is arable, and one-third is pasturable. The terrain is mostly desert, and home to drought resistant plants such as myrtle, boxwood, and wild olive. There is little wildlife. Remote areas have wolves, hyenas, and foxes; the desert has lizards, eagles, and buzzards. Most of the population is concentrated in the western region of the country, near the Mediterranean. Damascus, the capital and the largest city, is located at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains along the small Barada River. It has a favorable location in a fertile area close to the desert and has historically served as a refueling stop and commercial center for traders making trips through the desert. Inland of this area is a range of limestone mountains, the Jabal al-Nusayriya. The Gharb Depression, a dry but fertile valley, lies between this range and other mountains to the east. The Euphrates River and several of its tributaries pass through Syria, supplying more than 80 percent of the country's water. There are two natural lakes: Arram in the crater of an extinct volcano in the Golan Heights and Daraa along the Jordanian border. There are several artificial lakes created by dams that supply irrigation and electrical power. Most of the country has a desertlike climate, with hot, dry summers and milder winters. What little rain there is falls in the winter, mainly along the coast. Demography. The population in 2000 was 16,673,282 (not including the 35,150 people living in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, of whom 18,150 are Arabs and 17,000 are Israelis). The country is 90.3 percent Arab. Kurds are estimated to constitute between 3 and 9 percent of the population. Also represented are Turks; Armenians, most of whom fled Turkey between 1925 and 1945; and small numbers of Circassians, Assyrians, and Jews. The Bedoins are Arabs, but form a distinct group. They were originally nomadic, but many have been forced to settle in towns and villages. Linguistic Affiliation. Arabic is the official language, and 90 percent of the population speaks it. The Syrian dialect is very similar to Jordanian and Egyptian and varies little from Modern Standard Arabic, the standardized form used in communications throughout the Arab world. Kurdish, Armenian, and Circassian also are spoken. Kurdish is spoken mostly in the northeast, but even there it is rarely heard, as speaking it is viewed as a gesture of dissent. Some ancient languages are still spoken in parts of the country, including Maalua, Aramaic, and Syriac. As a result of colonial influence, French and English (French in particular) are understood and used in interactions with tourists and other foreigners. Symbolism. The coat of arms displays a hawk, which is the emblem of Muhammad, the founder of the Islamic faith. The flag consists of three horizontal stripes: red on top, white in the middle, and black on the bottom. In the white section are two green stars, symbolizing Islam. Emergence of the Nation. The modern-day nation emerged from Sham, an area that historically included Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Between 2700 and 2200 B.C.E. , this area was home to the Ebla kingdom. Later, the country's strategic location helped its coastal towns rise to prominence as Phoenician trading posts. It was conquered by the Persians around 500 B.C.E. , and by the Greeks in 333 B.C.E. The Romans took over in 64 B.C.E. , and established a fortress at Palmyra whose remains still stand in the desert. Muslim Arabs conquered Damascus in 635 C.E. Beginning in 1095, Syria was a target of the Crusades, but the Arabs ultimately defeated the Christian invaders. The Turkish Ottoman Empire took control in 1516 and ruled the area for four hundred years. That era came to an end in 1920 with the end of World War I, when the French took control of Syria and Lebanon. The French drew a straight-line border to separate this territory from British-ruled Transjordan. Syria had experienced a brief period of independence from 1918–1920, and was dissatisfied with French rule, which ignored the will of the people and did little for the country as a whole. There was a brief insurrection in 1925 and 1926, which the French put down by bombing Damascus. Syria held its first parliamentary elections in 1932. All the candidates were hand-picked by the French, but once elected, they declined the constitution France had proposed for the country. Anti-French sentiment grew when France turned over control of the Syrian province of Alexandretta to Turkey. It was exacerbated by the promise of independence in 1941, which was not delivered until five years later. After independence, civilian rule was short-lived, and the early 1950s saw a succession of coups, after which Syria formed the United Arab Republic with Egypt in 1958. This represented an effort to keep the Arab states more powerful than Israel, but it disintegrated in 1961, when Syria came to resent the concentration of power in Egypt. The disbanding was followed by further political instability. The situation was worsened by the Six Day War against Israel in 1967 and the Black September disagreement with Jordan in 1970. Hafez al-Assad, the leader of a radical wing of the Arab Socialist party, the Baath, seized control in 1971. He cracked down hard on dissent and in 1982 killed thousands of members of the the Muslim Brotherhood opposition organization. However, his tight-reined rule averted the civil war and political anarchy that plagued Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon. In 1992, he won his fourth consecutive bid for election with 99.9 percent of the vote. During the Gulf War in the early 1990s, the country aligned itself with the anti-Iraq coalition, thus winning the approval of the United States and removing itself from the United States' government's list of nations supporting international terrorism. Hafez al-Assad died in June 2000. The younger of his two sons, Bashar, assumed his father's position. National Identity. Syrians tend to identify primarily with their religious group or sect; however, as the majority of the country is Sunni Muslim, this creates a strong feeling of cultural unity. Modern-day Syria is in part the result of geographic lines drawn by the French in 1920, and there is still a strong pan-Arab sympathy that defines national identity beyond the current borders. The current map was also redrawn in 1967, when Israel took the Golan Heights, a previously Syrian territory, and the national identity is based in part on the concept of defending and reclaiming this land. Ethnic Relations. Syria is ethnically fairly homogeneous (80 percent of the population is Arab). Religious differences are tolerated, and minorities tend to retain distinct ethnic, cultural, and religious identities. The Alawite Muslims (about a half-million people) live in the area of Latakia. The Druze, a smaller group that resides in the mountainous region of Jebel Druze, are known as fierce soldiers. The Ismailis are an even smaller sect, that originated in Asia. The Armenians from Turkey are Christian. The Kurds are Muslim but have a distinct culture and language, for which they have been persecuted throughout the Middle East. The Circassians, who are Muslim, are of Russian origin and generally have fair hair and skin. The nomadic Beduoin lead a lifestyle that keeps them largely separated from the rest of society, herding sheep and moving through the desert, although some have settled in towns and villages. Another group that remains on the outside of society both politically and socially, is the roughly 100,000 Palestinian refugees, who left their homeland in 1948 after the founding of Israel. The focal point of any Middle Eastern city is the souk, or marketplace, a labyrinthine space of alleys, stalls, and tiny shops that also include ancient mosques and shrines. Traditionally, the residential quarters of a city were divided along ethnic and religious lines. Today, this system has been largely replaced by divisions along class lines, with some wealthier neighborhoods and some poorer ones. Damascus is an ancient city, and along with Aleppo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world. The Great Omayyad Mosque, which dates back to the early days of Islam, is one of its oldest and most famous buildings. It formerly served as a Byzantine church honoring Saint John the Baptist and was constructed on the site of an old temple to pre-Islamic gods. The walls are lined with marble and overlaid with golden vines. Six hundred gold lamps hang from the ceiling. The city is home to ruins as well as intact buildings that date back thousands of years. These structures are located in the area called the Old City. Damascus is also a city of cars, highways, and tall modern buildings made of reinforced concrete. Aleppo, although smaller, is equally ancient. It is geographically protected by its elevation and rocky terrain, and traces its history back to its days as a fort. Today Aleppo is the nation's second largest urban center and most industrialized city. It engages in silk weaving and cotton printing as well as the tanning of animal hides and the processing of produce. Other cities include Latakia, the country's main port, and Homs and Tartus, both of which have oil refineries. In villages, houses present a closed front to the outside world, symbolizing the self-contained family unit. They are small, usually with one to three rooms, and are built around an enclosed central courtyard. Traditional rural houses in the northwest are mud structures that are shaped like beehives. In the south and east, most houses are made of stone. The nomadic Bedouin, who live mainly in the south and east, sleep in tents that are easily transportable. In 1960, 30 percent of the population lived in cities; in 1970, that proportion was 46 percent; and by 1988, the number had climbed to half. Most of this growth has been concentrated in Damascus. The rapid spread of that city into nearby farmland has resulted in traffic congestion, overtaxed water supplies, pollution, and housing shortages. Many older buildings have been taken down to make room for roads and newer structures. The outskirts of the city have become overrun with quickly and shoddily constructed homes that sometimes have electricity but rarely have running water or sewage facilities. Food in Daily Life. Wheat is the main crop and one of the staple foods. Vegetables, fruits, and dairy products also are eaten. Lamb is popular, but most people cannot afford to eat meat on a regular basis. Islam proscribes the consumption of pork, and other meats must be specially prepared in a method called halal cooking. In middle-class and wealthier homes, meals are like those eaten in other Middle Eastern countries: roast or grilled chicken or lamb with side dishes of rice, chickpeas, yogurt, and vegetables. A mezzeh is a midday meal composed of up to twenty or thirty small dishes. These dishes can include hummous , a puree of chickpeas and tahini (ground sesame paste); baba ganouj, an eggplant puree; meat rissoles; stuffed grape leaves; tabouleh (a salad of cracked wheat and vegetables); falafel (deep-fried balls of mashed chickpeas); and pita bread. Olives, lemon, parsley, onion, and garlic are used for flavoring. Popular fruits that are grown in the region include dates, figs, plums, and watermelons. Damascus has a number of French restaurants remaining from the time of colonial rule. Tea is the ubiquitous drink and is often consumed at social gatherings. Soda is also very popular, as is milk and a drink made by mixing yogurt with water, salt, and garlic. Alcohol consumption is rare, as it is forbidden by the Islamic religion, but beer and wine are available, as is arak, an aniseed drink that also is popular in other Middle Eastern countries. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Food is an important part of many celebrations. During Ramadan, each day's fast is broken with an evening meal called iftar. This meal begins in silence and is consumed rapidly. Eid al-Fitr, the final breaking of the Ramadan fast, entails the consumption of large quantities of food, sweets in particular. Food is also a central element at weddings, parties, and other festivities. Basic Economy. The country supplies almost all of its own food needs. The proportion of the population working in agriculture has decreased significantly from 50 percent in 1970, to 30 percent in the 1980s, to 23 percent today. Despite this decline, production has increased, thanks in large part to the dam at Tabqa, which has allowed for increased irrigation. Half of the workforce is employed in industry and mining. There is less of a gap between the rich and the poor in Syria than there is in many other countries, and as more of the population gains access to education, the middle class continues to expand. The basic unit of currency is the pound. Land Tenure and Property. Before independence, urban landlords controlled the countryside, often mistreating the peasants and denying them any rights. The majority of peasants worked as sharecroppers and were economically and politically powerless. When the socialist Baath Party took control, it introduced measures to limit and redistribute land ownership and establish peasant unions. It also set up local governing organizations and cooperatives, that have allowed the peasants to attain more control of their lives and livelihood. Commercial Activities. The center of commercial activity in each town or city is the souk. People from all walks of life and all ethnic and religious backgrounds come together to buy and sell a wide variety of goods. Spices, meats, vegetables, cloth, traditional handicrafts, and imported products jostle for space in the crowded booths and alleyways. Souks are not just commercial centers but gathering places as well, and haggling is a necessary part of social interactions. Shopping centers and supermarkets exist but have not supplanted this uniquely Arab institution. Major Industries. The main industries are oil, agriculture, and textiles. Wheat is the largest crop, followed by cotton. Vegetables, beans, and fruits Trade. Syria's primary trading partners are Germany, Italy, and France. Although Syria is not as rich in oil as other Middle Eastern nations, oil is the main export, and the exploration for deposits continues. Other exports are cotton, fruits and vegetables, and textiles. Imports include industrial and agricultural machinery, vehicles and automotive accessories, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, and fabric. Division of Labor. Syrians are legally entitled to pursue the career of their choice; however, those choices are often limited by gender, family, social pressure, and economic hardship. There is often relatively little difference in the salaries of the working class and those of the professional class. Classes and Castes. Syrian society was traditionally extremely stratified. People from different classes generally do not socialize with one another, and people in the lower classes often adopt a humble attitude and an acceptance of their position. Class lines tend to coincide with racial differences, as lighter-skinned people hold higher economic and political positions and most of the people in the lower-ranked professions are darker-skinned. The families of landholders and merchants traditionally occupied the highest position socially and politically. They usually lived in Damascus or Aleppo and managed their land from afar. Religious teachers known as ulama were also influential. They served as judges, teachers, and political officials as well as advisers to the government. In this role, the ulama generally supported the status quo. The towns and cities also housed artisans, small merchants, and a small working class. The Baath government has created some shifts in that pattern. Some peasants are moving to the cities and joining the middle class; others now own land. However, there are still large numbers of indigent and landless peasants. Since the Baath takeover, the army officers who participated in the coup have succeeded the landowners as the new elite. There is also a growing middle class as a result of the spread of education. Symbols of Social Stratification. The wealthy and well educated have a fairly modern lifestyle with many of the trappings of Western life. Televisions and radios are common except among the extremely poor. Appliances such as air conditioners, dishwashers, and microwaves are only for the very wealthy. Dress is another indicator of social class. Different tribes and villages have their own distinctive patterns, designs, and colors of clothing. Men traditionally wear long gowns called kaftans, and women wear long robes that leave only their hands and feet exposed. Both men and women wear head wraps. The educated upper classes, particularly the young, tend to prefer modern Western attire. These women favor bright colors, jewelry, makeup, and high heels; men wear dressy slacks and shirts. Blue jeans and T-shirts are rare, as are shorts and miniskirts and bare shoulders or upper arms for women. Traditionally, it is a sign of wealth and status in a family for its women to dress in long robes with their faces veiled. Government. Syria adopted its current constitution in 1973. There is universal suffrage. The unicameral legislative branch is composed of the People's Council, or Majlis al shaab, whose 195 members are elected for four-year terms. This body proposes laws, discusses cabinet programs, and approves the national budget. The president, who serves as the head of state and is required by the constitution to be a Muslim, is elected every seven years by popular vote. The president appoints a vice president, a prime minister who serves as head of government, a cabinet, and deputy prime ministers. The president has wide-reaching powers, including serving on the supreme court. Despite the distribution of political power, in practice, the military government has the ability to overrule all decisions. Leadership and Political Officials. The importance placed on the family as the central structure in society has ramifications in politics and government. Family loyalty is a primary consideration, and there is a general sentiment that family members (even distant relatives) can be trusted more than other people. The best jobs in the government generally are held by people related to the president, either of the same religious group or the same regional background or part of his extended family. While residents generally are interested in politics both at a local level and as a part of the larger Arab world and are critical of leaders, they tend not to join political parties. Even the ruling Baath Party has relatively small numbers of members. It is more Social Problems and Control. The legal system is based on the French model, with both civil and criminal courts. There is also a State Security Court that tries political opponents of the government. The proceedings of this court violate many international standards for fair trials. There are large numbers of political prisoners in the jails. In 1992, the government announced that it would free 2,864 of these prisoners, perhaps signaling a loosening of its autocratic policies. For cases dealing with issues such as birth, marriage, and inheritance, the system has different courts for people of different religions. The Muslim courts are called Sharia. There are other ciyrts for Druze, Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Jews. Military Activity. Syria has armed forces with 408,000 members. This includes an army and an air force but no navy. It spends 30 percent of the national budget on defense as a result of the state of war that has existed between Syria and Israel since the founding of Israel. Syria also has thirty thousand troops stationed in Lebanon to maintain the peace. All men are required to serve thirty months in the armed forces, with the exception of only sons, who are exempt. It is possible to buy exemption from service for a very large sum of money. Women are allowed to serve voluntarily. The government strictly enforces price controls on basic items as well as rent control laws, that help low-income people get by. Medical fees are covered by the state for those who cannot afford private care. The government also provides assistance to the elderly, invalids, and those suffering from work injuries. Most assistance comes from within the family structure; young people often live with their parents until and even after marriage, and children are expected to take in and care for their elderly parents. Division of Labor by Gender. Traditionally, wives in towns are responsible for running the household and are restricted to the home. Rural women often work in the fields in addition to performing domestic tasks. While women are legally allowed to work outside the home, there are significant obstacles. For example, the government's Moral Intelligence Department investigates women before allowing them to hold federal jobs. Only 11 percent of women of working age are employed outside the home; among those women, 80 percent work in agriculture. They also are represented in textiles and the tobacco industry, but only 1 percent of employed women have administrative or managerial positions. There are women in the national government, and in the capital a few women work in metal or electrical workshops. It is not uncommon for women to do piecework in their homes. The Relative Status of Women and Men. The Baath Party was one of the first in the Arab world to declare as one of its goals the emancipation and equal treatment of women; its constitution of 1964 states that all citizens have equal rights. While women are now entitled to receive the same education as men and to seek employment, the traditional attitude that views females as inferior beings prevails. A woman is considered the possession of a man rather than her own person. She is identified as her father's daughter until marriage; after the birth of a male child, her identity is transferred from the wife of her husband to the mother of her son. Marriage. By Muslim tradition, marriage is arranged by the couple's families. While more leniency is now allowed, particularly in cities and among the upper classes, it is still extremely rare for a couple to marry against their family's wishes. According to the constitution, the state has assumed the duty of protecting and encouraging the institution of marriage. Nonetheless, the marriage rate has declined because of housing shortages, inflation, rising levels of education, bride money, and the prohibitive cost of weddings. Although the state and the Muslim religion both oppose the current dowry system, it is deeply entrenched in the family structure. It places immense pressure on the husband and his family, who have to raise large sums of money, and on the bride, who often is forced to marry the suitor who can provide the biggest dowry. Syria was the first Arab country to pass laws concerning polygamy. In 1953, it passed the Law of Personal Status, under which a man was bound to demonstrate that he could financially support two wives before marrying the second one. Whereas divorce laws used to follow the Arabic tradition that a man had only to repeat three times "I divorce you" (in his wife's presence or not), court proceedings are now required. Domestic Unit. The family is the primary social unit. An older male, usually the father or grandfather, has the ultimate authority and is responsible for providing for the other family members. It is customary for several generations to live together in the same house. Particularly for women, who are not allowed to leave the home, family provides the primary or only social outlet and relationships with other people. Inheritance. An estate passes from the father to the oldest son in a family. Traditionally, not only property is bequeathed, but social and political position as well. Kin Groups. Syrians identify very strongly with their families, both immediate and extended. While kinship ties have weakened somewhat with urbanization and modernization, the clan mentality is still a strong influence in the nation's political system. Child Rearing and Education. Children are highly valued as a blessing from God. The more children one has, the more fortunate one is considered, The literacy rate is 64 percent—78 percent for men and 51 percent for women. Primary education is mandatory and free for six years. Middle school, which begins at age thirteen, marks the end of mixed-sex education. Most schools are run by the state, which combines a French structure with the rigid discipline and rote learning of the Islamic tradition. There are a few religious schools, some schools that are run by the United Nation relief program, and some that are run by the Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees. Higher Education. Syria has vocational and teacher-training education as well as universities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Latakia. About 165,000 students (40 percent of them women) are enrolled in the universities. The learning situation is less than ideal, with large class sizes and outdated teaching and testing techniques. Students who can afford to obtain visas often prefer to study abroad. Men and women socialize separately except on occasions when the whole family is involved. Talking is a favorite pastime, and the art of conversation is a prized skill. Men often engage in a sort of banter in which they try to one up each other with witty and eloquent insults. In social interactions, people stand close together, speak loudly, and gesture widely with their hands and heads. Greetings hold great social significance. They are often lengthy, including questions about health. They usually are accompanied by a handshake and sometimes by a hug and a kiss on each cheek. Placing the right hand on the heart when meeting someone is a signal of affection. Syrians are very affectionate people. Men walk linking arms or holding hands and hug and kiss a great deal, as do women. Close physical contact in public is more common between people of the same gender than it is between girlfriend and boyfriend or husband and wife. Religious Beliefs. Seventy-four percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. Sixteen percent belongs It is speculated, although not certain, that Alawite Muslims do not observe the holy month of Ramadan or make a pilgrimage to Mecca as other Muslims do and celebrate some Christian holidays. The practices of the Druze are also somewhat mysterious. A smaller group known as the Ismailis recognizes a living person, the Aga Khan, as their sacred leader. The mystical branch of Islam called sufi, has a small presence in Syria, although the government sees this sect as subversive and disapproves of its practice. Sufi rituals involve chanting and dancing while moving in a circular formation. Despite the powerful influence of Islam in people's lives, some elements of folk religion persist. Particularly in rural areas, there is a strong belief in the evil eye as well as in jinn (spirits). There is also a tradition of local saints to whom people pray. Religious Practitioners. There are no priests or clergy in Islam. Instead, there are people with the job of leading prayers and reading from the Qur'an, the Muslim holy book. The Qur'an, rather than a religious leader, is considered the ultimate authority and holds the answer to any question or dilemma one might have. There are also muezzins who give the call to prayer and are scholars of the Qur'an and spend their lives studying and interpreting the text. Rituals and Holy Places. The most important observation in the Islamic calendar is Ramadan. This month of fasting is followed by the joyous feast of Eid al Fitr, during which families visit and exchange gifts. Eid al-Adha commemorates the end of Muhammod's Hajj. The mosque is the Muslim house of worship. Outside the door, there are washing facilities, as cleanliness is a prerequisite to prayer, demonstrating humility before God. One also must remove one's shoes before entering the mosque. According to Islamic tradition, women are not allowed inside. The interior has no altar; it is simply an open carpeted space. Because Muslims are supposed to pray facing Mecca, there is a small niche carved into the wall that points to the direction in which that city lies. Death and the Afterlife. A death is followed by three days of mourning during which friends, relatives, There are private medical practices, in addition to the free medical care provided by the state. The health care system is poor but improving. Infectious diseases are a major health threat, especially in rural areas, where water quality is poor and sewage disposal systems are not well developed. There is a high child mortality rate that is due mainly to measles and digestive and respiratory diseases. The major secular holidays are New Year's Day on 1 January, Revolution Day on 8 March, and the anniversary of the formation of the Arab League, 22 March. Syrians celebrate Martyrs Day in memory of the nation's heroes on 6 April; National Day (also known as Evacuation Day, celebrating independence), on 17 April; and the Day of Mourning on 29 November. Support for the Arts. The Ministry of Culture and National Guidance promotes the national culture. Most publishing houses are owned by the state, and writers tend to be government employees. Censorship is enforced strictly, and foreign books about politics and contemporary Syrian or Middle Eastern history are banned. The National Film Centre, established in 1966, oversees the production of most films. Literature. There is a long literary tradition that dates back to poets such as al-Mutanabbi in the 900s and al-Maarri in the 1000s. Writers must contend with government censorship, but fiction writing is not as tightly monitored as is nonfiction. Whereas the punishment for breaking laws concerning nonfiction is usually imprisonment, fiction writers generally are reprimanded. Perhaps for this reason, poetry and the short story are widely read and appreciated, represented by writers such as Nizar Qabbani, Shawqi Baghdadi, and 'Ali Ahmad Sa'id. There are few women in the ranks of well-known Arab writers, but one of them is Ghada al-Samman, who was born in 1942. She writes on many of the same issues as her male contemporaries, including cultural identity and the clash between tradition and progress as well as issues specific to being a woman and writer in a male dominated society. Graphic Arts. Islam forbids the artistic depiction of animals or human beings. Therefore, Syrian art until World War I consisted mainly of geometric designs in arabesque and calligraphy. These works can be seen in many palaces and mosques. After World War I, Western drawing techniques began to be taught, and fine arts was introduced as a discipline at the University of Damascus. Most sculpture is carved in white marble and often is displayed in palaces and public buildings. There is a lively tradition of handicraft production. Jewelry, particularly in gold and silver, is popular, as is other metalwork, such as brass and copper plates and bowls. These items traditionally were produced by Syrian Jews, and as their population has diminished, so has this art form. Mosaic woodworking is also practiced and is used in the construction of boxes, trays, tables, desks, and game boards. Damascus is a center of glassblowing and fabric production, including the silk brocade called damask, which was named for the city. The Bedouins are known for their weaving of fabrics, including carpets and prayer rugs made on hand-built looms, and traditional clothing that is painstakingly embroidered. Films have been produced in Syria since the 1920s. Musicals and light comedies were popular through the late 1940s. During the 1970s, film clubs were important in the resistance to the government, and for this reason they were shut down in 1980. Syria has spawned several internationally regarded filmmakers, including Omar Amirallay and Usama Muhammed, but their films, which deal with social issues, have been banned in the country, or ignored by distribution companies. Performance Arts. Memorizing and reciting from the Qur'an and from secular poetry is a popular form of entertainment. There is a rich tradition of storytelling that dates back thousands of years. Even today there are coffee shops where men go to drink tea and hear nightly installments of an ongoing saga recited by a professional storyteller. Arabic music is tied to the storytelling tradition and often recounts tales of love, honor, and family. Technically, it is repetitive and subtle. It uses quarter notes with small jumps in the scale. Classical Arabic music makes use of the oud, an ancient stringed instrument similar to the lute; small drums held in the lap; and flutes. Contemporary music is played by an orchestra that mainly uses European instruments with a lead singer and chorus. Damascus has a museum for agriculture and one for military history. Aleppo and other important sites have museums of archaeology. The main challenge in the area of the sciences is that most Syrians study abroad, and many do not return to Syria to work. Ball, Warwick. Syria: A Historical and Archaeological Guide, 1998. Beaton, Margaret. Syria, 1988. Beattie, Andrew, and Timothy Pepper. Syria: The Rough Guide, 1998. Galvin, James. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire, 1998. Hopwood, Derek. Syria, 1945–1986, 1988. Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Syria, 1988. Mulloy, Martin. Syria, 1988. Quilliam, Neil. Syria and the New World Order, 1999. Sinai, Anne, and Allen Pollack, eds. The Syrian Arab Republic, 1976. South, Coleman. Syria, 1995. Tareq, Ismael Y., and Jacqueline S. Tareq. Communist Movement in Syria and Lebanon, 1998. Wedeen, Lisa. Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria, 1999. Winkler, Onn. Demographic Developments and Population Policies in Ba'athist Syria, 1998. Destination Syria, www.lonelyplanet.com/dest/mea/syr Guide to Syria, www.middleeastnews.com/syria Syria: A Country Study, www.lcweb2.loc/gov/frd/cs/sytoc Syria—The Cradle of Civilizations, www.arabicnet.com U.S. Government, Department of State, Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook: Syria, www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sy —E LEANOR S TANFORD

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Different Learning Styles – How to Design Learning to Accommodate our Learners? People learn in different ways. We all have our individual preference for the ways in which we learn. In this post, we will explore different models to categorize learners into different learning styles. We will also explain how to design learning to accommodate our learners. Understanding the different learning styles will influence the design and assessment strategies. That’s why it is important to know some models so we can cater for a wider group of learners. What are learning styles? There are numerous theories which discuss different learning styles. In the past few decades, educational theorists have expanded the work of psychologists in the area of individual learner differences. As a result, a number of theories have emerged about how people can be classified into different groups based on how they learn more effectively and their preferences. Generally most theorists describe learning styles as different aspects of the ways that people learn, process information and respond to environmental stimuli in different dimensions. Some theorists and researchers have identified the following definitions of learning styles: - The way that individuals attend to and integrate complex new information determines which style categorizes a learner (Dunn, 1978). Additionally, personal choice and preference play a role in what style one chooses for learning. - Dunn (1978) indicated that learning styles are approaches to learning and studying. - Keefe (1982) defined learning styles as characteristic cognitive, affective and psychological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with or respond to the learning environment. - Dunn and Perrin (1994) described learning styles as “the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process and retain new and difficult information. That interaction occurs differently for each individual” (p. 2). - Gilbert and Han (1999) and Gilbert (2000) confirmed that learning preferences facilitate the way individuals learn when the learning environment considers the various learning styles of students, thereby impacting the comprehension of materials presented. - Felder and Spurlin (2005) described learning styles as “characteristic strengths and preferences in the ways they take in and process information” (p. 1). Felder (2005) indicated that learning styles are often reflected in “different academic strengths, weaknesses, skills, and interests” (p. 3). Learning styles are often influenced by heredity, upbringing and current environmental demands. Individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently. Learning styles are not unique and fixed for each individual. They fluctuate within subject or lesson and each person will have a variety of learning styles and preferences. There are many frameworks or models to classify learners into specific learning styles. In this article we will explore the following models: - Multiple Intelligence Theory. - Split Brain Theory (left-brain, right-brain). - Global and Analytical Learner Model. Multiple Intelligence Theory The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was developed in 1983 by Howard Earl Gardner and it was first published in his book Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intelligence. Its basis opposes the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence, and instead acknowledges the existence of multiple intelligence, that compose a unique blend in each individual. The Multiple Intelligence Theory indicates that each type of human intelligence represents a different way of processing information. The different intelligence are: - Verbal-linguistic: refers to an individual’s ability to analyse information and produce work that involves oral and written language, such as speeches, books and memos. - Logical-mathematical: describes the ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations and solve abstract problems. - Visual-spatial: allows people to comprehend maps and other types of graphical information. - Musical: enables individuals to produce and make meaning of different types of sound. - Naturalistic: refers to the ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants, animals and weather formations found in the natural world. - Bodily-Kinaesthetic: entails using one’s own body to create products or solve problems. - Interpersonal: reflects an ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations and intentions. - Intrapersonal: refers to people’s ability to recognize and assess those same characteristics within themselves. Design Strategies for Multiple Intelligence Theory in eLearning The following picture shows the different multiple intelligence and some strategies that can be used to implement them. Another set of activities suitable for the different multiple intelligence is shown below: And finally, more design strategies are listed in the following table: |Verbal-linguistic||Scenarios, discussions on forums, links to additional information concerning the subject matter.| |Logical-mathematical||Graphics, charts, tables, critical thinking branching scenarios, where learners are required to find the answer using a series of clues.| |Visual-spatial||Use of color, images, illustrations, graphics, games and multimedia that are visually appealing.| |Musical||Music and sound, such as multimedia presentations with audio, narrations, podcasts, voice recordings.| |Bodily-Kinaesthetic||Include virtual environments and activities that require physical involvement, such as drag and drop interactions, eLearning games, and simulations. Include several interactive methods and techniques to encourage kinaesthetic learners feel, touch, move, and manipulate objects. Here some VR/AR experiences might be a good option too.| |Interpersonal||Forums and chats to encourage the exchange of ideas and social learning. Prompt learners to share their own experiences, views and ask them to make decisions while putting themselves in someone else’s shoes in scenario-based activities.| |Intrapersonal||Scenarios that offer real world benefits is ideal for them, as they become more engaged when introspecting and reflecting. Moreover, don’t hesitate providing your intrapersonal learners with material for further private study, as it will help them gain a sense of what they want to achieve or what are the mistakes to avoid in their personal or professional lives.| Split Brain Theory In the 1960s, neuroscientist Roger W. Sperry discovered that by cutting the corpus callosum, a large bundle of fibres that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain, he could reduce seizures in patients with epilepsy. The results of these experiments also revealed that the 2 sides of the brain performed different tasks. Anatomically, the brain is divided into 2 hemispheres; the left and right. Studies have indicated that the 2 hemispheres have different functions and characteristics. Based on these studies and the lateralization of the brain function, we have the theory of left-brain or right-brain. According to the theory of left-brain or right-brain dominance, each side of the brain controls different types of thinking. Additionally, people are said to prefer one type of thinking over the other. According to the left-brain, right-brain dominance theory, the right side of the brain is best at expressive and creative tasks. Some of the abilities popularly associated with the right side of the brain include: - Recognizing faces. - Expressing emotions. - Reading emotions. The left-side of the brain is considered to be adept at tasks that involve logic, language, and analytical thinking. The left-brain is described as being better at: - Critical thinking. Design Strategies for Split Brain Theory in eLearning For learners with more tendency to the left hemisphere, some activities would include presenting information in numerical tables, with facts, figures, statistics, showing content in a logical order and sequences. The assessments would require learners to organize facts, accurate responses involving recall of information and solutions of specific problems. For right hemisphere learners, I would include activities that involve presenting images, asking for emotions, opinions and feelings in regards to the information presented rather than factual responses. I would include scenarios or case studies to let learners imagine possible responses and suggest different solutions, predict outcomes and apply solutions to hypothetical problems. Every eLearning module would include activities for both styles. Global and Analytical Learner Model In the Global Learner Model, the learner takes in information holistically. Begins with understanding concepts first, with mastery of details to follow. On the other hand, in the Analytical Learner Model, the learner takes in information sequentially, step-by step, preferring to learn a series of facts that lead toward an understanding of a larger concept. Global learners need to see the big picture first and know the end result before beginning. While the analytical learners like to learn one piece at a time; they enjoy a clear sequence that starts at the beginning and moves to the end one step at a time. In my workplace, I would design and adapt the eLearning modules to cater both styles as follows: - Include the learning objectives of the training. - Present a list of what learners will achieve at the end of the course. - Start with the basic concepts, one step at a time and then build up the complexity of the content as the learner progresses. Identify your Own Learning Style There are different tests and tools you can use to determine your learning style and preferences. The DISC assessment is an inventory model of learning styles which is composed of four quadrants classified by behavior. DISC is an acronym for Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, and Conscientiousness. Other tool I have used is called “HBDI – Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument”. This instrument was developed by Ned Herrmann after investigating split-brain theory and using technologies such as Electroencephalography (EEG), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). HBDI allows you to become aware of your thinking preferences in order to use them better in your professional and personal life. The HBDI test consists of 120 questions and the results and then categorized in four quadrants. Other test you can do completely free is in this link https://personalitymax.com/ They will also provide with a snapshot on your preferences and your learning styles. Designing eLearning for All Learning Styles I believe it is possible in a post-modern world to provide instruction that will serve a wide range of learners without getting too tangled in the maze of learning style theories. Basically, exposure to different instructional approaches is important. Incorporating a variety of teaching and assessment methods, being aware of cultural differences and providing students with opportunities to reflect on thinking will improve learning outcomes. The type of instruction needed depends significantly on the discipline, the context and the content of what is being taught (Paschler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork 2008). A thorough analysis of these elements ensures that instruction will be aligned with expected outcomes. A geometry course, for example, will likely have a much different presentation than will a writing course. Independently of the course, I would provide learners with plenty of opportunities to engage in critical thinking as a way to deconstruct and reconstruct the desired content in any discipline. When a learner is exposed to different media in an instructional module, they will develop multiple schemas while working together for mastery of content. Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning proposes that the best instruction includes information presented both visually and aurally, without redundancy or overload. We discussed these multimedia strategies in the post “Richard Mayer on Multimedia Learning”. For digital environments, designers need to have a sundry toolbox to make the instruction clear and adaptable. Approaches and Implementation Techniques for Developing Multiple Intelligence Content Verbal / Linguistic Intelligence |Descriptive Writing||Summaries, procedures, problem solving, narrative.| |Creative Writing||Stories, history, wordplay, metaphors, myths, legends, plays, prose, poetry.| |Details||Facts, names, places, trivia.| |Vocabulary Focus||Keywords, origins and definitions of terms.| |Puzzles||Word puzzles and games.| Logical / Mathematical Intelligence |Numbers||Mental arithmetic, calculations, measurements.| |Mathematical Order||Steps, procedures, sequences, patterns.| |Logic||Scientific, deductive, syllogisms, Venn diagrams, inductive, analogies.| |Visual Representation||Graphs, charts, pie charts, grids, matrices.| |Maths Representation||Codes, symbols, formulas.| |Puzzles||Logic puzzles and games.| |Problem Solving||Estimations, predictions, exploration.| |Causal Knowledge||Questioning, cause and effect, logical meanings and relationships.| |Classification||Compare/contrast, attribute identification, categorizations, ranking.| |Outlining||Logical explanations, logical thought maps, sequence charts.| Visual / Spatial Intelligence |Pictures||Drawings, maps, diagrams, artwork, photography, videos, slides, movies.| |Visual Organizers||Flowcharts, visual outlines, concepts maps, mind maps.| |Internal Visualization||Visual thinking exercises, imaginations, guided imagery, visual memory.| |Visual Variety||Patterns, designs, color, texture, geometric designs, unusual positions.| |Puzzles||Visual puzzles, mazes, games.| Musical / Rhythmic Intelligence |Music Tuning||Background music, mood setting, sound breaks and jingles.| |Content Illustration||Songs, raps, chants.| |Musical Metaphor||Tones, notes, rhythms, clapping.| |Sounds||Instrumental, environmental, nature.| The Challenge for Instructional Designers An instructional designer would find challenging to determine which system of learning-style classification would be most appropriate for a particular project. There are so many style inventories that, in their own right, seem logical and suitable for dividing people into groups for instructional planning purposes. However, no one model is going to fit or match the potential range of learners. Instruction that is engaging, flexible and relevant to the intended audience, and that is presented in ways that encompass varied avenues of access is likely to meet the needs of diverse learners, no matter what their current or preferred style may be (Paschler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork 2008). A person’s thinking about and attention to their individual learning preferences may be useful in developing a metacognitive awareness of how best to approach a particular learning goal, which is highly dependent on the discipline, the content and the context of the task. But it is not useful to lock oneself into a learning style that limits participation in engaging learning experiences offered through a variety of well-designed instructional strategies. It is important not to label a learner within a preferred style but to challenge them to try using different learning materials. Also encourage your students to use a range of activities in an eLearning environment to cater for all styles. Learners stereotyped as having one particular learning style may find themselves locked into one kind of learning experience, discouraging experimentation with other learning approaches. Rather, all learners will likely benefit, over time, by being exposed to and using a varied toolbox of cognitive strategies to access content knowledge. To face these challenges of multiple intelligence and learning styles I would suggest two practices. Firstly, I would focus on promoting among the learners metacognition strategies for learning effectively such as elaboration, comprehension monitoring, and mnemonics. And secondly, I support the idea of designing learning experiences that incorporate a variety of methods to cater for all learning styles and that promote the development of multiple intelligence. When designing instructional systems I would keep in mind the use of technologies to support different learning strengths. For example, there is in the market software to stimulate verbal/linguistic intelligence, or calculus activities to develop logical/mathematical intelligence, logic puzzles and games, or drawings and artwork to promote visual/special intelligence. Technology can be used in the classroom along with traditional activities to help students develop their intelligence (Bennett & Tipton, 1996). In the online environment, on the other hand, as internet technologies become more user-friendly and accessible, instructional designers can create learning experiences that incorporate activities that appeal to the different intelligence and thus increasing learner responsiveness (Osciak & Milheim, 2001). Each strategy in the learning experience will benefit learners in a different way, and learners will get out more or less from a particular strategy, but the important point to keep in mind is to include a variety of instructional methods and encouraging learners to use effective learning habits. The key message at the end is “to offer variety and learners will be happy” 😀 I hope you liked this post. Feel free to leave your comments below and tell me what are your preferences and learning styles? See you next time, Bennett, C.K. & Tipton, P.E. (1996). Using technology to develop multiple intelligence in the classroom. In B. Robin et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 1996 (pp. 976-978). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Dunn, K. & Dunn, R. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles: A practical approach. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing. Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Perrin, J. (1994). Teaching young children through their individual learning styles. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Inc. Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. E. (2005). Applications, reliability and validity of the Index of Learning Styles. International Journal of Engineering Education, 21(1), 103-112. Gilbert, J. E., & Han, C. Y. (1999). Adapting instruction in search of a significant difference. Journal of Network and Computing Applications, 22(3), 149-160. Gilbert, J. E. (2000). Case based reasoning applied to instruction method selection for intelligent tutoring systems. Workshop Proceedings of ITS’ 2000: Fifth International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Montreal, CA.11-15. Keefe, J. (1982). Student learning styles and brain behavior: Programs, instrumentation, research. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals. Kelly, D. Brendan, T. (n.d.). A Framework for using multiple intelligence in an ITS. Khalsa, G. (2013). Should Instructional Designers Accommodate Learning Styles?. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2013 (pp. 1350-1355). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Osciak, S. & Milheim, W. D. (2001). Multiple intelligence and the design of web-based instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media (pp. 355-361). Retrieved from http://www.acdowd-designs.com/sfsu_860_11/MI and design of web-based instruction.pdf Pappas, C. (2015). Multiple Intelligence in eLearning: The Theory and its impact. [Web]. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/multiple-intelligence-in-elearning-the-theory-and-its-impact Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Sciences in the Public Interest, 9(3), 103-119.

