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Native American, also called American Indian, Amerindian, Amerind, Indian, aboriginal American, or First Nation person, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, although the term often connotes only those groups whose original territories were in present-day Canada and the United States. Pre-Columbian Americans used technology and material culture that included fire and the fire drill; the domesticated dog; stone implements of many kinds; the spear-thrower (atlatl), harpoon, and bow and arrow; and cordage, netting, basketry, and, in some places, pottery. Many indigenous American groups were hunting-and-gathering cultures, while others were agricultural peoples. American Indians domesticated a variety of plants and animals, including corn (maize), beans, squash, potatoes and other tubers, turkeys, llamas, and alpacas, as well as a variety of semidomesticated species of nut- and seed-bearing plants. These and other resources were used to support communities ranging from small hamlets to cities such as Cahokia, with an estimated population of 10,000 to 20,000 individuals, and Teotihuacán, with some 125,000 to 200,000 residents. At the dawn of the 16th century ce, as the European conquest of the Americas began, indigenous peoples resided throughout the Western Hemisphere. They were soon decimated by the effects of epidemic disease, military conquest, and enslavement, and, as with other colonized peoples, they were subject to discriminatory political and legal policies well into the 20th, and even the 21st, century. Nonetheless, they have been among the most active and successful native peoples in effecting political change and regaining their autonomy in areas such as education, land ownership, religious freedom, the law, and the revitalization of traditional culture. Culturally, the indigenous peoples of the Americas are usually recognized as constituting two broad groupings, American Indians and Arctic peoples. American Indians are often further grouped by area of residence: Northern America (present-day United States and Canada), Middle America (present-day Mexico and Central America; sometimes called Mesoamerica), and South America. This article is a survey of the culture areas, prehistories, histories, and recent developments of the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States and Canada. Some of the terminology used in reference to indigenous Americans is explained in Sidebar: Tribal Nomenclature: American Indian, Native American, and First Nation; Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band; and Sidebar: Native American Self-Names. An overview of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas is presented in American Indian; discussions of various aspects of indigenous American cultures may also be found in the articles pre-Columbian civilizations; Middle American Indian; South American Indian; Arctic: The people; American Indian languages; Native American religions; and Native American arts. Native Americans form an ethnic group only in a very general sense. In the East, centuries of coexistence with whites has led to some degree of intermarriage and assimilation and to various patterns of stable adjustment. In the West the hasty expansion of… Native American culture areas Comparative studies are an essential component of all scholarly analyses, whether the topic under study is human society, fine art, paleontology, or chemistry; the similarities and differences found in the entities under consideration help to organize and direct research programs and exegeses. The comparative study of cultures falls largely in the domain of anthropology, which often uses a typology known as the culture area approach to organize comparisons across cultures. The culture area approach was delineated at the turn of the 20th century and continued to frame discussions of peoples and cultures into the 21st century. A culture area is a geographic region where certain cultural traits have generally co-occurred; for instance, in North America between the 16th and 19th centuries, the Northwest Coast culture area was characterized by traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, large villages or towns, and hierarchical social organization. The specific number of culture areas delineated for Native America has been somewhat variable because regions are sometimes subdivided or conjoined. The 10 culture areas discussed below are among the most commonly used—the Arctic, the Subarctic, the Northeast, the Southeast, the Plains, the Southwest, the Great Basin, California, the Northwest Coast, and the Plateau. Notably, some scholars prefer to combine the Northeast and Southeast into one Eastern Woodlands culture area or the Plateau and Great Basin into a single Intermontane culture area. Each section below considers the location, climate, environment, languages, tribes, and common cultural characteristics of the area before it was heavily colonized. Prehistoric and post-Columbian Native American cultures are discussed in subsequent sections of this article. A discussion of the indigenous peoples of the Americas as a whole is found in American Indian. This region lies near and above the Arctic Circle and includes the northernmost parts of present-day Alaska and Canada. The topography is relatively flat, and the climate is characterized by very cold temperatures for most of the year. The region’s extreme northerly location alters the diurnal cycle; on winter days the sun may peek above the horizon for only an hour or two, while the proportion of night to day is reversed during the summer months (see midnight sun). The indigenous peoples of the North American Arctic include the Eskimo (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleut; their traditional languages are in the Eskimo-Aleut family. Many Alaskan groups prefer to be called Native Alaskans rather than Native Americans; Canada’s Arctic peoples generally prefer the referent Inuit. The Arctic peoples of North America relied upon hunting and gathering. Winters were harsh, but the long hours of summer sunlight supported an explosion of vegetation that in turn drew large herds of caribou and other animals to the inland North. On the coasts, sea mammals and fish formed the bulk of the diet. Small mobile bands were the predominant form of social organization; band membership was generally based on kinship and marriage (see also Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band). Dome-shaped houses were common; they were sometimes made of snow and other times of