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Have you ever thought about the mindset needed to be a successful learner? Carol Dweck, who recently won the Yidan prize for her educational research on growth mindsets and how children think about learning and it’s impact on academic success has learned through her research that “the most motivated and resilient students are the ones who believe that their abilities can be developed through their effort and learning.” (Stanford University, 2017.) So what does this mean for parents, caregivers, and teachers who want to provide the best opportunity for their children to grow into successful adults? Think about your own experiences as a learner. When you are full of self-doubt, or low self-esteem, the ability to persevere, show “grit” and keep trying is tremendously difficult. Low self-esteem can cause a domino-effect and feed our negative self-perceptions. Low self-esteem then begins to spiral out of control, and depression and academic failure can be the result. “ It usually is not difficult to pick out the ones that have lower self-esteem vs. those with higher self-esteem. The ones that have the lower self-esteem tend to be quiet, withdrawn, sit in the back of the class, and do not readily participate in class activities as those with higher self-esteem (Phillips, Smith, & Modaff , 2001)” We all have low points in our lives –I certainly can remember a few. So how do we break out of this cycle –and help our children and others we care about to do so? I recently came across a great list, “20 Tips to Promote Positive Self-Esteem,” by Richard D. Lavoie. (http://www.ricklavoie.com/esteemart.html) First and foremost, you need to know the child – understand their unique strengths, needs, interests and skills, focus on these and celebrate the successes when they come. On the flip side, however, failure is inevitable, and it is how we learn. We all need time to play, experiment, try, fail, and try again. In this process, we develop decision-making and problem-solving skills. Choice, and opportunities to practice decision-making are opportunities for growth, and to build self-esteem. As a parent, teacher or caregiver, it is essential that you offer unconditional acceptance of your child. Provide opportunity for playing, creating, socializing, and provide opportunities for growth in the areas they show skill or interest. Model and teach them good character, and help them fit in. Through these actions, you will be building their self-esteem, and pave the way for your child to be a successful learner. When was the last time you felt an intense need to learn or understand something – something that went beyond a Google or You Tube search to learn how to change a headlight on your car, or performing the required research to get a good grade on a school project? Can you remember that feeling of wonder and intensity, and how that “need to know” had the ability to move up to the top of your priority list? You probably found yourself fully engaged in the pursuit of information, knowledge, and understanding, blocking out most everything else around you. Many things can trigger a desire for deeper understanding or knowledge, but this level of ownership in learning suggests a deep and personal connection. This sense of wonder leads to questions, and seeking answers. It is the beginning of transforming from student to learner. During my formal schooling, I was more of a student than a learner. I was good at school, and always made good grades, yet I spent a good part of my early adult life not knowing what I wanted to be when I grew up. I felt disconnected from what was being taught. The classes I most looked forward to were music classes, and so eventually, when I had to declare a major in college, I chose music for lack of any other idea at what I might do. I suspect that a lot of our youth find themselves in similar situations. School is not really set up to help students find their passions, nor give them the time to explore them deeply – at least within the confines of the “school day.” But in this age of information, with access to the Internet and its 1.24 billion and growing number of websites, learning can happen anytime, anywhere. The hard part is developing the desire, and the passion for learning. Curiosity is something that is abundant in small children. Parents grow weary from the daily barrage of questions. Many times, the questions our children ask are impossible to answer. As they grow up, somewhere along the way, the questions begin to disappear. Why? What happens to that sense of curiosity? As Albert Einstein said, “The important thing is to not stop questioning.” I propose that “curating” information can be a process to help us regain our sense of curiosity and wonder. Curating information is not unlike the work of a museum curator who collects artifacts based upon a specific topic and theme, and then creates a meaningful display for the purpose of increasing the knowledge of the visitors. In many ways, a curator is a storyteller, who artfully finds a way to help those who view the display to make a personal connection. If the curator is very good, then the visitors to the display will re-discover their sense of wonder. The display will inspire questions as well as answers. When we curate information, we are pursuing answers to our questions and intense information needs –our passions to know and understand. Questions and curiosity drive curation. Along the way, we learn. What is the purpose of education? This seems like a simple question on the surface, but one that can yield many different responses if you queried a room full of people. Answers may range from a government’s responsibility and a citizen’s right to be prepared for life, to preparing a workforce for the benefit of society, and everywhere in-between. I believe that no matter your point of view, there is common ground in the belief that education is essential to both the future success of the individual, and to the success of community in which the individual lives. Thomas Jefferson said: “An enlightened citizenry is indispensable for the proper functioning of a republic. Self-government is not possible unless the citizens are educated sufficiently to enable them to exercise oversight. It is therefore imperative that the nation see to it that a suitable education be provided for all its citizens.” How we go about the business of education, or schooling, is another matter, and opinions abound on this topic. When I am working with groups of teachers and parents to help them understand how to make learning more relevant and lasting, I often ask them to reflect on their own experiences as a learner to reveal the elements of their education that have made a difference to them. I ask, “What is the most memorable and powerful learning experience you can remember?” Small groups will have time to think and reflect, and then share these experiences with each other. Then I have them create a list the common elements. I have done this exercise at least a dozen times. The amazing thing is, that even though the stories of powerful learning are all very different, the elements that made that learning powerful and lasting are the same. These are the elements of powerful learning I consistently hear during this exercise: Real world problem solving/ Opportunity for creativity Thinking is stretched Building skills along with knowledge Choice/freedom of process and final product Authentic/real world audience Time & pace relaxed –not rushed Surprisingly, when these same groups have reflected on the frequency of opportunity to learn in in ways that produce powerful and lasting results, the answer has been minimal. The focus in schools and education is covering content, and that takes time. Right now, schools around the country are preparing to launch the 2017-18 school year and students will soon begin a new year of learning. Wouldn’t it be awesome if teachers and educational leaders designed learning that would incorporate these common elements of powerful learning? In the summer of 2012, I began an exploration of the concept of Content Curation, and what this meant for teachers and students. Little did I know at the time that my journey would involve curating…about curating. Given the task of providing professional development for teachers to curate resources for backwards-designed units, I started researching to better understand why the word “curate” was being used – so I set out to define what curation meant in the field of education, and realized early on in my research that student curation is where our focus should be. My original post, where I shared my discoveries and understandings, has generated more traffic than any other post on my blog, with hundreds of cross-postings on sites in the fields of education, marketing and libraries. For the past 5 years I have continued to curate information about curating, using the same Scoop It site I started in 2012. I investigated the skill sets that are practiced with content curation, and how this aligns with skills needed for the workforce. I collaborated with teachers to design learning that included content curation, and saw the powerful learning that this produced. As more projects were completed with students, I began to see the elements that were essential to really produce the passion for learning that was so evident in the first project I had done with 8th grade social studies students. As a result, I have adjusted my original infographic to reflect these elements. There are three important additions to the infographic: personal connection, an increased emphasis on sharing with opportunity for comments and discussion, and the element of storytelling. Students who are given choice in selecting a topic for curating are far more likely to engage in deeper learning, in my experience. Providing some parameters to keep the project aligned with content and standards is still possible, provided you offer a broad range of topics and give students the flexibility to take the curation project in a direction that they can personally connect with. This begins to resemble passion-based learning and genius hour. For more on these topics, I highly recommend the work of Angela Maiers. Sharing, Audience – Comments & Discussion A curator’s need for an audience and authentic feedback became apparent when I launched two nearly identical projects with two different classes of middle school students. The process for topic selection was the same -using a gallery walk of images related to the content and standards being addressed and Question Formulation Technique for students to select a topic that generated the most interest for them, and then having the students use a blog to share their curation work. One project was hugely successful in generating high interest, deep learning, and passion for the topics beyond the life of the project. The other was much less so. The primary difference between the two? The teacher in the highly successful curation project made a concerted effort to provide feedback and comments daily on the student blogs through the life of the project – enlisting the help of dozens of teacher friends to assure that students knew their voice was being heard. The other teacher had concerns about sharing student work publicly, and so students did not receive any outside visitors other than classmates who were required to comment on a handful of blogs as part of their grade. In my own curation work, I have found the need to share and seek feedback on the new directions of my thinking grow along with my passion for curating. The act of sharing and discussing a curation project adds more depth to my understanding and helps me make new connections. In effect, it is creating a community of learners who share your passion to understand the concept or topic at a deeper level. This element first became apparent to me as I looked at curating through the lens of a museum curator. Beth Kanter used the phrase “cherry pick” to describe the process of curating, and this always made me wonder why this was such an important part of the definition of curation that sets it apart from “collecting.” I began to understand it better when I investigated what a museum curator goes through to select the artifacts that will make their way into a museum display. There are many items that are left in the archives. Why? Besides the fact that there would not be room to display all the collected artifacts, not all the items are needed to tell the story that the museum curator wants to tell. In content curation, it is the same. When we curate, we “cherry pick” the items that best tell the story that is forming in our minds. We arrange the content in such a way to tell that story, and we feel compelled to share the story as it develops. I believe this is one reason that a blog, or a curation tool that provides the ability to arrange, write, and reflect on the curated content is essential. As I reflect at the 5-year anniversary of my curation journey, I am very happy to know that the education community now recognizes the value of students as curators. In the new ISTE Standards for Students, introduced at last year’s ISTE conference, the third standard is “Knowledge Constructor.” “Students critically curate a variety of resources using digital tools to construct knowledge, produce creative artifacts and make meaningful learning experiences for themselves and others.” I look forward to continuing my work with teachers and students to help develop content curation skills, and in so doing, help them find their passion for learning! I wrote this piece for a school that wishes to transform teaching and learning for their learners. We used the Stanford dSchool design thinking process, combined with a thorough stakeholder analysis. When it came time to prototype, we decided writing a narrative would be most effective. A Day in a life of an ABC Academy Learner Jessie rose to the sound of her alarm going off at 5:30 am. This early rising gave her time for morning Yoga class via Google Hangout with a group of her classmates. She loved that she was able to get her PE credit this way! Karen, a 7th year student at the school, received her certification to teach Yoga through a previous PBL unit that was completed by learners interested in health and fitness careers. She was the Yoga instructor, and she utilized a tool called Swivl to keep the iPad camera pointed at her as she moves about the room. This morning, in addition to the regular kids attending, Jack decided to pop in to give Yoga a try. One of his PBL units involves working with a group of mobility challenged senior citizens, and he is trying to find solutions to help them maintain flexibility so they have an easier time standing, walking and moving. Jessie wanted to laugh at Jack’s obvious lack of coordination and balance, but out of respect for her friend leading the class and others in the Hangout, she kept it to herself, remembering how she struggled when she first started the class. One thing their group had learned through the six years at the ABC Academy was the importance of being good citizens -both face-to-face and digitally. Once Yoga class ended, Jessie texted Jack to let him know she thought he did great for his first time out, and asked if they could meet over lunch to come up with an outline for their presentation later that week to the school board. They were both working on a project with several other students to present research on the impact on blended and personalized learning to the board on behalf of the principal. All learners in the school are expected to present to authentic audiences throughout the year, and Jessie and Jack had selected this project for the opportunity to share their voice and thinking with the school board about how this model of learning has inspired them to learn things they didn’t think were possible. They wanted to be able to help some of their friends in more traditional schools to perhaps have access to this model of education in their schools one day. Jessie quickly showered and dressed, then checked her calendar and messages in the LMS to start prioritizing her tasks for the day. She noted that an algebra test was coming up in two days, and her group’s project design for the culminating activity in algebra was due by the end of the week. The task was to come up with a project to improve the Innovation Center grounds that required the use of the Algebra concepts they’d been learning to complete the task. For this she was partnering with Angela, who had some really cool design ideas, and also Breanne, who was just a math nerd at heart. Justin joined their group reluctantly, as the only boy, but he was really good at math and so the girls were happy to have him. He volunteered to serve as the engineer. Jessie sent a calendar invite to Angela, Justin and Breanne for later that afternoon to meet at the Innovation Center and work on their project design. She decided to make it a 2 hour meeting, so hopefully they could get the initial design drafted and schedule their conference with their teacher a day early. Jessie was trying to keep her calendar clear for Friday, so she could do some job shadowing at the new science center downtown. Jessie began viewing the instructional videos and working some math problems in the LMS to prepare for the test. After 60 minutes, she was tired of drilling on the math problems, and was feeling reasonably confident in her ability to complete the test successfully, so she decided to jump into the Science Forums and see what her friends were chatting about. She brought up her Voxer walkie-talkie app on her phone, and navigated to the curated collection on “Fibonacci in Nature” in Google Collections. Then she remembered her Mom had to go into the office that day, so before diving into those posts, she ordered an Uber ride for 11:30 to get her to Chick Fil A to meet Jack for their planning meeting. They had special access in the Uber app to parent and community volunteers who helped shuttle students too young to drive to meet-ups for school projects. Jack’s Mom would be able to drive her to the Innovation Center after lunch. Jessie began playing through the voice messages that corresponded with each of the pictures posted in Google Collections and realized that this was all giving her an idea to for her math project. What if..they applied the Fibonacci pattern to their design –whatever that turned out to be? She was excited to be able to share this idea with her project team later that afternoon. Time passed quickly as she listened to the ideas and insights her classmates were sharing, and before she knew it her ride pulled up in front of her house for her lunch project meeting with Jack. When she arrived at Chick-fil-A she wasn’t surprised to see several other project teams from her school meeting at their favorite lunch hang out. This business partnered with the school district to offer nutritious meals at a cost equivalent to what most kids paid for a school lunch in a traditional school. It was one of many community partners who also provided minimum wage jobs and on-the-job business training to district learners who were 16 or older. Jessie’s older sister, Marla, had worked here before she graduated. Jessie and Jack hopped on the wireless network – certified as safe by the school district – and pulled up their Slides app. They built their outline as their teacher, Mrs. Brown had modeled for them, putting each of the main points on a separate slide. As they were working, they saw a comment pop up from Mrs. Brown, reminding them to be certain to cite their sources and mention the research base to their ideas when they did their presentation for the board. Jack rolled his eyes when he saw this, remembering that he lost some points on his last presentation for not including the bibliography. Jessie offered to set up a citation page in G Drive that they could embed in the last slide, and Jack thanked her profusely. They finished in under an hour, and Jack’s Mom came to get them, then dropped them off at the Innovation Center for their tutoring sessions, and project management conferences. Jack took off running when he saw his buddy Steve, and Jessie stopped just outside to survey the grounds. She had an idea brewing from her earlier work on the curating project of Fibonacci in Nature, and wanted to see where her idea might best be implemented – maybe in the form of a flower garden? She wasn’t sure, but was excited to share her idea with the project team. She entered the building and headed for the center study pit- the one her team always tried to reserve because of the great view. She found Justin, Angela, and Breanne finishing up their brown-bag lunches and already chatting about their project. As project manager, she slipped onto the Hokki stool near the whiteboard and, as any 13 year old girl might do, picked up the hot pink dry erase marker and drew a giant flower. She smiled broadly and put her hands on her hips, looking at the group with satisfaction. Her team stopped talking and looked at her with puzzled looks on their faces. Justin groaned. He said, “Come on, Jess-we really want to build a basketball court on the south side of the building. You aren’t thinking of hijacking our idea, are you?” Jessie considered this for a moment, then remembered the Design Thinking process they’d been taught and decided that might be the best process to use. She picked up the blue marker and drew 5 circles then wrote inside each one: Empathize, Define, Ideate, Prototype, Test. She then reminded them of the data they’d gathered from students and teachers at the center, which indicated their wants and needs in terms of a physical improvement to the grounds. This was how they addressed the empathy step in the design thinking process. Together, they reviewed the survey responses as they sought to identify the problem. They learned that neither basketball court nor flower garden were what the community wanted. However, many had expressed a desire to move towards more healthy meals being offered in the center. As they began to ideate around this concept, Jessie shared her idea for using a design that included the Fibonacci sequence, and the team easily was able to narrow down the project list to one: creating not a flower garden, but instead a vegetable garden that could provide fresh vegetables for school meals. Angela captured their problem identification and ideation in a MindMap in Google Drawing, which she dropped in the assignment folder in the LMS. Their lead teacher, Mrs. Monroe, stopped by as they were finishing, and they brought her up to date on their ideas. They were able to schedule their conference with her a day early, just as Jessie hoped. With the early conference scheduled, the group decided to meet again the same time the next day to do the prototyping. Jess glanced at her email and task list. After catching up on her reading for social studies class, she had just one more thing to accomplish for the day, and that was writing in her reflection blog about the day’s tasks. She found a comfortable quiet spot in the writing zone near an outlet, plugged in and fired up her laptop. She pulled up her techbook and found her spot, then opened the group notes for the class and did a quick scan. Karen was in her social studies group, and she had already dropped some notes and questions in the doc. Jess put on her headset and started reading, pausing to play the multimedia videos and quizzes. She navigated back to her notes doc and added some of her own thoughts, connections and questions. They were studying the social reform issues of the late 19th century, and she was starting to see a lot of connections with issues in her community today. She was excited to share some of this thinking in her blog. She had learned that with the blog she could write the way that she thinks, and she enjoyed the freestyle flow of ideas that often evolved. Plus, her teacher had connected her blog with several other students and retired teachers who always gave her good feedback and helped her develop her ideas further. Jess finished up the last quiz then shifted gears and pulled up her reflection blog. She was really happy to find some comments on her last post, about her experience in her last job shadowing experience at the science center. The comment was from her old science teacher, who had retired 2 years ago. She wanted to know if Jessie had been able to use use any of her physical science knowledge when working in the exploratory laboratory with the younger kids visiting. Jess responded to her question, then settled in to write about her learning and accomplishments for the day. Before she knew it, it was 4:00 and Jessie’s Mom was pulling up to the curb to take her to piano lessons. Jessie smiled, happy with her accomplishments for the day. She was looking forward to some work on her Minecraft city when she got home, as well as doing some reading in the new novel she picked up at the library. She opened the car door, and her Mom asked “How was your day?” Jessie replied, “Busy! Really good- you should read my blog post!” Just then Jessie’s phone buzzed alerting her to a new text. Her Mom smiled, seeing that her daughter would be focusing on her friends now, but happy to have the reflection blog to fill her in on all of the learning her daughter was engaged in. Simultaneously, Mom and daughter had the same thought. This school was the best thing that ever happened for Jessie. My district superintendent ha created an initiative to become “Future Ready” as defined by the Department of Education and Alliance for Excellent Education. I will share some of my thinking here as I participate in the self evaluation process. (Views expressed here are not necessarily those of my district) Here are two of the indicators that stand out for me: Strategies for Building College and Career Readiness: If a student gets a high score on a standardized test, such as the PARCC test, or the SAT or ACT Test, do you consider them to be College & Career Ready? In some informal research I’ve done, it seems to me that test scores are not a good indicator of future success. One of the things that bothers me, in the state of Colorado, is that test scores are accepted, under the new Graduation Guidelines, as an indicator of “College and Career Readiness.” I am hopeful, as our leadership committee addresses this misalignment, that we can do better in defining what College and Career Readiness looks like for our learners. One of the activities I like to do with groups – parents, teachers, administrators, and students – is to have them think about the most powerful learning experiences they’ve ever had. Common elements of these learning experiences, that are revealed every time, involve learning that requires them to think critically, be creative, collaborate, problem solve, and has meaning or purpose, to the point that they were highly motivated and engaged in the task, and remember what they learned years later – still applying and transferring that learning as they seek to gain better and deeper understanding. I believe that we need to dramatically increase the opportunities for our learners to engage in this kind of learning. Then, we can truly know that they are college and career ready. Research-based Practices for the Use of Technology in Learning: The reality is that there is still very little research that can isolate technology as the “thing” that brings success in learning. Rather, it is a tool used by creative teachers who design learning with the end in mind, and in ways that motivate and inspire kids. I’ve explored many of the ideas set forth by the International Center for Leadership in Education. I love the Rigor & Relevance Framework, and we use that frequently to help teachers design learning that is meaningful, relevant and engaging. Another idea from this group that stands out for me and makes me pause about this portion of Gear 1 in the Future Ready Framework is their work around the concept of “Next Practices,” especially as we seek to move towards transformational learning. Not just “thinking outside the box” but “building a new box.” Technology tools come and go – often before any robust research can be conducted showing true value. It is a fast moving target. We shouldn’t be hung up on a particular tool, especially when we are gearing up for personalized learning. Let the students – who own their learning – select the best tool for the task. Teachers can learn to design learning that gives these kinds of opportunities. No longer do we have to “teach to the middle.” We can use technology to go beyond differentiation to personalize not just final project, but the time, place, path and pace of learning. Good news! ISTE has included curating in their new standards! After 4 years of researching (curating!) this topic, I have a real appreciation for the importance of this skill and the depth of learning and connections that can be made through curating. Additionally, multiple other skills are practiced in the process of curating. Curating is mentioned specifically in “Knowledge Constructor” Indicator 3c: “Students curate information from digital resources using a variety of tools and methods to create collections of artifacts that demonstrate meaningful connections or conclusions.” Check out my wiki on this topic, with links to earlier posts: At Colorado ASCD’s ESSA Symposium for Superintendents and district leaders, one particular remark by Dr. Ken Haptonstall, the Superintendent for Garfield School District has stayed with me as I ponder the role of “teacher leader” in a school or district. He said that 70% of his high school teachers have their administrator license, but none of them has any interest in being a principal. At the same event, district leaders were speaking with great concern about the teacher turnover rate. I started wondering: What if we created a program that extended the current Colorado induction program, to provide an ongoing peer coaching program, that could also provided a career ladder for those teachers who want to learn and grow, have an opportunity to advance, but don’t want to leave the classroom? Could developing this address these two needs at once? As I sat in the Symposium, I tweeted my thoughts on this, and received this reply from Lisa Bejarano: @NancyW Do we need another degree? Why wouldn’t @NBPTS certification & micro credentials serve this purpose? //platform.twitter.com/widgets.jsI do think National Board Certification is a fantastic program, however, I see its focus as being on what happens inside of the classroom. The program I envision would be to build teacher-leaders who have additional skill sets that can serve in a leadership role outside of the classroom. What I envision is either a graduate level degree or certification program offered through our state universities that would help develop good classroom teachers into teacher-leaders. The types of coursework might include: Designing professional learning for adults State education law Project based Learning Understanding by Design Teachers who receive this certification could become key voices in district and school development. Here are ideas for these important roles they could assume: Standards alignment work Creators of backwards-designed project based learning and units of inquiry Writer of common assessments Professional learning provider Curator of learning materials (digital and print) aligned to standards Advisor to school board Of course, there would need to be some incentive offered by school districts to encourage teachers to participate in this level of career development. Here are some ideas: Career Advancement for those who don’t want to be a principal: Promotion – pay scale –higher than teacher +MA – perhaps equivalent to a Dean or Assistant Principal Recognition –with all stakeholder groups Voice –in state, district and school decision-making Paid release time to peer-mentor & coach teachers, design learning and assessments, and curate resources What are your thoughts? Teachers, would you be interested in a career ladder that allowed you to earn more pay yet remain in the classroom? Administrators, can you see a benefit to having teacher-leaders in your school who can be peer mentors and provide support to teachers who are struggling to transform and build future-ready classrooms?//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js Planning learning with the end in mind is a time-consuming task, but the results are definitely worth it. As a teacher, you have a clear idea of what learners need to understand and be able to do, based on the standards, and hopefully, how those ideas, concepts, and skills apply to the real world so that students are motivated, engaged, and an authentic performance assessment can be planned. If the learners are able to transfer their knowledge and skills to a new situation to solve a problem or create something new, the teacher can know beyond the shadow of a doubt that the learners truly understand, and will be able to recall that learning and apply it whenever needed. To me, this is innovative, transformational learning – whether technology is used or not. Quite possibly, an authentic task will require the use of technology – as these are real-world tools. But it is not the focal point of the learning. Recently, I had the opportunity to observe a group of 6th grade science learners engaged in this kind of transformative learning and performance task. The teacher, Laura Murray, had created a unit using Intel Education Transformation Model – a backwards design process. According to the Colorado Science Standards, students need to be able to understand that objects, processes and events are systems that consist of interacting parts, objects and events can be viewed at various scales, and that change follows patterns that can be directional, predictive, and/or cyclic. Students are to learn about the constructive and destructive earth processes. Laura’s backwards plan was able to address these understandings and big ideas, and culminated in a performance based assessment where students had the opportunity to apply their understanding in a unique way. Students assumed the role of museum curator –in the far away future. They were able to choose –500,000 or 1,000,000 years in the future! Their task: Create a museum display depicting what the landscape of our area of Colorado might look like in that amount of time. Prior to this culminating event, the students spent a good deal of time studying geologic periods. You can imagine, to the typical 6th grader, this can seem very abstract – perhaps even a bit dull. But it really came alive for these learners when Laura introduced them to an online resource provided by the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. They featured a special exhibition on Ancient Denvers: The Denver Basin Project. And –the task that they were given within the role of museum curator was exciting, creative, and engaging. Students had a connection because it was about their own landscape that they were challenged to make a prediction. The students worked in teams to research the exhibits the museum currently offered, read the descriptions, and then used their knowledge and understanding to predict their future landscape. This is a 1:1 iPad school, so they used the iPads to research, draw the landscapes for the exhibit, and write up the description for the museum placard. The day I visited, the students were working specifically on their understanding of scale. Students were using rolls of cash register tape to physically see and understand the time distance between the geologic periods. They used a scale of 1 millimeter = 10,000 years and had to mark them all out on the tape. One of the things I loved about this as that Laura chose the best tool for the task at hand. Trying to create these models of scale using the iPad might have resulted in students not being able to see the physical distance from one mark to the next, and reduced understanding as a result. What’s next? Seeking authentic feedback from real museum curators at the Denver Museum of Nature & Science. Providing authentic feedback is the finishing embellishment on a unit that provided these 6th grade learners with a transformational learning experience that they may carry with them for a lifetime. Laura has been teaching middle schoolers for 13 years at Academy District 20’s Challenger Middle School in Colorado Springs. She has taught Science and Social Studies in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade. She has earned Outdoor Recreation, Business, and Curriculum and Instruction degrees from Colorado State University and University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. In her spare time, Laura coaches Forensics, is a NJHS sponsor, and serves on many school and district committees. Laura also volunteers with theater programs at Challenger and Pine Creek High School.

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Are you teaching Jane Eyre as part of a British literature unit with your high school students? Want some lesson plans for Jane Eyre that are easy, engaging, and low-to-no prep? If so, read on. Today we’re going to showcase a range of teaching activities and resources for Jane Eyre. First, we’ll look at pre-reading activities for Jane Eyre, and then we’ll move on to while-reading and after-reading activities for teaching Jane Eyre. Finally, we’ll list a few whole unit bundles because we know how little time you actually have, but that you still want to do the best for your class by organizing thoughtful, engaging lessons. Pre-reading lesson plans: Jane Eyre Before you get started teaching Jane Eyre, you probably want your students to be familiar with the historical context of the novel, the characters, the settings, and possibly the themes. Check out the activities below if that’s the case. 1. Introductory PowerPoint If you want to take your students “on a virtual field trip”, you might like this introductory PowerPoint by The Green Light. The PowerPoint includes personal photos that the teacher-author took on a trip to England, including the Bronte parsonage. The PowerPoint also includes photos from the Portrait Gallery in London, as well as a Bronte exhibit at the Morgan Library in New York City. Topics that the PowerPoint covers include the conventions of Gothic literature and Bildungsroman stories. Similarly, the 18th-century Romanticism movement is explained, as is the position of women and governesses in the Victorian Era in England. Other topics include - Cowan Bridge School (the inspiration for the Lowood Institution in Jane Eyre) - Haworth in the Bronte era - an explanation of the Bronte name and the Bronte sisters’ use of pseudonyms - Bronte’s appearance - publication information about Jane Eyre - mental health and disease in the novel - breaking the Fourth Wall - and Byronic heroes 2. Agree or disagree activity If your students love to talk or struggle to sit still, this agree or disagree activity by The Lit Guy is another great pre-reading activity for Jane Eyre. In the activity, students choose the agree or disagree side on various issues and themes raised in the novel by Charlotte Bronte. Once they’ve chosen a side, students need to be able to defend their position on the issue. The download includes tips on how to use the activity in your classroom. 3. Introduction PowerPoint Another introductory PowerPoint option is this one by English Classroom Solutions. The presentation covers - Charlotte Bronte’s life - Jane Eyre‘s publication - women’s role in the 19th century - Gothic influences on the novel 4. Activity mini-bundle If you are wanting students to explore themes in Jane Eyre before reading, you might like this activity mini-bundle by English Bulldog. The first activity in the bundle, the pre-reading carousel, facilitates discussion of important themes in the novel by asking students to walk around looking at posters with statements related to the novel. Students are asked to write a statement of agreement or disagreement at the bottom of the poster. Then students are assigned (or choose) a poster to focus on and explain the trend in thinking on the poster. The other two activities aren’t pre-reading activities but are also great to have on hand. In the themes activity, students analyze important quotes from the novel to decide on a theme that connects them all. Students then create a poster and put the most important quote on it, and analyze the author’s use of language. The final activity in the bundle is a fishbowl debate. This is another structured discussion format where students need to defend an assigned (or chosen) position on a topic from the novel. You can also get students to write an argumentative essay afterward. All of the activities in the mini-bundle include teacher lesson plans for Jane Eyre, common core objectives, preparation steps, a classroom agenda, and assessment strategies. The PowerPoints that are included also have student-friendly objectives, student directions, and activity time limits. 5. Crossword and vocabulary quiz Another fun pre-reading lesson plan for Jane Eyre is this crossword and vocabulary quiz by TechCheck Lessons. This 25-question crossword puzzle and vocabulary quiz will introduce students to new terms they will discover in Jane Eyre. The vocabulary quiz could also be used for review or graded as an assessment. The file is editable, so you can edit it to suit your classes. An answer key is supplied. The crossword puzzle can be used as a pre-reading activity, as homework, as an extra credit task, or as a study guide for the vocabulary quiz. You could even leave it for a substitute teacher. An answer key is provided. While-reading lesson plans: Jane Eyre Ok, your students are ready to read, but you want lesson plans for Jane Eyre that will keep them reading, comprehending, and engaging in the novel. Below we have graphic organizers, an activity on Bildungsroman in the novel, task cards, bellringers, writing prompts, close reading activities, characterization mini-flipbooks, and more. 1. Comprehension and analysis bundle If you want to check that your students are understanding the novel, and engaging in analysis, this bundle of common core-aligned organizers by LitCharts might be what you need. Included in the bundle are - character analysis organizers - symbol analysis organizers - theme analysis organizers - close-reading organizers - quote analysis organizers - a quotes quiz, with an editable blank version provided - themes visualization poster and project - teacher review guide for Jane Eyre 2. Teacher guide If you are wanting a teaching guide for Jane Eyre, you might want this one by The Resource Tree. The guide includes study guide questions for each chapter and student handouts on literary devices used in the novel. There are also other activities and graphic organizers to help students understand and analyze the novel. Essay writing prompts and extension activities are also included. 3. Jane’s Bildungsroman journey PowerPoint If you want your students to engage with the Bildungsroman genre in Jane Eyre, you might want this PowerPoint by TandLGuru. The lesson plan for Jane Eyre will help your students understand the protagonist’s journey and character development throughout the novel. Students will plot Jane’s development against the different stages of protagonists in Bildungsroman novels. In the activity, students will - define ‘Bildungsroman’ and identify the key stages of the genre - read extracts from the text and answer comprehension questions about Jane’s journey - plot Jane’s development against the Bildungsroman stages - consider Bronte’s message in presenting her ideas through Jane’s Bildungsroman journey - use knowledge of protagonist development and structure to create their own Bildungsroman storyboard templates - peer assess each other’s learning In the download, you get a PowerPoint, a student worksheet about Jane’s character development, a close-reading extract from chapter one, a storyboard template, and a lesson plan. Both PDF and Word Doc versions are included so you have the option of protecting formatting (PDF) or editing to better suit your classes (Word Doc). 4. Task cards and bellringers If you are looking for adaptable teaching resources for Jane Eyre, you might like this set of task cards and bellringers by The Green Light. With 160 cards, all thirty-eight chapters have four unique, open-ended, discussion-prompting questions that are designed to promote student critical thinking and analysis. The cards are adaptable to your lesson plan for Jane Eyre because they can be used in a variety of ways, such as - reading quizzes - group work questions - discussion questions for a Socratic seminar - review activities - exit tickets - or as part of a review game 5. Writing prompts If your students need practice writing, you might like this set of writing prompts by Paka Mdogo’s English Store. The resource has a set of short writing tasks and formal essay questions in the style of the AP and IB examinations. Some tasks focus students on significant aspects of each chapter in the novel. These prompts build into a fuller understanding of what Bronte is trying to achieve, how she approaches it, and how successful she has been. Alternatively, the writing prompts can be used as class discussion ideas. The essay questions are great to prepare students for exams. The prompts can also be used for distance learning through TPT’s Digital Activities extension or Google Classroom. 6. Close reading passages If your students need practice doing close reading and analysis, you might want this set of close reading passages by The Digital English Teacher. The activity has eight passages that students must read closely and respond to in the provided space on a Google Slides presentation. In doing so, students must - explain the passage in the context of the novel - consider the implications of the passage in the real world - and respond personally to the passage. There is also a blank slide that can be duplicated if you want to add other passages for your students. You can download this product straight into your Google Drive, so it’s great for distance learning. 7. Characterization mini-flipbook If you want to focus on characterization while teaching Jane Eyre, you might like this mini-flipbook by Danielle Knight. Easy to assemble with the provided instructions, you can also differentiate for students by modifying with guided practice, shortening the task, or using read aloud, pair work, and mini-lessons. Included in the download are the mini flipbook cover and pages and characterization handouts for student notebooks. 8. Match.com profile If you are looking for a fun activity to do while teaching Jane Eyre in high school classes, you might like this activity by Breeane and Ben Sette and Hellman. In the activity, before reading the Thornfield section of the novel, students must analyze Jane Eyre’s character by creating a Match.com dating profile for her. Working in groups, students must analyze Jane’s character and anticipate the characteristics she would want and need in a partner. After meeting Rochester and learning about him, students then reflect on whether he is a good match for Jane. The download includes the profile structure, questions for students to consider while creating the profile, and a marking rubric. 9. Crash Course Literature video worksheet The video and worksheet cover - biographical information about the author, Charlotte Bronte - the major plot points of the text - major questions the text elicits readers to ask - genre conventions of the text - important themes, such as the effects of patriarchy on women The print-and-go worksheet encourages active listening and spurs students to think deeply about how to read, understand and interpret the text. The worksheets are great to use to give yourself a break from talking, as a homework task or to leave for a substitute teacher. After-reading lesson plans: Jane Eyre So, your students have read the book and now you need to help them revise and prepare for some kind of assessment. If that’s the case, check out the activities below. We’ve found tests, quizzes, escape rooms, group research tasks, essay writing tasks, soundtrack projects, and more. 1. Tests, quizzes, and answer keys If you’re wanting reading quizzes as well as a final exam, you might want to check out this bunch of tests by Danielle Knight. Included in the PDF file are - four quizzes and answer keys - review and answer key - final test and answer key, with question types including multiple-choice, short answer, and essay 2. Escape the room review activity for Jane Eyre and Wide Sargasso Sea If you want your students to review both Jane Eyre and Wide Sargasso Sea, this escape room by O’Neill English Literature 9-12 might be exactly what you want. In the activity, students work in teams and think critically to review the novel. And you can adjust the clues to suit your students’ ability and how much time you have in class. 3. Digital escape room review activity If you want to do a digital escape room, then check out this one by Innovative English Instruction. In the activity, students will review characters, key plot details, and the chronology of the text, as well as gaining a deeper understanding of the text. The escape room includes - Directions and rules - A timer (set for 45 minutes) - A “start here” narrative - Google Forms (which direct them to a character identification task and a chronology maze) - 2 jigsaw puzzles - Hidden pictures (which direct them to 2 sets of comprehension questions (5 for Thornfield; 5 for Moor House and Ferndean) and the final congratulatory note) 4. Group research project If you’re looking for an alternative to a test for assessing student learning, you might enjoy this group research project by The Daring English Teacher. In the common core-aligned task, students work in groups to create a research project. The research project includes a five-paragraph research paper that is written and cited in MLA format, as well as a PowerPoint presentation that students present to the class. Included in the project are - the research project assignment - research topics and websites for students to use - group member evaluation forms - teacher rubric - and an editable example PowerPoint template 5. Expository essay writing task If you want your students to write an essay for assessment, you might want this expository essay writing lesson plan by Write On with Jamie. The lesson can be run in-class, for homework, as a flipped classroom lesson, or independently during distance learning as it can be uploaded to most learning management systems. In the no-prep activity, students watch a video with an expository writing tutorial that shows students the process of writing an expository essay using supporting evidence from the novel. Aspects of writing an expository essay covered in the lesson plan for Jane Eyre include - brainstorming ideas - creating thesis - introducing supporting evidence - writing hooks, leads, and conclusions - using appropriate transitions - and incorporating the six traits of writing. The common core-aligned Jane Eyre lesson plan has what you need to implement the lesson, including instructional procedures, lesson objectives, direct instruction, guided practice, enrichment, differentiation strategies, and essential questions. Students also get worksheets to prompt their writing, brainstorm their ideas, develop their thesis, and take notes on how to write an expository essay. Students also use an interactive PowerPoint to identify key vocabulary, list essay ideas, develop their thesis, and identify what their essay needs using a checklist. Finally, an essay rubric and graphic organizer are included in this Google Slides-ready lesson plan. 6. Soundtrack project Another fun assessment option if you are teaching Jane Eyre is this common core-aligned soundtrack project by The Lit Guy. In the activity, students must create a list of songs that will be used for a film version of the novel. The songs students choose must link to themes, character insights, or moods that are developed in Jane Eyre. The activity includes instructions for students, a grading rubric, a student sample, and tips on how to use the project in your unit. Whole-unit bundles of lesson plans: Jane Eyre Now, if you’ve scrolled straight down here, we won’t judge. We know time is short and pre-prepared units can be a total lifesaver! We have two options to look at today. 1. Whole unit bundle by SJ Brull The first option we have today is this five-week unit plan by SJ Brull. Included in the plan are - an anticipation and reflection guide – a two-page handout with quotes relating to the text’s themes. Students need to respond whether they agree or disagree with the statement and then explain their opinion. There are teacher notes on how to turn this into a class discussion. - quote analysis and reading quizzes – the reading quizzes help you gauge student comprehension and the quote analysis helps students learn to read for a deeper understanding of themes - theme tracking notes – students research themes and track them while reading. They use this later to create an author’s theme statement. - film and text essay – an elements of film handout, essay graphic organizer, grading rubric, and notes for the teacher that you can use while showing an adaptation of Jane Eyre. - character analysis packet with three activities – firstly, a guided space for students to illustrate, describe, record, and analyze evidence about character development in the novel. Secondly, a character-theme graffiti table to help students understand how minor characters support the theme development. Lastly, a creative character review project that encourages abstract thinking and evidence-based writing - post-reading discussion in the Socratic method: a semi-structured approach to class discussions with a 20-slide PowerPoint that explains the Socratic method. Students get a preparation worksheet and reflection. You also get instructions on how to hold a class discussion. - author study – students create a Facebook profile, Facebook newsfeed, Facebook exit tickets, and Twitter exit tickets about Charlotte Bronte. There is also extra information on how you can use these in different ways throughout the unit. - theme and quote poster – two different styles of printable posters that highlight key themes from the novel 2. Digital whole unit bundle by The Digital English Teacher The second option for a whole unit bundle for teaching Jane Eyre is this unit plan by The Digital English Teacher. The unit can be assigned through Google Classroom as it is created using Google Docs and Google Slides. You can simply assign the tasks to students, and students can complete their work in the documents’ easy-fill text boxes. The unit includes - Vocabulary tasks with 68 vocabulary words - Reading guide w/answer key so students are held accountable for reading (and you can check student comprehension) - Close reading tasks – eight passages where students must read closely, explain the passage in the context of the novel. consider the implications of the passage in the real world, and personally respond to the passage. - Digital character notebook where students explore in/direct characterization, static and dynamic characters, stock characters, round and flat characters, and protagonists/antagonists - Character development – students will describe character motivations and how they change throughout the novel, as well as how they advance both the plot and the theme - Making inferences activity – where students choose significant pieces of the text, use the knowledge they have, and draw conclusions based on that information - Types of conflict – students examine examples of the types of conflict in the novel and explore how they move the story forward. Types of conflict include person vs. self, person vs. person, person vs. nature, person vs. society, person vs. God/fate, and person vs. machine/technology. - Plot chart – students use the chart to identify six parts of the story’s plot - A self-grading final test on Google Forms – includes 50 multiple-choice questions and 20 matching questions., - and a bonus theme project worksheet – students select a theme from the novel, choose text examples to support the theme, and make connections to modern society. That’s all folks . . . Whether they’re lesson plans or other activities for teaching Jane Eyre in high school, we want to know what’s worked in your classrooms. Want more English Language Arts activities? Check out these blog posts for more ELA activities, lesson plans, and teaching resources: - Fun, engaging, and easy Shakespearean insults lesson you have to try - 12 excellent teaching resources for Macbeth – make Macbeth easy - Teaching Pride and Prejudice: 10 easy resources - 20 easy and exciting lesson plans for Things Fall Apart - 25+ easy and exciting lesson plans for Frankenstein - 25+ fun and engaging lesson plans: Their Eyes Were Watching God - 9 quick and easy study skills lesson plans for high school

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The Settlement and Culture of Iceland The early medieval manuscripts containing the Eddic poems recorded on this disc, were found in Iceland, an island first settled by people from Norway and the other Scandinavian countries during the years 870-930. The unique Icelandic settlement was part of a general movement that is best known for the Viking raids and the settlement of the Scandinavians in other parts of the world. The establishment of the Icelandic parliament (the Alþingi) in 930 gave shape to the pagan society of Iceland in which most people bore allegiance to the old Scandinavian (or Germanic) gods. The most famous of these gods are Óðinn (often called Odin) and Frigg, Þórr (Thor) and Sif, Freyr (Frey) and Freyja. It is important, however, to understand that the pagan religion of the Scandinavians was not institutionalised; people were not duty-bound to have the same beliefs. This religion did not evolve in a centralised society, but in conditions that make it natural for us to expect wide variations in beliefs and religious practice between one area and another, if not between individual family "clans". The Pagan Religion of the Scandinavians Any understanding of the Eddic poems demands some knowledge of the Old Nordic religion. The belief in the Nordic Æsir and Vanir gods is commonly discussed as if there was some form of standardised state religion that was followed by all the Scandinavian countries during the time prior to the Conversion. As mentioned above, this was far from the case. The gods that were most respected in each area probably varied. In some places, the highest in rank were the fertility gods, Freyr and Freyja. There is some evidence to suggest that their main area of influence was in the eastern part of pagan Scandinavia, possibly mainly on the fertile plains of Sweden, like Uppland for example. In many other places, people clearly declared most loyalty to Þórr, the guardian of the land, who was continuously defending Cosmos, the dwelling place of human kind and the gods, against the chaotic powers of Jötunheimr. It is thought by most scholars that the prudent farmers of Norway in particular placed their trust in this thunder god. Others, however, were more attracted by the cunning, worldly appearance of Óðinn, the god of poetry who had control over magic and other forms of knowledge. It is naturally tempting to connect this belief with the Viking explorers and adventurers, and first and foremost with the poets. The moral code of the pagan Scandinavians was not based on any demands or laws that had been set by the gods. On the contrary, the individual bore total responsibility for himself, and in the clan system, this responsibility extended to include closest relatives, and eventually went farther and farther. In this way, people gradually began to place certain controls on human behaviour and set rules that should be followed. It seems clear that special festivals were held in which the gods were praised or given some reminder of the needs of their charges, and that at these festivals they were offered sacrifices. Some of the texts of the Eddic poems appear to be well-suited for performance at religious ceremonies such as these under discussion here, where they might even have involved some complex staging. Recent research has given strong support to the idea that the dialogic poem Skírnismál (The Lay of Skírnir), for example, is actually a form of play that was designed for performance at a fertility or sun festival (probably close to the mid-winter sacrifice). As will be noted further below, it is easy to imagine conditions in which the other dialogic poems might have been performed at religious festivals. A central part of religious practice seems to have been played by incantation and magic, but it must never be forgotten that at this time magic was used as much to aid people as it was employed for vengeful purposes. And magical incantations certainly appear to have been sung in a special way if we consider the Icelandic expression gala galdr ("to 'crow' magic"). There are very few descriptions of the commonly-referred-to magic ritual known as seiðr, and certainly none as striking as that given in Eríks saga rauða (The Saga of Eiríkr the Red) which tells of a woman called Þorbjörg who was known as lítilvölva (the Little Prophetess). This account is particularly detailed and surprisingly free of prejudice. It was recorded a long time after the Conversion of Iceland (the oldest manuscript of the saga is from the fourteenth century), but ideas were obviously still current about the special role of the so-called seiðkonur (prophetesses). It is clear that the act of seiðr was regarded as a religious rite in which people attempted to gain knowledge about the times to come. There is little question that the Eddic poem Vǫluspá should be viewed in the context of this rite. The Prose Edda and the Eddic Poems In the early thirteenth century, the Icelanders gained a new author and scholar among their ranks, a man who is still regarded as being one of the greatest Scandinavian writers. His name was Snorri Sturluson (1178/79—1241), and he was not only one of the most powerful leaders in his country, but also the cleverest of historians; a poet and a scholar of poetry, in addition to being an expert on Old Nordic mythology. His masterpieces in the field of history and mythology, known respectively as Heimskringla and Edda (generally referred to as The Prose Edda), are central works for anyone trying to understand medieval Scandinavia. The latter work, in particular, is a key to understanding the pagan beliefs of Scandinavia. Snorri's Prose Edda is actually a kind of handbook designed to teach people about the poetic arts of Scandinavia, which, as was mentioned above, had very ancient roots. In order to understand this poetry, it was necessary to learn about the pagan beliefs. Snorri therefore relates a number of myths for his readers, almost all of which seem to be old. He also cites many ancient poems that have been passed down for generations in the oral tradition as evidence to support the things he is saying. Many centuries later, when people eventually discovered a near contemporary manuscript containing many of the poems Snorri quotes, they also named this manuscript Edda. That was a misunderstanding, but the name has stuck, and even today people refer to these Eddic poems as being a special type of ancient Scandinavian poetry. At root, some of these poems are probably much older than the time of the settlement of Iceland, and it is logical to assume that the settlers must therefore have brought them to Iceland from Norway or some other area populated by Scandinavians. As will be stressed further below, it is pointless trying to make a guess about the moment at which some poet decided to make the "first draft" of this or that poem. We have to be satisfied with a different approach. Nonetheless, these poems were clearly so unique in their subject matter and form that people found reason to preserve them, and chant them for the coming generations in order to give some idea of how people used to think and speak, of how their ancestors understood the world. The Eddic poems, though, often give very little detail about events of great consequence, and often help is needed to fill in the gaps. The information provided by Snorri is often our only key to understanding the wording of these poems and those myths that they only briefly touch on. Even though it is difficult to be certain that Snorri is always telling the complete truth, we would be in a far worse position if his work did not exist. This applies not only to The Prose Edda, but also to Ynglinga saga, which forms the first part of Snorri's work about the Norwegian kings, Heimskringla. Ynglinga saga tells of the earliest kings of Sweden in prehistoric times, linking them euhemeristically with the gods, and especially with Óðinn's who thus becomes the forefather of all the Scandinavian kings. The Subject Matter and Classification of the Eddie Poems In terms of subject matter, the Eddic poems can be divided into two groups: on one hand, heroic poems, and on the other, mythological poems about the gods. The former group is a collection of relatively short historical works dealing with people who are, to some extent, recognisable from other early Germanic sources. Sigurðr, killer of the serpent Fáfnir, for example, is really the same figure as the Siegfried who appears in the Nibelungenlied. Other recognisable figures from the same geographical area are Guðrun (Kudrun) and Brynhildr (Brynilde). From elsewhere we recognise Atli the King of the Huns (Attila), and Jǫrmunrekr, the King of the East-Goths (Ermanaric). Even though these earthly heroes are all tragic, emotive figures, they are characterised by a realism that has few contemporary parallels. The gods of the poems, on the other hand, are in many ways more ordinary individuals, and in fact, much more down to earth. The main figures in this regard are Óðinn and Þórr, although many other gods make appearances here and there. The mythological poems can also be divided into two general groups. First of all, there are the poems of wisdom, which are gnomic, didactic, even mnemonic pieces. Then there are the narrative works, which are short accounts dealing with the adventures of the gods. However, cutting straight across this broad subject classification we find yet another more stylistic division in which some poems take the form of pure dialogues, while others have a single speaker. To some extent this stylistic classification is reminiscent of that defining the difference between plays and novels. The dialogic works, like Skírnismál (The Lay of Skírnir), Lokasenna (The Flyting of Loki), Hárbarðsljóð (The Poem of Hárbardr) and Baldrs draumar (Baldr's Dreams) all involve more than one speaker. People address each other, the speaker divisions are clear, and we even find the speakers displaying individual characteristics. The staging of these dialogues could have been both simple and powerful, as the recent dramatic performances of Skírnismál and Lokasenna in Iceland and elsewhere have shown. These works contain dramatic tension and little imagination is required to see some connection with holy rituals or sacrifical ceremonies. The poems involving a single speaker are somewhat different. Depending on the circumstances, the speaker recounts events or gives shocking news to his/her listeners. Once again, as mentioned above, it is possible to imagine a religious context for the performance of these poems. This seems particularly obvious in the case of Voluspá (The Prophecy of the Seeress), for example. The speaker of the monologue in this case is a woman. She is apparently addressing Óðinn and her audience in general, the "greater and lesser descendants of the god Heimdallr", an expression believed by scholars to refer to all humankind. The woman tells her listeners a story to which she adds conviction because she is wiser than others, and has knowledge that is simultaneously exciting and terrifying. In dim light and flickering shadows (like that which would have existed in any ancient Icelandic farmhouse in wintertime) the performance of the poem would have been transformed into a kind of mysterious religious ritual in which the listeners would have found themselves faced with insight into ancient and holy mysteries. It can be no coincidence that the poem should issue from the lips of a woman, the völva (seeress) herself, who has access to all secret knowledge, has come to visit, and even has the power to threaten Óðinn by revealing the most sacred mysteries known to him. The Preservation of the Eddic Poems Most of the Eddic poems have been preserved in the early thirteenth-century manuscript mentioned earlier, which is called the Codex Regius (The King's Book: Gl. kgl. sml. 2365 4to) now in the care of the Arnamagnean Institute in Reykjavík. This is the text that Sequentia has used for the performances of Vǫluspá, Hávamál and Þrymskviða. Grottasǫngr (The Song of Grotti), is found only in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda; and Baldrs draumar is found along with several other Eddic poems in the AM 748 I, 4to manuscript which is slightly more recent than the Codex Regius. The Performance of the Eddic Poems We know relatively little about how the mythological poems of the Poetic Edda were performed during the Middle Ages. The account from Eiríks saga rauda about Þorbjörg the Little Prophetess, noted earlier, gives a highly tempting picture, but we can never be totally certain about whether it is wholly trustworthy. It is natural to conclude that this might have been one form of performance. Nonetheless, it seems certain that the text of these poems in performance was far from fixed. Concerning the text, it is naturally pointless trying to guess the actual degree of freedom that the original performers would have allowed themselves. It is clear, however, that once the poems were written down, they probably gradually gained a kind of stability, a clear shape, meaning that the usual freedom, originally granted by the oral tradition, was no longer valid. Nonetheless, we are lucky enough to be able to attain some insight into the methods employed by the oral performer, partly because of the three differing versions of Vǫluspá that came to be recorded on parchment. Each of these versions of the poem must at some time have been recorded on the basis of an oral performance. Partly for this reason, there is little point in attempting to use the usual literary comparative methods in order to try and establish an "original" text for the poem. Each editor has to choose the version that he/she thinks best, and most agree that the version contained in the Codex Regius is more poetic, and to some extent older than that found in Hauksbók. That is the reason why Sequentia chose to use the version of Vǫluspá for this disc. Scattered examples telling of the recital of poems give a clear indication that the performance of the poetry was different from that of prose. The poems might not have been "sung" literally, but people certainly regarded poetry as being a holier form of language than prose, and felt that the performance should be appropriate for both the form and its contents. The language in which the poems have been preserved is Icelandic. Since Icelandic was originally a western Norwegian dialect, this alone tells us little about the origin of the poems. However, the conditions in Iceland are so unusual that changes in the language and thereby also the declension system between the Middle Ages and our own time have been relatively limited both as regards prose and poetry. In other words what was recorded in the Middle Ages might be regarded as being comparatively easy to read for any relatively literate, intelligent Icelander in our own time. The actual pronunciation of Icelandic, on the other hand, has changed greatly since the thirteenth century, not only with regard to the vowel and consonant systems, but also the rules governing lengths of vowels which have altered radically. Even though our source material on these changes is comparatively extensive, a great deal still remains uncertain. No one alive today could recreate with any certainty the pronunciation or the poetic rhythm that was used for the Eddic poems during the first centuries of the Icelandic settlement. When considering the performance of the Eddic poems, as Sequentia have done for this disk, many things need to be borne in mind. The recreation of probable medieval music and song is one aspect of this and naturally demands some form of recreated pronunciation. Even though Icelanders in our own time are used to reading the poems with a modern Icelandic pronunciation, it would be ridiculous to use a modern pronunciation for an attempted recreation of the original sound of poetry. The route chosen was of course just one of many. An attempt was made to avoid all linguistic changes that are known to have taken place since the thirteenth century, but for logical reasons, no attempt was made to guess at the pronunciation and rhythm of the ninth or tenth century. The basis for the performance is the recorded manuscript-text, and that is no earlier than from the thirteenth century. It is therefore totally pointless to try and take the pronunciation of these poems back beyond that point. Heimir Pálsson, Iceland, 1998; English translation by Terry Gunnell The Reconstruction of Eddic Performance Although we know that medieval epic poetry was the domain of bards and singers, no written musical sources of the Eddic poems dating from the Middle Ages are known to exist; indeed, we would have no reason to expect such sources to have been written at all. The milieu in which these poems were originally transmitted, sung, and acted out was that of a uniquely oral culture, and professional minstrels (leikari) passed on repertoires and techniques from generation to generation without the hindrance and expense of writing. As is almost always the case with medieval song, the use of musical notation is linked to the world of the scriptorium and the noble or ecclesiastical collector, not to the world of the practicing musician. We can assume that the performing traditions of the Edda were probably already in decline by the time the main text manuscript, Codex Regius, was copied in the late thirteenth century. Given this situation, how can we possibly reconstruct sung performances of Eddic poems as they would have been known before the time of Snorri Sturluson in twelfth-century Iceland? The earliest witness which we possess to musical settings of poems from the Edda is an account found in Benjamin de la Bordes Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne, published in 1780. Among other examples (collected by a musician at the Danish Royal Court, Johann Ernst Hartmann), we find a strophe from the Vǫluspá set to a simple melody. Unfortunately, we will never know if this melody represents part of an unrelated Icelandic folk tradition of the 17th and 18th centuries, or if it indeed survived in this form from its origins as an oral formula for the vocalization of Eddic poetry. In searching for paths to the vocalization of these texts, it was obvious to me that more musical information would be needed than this scrap of melodic material from the late 18th century, and I decided to make use of the techniques of "modal language" which Sequentia has developed over the years in work with medieval song. Briefly, we identify a mode not as a musical scale, but rather as a collection of gestures and signs which can be interiorized, varied, combined and used as a font to create musical "texts" which can be completely new while possessing the authentic integrity of the original material. But like the magic mead which gives Óðinn the gift of poetry, this "modal mead" is a concoction which is both inspiring and dangerous. We need a strong knowledge of the practice of singing epic poetry as it still exists in various world cultures to show us how such performances must be given a form and a soul, to temper the limitless freedom of modal intoxication. Having temporarily put aside Monsieur de la Borde, where did I turn first for the basic ingredients of this modal brew? Iceland, of course. To give one example: in the sung oral poetry known as rímur—which in itself is a tradition dating from the late middle ages, but whose roots may touch much earlier skaldic poetry—I found a vast repertoire of modal material, which clearly could be grouped into several types. During our research residency in Reykjavik in May, 1995, I was graciously permitted to work in the tape archives of the Stofnun Árna Magnússonar, where I listened to hundreds of recorded performances of rímur and related song-types, making notes and analyses of the types and uses of modal materials. The result of this process of digestion (which included a weeding-out of obviously later melodic types) was a series of modal vocabularies grouped by structural "signals", which could then be taught to the other singers and applied to the metrics of the Eddic texts as taught to us by the philologist Heimir Pálsson. Everything was learned in a process very much resembling oral tradition: we have only worked with our Edda texts and our memories; there were never any musical scores. And in light of this knowledge, even the melody found in de la Borde began to make sense. However one chooses to see its transmission, the fact is that this melody demonstrates characteristics which point to the use of a specific modal vocabulary consisting of a few limited elements which are repeated and varied. And so, the attentive listener might hear its "genetic code" echoed in these performances, just as an experienced Icelandic rímur-singer hearing these poems might find at times that some undefinable element makes him feel he knows the unknown piece being sung. In cases where two or three singers declaim the same text, different versions of the modal gestures may sometimes be heard simultaneously, resulting in a kind of heterophonic texture (verging on improvised polyphony) typical of traditional musical cultures. We still hear a vestige of such ancient practices in the traditional two-voiced tvisöngur sung in Iceland today. Other aspects of the reconstructive work include a study of Icelandic sources besides rímur, as well as a study of the ancient dance-song melodies of the Faroe Islands. As the Edda project continues in years to come, the research will certainly expand to include sources from the entire Viking world, with particular emphasis on Finland and other Baltic countries, as well as Saami lands. Equally important in these musical reconstructions are the instruments which play independant pieces and sometimes accompany the vocalists. In the twelfth century, the two most important European instruments for courtly entertainment were certainly the fiddle and the harp, although other types of instruments (for instance, wind and percussion) were certainly known in popular culture. Elizabeth Gaver explains in a separate essay about her reconstructions of fiddle music. The harps which I use in this production are copies from remains of instruments found in seventh-century germanic burial sites, researched and reconstructed by Rainer Thurau (Wiesbaden, Germany). This type of "lyre" would have been known throughout the northern world, together with the related triangular cithara which we recognize as the most common harp form. These instruments have very few strings (the lyre, for instance, has six gut strings), and the tuning systems, based on medieval theories of consonance, yield a series of basic intervals which in turn can inform the text being accompanied. The tuning system of the instrument is closely related to the mode which the singer has chosen, so that the instrument must be re-tuned to accompany in a new mode. Regarding playing technique, it hardly needs stating that an instrument of six strings is not suited to playing chords and elaborate melodies. Instead, we have here a harp type (such as is still known in several non-European musical cultures) which has as its means of expression the use of pattern and variation, and on the "playing out" of modal vocabularies. Just as the singers rely on a small repertoire of potent modal gestures for the vocalization of their texts, the harp makes a virtue of its seeming limitations and, like an interlaced Viking design, brings a richness of articulation to the expression of the mode. Imagining the context of performance Although it is certain that in ancient oral traditions such as the Edda represents, pieces were always "vocalized" and even acted out before gatherings of knowledgable listeners, we are obliged to imagine performance contexts which were never specifically described by contemporaries. In our performances, we represent a performing tradition as it might have existed in both Iceland and Norway (and perhaps as far afield as the Continent) during the time of Snorri Sturluson (ca. 1200). The performers themselves are not local farmers, but rather professional minstrels (Icelandic: leikari), possibly joined by other Nordic, Celtic or Saxon minstrels who travel widely in northern lands (which would also account for the use of the fiddle); and the performance itself could be taking place either in the dwelling of a powerful Icelandic chieftain or the hall of a Norwegian lord. The music and texts they sing represent last vestiges of the ancient oral traditions of the pre-Christian north, now performed by specialists in a nominally Christian society which still has strong links to the archaic world of the myths and the worship of the old gods. And so, in this recording, the voices can be heard alone, as in parts of the long visionary tale of the Völva; or the fiddle, playing solo, can conjure up a world of mythological beings; or the fiddle accompanies the singers who re-enact the story of Óðinn's ride into the realm of the dead to question the seeress about Baldur's death. There are ritualistic moments of mystery: the singer with his lyre speaking in the voice of Óðinn, retelling the myth of the runes; or hilarious storytelling, as in the famous tale—half-spoken and half-sung to lyre accompaniment—of Thor's vengeful transvestite voyage to the realm of his enemies, the giants, to recover his stolen hammer. In the story of Grotti's mill and the two giant slave-girls, the fiddle provides both the modal fundament as well as the relentless turning of the millstone; and in the final description of the end of the gods, Ragnarǫk, all three voices join with the fiddle in a homophonic texture of visionary terror. As there are no extant medieval manuscripts containing Nordic instrumental music, in order to create the fiddle music for this Edda production I turned to the flourishing folk music tradition in Norway, both for information and inspiration. It has been my aim to find the particular aspects in the current folk violin tradition that are idiomatic to the medieval fiddle as well. During two research trips to Norway, I was able to explore the hardingfele tradition, by listening to countless hours of field recordings in the Norsk Folkemusikk-samling of the University of Oslo, and by meeting with several well-known performers and teachers, in Oslo, Valdres, and the Ole Bull Akademie in Voss. The hardingfele is essentially a violin with the addition of four or five resonance strings running under the fingerboard. The body of the hardingfele is highly arched, and the bridge is nearly flat, allowing the player to easily bow two or even three strings at once. The characteristic sound of the instrument depends on its resonance, which is enhanced by the use of open tunings similar to those used on medieval fiddles. Although the hardingfele originates in the seventeenth century, there are aspects of the music itself that could be part of a much older tradition. Many dance tunes, or slatter, are clearly Baroque in nature, with triadic melodies and regular phrase structures. Other slatter, however, have characteristics in common with much earlier musical forms. They are constructed from short melodic motives that are varied and repeated during the tune, often resulting in uneven phrase lengths and a certain ambiguity in the beginnings and endings of phrases. Although these tunes are passed from teacher to student through generations, remaining unchanged in essence, there is also room for improvisation according to the style of each player. There is often an interaction between the player and dancers, and the dance gains in intensity and excitement as phrases spin out endlessly, strong bow articulations are used, and upper and lower bourdons are added. The hardingfele is also used occasionally to accompany songs, or to play an ornamented version of a song alone. It is in this repertoire that one hears quite clearly the use of unfamiliar scales with various neutral tones. Most commonly, the placement of the third and seventh tones of the scale results in intervals that are between major and minor, giving a very particular coloration to the melody. The three medieval fiddles used in this production are typical instruments of twelfth-and thirteenth-century Europe. Unlike instruments of the modern violin family, the bodies and necks of these fiddles are carved from single blocks of wood. This simple construction, often with no additional soundpost, results in a clear, highly resonant tone quality. The tunings of the gut strings used here are characteristic of the medieval period with open intervals of fourths and fifths resulting in a resonant tone quality enhanced by the frequent use of bourdon strings. The fiddle pieces created for this production incorporate many aspects of hardingfele repertoire and playing style. Some are rhythmic and dance-like in character, while others are meditative and lyrical. The melodic motives are derived from the Icelandic rímur tradition, from the ballad tradition of the Faroe Islands, or are simply idiomatic to the instruments themselves.

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Introduction: Teacher Professional Development: Design Thinking for Schools This has been written by Autodesk Tinkercad as a resource to support school leaders, teacher leaders, and other teacher trainers in facilitating professional development for K12 educators. - Describe the design thinking process and explain how it relates to what you know about teaching and learning. - Demonstrate creative confidence and a positive growth mindset. - Use design-related vocabulary and visual literacy to articulate your process and decisions. - Apply design thinking methods to a real-world problem of student learning. Design thinking is a problem-solving framework that begins with stepping into the shoes of your end users. When design thinking approaches are applied to schools, educators are able to see problems of student learning from different angles and apply creativity, prototyping, and experimentation to better meet students' needs. While "design thinking" can be interpreted as a trendy buzzword, many aspects of this mindset are inherent to commonly recognized best practices for teaching. This resource will support teacher trainers in guiding their colleagues through the different steps of the design thinking process with the goal of innovating the learning environment at the classroom, school, or district level. Estimated instructional time: 6-8 hours, plus extensions for building & testing prototypes and forming professional learning communities around moving the design forward. (This could also be broken down into a series of four, two-hour PDs: "Intro to Design Thinking & Problem Finding;" "Understanding & Defining the Problem;" "Ideating & Storytelling;" "Prototyping & Testing.") Step 1: Get to Know a Design Thinking Framework In the world of design, problem = opportunity. If you have spent any significant amount of time in the classroom, then you're probably thinking that there must be no place more rife with inspiration for the designer than a school! In introducing the concept of design thinking to your colleagues, it is important to note that there are many different frameworks that are called "design thinking" with mostly subtle variations; the most important constant is that it has a human-centered core - meaning that the first and most critical step in the process involves empathizing with the end user of whatever it is you are designing. In the context of schools, the end product could be a revised curriculum, a design for more flexible learning spaces, an innovative block schedule, a more personalized approach to teacher professional development, or a new system for structuring student advisory - or for collecting and communicating student data. The possibilities are endless! But before you start digging into real problems at your school or school district, it makes sense to do a quick, hands-on sprint through the process with a more low-stakes design challenge. This will help your colleagues get a feel for the design thinking methodology before applying it to a more complex problem. This guide includes a variety of activities for introducing the concept of design thinking. For you as the facilitator, or for any of your colleagues interested in learning more about the principles of design thinking, this Autodesk Design Academy course provides an excellent deep dive. Free premium access to Autodesk software and learning platforms - like Design Academy and Instructables - for educators and students can be found here. Speak the language of design thinking This is not an exhaustive list of every term you may hear in the discussion of design thinking, but it's a good start to getting your colleagues sounding like pros! A glossary of these terms can be found here. Step 2: Find an Important Problem Design thinking presents the opportunity to slow down the jump to "solutioning" in order to discover the users' unmet needs that are at the root of the problem. In deciding upon a problem, you as the facilitator may provide some context to guide your colleagues in working toward a common school-wide goal, or you may provide them with the freedom to explore the problems they are experiencing at the classroom level. One way of launching this exploration is to ask teachers to consider an analogous situation from a different industry. This document provides some guidance in how to frame this discussion using an anecdote from Henry Ford. You may also print this out for the participants to read independently and jot down some ideas in response. The PDF is attached at the end of this step. At this point your colleagues should be divided into teams of three to six people to begin finding a problem together. Some pointers for finding a problem Instructional Rounds in Education, which calls for networks of educators to observe other educators in order to address a "problem of practice," shares some interesting parallels with design thinking in its slow progression from pure observation to making inferences to - ultimately - developing theories of action in order to address an important problem. It also provides a set of criteria for finding a worthwhile problem that could be applied to design thinking in education. According to Instructional Rounds, a rich problem: - centers on the teacher and the student in the presence of content - is observable - is actionable - connects to a broader strategy of improvement - is high leverage - meaning an intervention targeting one student, for example, could scale up to support a larger group It's okay to be a bit vague too Like in design thinking, the problem in Instructional Rounds can also start out somewhat vague - even in the form of a question - and become more refined as the process evolves. In design thinking, a problem can also be based on a strong feeling or hunch that has arisen from personal experience or connection with the problem. For example: "Students' use of technology is currently limited to consuming media, and it is also negatively affecting students' social-emotional development." "Teachers feel overwhelmed by expectations that they teach new technologies at the same time they are learning them." (If you're interested in the second example, here's a real-life story of how an educator used a design thinking mindset to address this issue.) Even if the original problem starts out as somewhat subjective and anecdotal, the beauty of design thinking is that the various phases will add layers of objectivity and research, and, as a result, may even transform the problem into something entirely different. But don't be too vague A few don'ts... - don't try to pack too much into the problem - don't focus on something just because it is part of an initiative that is already being implemented (and don't use problem-finding as way of auditing whether your colleagues are complying with a new initiative.) - don't be so vague that it would be difficult to validate as a problem Do have fun and keep an open mind as you build your creative confidence together! Step 3: Understand the Problem "It's a wall!" "It's a fan!" "It's a spear!" "It's a rope!" "It's a tree!" "It's a snake!" In the ancient Indian parable of the blind men and an elephant, a group of men who are blind and who have never come across an elephant before, try to understand what the elephant is like by touching it. Each man feels a different part of the elephant's body, but only one part, such as the trunk or the tusk. And then they argue, at length, about what it is. One moral of the story is that sometimes when confronted with something new, we see only what we want or expect to see and filter out evidence that does not fit our preconceived notions. The elephant in the story could also be a metaphor for the type of problem the design teams have identified in the last step - it is big, complex, multi-faceted, and open to myriad interpretations. The goal in this step of the process is for your colleagues to make as many objective, fact-based observations as they can about the problem WITHOUT trying to prove a point or solve anything or form any conclusions. You should also emphasize that the key to this phase is empathy. Developing an empathetic understanding of the users you are solving for gives you a chance to have a more meaningful perspective. Outcome for this step: Collect objective data that is relevant to the problem There are all types of ways to gather data in schools - many of which you probably already have experience doing. The following are some suggestions for gathering data that could be relevant to the various goals and constraints of the design teams. Depending on the time allotted for your session, you may offer this as a menu of options or assign certain activities. Before the session or as an extension to the session: - To get a bigger-picture snapshot of what is happening at the school-wide level, classroom observations (that are peer-led and include non-judgmental data gathering) can be a great source for information, especially as it pertains to the types of tasks students are working on and their level of engagement in these tasks. - Shadowing a student is a fun and deeply illuminating way for educators to empathize with their students and take new kinds of action at their school. - One quick and relatively easy way to tap into students' perspectives about their needs, desires, and feelings about the learning environment is student surveys. During the session: - Teacher design teams can share and begin to analyze any data they brought with them, such as classroom observations, student shadow field notes, or survey results. - In advance of the session, you might also ask your colleagues to bring student work with them - especially work students haven’t yet mastered or examples that are puzzling in some way. Looking at student work is a great way to conduct data inquiry collaboratively. - Sometimes teacher teams require some time to calibrate and reflect upon the connection between their beliefs and practices. The Gap Analysis Protocol is another way to cull meaningful data together while also establishing a shared purpose. - Wouldn't it be fun to invite students for some part of the session? That way your colleagues can gather firsthand perspectives from a relevant user group. Alternatively, your colleagues could also conduct empathy interviews with each other - either to practice interviewing skills, or because educators are one of the user groups they are researching. Here is a great guide for doing this that was written within the context of user experience research for web design. - Conducting secondary research is another useful way to not only collect data on the design team's problem, but also to connect that problem to a larger, more global context. Step 4: Define the Problem Are the design teams experiencing information overload yet? In this step it's time to begin clearing the noise to get to the heart of the problem they are trying to solve. The goal is to translate the data the teams have gathered into a more narrowly defined and actionable needs statement. The suggested activities in this step are sequenced in a logical order; if time allows, it would be best to at least touch upon each of them in some way, as they are all important to the process of writing a needs statement. This handy guide will provide you with more details for how to facilitate the following activities for defining the problem. It is also attached as a PDF at the end of this step. Outcome for this step: Gain new insights on the problem based on data analysis - Categorize ideas and find patterns. - Get down to the root cause. - Map out stakeholders and context. - Create a persona or empathy map. - Write a needs statement. Step 5: Ideate Incomplete ideas. Opinions without supporting evidence. Sloppy sketches without descriptions. Yuck! This sounds like a teacher's worst nightmare!!! Please tell your colleagues not to fret, but do congratulate them for reaching the Ideate step, which is typically the third phase of the design thinking process, and the one most associated with the work of a designer. This is the chance for the design teams to let loose and cast a super wide net. In the ideation phase: - Quantity generates quality. - You build on one another's ideas ("Yes and...") - The internal critic is muzzled. Don't try to ideate and evaluate at the same time - evaluation comes later! Here are some more pointers... Outcome for this step: Create strategies for addressing the problem and categorize them Practice using "how might we?" tactics: Begin by convening the whole group and asking each team to share one of their needs statements from the previous activity. After every team has shared, they should rephrase their needs statements as a question beginning with “How might we...?” How Might We (HMW) questions are short questions that launch brainstorms. You might also practice together using the following example "needs statement" and tactics adapted from The Stanford d.school that appear in the slideshow. The teams can even compete with each other to develop the best solution for the teacher using any one of the tactics. * Credit: Adapted from Stanford d.school resource Generate more HMW questions based on the problem: After practicing, design teams should look again at their own HMW questions and either add more or revise/eliminate ones that are too narrow or too broad. Do any of them suggest only a single answer? If so, they should cross it off the list or rephrase it in a way that can lead to multiple answers. Brainstorm possible solutions: Once it is clear that each team has several HMW questions to work with, allow them unstructured time to begin thinking about possible solutions. Encourage them to come up with as many solutions as possible (remember "crazy" is still okay in this phase) and to have a way of documenting them so that they can return to the entire list later. Interrupt!: When you feel like there is a good buzz in the room and that the teams have made some progress, you might jump in and reconvene the whole group. Some ways you might constructively interrupt: - Ask the teams to tally up the number of possible solutions they have already generated and share the amount. This sense of competition will reinforce the concept that quantity is more important than quality in this phase. - Introduce a new constraint that requires the teams to modify an existing solution or invent a new approach. For example, what if the solution had to be low-tech? Or, what if it had to happen in the month of October? - Challenge the teams to think of an analogous problem to the one they are exploring - a situation outside of the school context where there is a similar problem with a successful solution. What could the teams learn from it? Categorize ideas: As you are wrapping up this part of the session, you should have the teams take an inventory of all the possible solutions they created and begin to categorize them in some way, for example: the idea I love, the idea most people will love, the most practical idea, and the craziest idea. Step 6: Tell the Story Ever had an idea that was hard to explain? Your design teams are probably in this predicament currently - whether they know it yet or not. By now they have spent ample time with each other spinning out wild and crazy ideas and even beginning to refine them into potential solutions. They may have several options they want to move forward with or perhaps one that the whole team has agreed upon. The next step is for them to begin testing out their hypothetical solution by sharing it as a story with audiences who are unfamiliar with it. Outcome for this step: Share the story of the problem and proposed solution Share some advice from the entrepreneurial community: An effective solution is one that is wanted by the user, easy to use, and affordable. An invention that is unused has no value. But how do you find out before you devote so much time, effort, and resources into developing an idea? Many startups approach this problem by creating simple prototypes - in the form of slideshows, storyboards, or even napkin sketches - in order to use as a means of checking in with users and other stakeholders to glean their feedback and use this input to continue to iterate, adapt, and refine the initial solution. “If you want to break away from the status quo, that means that, by nature, your idea is something that is new to other people,” said Vicky Wu Davis, an educator and tech entrepreneur who spent over a decade in the video game industry. “That means other people haven’t thought of it yet; or if they have thought of it, they haven’t gotten through the next few steps.” “So in order to get people on board, you’re going to have to figure out how to excite them about it,” she added. One strategy for not only engaging an audience about a new idea, but also to help make the idea easier to understand is to express it visually. Wu Davis, who is also the founder of the youth entrepreneurship organization Youth CITIES, believes that using a creativity tool like Tinkercad can be a powerful way to produce an engaging visual model for expressing a complex concept and could even be used as an aid for germinating an idea. Read more about this in the Tinkercad blog. If the design teams are interested in learning how CAD can be used to create professional 3D models and prototypes, this is a great, free online course for learning Tinkercad and Fusion 360. Practice storytelling around a design: This "bonus" slideshow provides a fun exercise to get the design teams thinking about how to verbalize the connections between a problem, a design, and a solution. It also offers an opportunity for them to begin telling the story of their design to someone from a different team, and to stop and reflect about the process so far. The "bonus" slideshow also includes some demonstrations of how Tinkercad can be used for prototyping, and how startups use visuals and other storytelling techniques to share their vision. Tell the story from problem to solution: There are many free online tools in addition to Tinkercad that could be used to support the design teams' storytelling. For example, Canva has a template for making a stylish digital storyboard, or you could also print out templates such as this for the design teams to sketch out their story. They could even create a pitch deck to communicate their idea. No matter which route they go in telling the story, be sure to remind them that the story's protagonist should continue to be the persona they created in the Define phase. Once the teams are done composing their stories, there should be time for each team to present to the larger group for feedback and validation. If possible, it would be beneficial to also invite other stakeholders, such as students, community partners, or school leaders to hear the teams' ideas and offer feedback. Step 7: Post PD - Build and Test the Prototype Are your design teams ready to get building and bring their ideas to life with real users? There are a few ways to facilitate this phase, and it does not necessarily require that your colleagues remain as a large group. This part could be completed post PD and incrementally during teachers' common planning time or it could even be done as a more intense, daylong experience in the form of a hackathon. Outcome: A possible way to address the problem in an actionable format that could be tested - it is a means of exploring the problem, not the final product So what are the teams building? Prototypes can come in a variety of forms. Now that the teams have gotten to the heart of the problem, their first prototype could come in the form of a change in instructional practice in their own classrooms, or it could be something bigger such as redesigning a learning space in the school, changing the school schedule, or adopting a new system or tool. The Boston Public Schools created this great infographic as way of supporting educators in matching instructional priorities with innovative practices. More about this here! Prototyping doesn't always mean you have to start from scratch or reinvent the wheel. For example, School Retool provides this awesome resource for helping educators design small “hacks” towards bigger changes that could be designed more specifically for particular problems and contexts. So once they begin testing, how do they know if the prototype is working? Here is a guide from the tech world that could be helpful in thinking about methods for gathering feedback and maximizing learning. Step 8: Post PD - Formalize Feedback Cycles As a Way of Testing Critical thinking and peer criticism - called "the Crit" - are integral to the work of designers and actually form the foundation of design and architecture education. There are final crits, but there are also frequent interim crits. This is part of what keeps the process iterative and collaborative. As you know, it is also common for teachers to form professional learning networks around improving their instructional practice. Typically, however, teacher networking doesn't extend beyond school walls. If keeping this process within the confines of your school is an unsurmountable constraint, it could still be helpful for the teams to create a formal feedback cycle schedule for themselves. A more powerful way for the teams to continuously gather feedback would be to connect with other educators from different schools or districts as partners in critiquing their designs. Depending on the problem the teams are addressing with their designs, this could also be an opportunity to invite professionals from other industries into the work. A useful tool for engaging educators and others in this type of reflective practice is the Critical Friends protocol.

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The Psalms are the words of people to God that have become the Word of God to his people. They are written out of the history of Israel’s relationship with God and given to successive generations to use in corporate and individual worship. The Psalms are also Scripture, part of the canon through which the church seeks to hear the voice of God. They are illuminated by the Holy Spirit and used by God to teach and rebuke his people: God speaks to us through the Psalms even as we use them to speak to him. As poetry, psalms use language creatively, inviting meditation and reflection alongside exegetical analysis. First, the brevity or compactness of their wording is immediately obvious from the large amounts of white space on the page. Much meaning is carried by a few words, encouraging us to slow down and engage thoughtfully. Secondly, Hebrew poetry is marked in particular by the use of parallelism, sometimes called “thought rhyme.” Key ideas are repeated in a similar but varied way. The repetition intensifies, sharpens, and clarifies the ideas. Again, we need to slow down and carefully consider the comparisons and connections being made. Thirdly, like most poetry, psalms also use imagery—metaphors and similes—to form word pictures. Images might not be as precise as literal language, but their accuracy lies in their ability to attract our attention by their vivid expression, stimulating our imaginations, and stirring our emotions to engage fully with what they describe. However, the imagery of the Psalms originates in an ancient, non-Western, agricultural context, so we need to understand the effect these pictures would have had on their original readers. Images are explicated by their cultural context, for example, describing enemies as dogs refers to wild and dangerous animals rather than pets as we might initially assume (e.g. Ps 59:6); by the context of the passage in which they are found, such as the connection of the image of a rock to ideas of refuge, safety, and security (e.g. Ps 18:2); and by broader biblical theology, as the Psalms’ depictions of God’s actions must be consistent with his character as revealed throughout Scripture (e.g. Ps 78:65). Finally, we should also note the use and effect of other poetic devices such as inclusio (e.g. Ps 8), acrostics (e.g. Ps 119), or wordplays and alliteration in the Hebrew text (e.g. Ps 122). Psalms were written throughout the entire period of Old Testament history, from the time of Moses (Ps 90) through to the exile nearly a thousand years later (Ps 137). Psalms were collected over time into an anthology that could be used both individually and corporately. The people of God are encouraged to both learn the songs of the past and to “sing a new song,” expressing their praise to God in their current situation. Perhaps the best analogy we have is with a prayerbook or hymnbook. There are psalms found in other parts of the Old Testament (e.g. Exodus 15; Judges 5) but these are often historically specific, deeply embedded in events from the time. The psalms in the Book of Psalms are deliberately written to be used by successive generations of prayer-ers and worshipers. While each psalm had an original setting and author, for many of them, this information is not given to us. Those that do include a title or superscription make explicit what is implicit in all: that each has a historical context, including an author, when and why they were written, and how they were intended to be used. When there is a specific title, we are able to see the relevance and appropriateness of the psalm to the event, and the poem can be preached alongside the corresponding narrative. But we can also see that the psalmists do not embed the events within the psalm to the point that they cannot be used by later worshipers. (e.g. Ps 51 refers to sin in general rather than adultery or rape explicitly; Ps 3 mentions enemies but does not specify a son). The title can inform our reading of the psalm, helping us hear and imagine it within that context, but there is also freedom to make use of each psalm for our own situation. Psalms have been preserved so they can be used by future communities of faith. As we preach them, we look for meaning but also for the effect they have on the community who speaks, prays, and sings them. The Psalms show us what it looks like for the gathered people of God to respond to God. They expand our vocabulary of prayer and worship. They don’t just teach about worship; they are worship. They invite us to learn by doing. Psalms engage the whole person. They engage with our minds through instruction and understanding, sharing deep truths about who God is. They engage with our bodies through movement and expression (e.g. kneeling, lying prostrate, raising hands, walking, speaking, listening), inviting us to love God with all our strength. They engage with our souls, connecting with our emotions. They engage with our imaginations, calling us to picture or visualize what God is like and what life in the kingdom can be. They engage with our relationships, both with God and one another as we speak to, with, for, and about him. Nasuti says that rather than simply providing us with a source of information a bout God, the Psalms make available a relationship with God. They invite us into an experience of conversing with God, and with one another about God, and it is from this conversational encounter that our theology is shaped. John Calvin said that any emotion a human being has ever felt can be found in the Psalms. Based on this truth, many Christians have been encouraged to use the Psalms personally and privately as a kind of emotional vocabulary. We recognize our own circumstances and responses, and then look for a psalm that reflects how we are feeling. This is a wonderful thing to do and allows the Psalms to voice the depths of our own experience. But as Scripture, the Psalms seek to do more than this. They invite us as a community to enter into their experience. As we preach a psalm of lament, many of our people may not currently be feeling the sadness or anger that is described. But the Word invites us to take on these expressions and to consider their transformative power in our own lives. Why might this Scripture invite us to anger? What injustices are there in our own world to which this is the appropriate, godly response? Similarly, as we preach a psalm of thanksgiving, we are inviting our people to tell our story of transformation, of how God has turned our mourning into joy. A prayer of innocent suffering can become our supplication on behalf of our persecuted sisters and brothers around the world. An imprecation, or curse, against evil can become our battle cry against the spiritual forces, the powers and principalities whom Christ has defeated. A declaration of God’s great saving acts throughout history can become our own statement and proclamation of what God has done in Jesus, is now doing in and through the church, and will do once and for all in the new creation. Preaching the entire book of Psalms presents a challenge, as few congregations would be willing to devote 150 weeks to a sermon on each individual poem, although there would be great riches to be discovered in doing so. The outlines presented here provide four suggestions for shorter series, each of which could be adapted or extended to include the many individual psalms not covered below. Series 1: Preaching Through a Variety of Genres Big Idea for Whole Series: Exploring the breadth of corporate worship. When preaching an individual psalm within the book, identifying its genre is an important first step. Consideration of the variety of these genres is one of the best ways of providing people an entrée into the Psalter. This can connect with and challenge the breadth and diversity of our own expressions of worship and prayer. This series was created for a church where the Psalms had not been preached in recent memory. We used the series title “Expressions” as we sought to encourage people to practice each type of worship both corporately on Sunday and individually throughout the following week. Text: Psalms 96, 145 Title: Praise: Psalms of Orientation Exegetical Idea: All worship is response; we start with the character and actions of God. In these psalms we look for the invitations to praise (e.g. sing, declare, tell, exalt, celebrate) and the reasons why we do so (e.g. God’s salvation, majesty, justice, goodness, compassion, righteousness). These point us forward to God’s fulfilment of all these things in Jesus and call us to exalt him in our own lives. Big Idea: Declaring who God is and responding to him with worship. Text: Psalms 13, 69 Title: Lament: Psalms of Disorientation Exegetical Idea: We all experience situations of distress: times of suffering, guilt, and sin, and even feeling like God is absent. These psalms give us permission to name these realities before God, and they move us from request, through honest complaint, confession, or assertions of innocence, to statements of trust and hopefulness. They challenge us to honesty with God and one another in the midst of our brokenness. Big Idea: Crying out to God in our sin and suffering. Text: Psalms 30, 116 Title: Thanksgiving: Psalms of Reorientation Exegetical Idea: When we see God at work, these psalms encourage us to remind ourselves and tell one another what he has done. Recounting God’s faithfulness in our lives becomes an invitation for others to join us in praising him, encouraging us to share testimonies of what Jesus is doing in our lives. Big Idea: Gratefully telling the story of God’s work in our lives. Text: Psalms 23, 131 Title: Trust: Psalms of Confidence Exegetical Idea: These psalms use an extended metaphor (sheep and shepherd; mother and child) to reflect on and wonder at God’s care, concern, and compassion for his people. They invite us to put ourselves into that picture and allow God to embrace us. Big Idea: Meditating on a picture of who God is to us. Text: Psalms 121, 122 Title: Journey: Psalms of Pilgrimage Exegetical Idea: The title of these psalms links them to pilgrimage in ancient Israel, a practice of both journey and destination. Ps 121 speaks of God as our ever-present help, guarding and guiding us as we walk the road. Ps 122 celebrates Jerusalem, the place where God’s people gather together in his presence, an image picked up throughout the NT for both the church and the new creation. Big Idea: Walking with and towards God’s presence. Text: Psalms 1, 119 Title: Wisdom: Psalms of Instruction Exegetical Idea: Corporate worship should include singing and speaking to one another the truth of who God is and calling each other to respond. These psalms seek to encourage right living, teaching life lessons from the psalmists’ own experience. They challenge us to consider the depth of theological and practical teaching in our own expressions of worship. Big Idea: Reminding and teaching one another how to live as God’s people. Other psalm types that could be considered in an extended series: psalms of remembrance (e.g. Pss 78, 136); kingship psalms (e.g. Pss 20, 45); Zion psalms (e.g. Pss 46, 137). Series 2: Preaching a Key Theme of the Psalter Big Idea for Whole Series: Understanding and responding to Jesus as our King. Declaring God as King is a key reason for praise throughout the Psalms, which in turn shapes our understanding of what it means to call Jesus King. This series was a follow up to the previous series, one year later, and preached as part of a 12-month theme on the kingdom. We sought to explore how these psalms can speak of Israel’s human king, called to represent God to his people; of the true divine king; and of the promised king, the Messiah. Text: Psalm 2 Title: Enthroning the King Exegetical Idea: Kingship psalms might have been used as part of enthronement ceremonies or coronations, where the people of Israel pledged their allegiance to both their human and divine kings. While other rulers set themselves up in opposition to God (vv 1-3), this is futile (vv 4-6), as God has chosen his anointed king (vv 7-9). There is a warning to those who do not submit to him and the promise of blessing for those who do (vv 10-12). Big Idea: Jesus is King forever, but we need to choose to acknowledge and submit to his reign. Text: Psalm 24 Title: Welcoming the King Exegetical Idea: God is our creator-King: all things belong to him (vv 1-2). Entering his presence requires humble submission (vv 3-6) and a willingness to welcome him in all his glory (vv 7-10). Big Idea: We are called to welcome Jesus’ kingship in every area of our lives. Text: Psalm 47 Title: Worshiping the King Exegetical Idea: God’s kingship is to be celebrated! It is awesome (vv 1-4) and our response should be one of exuberant joy (vv 5-7). One day every tribe and nation will acknowledge his kingship (vv 8-9). Big Idea: We sing because we rejoice in Jesus’ reign. Text: Psalm 72 Title: Praying for the King Exegetical Idea: The Israelites prayed for their human king, asking God for just judgment (vv 1-4); an enduring reign (vv 5-11); compassion for the needy (vv 12-14); the extending of his kingdom (vv 15-17); and all praise to him (vv 18-20). These same requests can shape our prayers as we ask for the kingdom to come today. Big Idea: We seek and long for Jesus to reign with justice in our world. Text: Psalm 98 Title: Proclaiming the King Exegetical Idea: As we praise God for what he has done for us (vv 1-3), so we declare to all nations that he is king (vv 4-6), and we proclaim his coming just judgment to the whole world (vv 7-9). In the same way, we proclaim to the world the salvation Jesus has brought, his reign breaking into the world, and his future coming to set all things right. Big Idea: We proclaim King Jesus to the world. Other key theological themes that could be considered for additional series: God’s Word, God’s character, Creation, Rest, Forgiveness, God’s victory, and God’s mission to the nations. Series 3: Preaching a Collection Within the Psalter Big Idea for Whole Series: Living daily as the pilgrim people of God. Psalms 120-134 share a superscription that connects them to Israel’s practice of pilgrimage. From Augustine to Dante to Bunyan and beyond, the church has used the image of a “pilgrim people” to describe our identity. This collection of psalms speaks to what this looks like in daily life and corporate practice. This series was initially developed for a leadership conference and then preached at a large church who were seeking to make connections between Sunday gatherings, daily family and neighborhood life, and reaching out to the wider community. It explores some of the tensions these psalms present, as two poems side-by-side can explore paradoxical aspects of our identity and calling. Text: Psalms 120-122 Title: The Pilgrimage Journey Exegetical Idea: The pilgrimage collection starts in a place of dislocation and distance, calling us to dissatisfaction with where we find ourselves (120). As we begin our journey, where do we look for help (121:1-2)? We are invited to see God as our guardian in every dimension of life: day and night, coming and going, now and forever (121:3-6). At the same time, we anticipate with great joy the place God is preparing for us (122:1-3); and we seek his shalom both there and here (122:4-8). Big Idea: The tension between journey and destination: God is at work in and through us now and yet we are still anticipating something more. Text: Psalms 123-124 Title: Slaves and Free Exegetical Idea: We are invited to picture ourselves as slaves waiting upon the favor of our master (123:1-2); leading to an acknowledgement that we have been satisfied with something far less from other masters (123:3-4). At the same time, we are invited to imagine what our lives would be like if God had not stepped in (124:1-2) and to feel the joyful experience of salvation (124:3-8). Big Idea: The tension between salvation and submission: we have been set free to serve. Text: Psalms 125-126 Title: The People of God Exegetical Idea: Our communal identity is one of security (125:1-2), unlike those who reject God’s ways (125:3), and so we cry out for God’s peace upon us (125:4-5). At the same time, we remember that we are here now only because of God’s saving work in the past (126:1-3) and we look for him to again pour out his blessing anew (126:4-6). Big Idea: The past and the present: who we are is shaped by where we have come from and shapes where we go. Text: Psalms 127-129 Title: Daily Life and Struggles Exegetical Idea: Work without God’s hand is futile (127:1-2); but when we are blessed in our families it is God’s work (127:3-5). Those who walk in his ways receive his blessing in their lives (128:1-4) and seek for that blessing to be shared with others (128:5-6). At the same time, suffering is our common experience (129:1-3) and so we look for God’s intervention (129:4) and we leave vengeance upon enemies up to him (129:5-8). Big Idea: Work, family, and nation: seeking God’s blessing in every area of our lives. Text: Psalms 130-131 Title: Repentance and Confidence Exegetical Idea: We cry out in confession knowing we don’t deserve God’s forgiveness (130:1-3) but receiving it because of who he is (130:4). In response, we wait and hope for his word (130:5-6), calling others to seek his forgiveness too (130:7-8). At the same time, we can stand in God’s presence with bold humility (131:1), content without needing more from him (131:2) and calling others to the same hope (131:3). Big Idea: The tension between confession and assurance: we humbly bow before God as sinners, and we stand forgiven as his children. Text: Psalm 132 Title: God’s Desire to Dwell Among His People Exegetical Idea: This psalm is longer, more historically grounded, and uses more traditional poetic style and imagery than the rest of the collection. Yet it announces the climax of Israel’s story: the realization of David’s great longing (vv 1-5) that God would dwell among his people (vv 6-12) and the theological truth that this has in fact been God’s great longing too (vv 13-18). Big Idea: The paradox: the God we long for has always been longing for us. Text: Psalms 133-134 Title: The Blessing of Community Exegetical Idea: The unity of God’s people is incredibly good, illustrated by pictures of overflowing and abundance (133:1-3a) and the certainty of blessing (133:3b). As the pilgrimage collection comes to an end, this works out in the departing pilgrims reminding the priests to keep blessing God (134:1-2) and the request for this blessing to poured out upon all he has made (134:3). Big Idea: The tension between being gathered and scattered: we find joy in the experience of church community and we are sent out to share that blessing with others. Other collections that could be considered for additional series: psalms of Asaph (Pss 50, 73-83), psalms of Korah (Pss 42, 44-49, 84-85, 87-88), and the miktams of David (Pss 16, 56-60). Series 4: Preaching the Psalter’s Entire Narrative Structure Big Idea for Whole Series: The story of the Psalms as a reflection of Israel’s story and ours. The Book of Psalms is divided into five books, perhaps deliberately reflecting the five books of the Pentateuch. Different types or genres of psalms are more prominent in different books. Psalms 1-2 appear to form a deliberate introduction to the book as a whole, focusing on the themes of wisdom and kingship. Psalms 146-150 form a strong conclusion of praise, each opening and closing with the invitation, hallelujah. If the book as a whole is thought of as representing a “place” of worship, we may enter God’s presence with questions or doubts, but we leave rejoicing. This series seeks to help people see the shape of the Book of Psalms as a whole, functioning as part of a wider series on the overarching narrative of the Bible. Text: Psalms 1-41 Title: Book I: Personal Struggles Exegetical Idea: After introducing the themes of wisdom and kingship (Pss 1-2); the rest of this book contains psalms of David, many personal to his circumstances, describing his troubles (3-8), his questions about life (9-14), his experience of evil (35-39) and even the absence of God (30-31). But we also see his commitment to the Lord (15-17, 26-27) and confidence in his presence (19-21, 23) so that he can rejoice at all times (34, 40). Big Idea: David’s honest exploration of his own relationship with God reveals God’s faithfulness despite our struggles, questions, doubts, and suffering, and helps us rejoice in all things. Text: Psalms 42-72 Title: Book II: Communal Struggles Exegetical Idea: These psalms of Korah (42-49), Asaph (50), David (51-65, 68-70) and Solomon (72) shift to more communal language and national focus. There are many laments as the people of God struggle to find hope in dark times (42-44, 52-64) and yet there is confident hope in God’s deliverance (54, 57, 66-67, 72). Big Idea: The people of God cried out for his intervention as they experienced oppression and brokenness, calling us to cry for God to intervene in the mess of our world today. Text: Psalms 73-89 Title: Book III: Crisis Exegetical Idea: The darkest of the five books explores God’s judgment and seeming rejection of his people (73-79, 89) and takes us to the dark night of the soul (88). Yet we still find hopeful longing for God in the midst (84-85) much like we do in the book of Lamentations (3:21-26), suggesting it is darkest just before the dawn. Big Idea: As the people of God face destruction and exile, they look for him to do something new, inviting us to do the same. Text: Psalms 90-106 Title: Book IV: Making Sense of It All Exegetical Idea: This book moves toward praise as the psalmists seek to answer some of the big questions raised by the exile: Does God still love us? (91-92, 100-101, 103) Is he still just? (94-95, 105-106) Is he still sovereign? (96-99) They affirm that God is who he has always been and help the people make sense of their current situation in light of that truth. Big Idea: The psalmists affirm God’s faithful character and show how he continues to be at work in the world, a theological task that the church today is also called to. Text: Psalms 107-150 Title: Book V: Starting Anew Exegetical Idea: The final book is filled with thanksgiving and praise (111-118, 145) outlining God’s answering of prayer and faithfulness to his promises. It concludes with a chorus of hallelujahs (146-150). Big Idea: As God gathers his people together again, they renew their commitment to him and praise him for who he is, was, and always will be. Some ideas to keep in mind when seeking to apply the Psalms Focus on communal as well as individual application. This should include how the Psalm might challenge our corporate worship and mission practices. For example, we had someone write a corporate lament for what was going on in our world and our local situation that we prayed together as a congregation, and also encouraged people to write their own personal lament during the week. Look for what the psalm is calling us to do. This can be found in the commands, many of which are to worship. But it is also seen in the expression of the psalmist’s own actions (“I will …”, e.g. Ps 18:49) or in calls to the community (“O Israel …”, e.g. Ps 131:3). Provide time and space for people to respond in various ways. This can be both corporately and individually, and could include singing, speaking, meditating, physical postures, actions, journaling, discussing, memorizing, listening, or creating art. For example, in the kingdom Psalms series we linked each message to a posture: kneel, stand, sing, pray, shout. After each message, we spent time practicing this physical posture as a gathered community, and encouraging people to incorporate this attitude into their week. When exploring the theme of creation in the Psalms, we set up an art gallery of photos and artworks from members of our congregation expressing the beauty of creation with a question in place of a description inviting people to reflect; the following week we provided molding clay, canvases and paint, and invited people to explore their own creativity as a response to the Psalms. When looking at the pilgrimage Psalms with a smaller congregation, we went for a prayer walk in small groups around our neighborhood. Use your imagination and encourage your people together to put into practice what the Book of Psalms is speaking about. Consider how the psalm points to Jesus. There are various ways to do this. Often, we can apply the images for God in the psalm to him (shepherd, king, rescuer, guardian, rock). We can also pray the prayers of the psalm to him. An interesting exercise is to imagine him speaking the psalm as his own song or prayer. Jesus used the psalms as his own prayers during his life and the Gospel writers use a number of psalms to articulate their understanding of his actions. Hebrews 2:11 pictures Jesus joining us in corporate worship, singing God’s praises alongside us. Jesus is also the perfect embodiment of wisdom psalms such as Ps 1 and Ps 112, pointing to our faith in him and his work in our lives rather than our own efforts as the appropriate response to these kinds of psalms. My Encounter with Psalms In my context, the Psalms have often been used for individual devotion or corporate reading but rarely preached on. My own studies of the Psalms and development of these and other sermons has led to a Psalms series becoming part of the annual preaching rhythm of our church life. It engages people’s minds but also their emotions, imaginations, and bodies. Being challenged to pray psalms that do not seem to reflect our current experience has forced us to consider the wider church globally and historically and where we fit within it, so that we find ourselves speaking to, for, and about one another as well as to, for, and about God. It has enriched our corporate language about King Jesus and stretched us in our expressions of prayer and worship. It has become a highlight of our year. Tremper Longman III, How To Read the Psalms (Downers Grove: IVP, 1988). Rolf A. Jacobson & Karl N. Jacobson, Invitation to the Psalms: A Reader’s Guide for Discovery and Engagement (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013). Robert Alter, The Book of Psalms: A Translation with Commentary (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007). Willem A. VanGemeren, Psalms, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008). Walter Brueggemann and William H. Bellinger Jr, Psalms, New Cambridge Bible Commentary (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014). It is important to note that even though the superscriptions are not given a verse number in most English translations, they are part of the original text. Note, however, that the Hebrew lamed can be read as “to,” “for,” or “of” rather than “by” so might indicate a broader association than authorship. Harry P Nasuti, “God at Work in the Word: A Theology of Divine-Human Encounter in the Psalms,” in Soundings in the Theology of the Psalms: Perspectives and Methods in Contemporary Scholarship, ed. Rolf A Jacobson (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2011), 29. John Calvin, Commentary on the Book of Psalms Volume I, 23. Translated by James Anderson. Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Online: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom08.pdf.

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We have alphabetized this glossary. When more than one term might be used for the same concept, we provide a definition for the term that we use in the book and refer to alternative terms with “See X.” Alliteration is the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. Altered Experiences affect how humans perceive time due to drug or alcohol use, medical issues, psychological issues, or spiritual issues. Associative Development is the process through which the writer studies their own images to discover a set of implicit concerns, obsessions, or curiosities, which can then be unpacked and analyzed through a series of associative leaps both intellectual and creative. Associative Movement, rather than relying on chronology as the best way to structure creative nonfiction, is when a writer ties the central question together not by chronology but by association. Associative movement generates energy not by “what will happen next,” but the deeper suspense of “what it all means,” as the narrator compares the central question (again, the questions compelling the narrative) to the situation, or as the narrator links together ideas not based on time but based on how they thematically relate to each other. Assonance is the repetition of the sound of a vowel or diphthong (two vowels that combine into a single syllable, such as coin or side) in non-rhyming stressed syllables near enough to each other for the echo to be discernible. Central Question, the, is the curiosity (or set of curiosities) that serve as a writer’s motivation, inspiration, and compositional directive. The central question is the ideas or actions that the writer will explore. Some might call it a creative nonfiction writer’s hypothesis. The central question is tied to the situation. Connotation is a word’s subtext or the conscious and subconscious associations of any given word. Consonance is the repetition of the sound of a consonant or diphthong (two vowels that combine into a single syllable, such as coin or side) in non-rhyming stressed syllables near enough to each other for an echo to be discernible. Cornerstone Images, like the cornerstone of a building, serve as the foundational images or scenes for rich creative nonfiction. These images help us discover the next image and the next. Creative Memory is the plumbing of our complicated memories to try and make sense of them by fitting them into our personal mythologies. Writers work to discover who we are by mining where we've been. Creative Nonfiction is trickier to define since it is based around what it is not: i.e. not fiction. Still, one definition is that creative nonfiction uses imaginative elements to write about real events. Creative Research is actively observing and researching the world around us (and this includes everything from remembering to researching to interviewing to reviewing maps and photos) and connecting this research to our central questions. Dilated Images are images that are slowed down and see up close, suggesting an image that has been long considered, as fight or flight and novel moments often are, and also images that have been, literally, seared into our brains. Dialectical Movement is any time a writer explores a different point of view, either between characters or between parts of themselves. Dialectical movement is the inquisitive mind at work and it allows readers to see a situation from a variety of points of view. Drama came from the Greeks and means either a “theatrical act” or “a play” and comes from the Greek word for “to take action.” The shape of a drama on the page is a script. Drama doesn’t care if things are invented or true. Drama is one of our three genres. Dramatic Design includes all of the ways writers can intentionally choose to organize and shape creative nonfiction—either through chronological movement or associative movement—to reinforce and contribute to the central question and knot of meaning. Dramatic design organizes our creative nonfiction in ways that allows our readers to see meaning in our shifts in focus, content, or ideas; leap forward or back in time; and where and how we create juxtapositions between images. Echoes are when a word, image, sound, or idea is repeated throughout a narrative. It’s a tactical move that creates emphasis through mirroring. Essay originates from the Latin word exxagium (through the French word essai) and means “a weighing” or “to examine” or “to try.” An essay, therefore, is an examination or the trying on of an idea or event. Fact, in Medieval Latin, meant something that was literally a “thing done.” By the 1600s, a fact was understood to be “a thing that is known or proven to be true.” Fiction includes all invented narratives. It is most often in prose form. Fight or Flight Experiences are moments where our lives are in physical or emotional charged moments. Time seems to slow, to stretch forever, as the brain races to take in enough information to decide if it should fight or flee. Filters are any description of our characters’ or narrator’s observing consciousness or mental activity. Filters describe thinking or observing rather than just allowing the character or narrator to think or observe. I wondered; She thought; He saw; I felt, and similar language, filters the character’s experience rather than just letting the character experience it. Flatlining entails dialing back abstract language of emotions, using an almost-reportorial tone, so that the reader can bring their own emotions to the experience. Flatlining is best used in emotionally or physically charged situations. Flashbacks and Flash Forwards are when a character or narrator re-experiences a previous or future event. Flashbacks and flash forwards are different from reflection in that reflection is thinking about a past action while flashbacks are remembering the actions themselves as scene on the page and flash forwards are remembering an event that will occur at some future moment. Prolonged Flashbacks and Forwards are fully fleshed-out scenes that slow the chronological movement of our creative nonfiction to a halt as we either relive a past scene or imagine a future scene. Anecdotal Flashbacks and Flash Forwards are quick in nature. They may be no longer than a few words or a quick summary of a scene. Anecdotal flashes can blend more seamlessly and provide opportunities to quickly establish metaphors and resonances—a satisfying sense of pattern across time. Forgetting Curve highlights the speed at which memories break down. Research shows that humans lose over half of their memories in under a week unless they actively review the experience. This loss of memory, the forgetting curve, occurs because the brain cannot hold onto all of its memories. Forms are the ways in which writers fashion situations into central questions, knots of meaning, and, ultimately, art. Form gives content shape, and shape is what distinguishes the chaos of experience from artifact, raw material from masterpiece. Traditional Form, the, is when creative nonfiction narratives have a beginning, middle, and ending and typically uses standard chronology. Braided Form, the, weaves together two or more ideas, experiences, and/or images, eschewing chronology and formal logic as its organizing principle. The braided form slowly intertwines questions, ideas, and/or moments, bit by bit, until by the end, the reader cannot help but see these ostensibly separate strands as naturally linked. One of the components that comes along with this weaving is that the ideas being explored are revealed to the reader slowly. Collage Form, the, juxtaposes multiple and often seemingly unrelated images or ideas side by side. Thoughtful juxtaposition is key to the collage. How two or more images or ideas bounce off each other is where the collage gathers its strength. Rather than working chronologically or by neatly tying things together, as in the braided narrative, the writer is after the affect that comes from putting together a range of startling or striking images or ideas Flash Form, the, is less defined by what it is and more defined by the size of itself. For the flash form, there is a strict word count, which leads to a compression of ideas and images. Some consider flash to be anything under five hundred words. Others set the word count higher or lower. Regardless, it’s the use of compression that sets the flash apart. Lyric Form, the, is what poets call the prose poem. The lyric form leans into poetic elements to create meaning: language, rhythm, sound, alliteration, torque, repetition, cadence, musicality. Indeed, the root of the word lyric is lyre, a musical instrument that accompanied ancient song. The lyric form is songlike; it hinges on the inherent rhythms of language and sound, both to create shape and to reveal meaning. Lyric forms are artful, but with purpose, requiring the reader to complete the meaning by provoking meditation. Graphic Form, the, pairs visual images with words. These images might be pen and ink, photographs, paintings, etc. These images establish tone, setting, and other vital details. The writer relies less on words, especially because there is less space on the page for words, and more on the intersections and combinations of words and images. Found Forms, the, adopt a structure from other structures. For example, a writer might create a narrative that looks like a take-out menu, a website for a pet adoption facility, a how-to format, playlists, address books, a field guide, a set of directions to building something, an email, a map, an interview, a math problem, a test, or a multitude of other forms. The only limitation of found forms is the writer’s imagination. Genre is writing differentiated by its shape. In creative writing, we primarily have three genres: poetry, drama, and prose. Incident Frequency is the number of times a moment occurs in the real world in comparison to the number of times it occurs on the page. Three categories exist: the normative frequency, the iterative frequency, and the repetitive frequency. Normative Frequency is when the number of occurrences of a real event match the number of times the event is shown on the page. Iterative Frequency is when the number of occurrences on the page is lower than the number of occurrences in the real world. The iterative is best used to remove non-novel experiences. Repetitive Frequency is when the number of occurrences on the page exceed the number of occurrences in the real world. Repetitive is best used to highlight fight or flight and novel experiences and, at times, altered state experiences. Writers use repetitive frequency to highlight how an issue is so powerful we keep returning to it. Infrastructure is a web of connected or resonant images that serve as scaffolding for the work; infrastructure holds the work together like nexus points in a spider web. Internal Scene is when a writer stops action and moves from the real world into the brain for thought. Because the writer is no longer experiencing the outer world, there is no perception of time occurring, instead only introspection, speculation, and reflection. Internal Scene, Types, Fantastic, the, is where the writer brings in invented or imagined elements to a work of creative nonfiction. Though most or all of the fantastic is untrue (and possibly impossible), the fantastic allows the reader to better understand the mind and emotions of a narrator. This understanding comes from what we learn about why the narrator invents and imagines, which is what we all do most of the day: we imagine, we invent, we create. And the fantastic, though invented, should lean into the emotional truths of a situation. Introspection is a narrator examining their current feelings or state of mind. Introspection is generally less about situations and more about the emotions that arise from situations. Introspection is less about the past and more about the current state of the narrator or character. Reflection is contemplating, meditating, or ruminating on an idea or event that has already occurred. The term reflection also means, scientifically, the echo of sound or light waves off a surface. Reflection is not the situation explored in our creative nonfiction but the echo of that situation. Speculation is envisioning either past, current, or future events based on knowledge at hand. Speculation allows a character to re-imagine a past, present, or future situation from their own perspective or from other people’s perspectives. And this is something that everyone does every day. Research also gives the feeling of internal scene. When a writer properly places research into creative nonfiction, readers experience the writer’s mind in active thought. Further, research also helps the reader see the connections the writer is making, which, again, offers us internal scene. Juxtaposition is when a writer uses associative leaps. The writer places two “things,” often unrelated, side by side to see what is created or revealed. How we put things together in creative nonfiction is as crucial as what we put together, and that is what juxtaposition is: placing unlike things beside each other. Knot of Meaning, the, is the conclusion arrived at after writing toward and writing with our central question. The knot of meaning is most often not a single answer but a complicated view of our central question. If the central question might be considered the creative nonfiction writer’s hypothesis, then the knot of meaning might be considered the (subtlety stated) thesis that proves, disproves, or complicates the writer’s hypothesis. This proving, disproving, and complicating arises from creative memory and creative research and is creative in nature. Leaps help writers break from standard chronological movement by moving a narrative across time and space to focus on the most significant moments as sections of the narrative get grouped together by association rather than strict chronology. White Space is a pause between two sections and, if used intentionally, is rife with meaning. White space is not a blank space, or merely a visual transition. Instead, white space is a meaning maker. White space asks readers to make connections between the sections it separates, and it does it often without a transition. Further, white space often uses juxtaposition to increase strength. Malleable Memories is a term that reminds us that all memories are, at their core, inventions and re-creations. Memoir traces itself back to the Latin word memoria, which means, simply, “memory.” Memoir is a sharing of the writer’s memories or the construction of one’s story from one’s memory. Myths are stories that a culture believes to be true (and may be true) while the outside world believes a culture’s myths to be untrue or distorted. Myths, Personal, are stories that a writer accepts as truth and fact but are actually falsified by malleable memories and the distortion of our phenomenal truths. Narratives are often thought to be stories with beginnings, middles, and ends and are organized by time, rather than space. That said, many narratives focus on issues other than time to convey the meaning of a story. Chronological Narratives are narratives have a temporal frame—some movement through time, which helps highlight two different versions of the writer. First, we see the writer as a character in the actions of our creative nonfiction. Next, we see the writer as someone reflecting on those actions; this is our narrator. Achronological Narratives break with chronological organization. These are often considered "experimental," outside of the boundaries of traditional meaning-making, and we borrow terms from other art forms (visual art, music, etc.) to describe these achronological narratives. These forms include the lyric, collage, braided, and so on. Narrative Energy is the reader’s engagement with the material on the page, regulated by the writer’s control over language, tension, pacing, stakes, and rhythm. Narrative energy is not created from subject matter alone, or action-packed plot lines, but through the writer’s use of language, tension, pacing, stakes, and rhythm. Narrator is one version of the writer and is constructed entirely of words. The narrator guides readers through the situation and is also, often, the main character involved. Narrator, Reliable, is someone the reader trusts to be honest in our creative nonfiction. Narrator, Types of, Dramatic narrator, is a narrator who only reports on a situation and is not a participant, as is often seen in journalism. The writer keeps the reader outside of all characters’ thoughts (since the writer doesn’t have access to any thoughts of those involved in the situation) and, often, out of the narrator’s thoughts. Normally, the dramatic narrator only reports on character actions and words. There are two types of dramatic narrators. They are the observer and commentator narrators. The dramatic observer narrator is not involved in the situation either on an action or emotion level. The observer narrator reports rather than experiences. We hear no thoughts from this narrator. Instead, the observer narrator allows the characters to solidify the central question only through words, actions, and research. A more engaged narrator that also uses dramatic distance is the dramatic commentator narrator. Again, this narrator is not engaged in the situation but does offer internal scene about the situation. So, here, the reader sees the situation through other characters’ actions and dialogue but also receives commentary on those actions from our narrator, who appears to be standing off to the side of the situation. Interior Narrators offer readers access to the thoughts and emotions of the narrator, especially concerning the situation. Most first and second person narratives use interior narrators. There are two types of interior distance narrators: secondary narrators and protagonist narrators. The secondary narrator is involved in the situation but is not the main character. With a secondary narrator, we often feel as if we are hearing a second-hand story. The most intimate interior distance narrator is the protagonist narrator. Here, our narrator is a main character. The reader feels as if they are experiencing the situation through the narrator’s eyes, which is exactly how the situation unfolded. Narrator, Unreliable, is a narrator that readers do not trust. There are two types of unreliable narrators in creative nonfiction. The intentional unreliable narrator and the unintentional unreliable narrator Narrator, Intentional Unreliable, is a narrator who cannot be trusted, yet the reader understands that the writer can be trusted. With these narrators, the writer intentionally highlights a deceitful/confused/or otherwise untrustworthy narrator because the writer recognizes that the narrator (a version of the writer) cannot be trusted in this moment and, therefore, the only fair way to portray that narrator is to make them an untrustworthy narrator. Narrator, Unintentional Unreliable, is a narrator who the reader doesn’t trust, but the reader carries that distrust over to the writer as well. With the unintentional unreliable narrator, in the writer’s mind, the narrator is credible. But in the reader’s mind, the narrator is untrustworthy. In this instance, both narrator and writer lose credibility, and the reader disengages with the piece. Narrator-situation Distance is the narrator’s proximity to the situation Narrator-situation distance affects where in time, emotion, and space the narrator stands in relationship to the situation. This distance controls how close the narrator feels to the situation, how long they have been able to reflect on a situation, and, often, but not always, how close the reader feels to the situation. Narrator-situation Merge is when a writer is too close to a situation, temporally and emotionally, resulting in little to no narrative distance, which leads to little or no internal scene. Non-novel Experiences are the opposite of novel experiences; they are the mundane moments in our lives that the brain “forgets” because this information is a repetition of what was learned yesterday and the day before and the day before. Noumenal, the, originates from the term “Ding an sich,” which can be translated as “thing-in-itself.” The noumenal is the actual world or the factual world. Novel Experiences are any new (and important) event in our lives. The brain remembers these events because they are new, important, and might teach us something about how to emotionally or literally survive this world. Phenomenonal, the, is the world of appearances and interpretation, the world filtered through a human’s senses. Broken down into mathematical terms, noumenal truth + our senses = an individual’s phenomenal truths. Poetry originates from the Latin word for “poet,” which means “maker” or “author.” Poetry is most often defined by its use of line breaks and its reliance on heightened language. Poetry doesn’t care if things are invented or true. Poetry is one of our three genres. Prefabricated Language is words and phrases that are so familiar that they cease to mean in any significant way. They function as abstractions, rather than vivid and particular description. Denotation is a word’s literal meaning. Prose is writing shaped into paragraphs. The term prose is birthed from the Latin word for “straightforward,” since most prose is more linear than poetry. Prose uses paragraphs, sentences, and (usually) traditional uses of punctuation. Prose doesn’t care if things are invented or true. Significant Sensory Details are sensory details that work on multiple levels to reflect emotional truth and teach the reader how to experience the image. The best sensory details evoke an emotional or aesthetic mood, cultivate setting or character, create or extend a metaphor, or in some other way convey multiple levels of meaning. Situation, the, is what is being explored: who (the characters), what (the plot), where (the setting), and when (the time period). The situation is tied to the central question. Social Self is understanding who we—the writer—in context to the larger world. We can understand our social selves by looking at where we are situation in the larger world. This includes examining gender, race, religion, class, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc while also exploring the social, historic, and cultural shifts that take place during our lifetimes. Speed of Scene examines the amount of time it takes a reader to read a scene versus the amount of time the actual event comprised. Five speeds of scene exist. From fastest to slowest they are Gaps, Summary, Scene, Dilation, and Internal Scene. Gaps are the fastest movement of time. Gaps, as their name implies, leave out most or all details of an event. Gaps skip over non-novel moments where we forget things because they are unimportant. Drug and alcohol-affected moments also often have gaps. Summary, much like gaps, deals with non-novel moments. When using summary, we distill an event down into just important details. Scene matches the actual time of the event. This is closest to the real time of an event. Here the time it takes to read a narration closely matches the actual time of the event. Scenes often come from all the times when our perception is affected—fight or flight, novel, and altered experiences. Dilation occurs when the reading of a moment stretches longer than the actual event. Dilation is slower—because of the level of detail added—than real life and often mirrors fight or flight, novel, and altered experiences. Internal Scene is when a writer stops action and moves from the real world into the brain for thought. Because the writer is no longer experiencing the outer world, there is no perception of time occurring, instead only introspection, speculation, and reflection. Stakes are what stands to be lost, gained, or changed in the future, while, in contrast, tension is a kind of collision or trouble. Tension is trouble or conflict, and wielding tension effectively is essential for reader investment. In life, and on the page, we must push against something to see the world in a new way. Not only does tension keep our readers engaged—because two or more forces are colliding—but more critically, it’s the only way that change occurs. Without tension, we continue to move forward in the same direction and with the same perspective. Moment of Tension, the, is the cause of sitting down to write. This is always something that has already occurred. Moment of Reflection, the, which is when the writer wrestles with the moment of tension to uncover the stakes. Toothbrush Syndrome, the, is when writers stick too doggedly to the timeline, insist on holding our reader’s hand through time, which often leads to a series of plodding plot points. Topics are simply the situation, especially what is occurring. Topics are often confused for genre or forms. We can write about any given topic in any genre, using any degree of veracity, and within any form. Autobiography is a chronology of the writer’s entire life. It begins at the beginning and ends whenever the writer stops writing. It focuses on all the major details of a writer’s life. The autobiography is shaped to reveal the impact of seminal events and/or shifts on the subject's emotional, physical, and/or intellectual development—or the subject's impact on others. Environmental and Nature focuses on how humans interact with or affect the world around us. These pieces often focus on a place, especially details about the location in question. Immersion is where the writer tries on a next life, experience, or activity. This is either something the writer has never done before or something the writer hasn’t done in many, many years. The newness of the activity is what the writer is exploring. Literary Journalism is the intersection between journalism (factual reporting) and creative nonfiction. Here, writers focus on reporting, but also lean more into heightened language and scene work. Meditations is more philosophical, and often works to unpack an ideas of profound personal importance to the writer. Meditations tie back to Montaigne’s Essais. Often meditations don’t aim to prove a point, but rather to explore a question in depth and with precision. These narratives are often not structured chronologically, but instead follow the movements of the mind. Memoir examines a period of a writer’s life, especially as related to a single question or idea, and especially related to past moments, which is why memoir takes its name from “memory.” This is a major focus of the memoir, probing our memories in order to reveal complex meaning. Personal is similar to memoir. Some writers highlight page length as the difference between these two topics (personal is often considered short, say under twenty pages, while memoir is book length), but we argue that the personal is not determined by length, but by a focus on more immediate events than memoir. Whereas memoir looks backwards, the personal examines the immediately lived life. In some ways, the distinctions between the two are negligible and indefinable, but worth offering here as a launching point for discussion. Portrait examines someone or something other than the writer themselves. The writer turns their gaze from their own life and instead focuses on a person, event, or place. Persuasive focuses its attention on proving a point. Here, the writer, rather than exploring a question—as seen in the meditative—stares right at the issue and tries to convert the reader to a new point of view. Science and Math deals with explaining or highlighting key new discoveries. This topic often works to “translate” a complex scientific or mathematical idea into a language an average reader can understand. Speculative focus on situations where the writer uses speculation, deduction, and extrapolation to write about something they do not fully know. Often, the speculative looks forward or backward in time to make an educated guess on how an event might have turned out differently. Sports zeroes in on an event or athlete and focuses on the game or activity being played. These can, often, overlap with the profile. Travel focuses on giving the reader an inside look at another place. The travel topic also often examines insiders and outsiders. Truth comes from the West Saxon word triewe and means “faithful" or having the “quality of being true.” True, meanwhile, traces itself back to Proto-Germanic. Since the 1200s, true has meant “consistent with fact” and since the 1300s has meant “real, genuine, not counterfeit.” Truth, Aesthetic, deals with the ways a specific writer—or related group of writers—artistically deal with their topic. Aesthetic truths deal with what forms or style a writer uses to uncover their knot of meaning. Truth, Emotional, is how someone feels about or interprets a previous event and/or how an event feels during the moment. Veracity comes from the Latin term “vērāx,” which means “to speak truthfully.” Veracity is “a truth” or “a truthful statement.” Veracity is what differentiates creative nonfiction and fiction.

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Join now. Oratory is the ability to convey a successful speech, and it is a means of performing rhetoric. Translated by George A. 3. To show kindness is praiseworthy; to show hatred is evil. The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. There are a number of standard rhetorical modes of writing—structural and analytical models that can be used effectively to suit different writing situations. Aristotle. Forensic oratory is either accusatory or defensive. These three branches–deliberative, judicial, and epideictic–cover some of the most common ways we communicate, even today. Rhetorical devices are frequently used in literature, though we oftentimes use these types of words in our everyday conversations without notice. Rhetorical devices are loosely organized into the following four categories: Logos. expository: writing that aims to explain or describe something. 1. The three primary means of persuasion, as outlined by Aristotle in his treatise Ars Rhetorica, are ethos, pathos, and logos.Likewise, there are three primary purposes for classic rhetorical works, also described by Aristotle as rhetorical species. The three types of rhetoric we are going to focus on here are: 1. A rhetorical mode is a strategy--a way or method of presenting a subject-through writing or speech. The Rhetorical modes (also called modes of discourse) refer to several types of written communication. Create a 4×3 table in which you set out the four models of rhetoric we have covered in class. Paul uses first few verses of letter. Rhetorical approaches can be described in terms of the means of persuasion used or in terms of the purpose of a particular rhetorical work. The study of rhetoric dates back to ancient Greece. Rhetorical skills work hand in hand with one another. What Is the Connection between Oratory and Rhetoric. [The following is a post I wrote for the discussion board in one of the seminary classes I took with Liberty University, Hermeneutics] List and define the 3 types of rhetoric in Roman letters according to Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard. Four Resources of Persuasion Goals are.. 3 Types Of Rhetorical Questions. Dover Thrift Editions, W. Rhys Roberts, Paperback, Dover Publications, September 29, 2004. If you’re trying to persuade an audience that will be moved by an appeal to emotion, try creating a Pinterest board. Rhetorical strategies can be used in writing, in conversation or if you are planning a speech. Some of the better known rhetorical modes are, for example, "argument" and "cause and effect." The Best Kind of Orator. (Yeeeeah.) Part II: Models of Rhetoric Create a 4×3 table in which you set out the four models of rhetoric we have covered in class. Judicial rhetoric is speech or writing that considers the justice or injustice of a certain charge or accusation. 1. Aristotle. Forensic, or judicial, rhetoric establishes facts and judgments about the past, similar to detectives at a crime scene. And you definitely have a “tug-at-their-heartstrings” acquaintance. Ethos means character and it is an appeal to moral principles. Calling an argument logical does not necessarily mean that it is free from opinion, speculation or error, but it does mean that it is grounded in fact rather than in emotion. Kennedy, George A. Pathos is the Greek root of the word pathetic, meaning "something that relates to the emotion." Rhetorical Treatises." Argument, Appeals, Arrangement, Aesthetics. Gaillet, Lynee Lewis. We are more easily persuaded by people who come across as trustworthy. Logos: Strategy of reason, logic, or facts. The rhetoric is primarily emotive. Sound patterns The three points on the Rhetorical Triangle relate directly to the three classic appeals you should consider when communicating: Ethos: building trust by establishing your credibility and authority (Writer). He first began to develop his view of rhetoric while he was in Athens and completed his formation at his school, the Lyceum. Pathos means experience or sadness and it is an appeal to emotion. Aristotle's Rhetoric generally concentrates on ethos and pathos, and—as noted by Aristotle—both affect judgment. Rhetoric is the ancient art of using language to persuade. In the 20th century it underwent a shift of emphasis from the speaker or writer to the auditor or reader. Ethos is how your character as a speaker or writer affects the audience. Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia Southern University and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks. Book I offers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a working definition; it also offers a detailed discussion of the major contexts and types of rhetoric. Ethos (credibility), or ethical appeal, this means convincing your listener by referring to your own reputation. According to Aristotle, a speaker or writer has three ways to persuade his audience: Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. What are the three types of rhetoric See answers (1) Ask for details ; Follow Report What do you need to know? and the … Give examples of these… Aristotle, way back in the 4th Century B.C., identified three branches of rhetoric (also known as the three branches of oratory). Any type of argument which appeals to someone’s rational side is appealing to logos. 3. Instead, you simply want him to stop irritating you. The Rhetoric consists of three books. Whereas judicial rhetoric is primarily concerned with past events, deliberative discourse, says Aristotle, "always advises about things to come." The endorsement of a doctor or medical researcher regarding a particular medication, for instance, would contain appeal to ethos, whereas the testimony of a patient who had taken the medicine would not necessarily. 386, H. M. Hubbell, English and Latin Edition, Harvard University Press, January 1, 1949. Additional modes of written communication include definition, process, classification/division, comparison/contrast, and cause/effect. Logos means reason and it is an appeal to logic. Political, Personal, Psychological. Use the same 3 categories to describe each model (relation of rhetoric to truth; the power the speaker has in relation to the audience; and the function of rhetoric… Beginning where the speaker develops relationship with audience. A. Topics. Chapters 1-3 Review Questions Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free. Anthypophora or Hypophora . There are three genres of rhetoric: 1. Of course, the data in many scholarly articles, especially in the humanities, is open to interpretation, and different authors may draw different logical conclusions regarding the same data. Rhetoric (/ ˈ r ɛ t ə r ɪ k /) is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic – see Martianus Capella), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse.Rhetoric aims to study the capacities of writers or speakers needed to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. Today we apply it to any form of communication. "Rhetoric." Without style, the final formal category, the orator’s points are bound to fall flat. George A. Kennedy, "Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times", Lynee Lewis Gaillet and Michelle F. Eble, "Primary Research and Writing". ResearchGate, January 2008. Imagine being cast out into the street, cold, lonely and frightened. List and define the 3 types of rhetoric in Roman letters according to Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard. In his book Rhetoric, he defined these 3 Greek words. Ask your question. These are defined by Aristotle in his "Rhetoric" (4th century B.C.) Logos appeals to logic or reason-often citing facts, figures, and statistics. A simple example of this. Pathos Definition. Epideictic rhetoric is speech or writing that praises (encomium) or blames (invective). Here are some common types of rhetorical questions. Rhetoric, the principles of training communicators—those seeking to persuade or inform. (I’ll give you a moment. 5 points jack1062 Asked 10.29.2018. Here are some common types of rhetorical questions. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—deliberative, forensicor judicial, and epideictic. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged Edition, The University of North Carolina Press, February 22, 1999. Ethos appeals to the character of the writer or speaker-stating that his or her background, credentials, or experience should convince you … Parallel structures. Forensic: Like CSI but with words. More than 2,000 years later, these three types of rhetoric still describe the primary ways that speakers, writers, artists … Which three types of power are enhanced by an understanding of the art of rhetoric? Loeb Classical Library Np. 1, JSTOR, September 1992. "Primary Research and Writing: People, Places, and Spaces." ALLITERATION (Paranomeon): a series of words which … Provide a list of different reasoning types. "Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times." Today we’ll cover the three means of persuasion as set forth by Aristotle in The Art of Rhetoric. The five canons of rhetoric include invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. In this type of rhetoric, the emphasis is on the arguer rather than on the subject itself. Interpreted more broadly, epideictic rhetoric may also include works of literature. Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. Devices in this category seek to convince and persuade via logic and reason, and will usually make use of statistics, cited facts, and statements by authorities to make their point and persuade the listener. Glossary. Expert testimony is another type of appeal to ethos. According to Aristotle, rhetoric uses three primary modes of persuasion: ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos, Logos, Pathos are modes of persuasion used to convince others of your position, argument or vision. Perhaps the most famous rhetorician in the history of Western thought was the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who identified three types of rhetoric: ethos, or ethics; logos, or logic; and pathos, or emotion. This is successfully done by manipulating devices to enhance meaning, in addition to making conscious decisions about your writing. Rhetoric has links to literature … commerce, and private conversation. The three primary means of persuasion, as outlined by Aristotle in his treatise Ars Rhetorica, are ethos, pathos, and logos.Likewise, there are three primary purposes for classic rhetorical works, also described by Aristotle as rhetorical species. If you’re interested in learning more and seeing examples of the other types, visit the Excelsior OWL website on rhetorical styles. Rhetorical devices are loosely organized into the following four categories: Logos. A politician, for example, might appeal to his credibility, moral character, or past achievements. Dunmire, Patricia. Anthypophora or Hypophora . Epideictic oratory offers either praise or blame (1358b8–13). Think about the people you know and what it takes to convince them. Patricia L. Dunmire, "The Rhetoric of Temporality". Log in. A rhetorical device is a device that is used to persuade the audience and push their thinking in a particular direction. According to ancient testimonies, Aristotle wrote an early dialogue on rhetoric entitled ‘Grullos’, in which he put forward the argument that rhetoric cannot be an art (technê); and since this is precisely the position of Plato's Gorgias, the lost dialogue Grullos has traditionally been regarded as a sign of Aristotle's (alleged) early Platonism. Rhetorical question. These were determined in classic Rome by the Roman philosopher Cicero in his "De Inventione." Posted on 30 May 2013 20 Jan 2020 Categories Rhetoric. Of the three types of rhetoric, it is the one most commonly used in advertising because people's financial decisions are so often swayed by their emotions. Can we really expect the school to keep paying from its limited resources? More than 2,000 years later, these three types of rhetoric still describe the primary ways that speakers, writers, artists and advertisers are able to persuade their audiences. EXAMPLES OF RHETORICAL DEVICES. Types of rhetorical devices. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civil Discourse. Make sure to use your own words in describing each model, and do not simply quote the handouts. Michelle F. Eble, 1st Edition, Routledge, August 24, 2015. 3. Grab your David Caruso sunglasses and prepare to dig deep. Argument, Appeals, Arrangement, Aesthetics. Rhetoric is the art of presenting information in a persuasive manner. There are various types of rhetorical questions, and each type is used specifically to evoke a unique kind of thought to the listener or reader. The rhetorical modes include, but are not limited to, narrative, description, process analysis, illustration and exemplification, cause and effect, comparison, definition, persuasion, and classification. Arguments of the Rhetorical Modes. Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg. Most arguments involve one or more of the rhetorical modes. Deliberative rhetoric is speech or writing that attempts to persuade an audience to take (or not take) some action. This is a common metaphor that someone may use to describe a torrential downpour or heavy rainstorm. Here’s a quick and simple definition: Pathos, along with logos and ethos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). In classical rhetoric, oratory was divided into three branches: judicial oratory (or "forensic"); deliberative oratory (or "legislative") and; epideictic oratory ("ceremonial" or "demonstrative"). Specifically, Aristotle refers to the effect of ethos and pathos on an audience since a speaker needs to exhibit these modes of persuasion before that audience. 122 is advertising which sells us something because someone famous uses the product. Abstraction (dialectic): Taking a concept and abstracting out other concepts (it is in essence the root behind deduction and the syllogism). … 4. The facts of the discourse. Two of these, you surely know: the simile and the metaphor. Rhetoric as a Counterpart to Dialectic. The language in which the argument is delivered must demonstrate purity, or linguistic correctness; clarity, which means the points are transparent; and decorum, or how appropriate the points are to the argument as a whole. List and define the 3 types of rhetoric in Roman letters according to Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard. The three types of rhetoric . 46, No. Four Resources of Persuasion Goals are.. The three branches of rhetoric include deliberative, judicial, and epideictic. The 3 Rhetorical Appeals. This is successfully done by manipulating devices to enhance meaning, in addition to making conscious decisions about your writing. There are three main types of rhetorical strategies: appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos. "The Directions of Aristotle's 'Rhetoric.'" 3 Types of Argument: Classical, Rogerian, Toulmin Get ready to take notes. Keep in mind that - for Aristotle - rhetoric is the art of persuasion and not the meaningless language that many politicians are charged with using. Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. 3 Genres of Rhetoric Posted on 24 May 2013 20 Jan 2020 Categories Rhetoric Twitter is the digital version of passive-aggressive Post-It notes left by your roommates—multiplied by 554 million. Ethos is an appeal to the expertise or ethical standing of the person presenting an argument. Pathos appeals to emotion, e… When you’re engaged in … "Cicero: On Invention. English. Rhetoric is the art of using language, such as public speaking, for persuasive writing and speech. 3. 2. o Exordium. Types of Rhetorical Devices . 1. Find an answer to your question What are the three types of rhetoric 1. Locate evidence to support case, Evaluates facts, Clash of arguments brings new facts/refines avail. Aristotle stresses that rhetoric is closely related to dialectic. Almost any type of rhetoric that uses humor will also fall under the category of pathos. Political, Personal, Psychological. What is pathos? Devices in this category seek to convince and persuade via logic and reason, and will usually make use of statistics, cited facts, and statements by authorities to make their point and persuade the listener. Rhetoric Definition. Quintilian was a Roman rhetorician and teacher who excelled in Renaissance writing. A poorly lighted photo of a frowning, pimply-faced teenager contrasted with a retouched glamor shot, for instance, might be used to draw on the emotions of other acne sufferers to convince them to by a particular brand of skin treatment. An appeal to logos is designed to make... An appeal to logos is designed to make... Clear answers for common questions This article deals with rhetoric in both its traditional and its modern forms. Rhetorical approaches can be described in terms of the means of persuasion used or in terms of the purpose of a particular rhetorical work. Consider the exclamation "it's raining cats and dogs." Which three types of power are enhanced by an understanding of the art of rhetoric? Once again, rhetoric is the study and application of effective writing techniques. Use the same 3 categories to describe each model (relation of rhetoric to truth; the power the speaker has in relation to the audience; and the function of rhetoric) used in the handouts. Pathos is an argument that appeals to an audience's emotions. We will take a look at seven types of rhetorical styles on the coming pages. They have developed and defined the rhetoric appeals such that they are techniques that an individual can use in order to refer to a particular audience. "The rhetoric of temporality: The future as linguistic construct and rhetorical resource." Wikibuy Review: A Free Tool That Saves You Time and Money, 15 Creative Ways to Save Money That Actually Work. Keep in mind that - for Aristotle - rhetoric is the art of persuasion and not the meaningless language that many politicians are charged with using. The four traditional styles, or modes, are narration, description, exposition, and argument. Ethos (credibility), or ethical appeal, this means convincing your listener by referring to your own reputation. The three types of rhetoric. In the modern era, judicial (or forensic) discourse is primarily employed by lawyers in trials decided by a judge or jury. 122 is advertising which sells us something because someone famous uses the product. They don’t have to mutually exclusive strategies. Ethos appeals to the character of the writer or speaker-stating that his or her background, credentials, or experience should convince you of the accuracy of the argument. 3. ones. There are lots of pictures of kids, beautiful people, dazzling scenery—things that evoke strong emotions. Rhetoric is the craft of speaking in ways intended to persuade the hearer; it employs various resources of symbol systems such as language to create a pleasing impression on listeners. But the evidence for the position of this dialogue is too tenuous to support such strong conclusions: it also could have been a‘dialectical’ dialogue, which listed the pros an… Aristotle first organized the art of rhetoric into three separate and definite parts or proofs. The second of Aristotle's types of rhetoric is logos, which draws on factual statements or logical conclusions. …) You probably know a guy who needs an argument spelled out step-by-step. The three branches of rhetoric include deliberative, judicial, and epideictic. Types of Rhetorical Devices . 1. Book II gives advice for all types of speeches. Some of the most prevalent rhetorical devices are figures of speech that compare one thing to another. Ethos: Persuasion by Character. Emotive language. Log in. These parts were the ethos, the pathos, and the logos. Although there exists plenty of overlap between rhetorical and literary devices, there’s also one significant difference between the two. Consider the exclamation "it's raining cats and dogs." It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence, or please an audience. Aristotle focused on oration, though, and he described three types of persuasive speech. The distinctions between the three are pretty simple. 3 Types Of Rhetorical Questions. While literary devices express ideas artistically, rhetoric appeals to one’s sensibilities in four specific ways: Logos, an appeal to logic; Pathos, an appeal to emotion; Perhaps the most famous rhetorician in the history of Western thought was the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who identified three types of rhetoric: ethos, or ethics; logos, or logic; and pathos, or emotion.

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Oral History Education: Documenting the Important Stories of Ordinary People Oral history projects provide primary source materials that aid us in our understanding of the past. From oral history interviews we gain what is often missing from textbooks perspective. Oral history projects in the classroom give students a personal perspective, helping them connect to and make more meaning from the past. There are terrific resources on teaching with oral history that are available online. Some of the resources that have been useful to the Civil Rights and Apartheid projects. This website was developed so that history teachers worldwide could download the curriculum for free and order the documentary. At some point the site's domain registration expired and the site disappeared from the web. The new owner of this site felt that the information provided should not be lost and used content from the original site's 2008-2012 archived pages. My daughter's 11 grade social studies teacher utilized some of the lessons plans from OralHistoryEducation.com. I vividly remember the oral history projects class assignment that was assigned my daughter. She decided to interview her 95 year old grandmother who had immigrated to the US from South Africa. She had lived through the Boer War, the ascendance of the Afrikaner National Party in the 1940's whose strategists invented apartheid as a means to cement their control over the economic and social system and in the 1960's the implementation of the "Grand Apartheid" plan that emphasized territorial separation and police repression. My daughter was entranced with her grandmother recalling the enactment of apartheid laws in 1948 where racial discrimination was institutionalized and then in 1950 when the Population Registration Act was passed that required that all South Africans be racially classified into one of three categories: white, black (African), or colored (of mixed decent). We received excellent help in finding more information online from the search experts at TNG/Earthling. I often free lance for them and called in a favor and we are very glad I did. We received a ton of very valuable historic info on all of the most significant events surrounding that time. I edited it down to not be an overwhelming read, but my daughter wanted to go through everything! After a very thorough research job, she finally finished her oral history project and turned in both a written paper and a video she had made of all the interviews she did with her grandmother. Now having told my story...please enjoy and be inspired by this site. Background History About this Site In 2008 a 10-minute trailer of Journeys of Reconciliation was screened at a fundraising event on March 9th. The event generated much enthusiasm and support, and we continued to reach out to our friends, corporate sponsors and foundations to raise the required funds to complete this project. The final four days of filming were completed in South Africa in June, 2008. The addition of historical footage and post-production editing was scheduled for June – August, and the documentary was completed by September 2008. Beginning in September, a team of educators from South Africa, Stanford, San Francisco State University, and USF started work on curriculum development for lesson plans to accompany this documentary in the classroom. The curriculum met the California Content Standards for Grades 10 and 11 Social Studies, and educators were eager to bring Journeys of Reconciliation into their classrooms. We worked with educators from the San Francisco Bay Area and Johannesburg to pilot this social justice project in their classrooms. Students can bring history to life by documenting the important stories of ordinary people. This is a process that helps students to think like historians as they become active participants in history rather than just consumers of it. A short, ten minute documentary was made to demonstrate the use of oral history projects in the classroom. As seen in the short film, oral history projects spark an intergenerational dialogue, crossing the barriers of age, culture and race. This process is one of discovery for both the student and the person they interview. Sometimes, oral histories on a topic will cause us to reevaluate what we know. However, it is important to understand that oral histories are a part of a bigger story. Noted historian Elizabeth Tonkin explains that oral history helps us to “understand how history as lived is connected to history as recorded.” Students can make this important connection through thoughtful lesson plans in the classroom. Storycatcher At Large Q & A With Storycatcher At Large February 24th, 2011 A “sister” topic to oral history interviewing is memoir writing. As part of a dialogue with Denis Ledoux, a memoir writing teacher, I answered 10 questions about oral history interviewing. 1) What process do you go through—and by extension what methods would you recommend to a lifewriter to prepare yourself and the interviewee for an interview? To start, be a truly good, authentic listener from the very beginning of your project. There are two kinds of oral history interviews that I prepare for prior to recording an interview: 1) Life stories, in which I work with individuals who want to record their life experiences, and 2) Subject based projects where community groups or museums hire me to focus on a particular event or period in history. To prepare myself for these interviews I communicate with the interviewee to develop a healthy rapport, and to build trust with him/her. I do this through whatever mode of communication works best for that person – emails, in-person visits, telephone calls, and letters. I take notes about the topics, interests, events, and issues that come up, and then do as much research as possible to develop a solid understanding of them. My research includes online searches with credible sources, and always involves several trips to my local library to access both its online and on-the-shelf resources. For example, I am currently preparing for interviews with Vietnam Veterans who returned from a painful war to a painful homecoming. These veterans courageously rolled up their sleeves and got to work helping other veterans heal and move forward to become part of their communities. Nearly 40 years ago, they formed what is today a national model for veterans programs, Vietnam Veterans of California. Preparing for my interviews with a team of founding veterans seemed overwhelming at first, until I started listening closely to their perspectives during my pre-interviews on the phone, and in my email correspondence with them. By this time I had read nearly two dozen books and novels that focused on many different perspectives of the war – the stories of combat soldiers, of anti-war activists, military history and strategy, and contemporary stories of soldiers from Iran and Afghanistan. The key, I’ve found is being a good listener from the start, because that is what they need. Being a sincere, active listener is what will drive the narrator to tell his/her story. 2) How do you decide what questions to ask and what tips can you offer on how one might craft these questions? The general “rule of thumb” for crafting interview questions is to make them open-ended, rather than closed. A good open-ended question inspires an answer that is descriptive of a thing, place or event. For example, “Could you describe the home town you grew up in?” compared to a closed question, “Where did you grow up?” The natural flow of an interview will have both kinds of questions, however to facilitate storytelling that is meaningful, it is the open-ended questions that will make the difference. I don’t take a long list of questions with me to an interview, because that can be intimidating to an interviewee. I have found over the years that each interviewee has a story that will unfold naturally. So, as I pay close attention to the early, informal conversations with an interviewee, and as I conduct my research, I outline the topics and possible questions that will link to their experiences. Sometimes a question becomes clear to me for a group project, especially a question that provides contrasting perspectives on an event or period of time. For example, “How did that ‘event/happening’ affect you at the time?” And then a follow-up question “How does that ‘event/happening’ impact you today as you look back on it?” Follow-up questions are really the key to a good oral history interview. Useful follow-up questions require one to be a deep and active listener. These questions draw out the details of a story. Follow-up questions help us to overcome the assumptions that most people make, which are that the details will be inferred, or are already known. The intention is to help or facilitate the storytelling process by asking a follow-up question that fosters a story and encourages the storyteller – questions that show you are really listening, and that demonstrate that his/her experience is valuable and important. The intention, by contrast, is not to “dig” for more information, or to contradict, or challenge the interviewee. Oral historians are not journalists. We do not have an agenda, so it is important to know the intention behind our questions. They are designed to help and to encourage the interviewee. I have posted tips on interviewing and examples of questions on my website and in a SlideShare presentation for teachers to use for classroom projects (see below). Another good resource for ideas and questions is at Story Corps website: http://storycorps.org/record-your-story/question-generator/ Educational SlideShare Presentation Oral History Education ~ Bringing History to Life View more presentations from My Storycatcher 3) What resources and tools are useful to someone doing oral history? First, the Oral History Association is a wonderful organization and their conferences and publications are excellent. The OHA website also contains very useful resources on best practices in the field: www.oralhistory.org. Second, local libraries and museums in the region you are working in are very valuable resources. Many libraries and local history museums manage archives of local newspapers, and you can access articles by topic that give context to a period of time or to a subject. Make an appointment with the research librarian to get started, and plan the time to do this research before the interview. For teachers, I highly recommend Glenn Whitman’s book, “Dialogue with the Past: Engaging Students and Meeting Standards Through Oral History.” Whitman provides a step-by-step guide for teachers that is thoughtful and wise. Using the best recording equipment you can afford will make a tremendous difference in the sound quality of your interviews. I use a terrific digital audio recorder, the Marantz PMD670, with a high quality external microphone to get broadcast quality interviews. These types of recorders are becoming more affordable, and are very durable and easy to use. I’ve used my recorder in the field, literally, with Northern California farmers who represent the 3rd and 4th generation of family run farms. So, they are portable and easy to use. When using a microphone outdoors, be sure to use a windsock, and carry back-up batteries. Most of my interviews happen around the kitchen or living room table, but getting out into the community with your recorder can add important depth to a story. Regardless of your budget, use what you have available and get to know how to use your equipment – become an expert on all of its functions and capabilities. The manual that came with my recorder is very well read – with notes, highlights, and coffee stains. If you are using video equipment, practice videotaping so that you have established good skills. There are good tips out there on You Tube and many books on how to position someone on camera, set-up lighting, etc. Be sure to use a tripod, and if you don’t have an external microphone (most home video cameras do not) then place the video camera relatively close to the interviewee so that the internal microphone can capture decent audio. Community colleges offer very good courses on digital video, and are inexpensive. I took two courses at my local junior college, for about $90 each. You will then need to capture (or upload) the audio/video to a computer with editing software (iMovie, Final Cut Pro, Avid, etc.) AND BACK IT UP onto an external hard drive. I do this the same day, or the very next morning of an interview. Creating a transcript of the interview is the next step. It is difficult work, and harder than it looks. I found an affordable service in my area after asking for bids from several vendors. Go to the OHA website to learn what to do, and what NOT to do when transcribing an interview. If you are creating an oral history archive for a museum or library I recommend following the best practices guide on the OHA website, and consulting with the Collections Manager or Archivist at your local history museum. 4) Are there any special techniques you would recommend when interviewing a young individual? I think it is important to be aware of the myths and assumptions we hold about youth, and for that matter, any age different from our own. We need to check our assumptions and see the interviewee as a unique individual with an important story, regardless of age. It is also important to pay attention to the interviewee’s use of language and vocabulary because every generation has their own way of saying things. It is important to respect this and to incorporate their vocabulary into our own during the interview. An interviewee’s choice of words is an important aspect to the record of history being created. Involving a young interviewee and engaging him/her will also be key to a meaningful interview. Find out what he/she cares about; what activities, music and interests he/she enjoys. Participating in an oral history interview is usually voluntary, so the intention behind the interview is important – find out what it is. 5) How do you deal with the issues of false memory or doctored responses, and how would you suggest an oral historian might go about detecting these? This is an important question. We want to get away from “doctored” responses and record authentic, genuine stories of a how history was lived and experienced. Memory is an interesting, and complicated process that relies on a variety of factors. Memories are created in different parts of the brain, depending on how the information is coming in: verbal/auditory, visual, sensory/touch, smell/taste, and emotional/feeling. As the sensory data is being processed, our brains store long-term memory in a variety of locations. We tend to remember things more vividly when there is a combination of strong sensory inputs, especially when combined with a strong feeling. As far as dealing with false memory, that is something we will not have much control over. What we are recording during an oral history interview is an individual’s translation of past events. Therefore, some of the meaning will be lost in translation. What we are valuing here is the narrator’s point of view, so essentially we are capturing how history is remembered as well as how it was experienced. Some will be credible, honest and valuable narrators, and some will not. Hopefully, we can discover this during our pre-interview conversations so that we can be aware of false memory issues or what Allesandro Portelli calls “misremembering.” This being said, however, oral history interviewing is an intimate process that requires a level of trust. This means we are not there to contradict the narrator, we are there to aid him/her in their recollection of past events. If the narrator is confusing one event with another event, we need to respectfully help him/her clarify for the record. For example, if a narrator is confusing two different occasions, you could ask a clarifying question like, “Do you recall if the ‘event’ was prior to this occasion or following it?” Almost everyone “doctors” the past in some form or another, however if it is clear to you that this is intentional, and therefore the interview is not going to be valuable, you may want to consider some options. You could either give the person more time talking with you “off the record” to get more comfortable and build trust, or schedule a series of shorter interviews. If you are getting a “doctored” or “canned” response during the interview ask a different question, something that hasn’t been asked before and that they were not expecting. This can make for a much more interesting, authentic interview. 6) What methods could an oral historian use to challenge or validate the recollections of interviewees? As I explained above, we don’t want to put ourselves in the position of challenging a narrator, however we do want to help facilitate good memory recall, and a healthy dialogue that evokes good storytelling. Storytelling is a very natural process that families and communities have used to pass on knowledge for many centuries. Validating narrators as they share their memories is important because it takes courage on their part to participate in an interview, and because this is a very human process. There are many ways to assist a narrator with their memory recall: a. Photo Elicitation: Work with the narrator on a photo collection that will help them to prepare for their interview. This takes time, but is very effective. As I work with narrators, I scan and preserve the most important photos for them and give them a CD for their own personal collection. As we talk about the photos, I make a log with dates, and descriptions of the people, places and events they relate to. I can then use the photos during an interview to help the narrator both recall his/her memories and organize his/her thoughts. b. Objects: Narrator often refer to objects in their home that have significant meaning, like a childhood cup, military medals, linens, or a restored car from their youth. These objects are a wonderful source of memories, and can be photographed as part of the record, or videotaped. During the interview(s) you can ask the narrator to show the object, describe it, and talk about the memories associated with it. Why is it important to him/her? How was it used? What memory stands out the most about this object? What does it represent? c. Socializing: If it is a community based project, getting people together with a shared experience, such as the founders of a neighborhood organization, will help them reconnect to that time in their lives. A relaxed, social setting with good food is all that is needed. I have seen a collective time-line, enlarged and posted on the wall along with news articles, art, photos and other memorabilia be very effective at these kinds of gatherings. 7) Do you analyze the way in which an interviewee’s mind wanders or how they answer questions? Yes, I do analyze this so that I can better word my questions, and structure the interview. Each narrator has their own style of communicating and putting memories to words. Connecting with each narrator’s style of communicating is important. If a narrator is prone to wandering, that tells me I need to help with questions that focus the story. If the narrator is a natural storyteller, and is able to feely respond to my questions, then my job is to stay out of the way, pay attention and ask good follow-up questions (see question No. 2 above). 8. How would you recommend someone doing oral history should handle subjects which are painful to the interviewee? Most interviewees will have experiences that are painful, or emotional as they remember them. It is very natural for us to have feelings about the past. Sometimes, this process can help us reconcile our feelings in the present with what happened in the past. We often treat the past as either something to brush under the rug, or present it in a euphemistic way. The truth is, the past is often messy and disorganized, as well as painful. During pre-interviews, I ask my interviewees if there are any subjects they do not want to talk about, as well as what stories they will be sharing. If a narrator is going into painful territory, pay attention to facial cues and body language, which will tell you whether to pause for a moment or take a break. Give them the space needed to feel, and to process, and offer empathy when appropriate. The narrator is in charge of his/her story, not the interviewer. Let your interviewees know this – that they have the ability to stop, pause, and begin when they wish. We are not therapists, however if we are sensitive and thoughtful, a narrator can develop confidence and even a sense of closure after sharing a difficult memory. For military veterans or others who have experienced severely painful events, it is important to gain a good understanding of PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) and to seek professional guidance. I have been mentored by a few experts who have experience dealing with PTSD. They have helped me to develop an approach when someone is suffering from PTSD. I caution anyone who might be dealing with this issue not to project too much onto the narrator. The narrator is participating because they want to – for, oral histories are always voluntary. Again, as in each case, the interviewee needs to know that he/she is in charge, and can stop or pause whenever needed. However, if during an interview, the narrator appears depressed, is expressing negative thoughts and not able to return to the present, be sensitive and offer another time to meet. In addition, after someone has shared a painful memory, ask a question that reconnects him/her to positive things in the present. Being a sincere, caring listener is usually all that we need to be, however it is good to be aware of the impact the interview is having on a narrator, and respond with sensitivity. 9) Have there been any interviews which have shaped the way you perceive the world or the way you go about the oral history craft? There have been many such interviews, but one that comes to mind immediately is an interview for an oral history project about the social justice movement against Apartheid in South Africa. The interview was conducted by a white student with a man who grew up in SOWETO during the student marches in the 1970s. SOWETO is a black township that was formed when the Apartheid laws designated the area for blacks only. Today, there are middle class residents rising out of its painful past, however the many poor residents living there, numbering over a million, are a daily reminder of the history of racism. I was the oral historian in charge of training the students in this project, and preparing the narrators for their interviews. The student was well prepared, and did an excellent job asking about childhood in a racially biased society. The narrator, John Biyase, works in the field of race relations and reconciliation today, and was very willing to share his story of overcoming the oppression of Apartheid. At the end, the student asked what role forgiveness played in the country’s efforts to reconcile. Mr. Biyase responded by saying that forgiveness is what set him free. It was a profound moment, and he still remains an inspiring figure for me. An excerpt from his interview can be seen on my educational website, www.oralhistoryeducation.com. 10) How is oral history used by families–and on a larger scale–by libraries, museums, or other academic institution today? As Charles Hardy, III has stated, “At heart we are all storytellers and the stories we tell have consequences in how we act in the world.” For families, the process of creating an oral history record can be exciting and heartwarming as family members are given a role to pass on knowledge and experience in a very natural way. Storytelling was the primary method of passing on knowledge and experience prior to the written word becoming the focus of record keeping. Additionally, as we age we begin to reflect with more perspective, and we begin to question how our life mattered to others. The process of oral history inspires a meaningful generational exchange and gives us the opportunity to reflect with purpose. On a larger scale, libraries, museums and academic institutions can sponsor oral history projects that are community building and educational. Often, they work together to do this. An example of a large library project is the Veterans History Project at the Library of Congress. This project has inspired community groups, colleges and schools to record the oral histories of veterans. Another result of the work at the LOC is free, educational materials that support such projects on their website: http://www.loc.gov/vets/. Museums play an important role interpreting oral histories for the public through exhibitions that link artifacts, interviews and storytelling. An excellent example, out of many that American museums have produced, is at the Wing Luke Museum in Seattle, Washington, where oral histories of Asian Americans have inspired exhibits and educational programs. Programs like this bring members of the community together, raise awareness of a shared past, and get people actively involved in history. The final example serves as a university project that is truly a model: The Southern Oral History Program at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Their oral history recordings and archival material provide a rich and diverse perspective on the civil rights movement in the U.S. Their website is: http://www.sohp.org/ Oral History Stories Civil Rights Stories Prior to the changes begun by the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, “Whites Only” signs were commonly placed in restaurants, theaters, buses, trains, and other public accommodations throughout the United States. “Whites Only” was not just a sign to designate seating according to race, it was a sign that represented a sadly long history of discrimination against non-whites. Racial discrimination permeated the power structure of local, state and federal government and defined the nation’s culture on many levels. Despite the pain and injustice experienced by many, stories from the movement demonstrate the courage of individuals of all races in the face of adversity and the resilience of communities striving for a more complete democracy. Although this history seems to be more and more in the distant past, the need for racial-healing today has been pointed out by leaders from a variety of organizations. Students of the Civil Rights Movement have the opportunity today to develop more than knowledge, they have the opportunity to develop respect for the sacrifices of past generations and compassion for those who are different from themselves. Developing a better understanding of this history in the classroom can give students a better foundation for the decisions they will be faced with in the course of their generation’s social justice challenges. While the battle for civil rights was largely fought in the courts and legislatures of the country, activists at the “grass roots” level were developing nonviolent strategies for social change. The “sit-in” movement began in the South in February 1960 after four black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat at a whites-only lunch counter to protest racial segregation in restaurants. Freedom Rides were staged by black and white students protesting segregation on interstate buses. Peaceful marches were organized, including the 1963 March on Washington – the largest peaceful demonstration ever held in the United States. The era of segregation and discrimination was horrific in many ways with society-wide and ongoing implications. This legacy affects society on many levels today, yet many are forging ahead and seeking to heal the present by interpreting and discussing the past. Throughout this history, we see that individuals from all races and backgrounds came together under the most trying of circumstances. Oral history is a powerful and effective tool for documenting the stories of such individuals. Through oral history interviews, students not only document history, they make a direct connection to the history of civil rights in a way that is meaningful to them. By creating structured dialogue in their interviews, students can explore the concepts of memory, justice, truth, reconciliation, forgiveness, victim-hood, and reparation in society. Students gain a more authentic view, while raising their awareness as they consider how they might effect change in today’s social justice issues. Organizations like the Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute are providing refreshing and innovative approaches to teaching this important part of American history. A Summary of Apartheid’s History South Africans share a painful past that includes many decades of racial discrimination. Yet, throughout this history are the stories of leaders and of ordinary people overcoming racial barriers to create a contemporary and culturally rich democracy. Their stories build meaning into history and teach us valuable strategies for the social justice issues of today, and for future generations. Apartheid is defined as the social and political policy of racial segregation and discrimination enforced by a white minority government in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. The word “apartheid” is from the Afrikaans language that was developed over the years by Dutch colonists, and means “apartness.” While apartheid policies extend back to the beginning of white government in South Africa in 1652, it became codified, or officially written into law, in 1948 when the Afrikaner Nationalists came to power after a long struggle against British colonists. A benchmark law that empowered South Africa’s white rulers was the Population Registration Act of 1950, categorizing people into three racial groups: Bantu (blacks), white, or Coloured (mixed race). A fourth category, Asian (Indians and Pakistanis) was added later. More apartheid laws were created, reflecting an insidiously racist perspective on human kind. The Group Areas Act of 1950 and the Land Acts of 1954 and 1955 assigned these racial groups to different residential sections, to different job and business categories, and prevented nonwhites from entering restricted areas without a special permit. In the early 1990s, after a long struggle for equal and democratic rights, and under external pressure from the governments of the United States and Great Britain, the apartheid system was ended under the presidency of F.W. de Klerk. In 1994 the South African constitution was rewritten and the first democratic election held. Nelson Mandela, a prominent leader in the struggle against apartheid, was elected the first black president. Mandela was a political prisoner for 27 years prior to the election, and because of his inspirational impact he is called the Father of South Africa. Both Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their leadership in the transition from apartheid to democracy without a civil war. An important role was played by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, as the government turned its efforts toward healing and moving forward. The TRC heard thousands of testimonies from around the country in an effort to document and understand the effects of apartheid on all South Africans. South Africa’s new democracy is founded in a national constitution considered to be one of the world’s most inclusive and progressive because in addition to protecting racial equality, it includes environmental rights, language rights, and access rights to health care, food and water. For details on the South African Constitution, go to

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The idea of applying gamification approach is very beneficial to the 21st century education especially to teacher and student. However, this approach is still a stigma in our society today in terms of acceptance, implementation and implication in the classroom setting for children. In this paper, we present a qualitative study through participant observation and semi structured interview involving 20 children. Gamification concept that applied in this study is project based in which children need to design a digital game. Analysis of the data showed an interesting, promising finding, suggesting that the learning approach that is integrated with digital games is realizable through digital games gamification, the implementation of which relies on a systematic instructional planning; its suitability with the learning objectives and the implication of gamification approach towards 21st century education. The gamification approach is expected to exert a significant positive impact on both students and teachers, which is gradually, but surely, becoming an important learning approach in the 21st. century education Keywords: Childrendesign activitydigital gamesgamificationlearning approach The world is witnessing digital games being passionately embraced by users from all walks of life, be they young or old, men or women. To underscore such interesting observation, the annual report produced by the Entertainment Software Association (Association, 2016) highlighted that a huge amount of money – US 22.41 billion to be exact – were spent by users worldwide in the digital game industry. Undeniably, this colossal figure bodes good news to the industry players, and more importantly, this rapidly expanding digital game development has caused ripples that would radically change the social, economic, and education aspects of the society. Among the society members, children (being the digital natives) would be most susceptible to these changes given their predilection for new, novel technologies that ubiquitously imbue their lives. Such technologies have spurred many important changes; for example, the mobile technology, such as tablets and smart phones with their touch screens, has accelerated the use of digital games almost exponentially. Without fail, a majority of the society members, notably parents, see digital games purely from the entertainment perspective, engendering extreme joy or fun to their children that could invariably distract the latter from learning (Wartella, Rideout, Lauricella, & Connell, 2013). This negatively perceived notion can be reversed by helping parents to see the positive side of digital games as a learning tool that is not only enjoyable but highly interactive that can help motivate students in the learning process. One of the methods to transform games into a potent learning tool is gamification, which is an approach that utilizes the “entertaining” element in such a way that engages students in learning (Kapp, 2012). With gamification, learning becomes more engaging as game elements that are designed and developed using relevant educational psychological precepts that can ultimately help improve students’ motivation and interest. Gamification in design activity approach Arguably, a learning approach that has edutainment elements can make the teaching and learning process more enjoyable and efficacious. In the digital era, active learning involving cooperative and interactive learning can be made possible through digital integration. The existence of educational digital games has paved the way for educators to adopt gamification as an alternative to existing learning approaches. In using digital games in the classroom, children’s involvement in design activity of such games results in a potent learning approach that helps induce a creative process that can have a huge impact on their intellectual development and attitudes toward learning (Baytak et al., 2011; Lim, 2008; Prensky, 2008). This assertion is also reinforced by Froebel cited in (Resnick, 2007), who contends that the learning process can become effective in enjoyable situation in which children can design, develop, and create while playing. These days, gamification become a term that has garnered wide attention in the community of educators. The gamification process implements the concept of Game-based Learning, which is apply for to be fitting as one of the approach in the 21st century teaching and learning process (Tan, 2015). From previous study, researchers approve that digital games can accentuate the children’s competency more comprehensively, particularly their technology skills learning skills, and social skills (Qian & Clark, 2016). Design activity enable children to become creative and independent, the impact of which helps them experience an engaging learning, gain new skills, and improve their critical thinking (Ibharim & Yatim, 2014; Neo & Neo, 2013). The above attainments are, of course, to be expected as children partaking in the design process of digital games need to understand the gaming concepts before applying them in the digital form. By involving in such a process, these children are able to enhance their thinking skills and technological expertise (An, 2014). The same process also plays an important role to ensure the teaching and learning process, which uses digital games design activity, occurs in a systematic learning setting based on actual design process. Such a case is demonstrated in a study by Moser, who introduced an approach called Child-Centered Game Development as a new approach based on the design and development of educational digital games (Moser, 2013). With this approach, children can learn and play in an environment that nurtures their creativity and skills, which are important in leading their daily lives in the future. Such a learning process that hinges on design activity entails a relevant pedagogy such that it can yield a positive impact on children learning. To help teachers and instructors to plan and implement such pedagogical approach involving design activity, several guidelines and references (which are available online) have been introduced, such as Children as designer of digital games Children of this generation are quite different from the children of earlier generations in many aspects of life. The former is referred to as “digital generation” that lives in a ubiquitous environment. Virtually, without these technologies, every facet of life can become cumbersome and dull. In the digital games context, the use of technology and multimedia enables children to assume the role of an author or a creative designer that ultimately steers them towards the desired learning trajectory (Neo & Neo, 2013). In addition to support Child-Centered Game Development approach, the methodology applied in the design and development process should aligned with Child-Centered Design model (CCD) adopted from User-Centered Design (UCD) (Druin, 1999; Henry, 2000). Children are actively involved in the design process to fulfill their requirement and expectation of the product for themselves. In this respect, Druin has identified four main roles of children in new technology design process, particularly in interactive multimedia products, in which children are the user, tester, informant, and designer (Druin, 2002). In addition to performing these roles, children too have the potential to design and develop digital games themselves (Ibharim & Yatim, 2015). This contention of children as the designer is best exemplified by Garzotto’s (2008) study involving 10- and 11-year-old children, in which these children were found to possess novel ideas, vivid imagination, and vast technological experience in helping them to become good designers. His main finding is suggestive of children’s talents, interest, and skills that enable them to create their own digital games, the impact of which makes the children learn more effectively. Naturally, such learning efficacy is realizable, as children that actively partake in the design process will always strive to find clear, accurate information (Garzotto, 2008). Furthermore, they will also be deeply involved in research and design process in the development of digital games. From the HCI standpoint, research in multimedia digital games provides an avenue for researchers to explore the potential impact of such games on learning effectiveness and the ability of children as designer (Earp, Dagnino, & Ott, 2014). In this regard, children not only can play, but they can express their ideas, recommendations, or comments on games that they are playing almost spontaneously. This spontaneity of ideas or feedback is the result of their mental model, experiences, and creativity, which makes playing digital games an exciting educational experience. Such an experience provides the space and opportunity for researchers to further explore the potential of children to become the designer and the developer of digital games. Previously, children were regarded as mere players, who just used games for entertainment. Now, with new technology, their role has changed in which they are also becoming more involved in games development. In fact, they become the designer of the games themselves, the effectiveness of which heavily depends on their cognitive, affective, and social skills (Baytak, Land, & Smith, 2011; Good & Robertson, 2004; Kafai, 1995; Prensky, 2008). From the gamification perspective, children, besides playing, can also be exposed to digital games design activity, in which the teaching and learning process can be more engaging and efficacious. In this regard, design activity using digital games have the potential to achieve the desired level of interactivity. Nonetheless, to use this project based approach in the classroom is challenging given the relatively large class size (typically numbering more than 35 students per class), time limitation, and lack of suitable facilities (Omar & Bakar, 2013). Despite these constraints, the implementation of such an approach is not insurmountable as there are several means or ways that can be adopted by researchers. In order to achieve the research objectives, the following research questions were formulated: What aspect require for student’s acceptance to implement gamification through game design activity? How suitability and implementation of digital games design activity in the classroom can be enhance? What implication of game design activity in the classroom environment? Purpose of the Study This article discusses the objective of the present study by focusing on the digital games design activity using tablet in the classroom especially on student’s acceptance, activity’s suitability and implication. Using this activity in such a teaching and learning process, both the teacher and students would be able to enhance their knowledge, as well as their soft skills, which are highly needed for learning in this millennium. In this study, the researchers used a qualitative research design using participant observation and semi-structured interview. Such an approach allows researchers to explore a certain phenomenon meaningfully in a real-world setting, thus enabling them to understand the studied event in greater details (Creswell, 2013). The study participant comprised 20 (10 girls and 10 boys) Year Four primary school pupils, with a mean age of 10 years. The participants were randomly selected by their teacher regardless of education achievement and level of technology literacy. The selection of this participant was appropriate based on the selected children’s cognitive stage, which was at the Concrete Operation of the Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget, 1964). At this stage, children are capable to think creatively and apply learned concepts or new knowledge in a new event. Specifically in this study, the design activity were carried out in small group. Such activity run parallel with the recommendations by Moser (2013), who advocates the use of small groups, typically made up of two to three children, that enables all of them to contribute in the dynamic design process in terms of sharing of ideas, experiences, and skills. The children were divided into 10 groups, each consisting a girl and a boy to eliminate any possibilities of gender bias. The groups carried out their learning activity in the actual classroom, thus ensuring the children were in a conducive and familiar environment, in which they were able to perform their tasks without any kind of pressure, such as being watched or being tested. In addition, the classroom setting was selected because it had all the necessary equipment and facilities to facilitate the observation process. Data were collected by using two research instruments, namely an observations checklist and an interviews checklist. The main constructs for each checklist are i) student’s acceptance of digital game design activity; ii) the suitability and implementation of digital game design activity; and iii) the implication of game design activity in classroom setting. The validity and reliability of both research instruments were verified through expert judgments and a pilot test, respectively. The researchers recruited four facilitators to help observe and record all the activity performed by the children in the classroom. The present researchers used five pedagogical approaches, as recommended by Markopoulos et al., (2008), for the observations of children’s activity. Specifically, these approaches were exploration through interaction, reflection, imagination, immersion, and teamwork (Markopoulos, Read, MacFarlane, & Hoysniemi, 2008). To guide the observation process, semi-structured interviews were used as part of the instrumentation to elicit detailed information pertaining to the process, feelings, suggestions, and comments by the participants in this study. The interviews were carried out in two categories, namely an interview with the participants and an interview with the teacher. Based on two days workshop setup, each group was given a task to produce a digital games design using an authoring tool for game development namely iBUAT (Innovation Board Unique Authoring Tool) developed from previous research (Ibharim & Yatim, 2014). The participants have to design a game base on adventure theme. The Child-Centered Game Development approach was used to ensure the activity performed were relevant with the learning environment of a classroom. To further improve the observation process, the researchers used several principles based on the combination of the guidelines of the Game Making Pedagogy (Cheng, 2009). Table Essentially, this study involved both descriptive and interpretative analysis. With both methodological approaches, the researchers were able to obtain a holistic picture of the characteristics of a particular situation, the behaviours of the research participants, and pertinent information during testing. Using the The acceptance of students to the implementation of gamification through game design activity require the support of literacy competence of teachers on learning approach, skill, knowledge, and technology. Each group were provided with a tablet, which had been installed with iBUAT. Throughout the designing session, each participant was given the liberty to perform the task in group without any interventions from the researchers, facilitators, or the teacher. The interviews with the participants revealed that they were capable to design the game using the tablets and iBUAT. In fact, the children could hardly conceal their extreme excitement in using the tablets during the digital games design process. Such state of exhilaration experienced by them was visibly evident in a recorded video, showing abundant traces of profound enjoyment, such as friendly gestures and smiling faces. Apparently, with each group being in its allocated space, all the participants were able to remain focused on completing their tasks. Such concentration of effort helped them complete the design task in a shorter time, thus avoiding the feeling of tiredness or boringness. Generally, the participants had not encountered any major problems in undertaking digital games design activity. Arguably, their strong interest and enjoyment in engaging such activities were so immense that any problems that cropped out seemed trivial. Such is the potential benefit of digital games that engenders edutainment that can help students to learn with a greater sense of accomplishment (Kapp, 2012). Interestingly, the designing session proceeded smoothly despite the situation being a bit noisy. However, at some situation they also ask for help when they got problem to handle the iBUAT and game design as they expected. Teachers have to have capability to give alternative idea and suggestion to solve the problem. To ensure gamification can be efficacious, teachers too need to be proficient in using the learning approach by familiarising with the relevant software and hardware. Put simply, the competency of teachers is of paramount important, which needs to be addressed appropriately. Undisputedly, teachers who lack technological knowledge or skills (such as the ability to play digital games using the tablet) would perceive using such a device in their classroom awkward, at best, or problematic, at worst. This perception is quite natural given that they would be compelled to learn something new, and that is deemed burdensome to them. Such a scenario could result in the teachers becoming less articulate in their teaching, the outcome of which the learning objectives would not be fulfilled (Omar & Bakar, 2013). To address this precarious learning situation, the researchers propose that teachers’ competency needs to be gauged before implementing a new teaching and learning approach. In essence, the competency of teachers is envisaged to contain five components to assist the implementation of digital games design activity as Figure In light of the above findings, which parallel with others research findings, such as Moser’s (2013) study, a Child-Centered Game Development approach, which is part of gamification could be made more effective, as well as entertaining, using digital games design activity as part of its learning activities. This approach could positively complement the pedagogy practiced by teachers. Thus, teachers need more practice and exposure to such learning activities such that they could become competent and creative, ideally surpassing their students’ skills and creativity (Neo & Neo, 2013). In this 21st century, teachers are compelled to strike a delicate balance among important aspects of learning (i.e., learning contents, pedagogy, knowledge, and technology), so that learning occurs efficaciously. The suitability and implementation of digital games design activity in the classroom can be enhance with a proper teaching preparation planning guideline Based on the interviews with two teachers, who acted as silent (passive) observers, the digital games design activity was found to be interesting, unique, and appropriate for the participants, who at the mean age of 10 years were primed to learning through all sorts of games. Candidly, the first teacher contended that learning activity using tablet should be implemented in school subjects such as English, Bahasa Malaysia and Science. Nonetheless, she cautioned that deploying such learning approach entails teachers to select relevant topics, in which not only students’ creativity and skills could be enhanced but the use of technology in learning could be heightened further. From the implementation perspective, the teachers believed that all the participants had the necessary knowledge and skills in using tablets. At this level of expertise and experience, the participants had no major problems in completing the activity using tablets in the classroom. However, the second teacher harbored a strong opinion that educators should first develop a strong interest and acquire adequate competency in using tablets and digital games before contemplating to adopt the games-based approach in their teaching. He also added that educators should be brave enough to use the tablet and to learn the concept of digital games design before applying them in the classroom. As reinforced by the findings of interviews, the teachers were deemed ready and capable in integrating technology in their teaching process. Their readiness and capabilities would provide educators with the opportunity to diversify their teaching styles, which may include the use of digital games design activity as one of the teaching approaches. In this regard, teachers need to be bold and smart in trying to diversify their teaching strategy. Using such diversified strategy, students can acquire knowledge with greater ease and they too can become highly motivated to learn. To implement such a gamification approach, teachers can use several well-established instructional models, including Game Making Pedagogy (Cheng, 2009). With this model, teachers will able to develop appropriate and systematic teaching schemes, which when applied will help create effective learning settings. In view of the importance of a sound teaching strategy, the researchers propose a teaching preparation planning guideline to guide teachers in implementing digital games design activity. Table The implication of game design activity in the classroom environment Based on the observation of the participants’ designing activity, the researchers found that the design produced by each group contained all the necessary storytelling and games elements. Commendably, each design had its own uniqueness in terms of realistic display and discernible storytelling shown in Figure Nonetheless, these teachers asserted that guidance and support from educators were still important and not to be downplayed to guide their students to achieve the desired learning objectives. In this respect, educators should play the role of facilitator in this gamification approach. Based on the above promising findings, the researchers could confidently vouch the huge educational potential of using the tablet in designing activity, in which the learning process that is taking place could improve children’s knowledgeable, skills, and creativity. Moreover, designing activity not only can serve as part of the learning activity but also can become an effective training platform to help children become good digital designers in the future (Earp et al., 2014). This study highlights a new perspective with which a learning approach based on digital games can be applied using appropriate technology in the classroom. Using gamification, children will benefit from digital games design activity in which they can attain the highest cognitive development level of the Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy – creating (Churches, 2009). By engaging in such design activity in a collaborative learning context, children become critical and creative thinkers. With such improved minds, they will be able to formulate new, novel solutions in solving problems. Thus, children should be given every opportunity available to help them develop their intellectual ability. Such learning approach can help nurture a new generation of children (aptly called digital generation) that is highly skillful, creative, innovative, and competitive —traits that are important in the 21st century learning. Likewise, teachers too can benefit from the learning approach using digital games design activity. With such learning approach, they will be able to diversify their teaching in a number of ways to improve students’ cognition. By applying such diversified teaching strategy, teachers can improve their creativity, skills, and competency as they can assume multiple roles, such as a facilitator or a mentor, in the teaching and learning process. This diversification of roles entails teachers to plan their teaching method carefully in which the process of teaching and learning can transpire meaningfully, thus leading to the fulfilment of the learning objectives. In this study, the researchers found that digital games design activity had a huge impact on the participants’ learning performance. This main finding can be explained from the relevant theories, namely the constructivist learning theory (Papert & Harel, 1991) and children cognitive development model (Piaget, 1964). Cognitively, the participants were at the concrete operation stage in which they were able to think critically and creatively. Together with the constructivist learning approach, they were able to work in team in carrying out the learning activities effectively as they could share and scaffold one another, thus leading to a successful collaboration. In today’s learning paradigm, students are expected to learn by interacting with their peers and teachers using appropriate technologies. This learning approach will become a common trend in many nations across the globe as technology becomes persuasively pervasive in the society, affecting a wide spectrum of peoples, especially children. With constant and persistent exposure to technology, children become astute and articulate in using all sorts of novel learning tools. Inevitably, their technological exploits will make them more skillful and experienced, thus making the transition from mere players to serious designers of digital games a smooth process. This contention is not a pipe dream as such transformation has been taking place gradually, as attested by a number of research findings (Baytak et al., 2011; Howe, 2012; Kafai, 1995; Prensky, 2008). This study highlights the imperative to adopt a new learning paradigm by emphasizing the integration of gamification in education. The effort to use such a learning approach has to start now as learning in the new millennium poses new challenges and demands. In all probability, there is a need to revise or reform the current thinking concerning the learning theories, learning styles, and teaching techniques so that they become more relevant to the 21st century learning. As demonstrated in this study, new technologies, such as digital games, can exert a tremendous impact on the learning process. Used in a proper learning context, digital games can help create a learning environment that is not only efficacious but entertaining as well. From the instructional design perspective, a gamification approach can provide the opportunity for students and teachers to implement design activity in their learning and teaching practices, respectively. Through these activities, students can become motivated, independent, and creative in solving problems. Overall, this study demonstrates that embedding digital games design activity into the learning process will be able to create a learning environment that helps improve students’ knowledge, skills, and motivation to learn. This research work is supported by the Education Special Research Grant (2016-0122-107-01) supported by Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia. - An, Y.J. (2014). Exploring 7th Graders' Game Design Experiences. Paper presented at the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, Chesapeake, VA. - Association, Entertainment Software. (2016). Essential facts about the computer and video game industry. http://www.theesa.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2016/ 04/ESA-Essential-Facts-2016.pdf - Baytak, A., Land, S., & Smith, B. (2011). Children as educational computer game designers: An exploratory study. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(4), 84-92. - Cheng, G. (2009). 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About this article 18 December 2019 Print ISBN (optional) Business, innovation, sustainability, environment, green business, environmental issues Cite this article as: Ibharim, L. F. M., Yatim, M. H. M., & Zain, N. Z. M. (2019). Digital Game Design Activity: Implementing Gamification With Children In The Classroom. In & M. Imran Qureshi (Ed.), Technology & Society: A Multidisciplinary Pathway for Sustainable Development, vol 40. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 399-411). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2018.05.32

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Share the story of an expedition Study an example One of the most effective ways to learn is to copy good examples. In this lesson, you'll use the example of three National Geographic explorers who visited Guatemala to learn more about the coexistence of volcanoes and communities. This story contains a mix of text and media that is designed to keep readers' attention throughout the entire story. It introduces scientific inquiry without being too technical, and it uses maps and other geographic elements to help readers step into the shoes of the explorers. - Read through In the Shadow of a Volcano, a tale of three National Geographic explorers on an expedition in Guatemala. Having a clear narrative arc is key to a good story. You may have noticed the example story is told chronologically—it has a natural beginning, middle, and end. It starts with the explorers arriving in Quetzaltenango. Ready to make a difference, the explorers head up the volcano to test their gear. It finishes with the photo exhibit created for community members, bringing the narrative back to the stated mission of the explorers and providing a satisfying sense of closure to its audience. The author describes the geologic processes of volcanoes without relying on a lot of scientific jargon. Because there aren't many technical terms, a reader who isn't familiar with earth science can still move smoothly through the narrative, focusing on the high-level ideas that make the expedition important in the first place. Gather visual content Now that you've seen an example of the story you want to create, you'll start gathering material. It's helpful to have the story written and multimedia elements organized before you start putting the content into the ArcGIS StoryMaps builder. - Download the StoryMap_Data folder and unzip it to a location you can easily access. This folder includes visual assets you can add to your story as well as a draft of the story you can use to fill in content. - Identify content that can speak to your journey's beginning, middle and end. The folder includes a list of the key messages and visuals associated with each part of the story. Create an outline With your content inventory complete, you'll start thinking about how you might weave all these pieces together into an outline. Outlines can take a variety of formats, from a simple bulleted list to an entire storyboard, a slide deck, or even a collection of index cards you shuffle around on your desk. The exact format isn't very important—what matters most is that you choose whichever one makes it easiest for you experiment and get creative. - In the StoryMap_Data folder, open the In the Shadow of a Volcano Text document. As you make your outline, you should keep two things in mind: your target audience and the key takeaway. - Reorder the content to make sure the story flows in a way that your audience can easily follow, and that emphasizes the main ideas. There are countless ways to tell a story; your audience and key message are integral to finding the structure that's best for you. You'd take a very different approach to storytelling with an audience of middle school students versus your social media followers. The same is true depending on how you want a reader to feel when they get to the end of your story. - Compare the example you're using to this version of the story. Changing a story's structure can dramatically change the message and emotions it communicates. This story is written in the first person from the perspective of the volcano. - Give your outline a final review to make sure it accomplishes the following five objectives, which are essential for any expedition story: - Who — Establish who is venturing out into the world and explain why they've embarked on this journey. - Where — Locate the place or places to which they are traveling and re-create the feeling of being there for the reader. - When — Clearly communicate the chronological order of the events that occurred on the expedition, even if the story doesn't follow a linear timeline. - What — Include elements that evoke tension or uncertainty in the reader's mind, keeping them invested in finding out what happens next. Why — Explain the key takeaways from the expedition once it has ended, helping the reader understand why these takeaways are significant. If you're working on this story with a group, now is a good time to review your story outline with collaborators or colleagues, so you can make any big structural changes before you start assembling your story. Add content blocks Now that you have the story text and media, you'll start building the story using content blocks. Each title, paragraph, image, and media type is added as a separate block from the block palette. Using the published story as an example, you'll add blocks to the story to form your own version. - Open the ArcGIS StoryMaps builder and sign in to ArcGIS Online. If you are signing in using your Enterprise account you must access ArcGIS StoryMaps from the app launcher. The app is also accessible in ArcGIS Online via the app launcher. - Click the New story button and then click Start from scratch. A blank story template appears. - For Title your story, type In the Shadow of a Volcano. For Start with a short introduction or subtitle, type or paste the following text: Around the world, volcanoes threaten nearly half a billion people. Scientists are working to better forecast when eruptions will occur. The ribbon updates with the new title. You can change the title at any time. Next to the Draft badge, you'll see evidence of the autosave feature in ArcGIS StoryMaps; any time you edit your story, that text will let you know your story is saving and then confirm that your changes have been saved. - Scroll past the cover. Next to Tell your story, click Add content block and choose Text. The block palette contains options for adding content. You'll tell your story using these blocks to add sections of content to the body of your story. There are a few types of blocks you can choose from. There are Basic elements such as text blocks—paragraph, heading, quote, and so on—and there are also a few options for adding small visual accents, such as a separator or a button. Then there are Media blocks such as an embed (for external web content), image, video, or map. And finally, there are Immersive blocks such as sidecar, slideshow and a map tour. Immersive blocks are unique in that they become full-screen takeovers of your story, providing different, interactive reading experiences. Those familiar with the classic Story Maps Journal template, for example, may recognize the split-screen feel of sidecar, where a fixed media panel displays visual content while a smaller narrative panel scrolls by. - Type or paste the following: In 2017, a volcanologist, a photographer, and a cartographer traveled to Guatemala on a National Geographic-funded expedition. Their goal was three-fold: to conduct innovative research that could help shape volcanic eruption warning systems; to create educational materials that explain the risks of living in the vicinity of a volcano; and to better understand what it is about these locations that is appealing enough for communities to remain there despite the risks. These paragraphs serve as both an introduction and a summary to your story. You'll make them stand out by italicizing them. - Highlight the first paragraph. In the text menu, click the Italic button. You can also use keyboard shortcuts such as Ctrl+I for italics and Ctrl+B for bold. - Use the same method to italicize the second paragraph. - Add a third Text content block and type or paste There's nothing quite like the thrill of going into the field for research. - Highlight the text, click Paragraph and choose Heading. This text serves as your first heading. Now, you'll add the rest of the text. - Paste the rest of the story content to the builder from the In the Shadow of a Volcano Text document you downloaded. Use the block palette to format all subtitles and paragraphs as needed. The text is broken into sections, each with a few paragraphs. Once all the text is in place, you'll start adding media elements. Work with media Once you've added your text, you'll start adding and adjusting media to bring your expedition to life. Images, video and other media are important because they break up a long narrative and provide context. You'll add both individual images and an immersive sidecar to the story and change their appearance to best fit the story. You'll also add video footage to the story. The first image you see in the example story is one of the volcano complex the explorers visited that serves as a banner image. - Between the italicized introductory paragraphs and the first heading, hover over the left margin and open the block palette. Choose Image. - In the Add an image window, on the Upload tab, click Browse your files and browse inside the StoryMap_Data, StoryImages, and Beginning folders. - Choose VolcanoPanorama.png. Click Open and click Add. The image is added to the story in the smallest form. Because this is a panorama, it's meant to be shown as a large image. - Hover over the volcano panorama image. In the toolbar, click Large. Depending on the width of the image you upload, larger sizes may not be available, ensuring that your content is never stretched beyond its maximum width. Full-width media, for example, must be at least 2,001 pixels wide. - Hover over the image again and click the Options button. The Image options window appears. You'll add alternative text, or alt text, that describes the image so that anyone consuming your story with a screen reader (typically used by the visually impaired) can still experience your work in its entirety. You can specify alt text in the properties menu for each media item using the Options button. Unlike captions, which appear below an image, the alt text associated with an image can be viewed by hovering over it. - For Alternative text, type Santiaguito volcano complex and click Save. The next image also includes a caption. - After the goals paragraph (The goals for the expedition are threefold), open the block palette and add another image. - In the Add an image window, click Browse your files and choose arrival.jpg from the Beginning folder in the lesson images. - Under the image, click Add a caption for this image and type or paste the following text: Dr. Stephanie Grocke sets up and tests photogrammetry equipment before the expedition up Santa María Volcano. Photo: Gabby Salazar. Media should break up your text and underscore the points you're trying to make in each section. As you go, be sure to pause and ask yourself if this is working the way you expected. While having a plan for your story is important, it's okay to iterate and adapt as you go; some things that seem good as a concept don't work out as expected in practice. - Modeling your story on the published version, continue adding text and images to the story until you reach the Why do people live so close to active volcanoes section. This section contains several images with scrolling text instead of captions. These scrolling image elements are called sidecars and help emphasize certain media items. - In the Why do people live so close to active volcanoes section, after the first paragraph block, click the Add content block button and choose Sidecar. - For Choose a layout, choose Docked and click Done. A Sidecar is added to your story. A sidecar is an immersive block with a side-by-side reading experience composed of a narrative panel on one side and a media panel on the other. Together, these two panels constitute a slide. - Click Add and choose Image or video. - In the Add an image or video window, click Browse your files, choose coffee.jpg from the Beginning folder and click Add. The image of raw coffee beans is added to the story. You'll add explanatory text to the image. - Next to the image, click Continue your story and type or paste the following: Agriculture around volcanoes thrives in the productive soil. Coffee grows particularly well around Santa María. - Add another text block and type Photo: Gabby Salazar. Together, a media panel and narrative panel constitute a slide, and you can have multiple slides in one sidecar block. - Highlight the caption text, click Paragraph, and click Quote. - Highlight the photo credit text and click the Italic button. The first sidecar slide is complete. At the bottom of the sidecar block is the slide panel. In the slide panel, you can add or remove slides, adjust the transitions between them, or remove the sidecar block from your story entirely. You can change which side the narrative panel is on by using the double-arrow button where the media and narrative panel meet. - In the slide panel, click the New slide button. A blank slide is added to the pane. - Click Add and click Image or video. Choose hotsprings.jpg. Add the following sidecar text: Hot springs are common in this region because of the geothermal activity near volcanoes. Tourists and locals alike can relax and enjoy the beautiful landscapes. Photo: Gabby Salazar - Add a final slide with flowers.jpg and the following text: Volcanoes have spiritual significance to local communities. It is not uncommon to see flower offerings as you climb a volcano. Photo: Gabby Salazar Finally, you'll add a video to the story. Videos can be hosted on Vimeo or YouTube. Any URL parameters you add to the video link—to start the video at a specific time, for example—will be preserved. - In the Like all good expeditions section, under the second paragraph, click the Add content block button and click Video. - In the Add a video window, click the Link tab, paste the URL https://vimeo.com/328687492, and click Add. The video is added to your story. - Point to the video and click the Options button, and in the Embed options window, for Alternative text (optional), type Hiking Santa Maria and click Save. Make sure you're providing a mix of different views with your visual assets. Wide shots are important for setting the scene and letting a reader fully appreciate the setting of your expedition, but tight shots of textures and little details will give them a more intimate understanding of what it was like to be there. Also keep in mind that it's okay to include silent clips to provide visual texture to your story. Atmospheric clips can catch a reader's eye and pull them into the scene, but do so in a way that is subtle and doesn't interrupt the story with a separate audio narrative. Work with maps This story takes place in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. To help readers picture where this is, you'll add a locator map using an express map. Express maps are a unique feature of ArcGIS StoryMaps. These simple, focused maps can only be created in the story builder and will only be stored in the story in which they are created. With basic drawing and annotation tools, express maps enable you to add points, lines, areas, arrows, and more with ease. You'll also add content from ArcGIS Online, a 3D web scene of the volcano and surrounding peaks. - After the first paragraph of the story (starting with In 2017, a volcanologist), click the Add content block button and choose Map. With ArcGIS StoryMaps, there are a number of options for adding and configuring a map in your story. You can add maps from your ArcGIS Online content, your organization, or ArcGIS Living Atlas of the World. You can also make a simple locator map using the express map feature. - In the Add a map window, click New express map. If necessary, close the message window that appears. A map of the world appears. First, you'll locate the site of the expedition, Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. - In the search bar, type Quetzaltenango, GTM and press Enter. The map zooms to Quetzaltenango. - On the pop-up, click Add to map. A pin is added to the map. In the Map layers pane, you can add an image and descriptive text to this point. This information will be displayed in a small pop-up window if a reader clicks it for more context. - In the side panel, click Add image. - Choose the quetzaltenango.jpg image from the Beginning folder. For Description, type or paste Quetzaltenango is home to approximately 224,703 people (the second largest city in Guatemala). - Click Done. In the Drawn features pane, you'll see your newly named feature in a Layers tab. - At the top of the pane, click the Options tab and click the Legend toggle button to turn on the map legend. A legend button appears at the bottom of your map. Since this map only has one feature, though, a reader can understand the map without a legend. - Turn off the Legend button and return to the Layers tab. If you choose to keep the legend on your map, you may also want to change the layer name. You can rename the layer in the More Options menu on the Layers tab, which will also rename it in the map legend. Unless your reader is familiar with the cities of Guatemala, this map still won't be very helpful. To provide more context for the location of this story, you'll zoom out. - Zoom out on the map until you can see the entirety of Guatemala and some of its neighboring countries. - Position the point near the center of the map. - Click Done. The map is added to your story. You can now adjust the size of the block, interact with the map itself and preview its pop-up. A map showing the rough location of the expedition is added to the story. You can use express maps for many purposes in an expedition story. You can add numbered points to the map to show important places you went chronologically, draw a line that retraces a route you traveled, or even outline the boundaries of your area of study. Explore the drawing tools to see how each of them works—you can always press the undo button or delete a feature to remove something you've added. Next, you'll add a 3D scene showing the route the explorers took. This scene was authored in ArcGIS Online. To add maps and scenes to your story, you can create them in ArcGIS Online and navigate to them in the map browser when you add a new map block. - In the Like all good expeditions section, below the video, after the second paragraph, click Add content block and choose Map. In the Add a map window, the map browser separates content into tabs like those you see in ArcGIS Online. - In a separate browser window, open the item details page for the Santa Maria Volcano scene. If necessary, sign in to your ArcGIS Online account. Note:You can also search in ArcGIS Online for this content by typing Santa Maria Volcano Data owner:RossDonihue in the global search bar and ensuring you have the Only search in my organization filter turned off. - On the item details page, under the thumbnail, click Add to Favoritesand return to the ArcGIS StoryMaps window. - In the ArcGIS StoryMaps builder, in the Add a map window, click the My Favorites tab. The My Favorites tab shows all the ArcGIS Online content that you've marked as a favorite, including the scene you just added. - Click Santa Maria Volcano Data. The scene opens in a map editor similar to the one you used to create your express map. The Scene layers pane lists the layers included in the scene. In this case, these layers show the path that the expedition took up the volcano as well as the names of the peaks. You can make these invisible or edit them by clicking the buttons on the Scene layers tab. Note that these edits will only be applied to the scene in the story; to make permanent changes, you need to edit the scene in Map Viewer Classic. - Move the scene until you can see all the labels and click Place scene. Continue authoring your story using the template and the final result story map. Review the story Before publishing, you'll review the story. This step is important because you want to make sure what you're sending out to the public is accurate and represents the best telling of your story. In addition to proofreading and editing your own story, this is a good point to ask others for feedback on the story. - On the ribbon, click Design. The Design pane appears with options to choose the cover layout and theme that best suit your narrative. Finalizing your story's design—its overall look and feel—is just as important as choosing the right content for your story. You want to ensure that the story's visual cues (its colors, typography, map symbology, and so on) match the tone of the narrative. These cues are what form a reader's first impression of a story's tone: dark, muted colors paired with formal fonts will signal a more serious story lies ahead, for example. When your design aesthetic and your content tone don't align, it makes for a jarring reading experience. - For Cover, Minimal is selected by default. The story cover is the first thing a reader sees, so you want to make sure you start off with an interesting image. For In the Shadow of a Volcano, it was important to provide immediate context about the expedition and its location, which is why the story begins with a minimal cover followed by an express map and synopsis of the overall expedition. While you're looking at covers, revisit the title and description of your story to make sure they're accurate and engaging and set the right expectations for a reader. - In the Design pane, under Optional story sections, turn on Navigation. The navigation ribbon appears above showing all the headings in the story. Navigation provides a link for readers to jump to the various sections. Next, you'll set the theme for the story. - For Theme, switch between Summit and Obsidian. When choosing a theme, find the one that best matches the tone of your story and the look of its visuals. Since In the Shadow of a Volcano is a fairly light story, with images featuring strong sky blues and rich vegetation greens, Summit was the right theme choice. This light theme's modern typography and minimalist feel let the content come forward, helping communicate the excitement the explorers felt while on the expedition. Story themes affect everything from color scheme to typography to the basemap and symbology of an express map, all with a single click. You can switch between themes as much as you like while trying to decide which one is most aligned with your story, watching your content transform immediately. - On the ribbon, click Preview. The Preview mode allows you to see a story as a user would. - Review the story for typos, missing alt text, continuity, and other changes to make before publishing. Pay careful attention to the narrative flow, and the kinds of emotional responses it elicits. It's best to do a full review after you've taken a break from story crafting; you'd be surprised what you pick up on when you review the story a second time. Remember, storytelling is an iterative process. It's okay to change your mind about decisions you made when outlining your story. When in doubt, show someone else your draft and ask for their reaction. - When you are done reviewing, at the bottom of the screen, click Close preview to return to the editing mode to make changes. - Optionally, now is a good time to ask others for feedback or suggestions for your story. Publish and share Finally, you'll publish your finished story and share it with others. Once it's published, you can choose to share the story with only people in your organization, or you can share it publicly. - On the ribbon, click Publish. The Publish button is only visible in the Draft view. - In the Publish story menu, for Sharing level, choose My organization and click Publish. Sharing the story publicly allows anyone to search and view it. Choosing My organization keeps viewership limited to your ArcGIS organization. You can update these sharing settings later through the More Options menu in the story builder's header. The story is now available to others. If you click Edit story, you see the Draft badge is replaced with a Published badge. After publishing, you can continue to make edits or updates without affecting the shared story. When you make a change, the Published badge in the builder header changes to Unpublished changes. This signals that you've made some revisions to your story, but they have yet to be pushed to the published version. Once you have your adjustments finalized, click Publish again to update the shared story. Or you can discard your unpublished changes using the More actions menu in the header. This is also where you can unpublish your story entirely, which will revert it to a draft and unshare the story. Now that you know the basic block elements of ArcGIS StoryMaps, you can use them to build any kind of story you want. Try telling the story of your latest vacation or adventure. When you're happy with your story, you can share it on social media, send it to everyone on your email list, embed it on your website, or share it any other way you want. Also, be sure to share it with the ArcGIS StoryMaps team by tagging them on Twitter. You can find more lessons in the Learn ArcGIS Lesson Gallery.

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Check out this summer reading list for 5th grade. A list of books to share with families to read over the summer with some literature comprehension activities and ideas for picture books for 5th graders. Poetry, prose, fiction and nonfiction summer reading recommendations! Picture books and chapter books to interest any child! If you’re a member of the Picture Book Brain Trust Community, you already have access to EVERY lesson plan and activity for these books! Just click on the Lesson Plans button in the menu! Picture Books For 5th Grade: Weslandia by Paul Fleischman Enter the witty, intriguing world of Weslandia! Now that school is over, Wesley needs a summer project. He’s learned that each civilization needs a staple food crop, so he decides to sow a garden and start his own — civilization, that is. He turns over a plot of earth, and plants begin to grow. They soon tower above him and bear a curious-looking fruit. As Wesley experiments, he finds that the plant will provide food, clothing, shelter, and even recreation. It isn’t long before his neighbors and classmates develop more than an idle curiosity about Wesley — and exactly how he is spending his summer vacation. The Raft by Jim LaMarche Nicky is convinced that his summer with his grandmother in the Wisconsin woods is going to be the worst summer ever. She cooks food that he doesn’t like, there’s an art studio where her living room should be, and he’s expected to do chores—including fishing, the most boring chore ever. But one afternoon, while Nicky is trying to catch their dinner, a raft drifts down the river towards him. The raft has a calming magic about it, affecting both Nicky and the wildlife of the river and woods. Through the raft and the adventures it brings him on, Nicky finds new common ground with his grandmother, a fellow river rat, who encourages him to explore his newfound talent for art. Crown by Derrick Barnes The barbershop is where the magic happens. Boys go in as lumps of clay and, with princely robes draped around their shoulders, a dab of cool shaving cream on their foreheads, and a slow, steady cut, they become royalty. That crisp yet subtle line makes boys sharper, more visible, more aware of every great thing that could happen to them when they look good: lesser grades turn into As; girls take notice; even a mother’s hug gets a little tighter. Everyone notices. A fresh cut makes boys fly. A Stone For Sascha by Aaron Becker This year’s summer vacation will be very different for a young girl and her family without Sascha, the beloved family dog, along for the ride. But a wistful walk along the beach to gather cool, polished stones becomes a brilliant turning point in the girl’s grief. There, at the edge of a vast ocean beneath an infinite sky, she uncovers, alongside the reader, a profound and joyous truth. In his first picture book following the conclusion of his best-selling Journey trilogy, Aaron Becker achieves a tremendous feat, connecting the private, personal loss of one child to a cycle spanning millennia — and delivering a stunningly layered tale that demands to be pored over again and again. Manfish by Jennifer Berne Before Jacques Cousteau became an internationally known oceanographer and champion of the seas, he was a curious little boy. In this lovely biography, poetic text and gorgeous paintings combine to create a portrait of Jacques Cousteau that is as magical as it is inspiring. All Because You Matter by Tami Charles Discover this poignant, timely, and emotionally stirring picture book, an ode to Black and brown children everywhere that is full of hope, assurance, and love. Your Place in the Universe by Jason Chin Most eight-year-olds are about five times as tall as this book . . . but only half as tall as an ostrich, which is half as tall as a giraffe . . . twenty times smaller than a California Redwood! How do they compare to the tallest buildings? To Mt. Everest? To stars, galaxy clusters, and . . . the universe? The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind by William Kamkwamba The inspiring story of how William Kamkwamba used discarded and recycled materials to save his home and his village in Africa by building a windmill. Drawn Together by Minh Le When a young boy visits his grandfather, their lack of a common language leads to confusion, frustration, and silence. But as they sit down to draw together, something magical happens—with a shared love of art and storytelling, the two form a bond that goes beyond words. You Are Home by Evan Turk Beneath the soaring doorways of stone, and peaks that pierce the ceiling of clouds, from every river, star, and stone comes the eternal refrain: you are home. In simple, soaring language and breathtaking art, acclaimed author-illustrator Evan Turk has created a stirring ode to nature and nation. From the rugged coast of Maine to the fiery volcanoes of Hawaii, You Are Home reminds us that every animal, plant, and person helps make this land a brilliant, beautiful sanctuary of life. Hidden Figures by Margot Lee Shetterly Dorothy Vaughan, Mary Jackson, Katherine Johnson, and Christine Darden were good at math…really good. They participated in some of NASA’s greatest successes, like providing the calculations for America’s first journeys into space. And they did so during a time when being black and a woman limited what they could do. But they worked hard. They persisted. And they used their genius minds to change the world. The Undefeated by Kwame Alexander Originally performed for ESPN’s The Undefeated, this poem is a love letter to black life in the United States. It highlights the unspeakable trauma of slavery, the faith and fire of the civil rights movement, and the grit, passion, and perseverance of some of the world’s greatest heroes. The text is also peppered with references to the words of Martin Luther King, Jr., Langston Hughes, Gwendolyn Brooks, and others, offering deeper insights into the accomplishments of the past, while bringing stark attention to the endurance and spirit of those surviving and thriving in the present. Robust back matter at the end provides valuable historical context and additional detail for those wishing to learn more. Overground Railroad by Lesa Cline-Ransome Climbing aboard the New York bound Silver Meteor train, Ruth Ellen embarks upon a journey toward a new life up North– one she can’t begin to imagine. Stop by stop, the perceptive young narrator tells her journey in poems, leaving behind the cotton fields and distant Blue Ridge mountains. Each leg of the trip brings new revelations as scenes out the window of folks working in fields give way to the Delaware River, the curtain that separates the colored car is removed, and glimpses of the freedom and opportunity the family hopes to find come into view. As they travel, Ruth Ellen reads from Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, reflecting on how her journey mirrors her own– until finally the train arrives at its last stop, New York’s Penn Station, and the family heads out into a night filled with bright lights, glimmering stars, and new possiblity. Queen of the Falls by Chris Van Allsburg Annie Taylor, a short, plump and fussy sixty-two year old widow, runs a charm school, right by Niagara Falls. When this starts to fail, she resolves to find fame and fortune by being the first person ever to go over the thundering waters of Niagara Falls in a barrel. Readers of all ages will warm to this inspiring story of bravery, as they take the roller coaster ride of a lifetime over the falls. Chester Nez and the Unbreakable Code by Joseph Bruchac As a young Navajo boy, Chester Nez had to leave the reservation and attend boarding school, where he was taught that his native language and culture were useless. But Chester refused to give up his heritage. Years later, during World War II, Chester―and other Navajo men like him―was recruited by the US Marines to use the Navajo language to create an unbreakable military code. Suddenly the language he had been told to forget was needed to fight a war. This powerful picture book biography contains backmatter including a timeline and a portion of the Navajo code, and also depicts the life of an original Navajo code talker while capturing the importance of heritage. This book would be a great book to read for Indigenous Peoples Day or for Veterans Day. Grand Canyon by Jason Chin Rivers wind through earth, cutting down and eroding the soil for millions of years, creating a cavity in the ground 277 miles long, 18 miles wide, and more than a mile deep known as the Grand Canyon. Home to an astonishing variety of plants and animals that have lived and evolved within its walls for millennia, the Grand Canyon is much more than just a hole in the ground. Follow a father and daughter as they make their way through the cavernous wonder, discovering life both present and past. Weave in and out of time as perfectly placed die cuts show you that a fossil today was a creature much long ago, perhaps in a completely different environment. Complete with a spectacular double gatefold, an intricate map and extensive back matter. This is one of my favorite read aloud books for 5th grade because of the connections to science you can make as well as environmental studies for Earth Day. Boxes For Katje by Candace Fleming After World War II there is little left in Katje’s town of Olst in Holland. Her family, like most Dutch families, must patch their old worn clothing and go without everyday things like soap and milk. Then one spring morning when the tulips bloom “thick and bright,” Postman Kleinhoonte pedals his bicycle down Katje’s street to deliver a mysterious box – a box from America! Full of soap, socks, and chocolate, the box has been sent by Rosie, an American girl from Mayfield, Indiana. Her package is part of a goodwill effort to help the people of Europe. What’s inside so delights Katje that she sends off a letter of thanks – beginning an exchange that swells with so many surprises that the girls, as well as their townspeople, will never be the same. Ada’s Violin by Susan Hood Ada Ríos grew up in Cateura, a small town in Paraguay built on a landfill. She dreamed of playing the violin, but with little money for anything but the bare essentials, it was never an option…until a music teacher named Favio Chávez arrived. He wanted to give the children of Cateura something special, so he made them instruments out of materials found in the trash. It was a crazy idea, but one that would leave Ada—and her town—forever changed. Now, the Recycled Orchestra plays venues around the world, spreading their message of hope and innovation. This is a truly inspiring diverse picture book that works for a variety of topics like Hispanic Heritage Month or Earthy Day. The Cat Man of Aleppo by Irene Latham Alaa loves Aleppo, but when war comes his neighbors flee to safety, leaving their many pets behind. Alaa decides to stay–he can make a difference by driving an ambulance, carrying the sick and wounded to safety. One day he hears hungry cats calling out to him on his way home. They are lonely and scared, just like him. He feeds and pets them to let them know they are loved. The next day more cats come, and then even more! There are too many for Alaa to take care of on his own. Alaa has a big heart, but he will need help from others if he wants to keep all of his new friends safe. The Next President by Kate Messner Who will be the NEXT president? Could it be you? When George Washington became the first president of the United States, there were nine future presidents already alive in America, doing things like practicing law or studying medicine. When JFK became the thirty-fifth president, there were 10 future presidents already alive in America, doing things like hosting TV shows and learning the saxophone. And right now—today!—there are at least 10 future presidents alive in America. They could be playing basketball, like Barack Obama, or helping in the garden, like Dwight D. Eisenhower. They could be solving math problems or reading books. They could be making art—or already making change. So Tall Within by Gary Schmidt Sojourner Truth was born into slavery but possessed a mind and a vision that knew no bounds. So Tall Within traces her life from her painful childhood through her remarkable emancipation to her incredible leadership in the movement for rights for both women and African Americans. Her story is told with lyricism and pathos by Gary D. Schmidt, one of the most celebrated writers for children in the twenty-first century, and brought to life by award winning and fine artist Daniel Minter. This combination of talent is just right for introducing this legendary figure to a new generation of children. The Wall by Peter Sis “I was born at the beginning of it all, on the Red side―the Communist side―of the Iron Curtain.” Through annotated illustrations, journals, maps, and dreamscapes, Peter Sís shows what life was like for a child who loved to draw, proudly wore the red scarf of a Young Pioneer, stood guard at the giant statue of Stalin, and believed whatever he was told to believe. But adolescence brought questions. Cracks began to appear in the Iron Curtain, and news from the West slowly filtered into the country. Sís learned about beat poetry, rock ‘n’ roll, blue jeans, and Coca-Cola. He let his hair grow long, secretly read banned books, and joined a rock band. Then came the Prague Spring of 1968, and for a teenager who wanted to see the world and meet the Beatles, this was a magical time. It was short-lived, however, brought to a sudden and brutal end by the Soviet-led invasion. But this brief flowering had provided a glimpse of new possibilities―creativity could be discouraged but not easily killed. Funny Bones by Duncan Tonatiuh Funny Bones tells the story of how calaveras came to be. The amusing figures are the creation of Mexican artist José Guadalupe (Lupe) Posada (1852–1913). Lupe learned the art of printing at a young age and soon had his own shop. In a country that was not known for freedom of speech, he drew political cartoons, much to the amusement of the local population but not that of the politicians. He continued to draw cartoons, but he is best known today for his calavera drawings. They have become synonymous with Mexico’s Día de Muertos festival. Calaveras are skeletons performing all sorts of activities, both everyday and festive: dancing in the streets, playing instruments in a band, pedaling bicycles, promenading in the park, and even sweeping the sidewalks. They are not intended to be frightening, but rather to celebrate the joy of living as well as provide humorous observations about people. Moses by Carole Boston Weatherford I set the North Star in the heavens and I mean for you to be free… Born into slavery, Harriet Tubman hears these words from God one summer night and decides to leave her husband and family behind and escape. Taking with her only her faith, she must creep through woods with hounds at her feet, sleep for days in a potato hole, and trust people who could have easily turned her in. But she was never alone. This one can get a little preachy at times, but that was how Harriet Tubman was. Certainly a book worth of being one of the best read aloud books for 5th grade. Nasreen’s Secret School by Jeanette Winter Young Nasreen has not spoken a word to anyone since her parents disappeared. In despair, her grandmother risks everything to enroll Nasreen in a secret school for girls. Will a devoted teacher, a new friend, and the worlds she discovers in books be enough to draw Nasreen out of her shell of sadness? Based on a true story from Afghanistan, this inspiring book will touch readers deeply as it affirms both the life-changing power of education and the healing power of love. What I love about this book and what makes it one of the best read aloud books for 5th grade is how it helps students understand how Nasreen felt. Pies From Nowhere by Dee Romito Georgia Gilmore was a cook at the National Lunch Company in Montgomery, Alabama. When the bus boycotts broke out in Montgomery after Rosa Parks was arrested, Georgia knew just what to do. She organized a group of women who cooked and baked to fund-raise for gas and cars to help sustain the boycott. Called the Club from Nowhere, Georgia was the only person who knew who baked and bought the food, and she said the money came from “nowhere” to anyone who asked. When Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested for his role in the boycott, Georgia testified on his behalf, and her home became a meeting place for civil rights leaders. This picture book highlights a hidden figure of the civil rights movement who fueled the bus boycotts and demonstrated that one person can make a real change in her community and beyond. It also includes one of her delicious recipes for kids to try with the help of their parents! Thirty Minutes Over Oregon by Marc Tyler Nobleman The devastating attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, drew the United States into World War II in 1941. But few are aware that several months later, the Japanese pilot Nobuo Fujita dropped bombs in the woods outside a small town in Oregon. This is the story of those bombings, and what came after, when Fujita returned to Oregon twenty years later, this time to apologize. This remarkable true story, beautifully illustrated in watercolor, is an important and moving account of reconciliation after war. This was a recent find that went straight to my list of the best read aloud books for 5th grade. Game Changers by Lesa Cline-Ransome Venus and Serena Williams. Two peas in a pod. Best friends. Sisters. Six days a week they awoke before the sun came up to practice their serves and returns, to learn to run faster and hit harder. They were unstoppable. At age fourteen, Venus played her first professional match. Three years later, it was Serena’s turn. It wasn’t easy. Some tennis fans cheered for these two fresh faces, while those who were unhappy to see two black girls competing in a nearly all-white sport booed and taunted them. But they didn’t let it stop them. That Book Woman by Heather Henson Cal is not the readin’ type. Living way high up in the Appalachian Mountains, he’d rather help Pap plow or go out after wandering sheep than try some book learning. Nope. Cal does not want to sit stoney-still reading some chicken scratch. But that Book Woman keeps coming just the same. She comes in the rain and in the snow. She comes right up the side of the mountain, and Cal knows that’s not easy riding. And all just to lend his sister some books. Why, that woman must be plain foolish—or is she braver than he ever thought? If you want to talk about the importance of libraries and reading, this book is perfect! Middle Grade Novels and Chapter Books for 5th Graders: Pax by Sara Pennypacker Pax and Peter have been inseparable ever since Peter rescued him as a kit. But one day, the unimaginable happens: Peter’s dad enlists in the military and makes him return the fox to the wild. At his grandfather’s house, three hundred miles away from home, Peter knows he isn’t where he should be—with Pax. He strikes out on his own despite the encroaching war, spurred by love, loyalty, and grief, to be reunited with his fox. Meanwhile Pax, steadfastly waiting for his boy, embarks on adventures and discoveries of his own. . . .Pax is a wonderful choice for independent reading, sharing in the classroom, homeschooling, and book groups. Pax Journey Home by Sara Pennypacker It’s been a year since Peter and his pet fox, Pax, have seen each other. Once inseparable, they now lead very different lives. Pax and his mate, Bristle, have welcomed a litter of kits they must protect in a dangerous world. Meanwhile Peter—newly orphaned after the war, racked with guilt and loneliness—leaves his adopted home with Vola to join the Water Warriors, a group of people determined to heal the land from the scars of the war. When one of Pax’s kits falls desperately ill, he turns to the one human he knows he can trust. And no matter how hard Peter tries to harden his broken heart, love keeps finding a way in. Now both boy and fox find themselves on journeys toward home, healing—and each other, once again. The Tiger Rising by Kate DiCamillo Walking through the misty Florida woods one morning, twelve-year-old Rob Horton is stunned to encounter a tiger—a real-life, very large tiger—pacing back and forth in a cage. What’s more, on the same extraordinary day, he meets Sistine Bailey, a girl who shows her feelings as readily as Rob hides his. As they learn to trust each other, and ultimately, to be friends, Rob and Sistine prove that some things—like memories, and heartache, and tigers—can’t be locked up forever. Mockingbird by Kathryn Erskine Caitlin has Asperger’s. The world according to her is black and white; anything in between is confusing. Before, when things got confusing, Caitlin went to her older brother, Devon, for help. But Devon was killed in a school shooting, and Caitlin’s dad is so distraught that he is just not helpful. Caitlin wants everything to go back to the way things were, but she doesn’t know how to do that. Then she comes across the word closure–and she realizes this is what she needs. And in her search for it, Caitlin discovers that the world may not be so black and white after all. Linked by Gordon Korman Link, Michael, and Dana live in a quiet town. But it’s woken up very quickly when someone sneaks into school and vandalizes it with a swastika. Nobody can believe it. How could such a symbol of hate end up in the middle of their school? Who would do such a thing? Because Michael was the first person to see it, he’s the first suspect. Because Link is one of the most popular guys in school, everyone’s looking to him to figure it out. And because Dana’s the only Jewish girl in the whole town, everyone’s treating her more like an outsider than ever. The mystery deepens as more swastikas begin to appear. Some students decide to fight back and start a project to bring people together instead of dividing them further. The closer Link, Michael, and Dana get to the truth, the more there is to face-not just the crimes of the present, but the crimes of the past. The Bridge Home by Padma Venkatraman Life is harsh on the teeming streets of Chennai, India, so when runaway sisters Viji and Rukku arrive, their prospects look grim. Very quickly, eleven-year-old Viji discovers how vulnerable they are in this uncaring, dangerous world. Fortunately, the girls find shelter–and friendship–on an abandoned bridge that’s also the hideout of Muthi and Arul, two homeless boys, and the four of them soon form a family of sorts. While making their living scavenging the city’s trash heaps is the pits, the kids find plenty to take pride in, too. After all, they are now the bosses of themselves and no longer dependent on untrustworthy adults. But when illness strikes, Viji must decide whether to risk seeking help from strangers or to keep holding on to their fragile, hard-fought freedom. We’re Not From Here by Geoff Rodkey The first time I heard about Planet Choom, we’d been on Mars for almost a year. But life on the Mars station was grim, and since Earth was no longer an option (we may have blown it up), it was time to find a new home. That’s how we ended up on Choom with the Zhuri. They’re very smart. They also look like giant mosquitos. But that’s not why it’s so hard to live here. There’s a lot that the Zhuri don’t like: singing (just ask my sister, Ila), comedy (one joke got me sent to the principal’s office), or any kind of emotion. The biggest problem, though? The Zhuri don’t like us. And if humankind is going to survive, it’s up to my family to change their minds. No pressure. Insignificant Events in the Life of a Cactus by Dusti Bowling Aven Green loves to tell people that she lost her arms in an alligator wrestling match, or a wildfire in Tanzania, but the truth is she was born without them. And when her parents take a job running Stagecoach Pass, a rundown western theme park in Arizona, Aven moves with them across the country knowing that she’ll have to answer the question over and over again. Her new life takes an unexpected turn when she bonds with Connor, a classmate who also feels isolated because of his own disability, and they discover a room at Stagecoach Pass that holds bigger secrets than Aven ever could have imagined. It’s hard to solve a mystery, help a friend, and face your worst fears. But Aven’s about to discover she can do it all . . . even without arms. A Long Walk to Water by Linda Sue Park A Long Walk to Water begins as two stories, told in alternating sections, about two eleven-year-olds in Sudan, a girl in 2008 and a boy in 1985. The girl, Nya, is fetching water from a pond that is two hours’ walk from her home: she makes two trips to the pond every day. The boy, Salva, becomes one of the “lost boys” of Sudan, refugees who cover the African continent on foot as they search for their families and for a safe place to stay. Enduring every hardship from loneliness to attack by armed rebels to contact with killer lions and crocodiles, Salva is a survivor, and his story goes on to intersect with Nya’s in an astonishing and moving way. Includes an afterword by author Linda Sue Park and the real-life Salva Dut, on whom the novel is based, and who went on to found Water for South Sudan. The Wild Robot by Peter Brown Can a robot survive in the wilderness? When robot Roz opens her eyes for the first time, she discovers that she is all alone on a remote, wild island. She has no idea how she got there or what her purpose is–but she knows she needs to survive. After battling a violent storm and escaping a vicious bear attack, she realizes that her only hope for survival is to adapt to her surroundings and learn from the island’s unwelcoming animal inhabitants. As Roz slowly befriends the animals, the island starts to feel like home–until, one day, the robot’s mysterious past comes back to haunt her. The Wild Robot Escapes by Peter Brown Shipwrecked on a remote, wild island, Robot Roz learned from the unwelcoming animal inhabitants and adapted to her surroundings–but can she survive the challenges of the civilized world and find her way home to Brightbill and the island? Ghost by Jason Reynolds Running. That’s all Ghost (real name Castle Cranshaw) has ever known. But Ghost has been running for the wrong reasons—it all started with running away from his father, who, when Ghost was a very little boy, chased him and his mother through their apartment, then down the street, with a loaded gun, aiming to kill. Since then, Ghost has been the one causing problems—and running away from them—until he meets Coach, an ex-Olympic Medalist who sees something in Ghost: crazy natural talent. If Ghost can stay on track, literally and figuratively, he could be the best sprinter in the city. Can Ghost harness his raw talent for speed, or will his past finally catch up to him? Flora and Ulysses by Kate DiCamillo It begins, as the best superhero stories do, with a tragic accident that has unexpected consequences. The squirrel never saw the vacuum cleaner coming, but self-described cynic Flora Belle Buckman, who has read every issue of the comic book Terrible Things Can Happen to You!, is just the right person to step in and save him. What neither can predict is that Ulysses (the squirrel) has been born anew, with powers of strength, flight, and misspelled poetry — and that Flora will be changed too, as she discovers the possibility of hope and the promise of a capacious heart. Roll With It by Jamie Sumner Ellie’s a girl with cerebral palsy who tells it like it is. That surprises some people, who see a kid in a wheelchair and think she’s going to be all sunshine and cuddles. The thing is, Ellie has big dreams: She might be eating Stouffer’s for dinner, but one day she’s going to be a professional baker. If she’s not writing fan letters to her favorite celebrity chefs, she’s practicing recipes on her well-meaning, if overworked, mother. But when Ellie and her mom move so they can help take care of her ailing grandpa, Ellie has to start all over again in a new town at a new school. Except she’s not just the new kid—she’s the new kid in the wheelchair who lives in the trailer park on the wrong side of town. It all feels like one challenge too many, until Ellie starts to make her first-ever friends. Now she just has to convince her mom that this town might just be the best thing that ever happened to them! Because of Mr. Terupt by Rob Buyea It’s the start of a new year at Snow Hill School, and seven students find themselves thrown together in Mr. Terupt’s fifth grade class. There’s . . . Jessica, the new girl, smart and perceptive, who’s having a hard time fitting in; Alexia, a bully, your friend one second, your enemy the next; Peter, class prankster and troublemaker; Luke, the brain; Danielle, who never stands up for herself; shy Anna, whose home situation makes her an outcast; and Jeffrey, who hates school. They don’t have much in common, and they’ve never gotten along. Not until a certain new teacher arrives and helps them to find strength inside themselves—and in each other. But when Mr. Terupt suffers a terrible accident, will his students be able to remember the lessons he taught them? Or will their lives go back to the way they were before—before fifth grade and before Mr. Terupt? The War that Saved My Life by Kimberly Brubaker Bradley Ten-year-old Ada has never left her one-room apartment. Her mother is too humiliated by Ada’s twisted foot to let her outside. So when her little brother Jamie is shipped out of London to escape the war, Ada doesn’t waste a minute—she sneaks out to join him. So begins a new adventure for Ada, and for Susan Smith, the woman who is forced to take the two kids in. As Ada teaches herself to ride a pony, learns to read, and watches for German spies, she begins to trust Susan—and Susan begins to love Ada and Jamie. But in the end, will their bond be enough to hold them together through wartime? Or will Ada and her brother fall back into the cruel hands of their mother? Rules by Cynthia Lord Twelve-year-old Catherine just wants a normal life. Which is near impossible when you have a brother with autism and a family that revolves around his disability. She’s spent years trying to teach David the rules from “a peach is not a funny-looking apple” to “keep your pants on in public” — in order to head off David’s embarrassing behaviors.But the summer Catherine meets Jason, a surprising, new sort-of friend, and Kristi, the next-door friend she’s always wished for, it’s her own shocking behavior that turns everything upside down and forces her to ask: What is normal? Raymie Nightingale by Kate DiCamillo Raymie Clarke has come to realize that everything, absolutely everything, depends on her. And she has a plan. If Raymie can win the Little Miss Central Florida Tire competition, then her father, who left town two days ago with a dental hygienist, will see Raymie’s picture in the paper and (maybe) come home. To win, not only does Raymie have to do good deeds and learn how to twirl a baton; she also has to contend with the wispy, frequently fainting Louisiana Elefante, who has a show-business background, and the fiery, stubborn Beverly Tapinski, who’s determined to sabotage the contest. But as the competition approaches, loneliness, loss, and unanswerable questions draw the three girls into an unlikely friendship — and challenge each of them to come to the rescue in unexpected ways. Louisiana’s Way Home by Kate DiCamillo When Louisiana Elefante’s granny wakes her up in the middle of the night to tell her that the day of reckoning has arrived and they have to leave home immediately, Louisiana isn’t overly worried. After all, Granny has many middle-of-the-night ideas. But this time, things are different. This time, Granny intends for them never to return. Separated from her best friends, Raymie and Beverly, Louisiana struggles to oppose the winds of fate (and Granny) and find a way home. But as Louisiana’s life becomes entwined with the lives of the people of a small Georgia town — including a surly motel owner, a walrus-like minister, and a mysterious boy with a crow on his shoulder — she starts to worry that she is destined only for goodbyes. Starfish by Lisa Fipps Ever since Ellie wore a whale swimsuit and made a big splash at her fifth birthday party, she’s been bullied about her weight. To cope, she tries to live by the Fat Girl Rules—like “no making waves,” “avoid eating in public,” and “don’t move so fast that your body jiggles.” And she’s found her safe space—her swimming pool—where she feels weightless in a fat-obsessed world. In the water, she can stretch herself out like a starfish and take up all the room she wants. It’s also where she can get away from her pushy mom, who thinks criticizing Ellie’s weight will motivate her to diet. Fortunately, Ellie has allies in her dad, her therapist, and her new neighbor, Catalina, who loves Ellie for who she is. With this support buoying her, Ellie might finally be able to cast aside the Fat Girl Rules and starfish in real life–by unapologetically being her own fabulous self. Number the Stars by Lois Lowry Through the eyes of ten-year-old Annemarie, we watch as the Danish Resistance smuggles almost the entire Jewish population of Denmark, nearly seven thousand people, across the sea to Sweden. The heroism of an entire nation reminds us that there was pride and human decency in the world even during a time of terror and war. Best Summer Reading List for 5th Grade What are some of your favorite books for your summer reading list for 5th grade students? Are there any must read books that you have on your summer reading list for 5th graders that I left out? Let me know in the comments, and I’ll add it! Download the Printable Summer Reading List for 5th Grade: If you’re a member of the Picture Book Brain Trust Community, you already have access to EVERY lesson plan and activity for these books! Just click on the Lesson Plans button in the menu! Other Great 5th Grade Read Aloud Stories Looking for other great 5th grade read alouds? Here are a few more to explore:

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1.the discipline that records and interprets past events involving human beings"he teaches Medieval history" "history takes the long view" 2.all that is remembered of the past as preserved in writing; a body of knowledge"the dawn of recorded history" "from the beginning of history" 3.a record or narrative description of past events"a history of France" "he gave an inaccurate account of the plot to kill the president" "the story of exposure to lead" 4.the aggregate of past events"a critical time in the school's history" 5.the continuum of events occurring in succession leading from the past to the present and even into the future"all of human history" HistoryHis"to*ry (?), n.; pl. Histories (#). [L. historia, Gr. 'istori`a history, information, inquiry, fr. 'istwr, "istwr, knowing, learned, from the root of � to know; akin to E. wit. See Wit, and cf. Story.] 1. A learning or knowing by inquiry; the knowledge of facts and events, so obtained; hence, a formal statement of such information; a narrative; a description; a written record; as, the history of a patient's case; the history of a legislative bill. 2. A systematic, written account of events, particularly of those affecting a nation, institution, science, or art, and usually connected with a philosophical explanation of their causes; a true story, as distinguished from a romance; -- distinguished also from annals, which relate simply the facts and events of each year, in strict chronological order; from biography, which is the record of an individual's life; and from memoir, which is history composed from personal experience, observation, and memory. Histories are as perfect as the historian is wise, and is gifted with an eye and a soul. Carlyle. For aught that I could ever read, Could ever hear by tale or history. Shak. What histories of toil could I declare! Pope. History piece, a representation in painting, drawing, etc., of any real event, including the actors and the action. -- Natural history, a description and classification of objects in nature, as minerals, plants, animals, etc., and the phenomena which they exhibit to the senses. Syn. -- Chronicle; annals; relation; narration. -- History, Chronicle, Annals. History is a methodical record of important events which concern a community of men, usually so arranged as to show the connection of causes and effects, to give an analysis of motive and action etc. A chronicle is a record of such events, conforming to the order of time as its distinctive feature. Annals are a chronicle divided up into separate years. By poetic license annals is sometimes used for history. Justly Cæsar scorns the poet's lays; It is to history he trusts for praise. Pope. No more yet of this; For 't is a chronicle of day by day, Not a relation for a breakfast. Shak. Many glorious examples in the annals of our religion. Rogers. HistoryHis"to*ry, v. t. To narrate or record. [Obs.] Shak. voir la définition de Wikipedia science du passé (fr)[Classe] qui se rapporte à une science humaine (fr)[Classe...] conforme à la vérité (fr)[Classe] qualificatif d'un genre littéraire ou d'un type de littérature (fr)[DomaineDescription] important, of import[Similaire] intellectual, noetic, rational[Dérivé] pièce d'archive (fr)[Classe] science of history[Classe] commemorate, immortalise, immortalize, memorialise, memorialize, observe, record, remember - enter, make a recording, put down, record, register - recounting, relation, telling - account, chronicle, history, story - chronicler - historic - historic, historical[Dérivé] photography, picture taking[Domaine] important, of import[Similaire] past; past times; yesteryear; ancient times; antiquity[ClasseHyper.] History (from Greek ἱστορία - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation") is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events, and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of cause and effect that determine events. Historians debate the nature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present. The stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline of history. Events of the past prior to written record are considered prehistory. Amongst scholars, the 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus is considered to be the "father of history", and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, forms the foundations for the modern study of history. Their influence, along with other historical traditions in other parts of their world, have spawned many different interpretations of the nature of history which has evolved over the centuries and are continuing to change. The modern study of history has many different fields including those that focus on certain regions and those which focus on certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in University studies. A derivation from *weid- "know" or "see" is attested as "the reconstructed etymon wid-tor ["one who knows"] (compare to English wit) a suffixed zero-grade form of the PIE root *weid--'see' and so is related to Greek eidénai, to know "... Ancient Greek ἱστορία (hístōr) means "inquiry","knowledge from inquiry", or "judge". It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι (Perì Tà Zôa Ηistoríai "Inquiries about Animals"). The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or similar). The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of "relation of incidents, story". In Middle English, the meaning was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "record of past events" arises in the late 15th century. It was still in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about "Natural History". For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy). In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both "history" and "story". The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669. Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive "history" is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, "History", or the word historiography. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'true past'). The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history. Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. For the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before. Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not "fill the gaps" within textual sources. Indeed, Historical Archaeology is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historical environment, despite the ideology of "liberty" inherent in written documents at this time. There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The International Women's Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975." It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity. |↑ before Homo (Pliocene)| |Three-age system prehistory| The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world. In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote: The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations. This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization. Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative towards long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s"). Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives. History's philosophical questions Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Philosophy of history should not be confused with historiography, which is the study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods and practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time. Historical method basics The following questions are used by historians in modern work. Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC) has generally been acclaimed as the "father of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (ca. 460 BC – ca. 400 BC) is credited with having first approached history with a well-developed historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention. In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring. There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by the Han Dynasty court historian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). For the quality of his timeless written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese Historiography. Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature. Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study. In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and he often referred to it as his "new science". His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, and he is thus considered to be the "father of historiography" or the "father of the philosophy of history". In the West historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. The 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods was Leopold von Ranke in Germany. In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or individuals, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as an art, which traditionally had been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history as a social science were a diverse collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach. Braudel combined history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archaeology while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography, anthropology, and economics. More recently, the field of digital history has begun to address ways of using computer technology to pose new questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship. In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was the power of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an art. French historians associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. Another genre of social history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period. Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene D. Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of History, Richard J. Evans, a professor of modern history at Cambridge University, defended the worth of history. Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History. Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included. Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians. The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the start and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied. Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others. World history is especially important as a teaching field. It has increasingly entered the university curriculum in the U.S., in many cases replacing courses in Western Civilization, that had a focus on Europe and the U.S. World history adds extensive new material on Asia, Africa and Latin America. Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat. The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture. The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History, Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy. Every major country is covered, and most smaller ones as well. Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life. In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%. In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%). The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible." While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in." The chief subfields of social history include: Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Diplomatic history, sometimes referred to as "Rankian History" in honor of Leopold von Ranke, focuses on politics, politicians and other high rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief of what history should be. Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments. Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews. A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other type of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. This history also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur. Historiometry is a historical study of human progress or individual personal characteristics, by using statistics to analyze references to eminent persons, their statements, behavior and discoveries in relatively neutral texts. Gender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. It is in many ways, an outgrowth of women's history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History (and its forerunner Women's History) has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s, when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of different phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of history have been quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers of women into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle. Public history is a term that describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government. Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. Closely related to deceptive historical revisionsm, works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory. From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980 attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy. At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives. The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians’ approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery." Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity. In most countries history textbook are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official line about national enemies. In many countries history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire World War II is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography. In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centred on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness." |Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.| |Find more about History on Wikipedia's sister projects:| |Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |Images and media from Commons |Learning resources from Wikiversity |News stories from Wikinews |Quotations from Wikiquote |Source texts from Wikisource |Textbooks from Wikibooks Contenu de sensagent dictionnaire et traducteur pour sites web Une fenêtre (pop-into) d'information (contenu principal de Sensagent) est invoquée un double-clic sur n'importe quel mot de votre page web. LA fenêtre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles, c'est-à-dire sans obliger votre visiteur à quitter votre page web ! 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