timber covered with earth. Fur clothing, dog sleds, and vivid folklore, mythology, and storytelling traditions were also important aspects of Arctic cultures. See also Arctic: The people. This region lies south of the Arctic and encompasses most of present-day Alaska and most of Canada, excluding the Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island), which are part of the Northeast culture area. The topography is relatively flat, the climate is cool, and the ecosystem is characterized by a swampy and coniferous boreal forest (taiga) ecosystem. Prominent tribes include the Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi), Cree, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, Beaver, Slave, Carrier, Gwich’in, Tanaina, and Deg Xinag (Ingalik). Their traditional languages are in the Athabaskan and Algonquian families. Small kin-based bands were the predominant form of social organization, although seasonal gatherings of larger groups occurred at favoured fishing locales. Moose, caribou, beavers, waterfowl, and fish were taken, and plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap were gathered. In winter people generally resided in snug semisubterranean houses built to withstand extreme weather; summer allowed for more mobility and the use of tents or lean-tos. Snowshoes, toboggans, and fur clothing were other common forms of material culture. See also American Subarctic peoples. This culture area reaches from the present-day Canadian provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and the Maritimes (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) south to the Ohio River valley (inland) and to North Carolina (on the Atlantic Coast). The topography is generally rolling, although the Appalachian Mountains include some relatively steep slopes. The climate is temperate, precipitation is moderate, and the predominant ecosystem is the deciduous forest. There is also extensive coastline and an abundance of rivers and lakes. Prominent tribes include the Algonquin, Iroquois, Huron, Wampanoag, Mohican, Mohegan, Ojibwa, Ho-chunk (Winnebago), Sauk, Fox, and Illinois. The traditional languages of the Northeast are largely of the Iroquoian and Algonquian language families. Most Northeastern peoples engaged in agriculture, and for them the village of a few dozen to a few hundred persons was the most important social and economic unit in daily life. Groups that had access to reliably plentiful wild foods such as wild rice, salmon, or shellfish generally preferred to live in dispersed hamlets of extended families. Several villages or hamlets formed a tribe, and groups of tribes sometimes organized into powerful confederacies. These alliances were often very complex political organizations and generally took their name from the most powerful member tribe, as with the Iroquois Confederacy. Cultivated corn (maize), beans, squash, and weedy seed-bearing plants such as Chenopodium formed the economic base for farming groups. All northeastern peoples took animals including deer, elk, moose, waterfowl, turkeys, and fish. Houses were wickiups (wigwams) or longhouses; both house types were constructed of a sapling framework that was covered with rush matting or sheets of bark. Other common aspects of culture included dugouts made of the trunks of whole trees, birchbark canoes, clothing made of pelts and deerskins, and a variety of medicine societies. See also Northeast Indian. This region reaches from the southern edge of the Northeast culture area to the Gulf of Mexico; from east to west it stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to somewhat west of the Mississippi valley. The climate is warm temperate in the north and grades to subtropical in the south. The topography includes coastal plains, rolling uplands known as the Piedmont, and a portion of the Appalachian Mountains; of these, the Piedmont was most densely populated. The predominant ecosystems were coastal scrub, wetlands, and deciduous forests. Perhaps the best-known indigenous peoples originally from this region are the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole, sometimes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes. Other prominent tribes included the Natchez, Caddo, Apalachee, Timucua, and Guale. Traditionally, most tribes in the Southeast spoke Muskogean languages; there were also some Siouan language speakers and one Iroquoian-speaking group, the Cherokee. The region’s economy was primarily agricultural and often supported social stratification; as chiefdoms, most cultures were structured around hereditary classes of elites and commoners, although some groups used hierarchical systems that had additional status levels. Most people were commoners and lived in hamlets located along waterways. Each hamlet was home to an extended family and typically included a few houses and auxiliary structures such as granaries and summer kitchens; these were surrounded by agricultural plots or fields. Hamlets were usually associated with a town that served as the area’s ceremonial and market centre. Towns often included large earthen mounds on which religious structures and the homes of the ruling classes or families were placed. Together, each town and its associated hamlets constituted an autonomous political entity. In times of need these could unite into confederacies, such as those of the Creek and Choctaw. People grew corn, beans, squash, tobacco, and other crops; they also gathered wild plant foods and shellfish, hunted deer and other animals, and fished. House forms varied extensively across the region, including wickiups (wigwams), earth-berm dwellings, and, in the 19th century, chickees (thatched roofs with open walls). The Southeast was also known for its religious iconography, which often included bird themes, and for the use of the “black drink,” an emetic used in ritual contexts. See also Southeast Indian. The Plains lie in the centre of the continent, spanning the area between the western mountains and the Mississippi River valley and from the southern edge of the Subarctic to the Rio Grande in present-day Texas. The climate is of the continental type, with warm summers and cold winters. Relatively flat short-grass prairies with little precipitation are found west of the Missouri River and rolling tallgrass prairies with more moisture are found to its east. Tree-lined river valleys form a series of linear oases throughout the region. The indigenous peoples of the Plains include speakers of Siouan, Algonquian, Uto-Aztecan, Caddoan, Athabaskan, Kiowa-Tanoan, and Michif languages. Plains peoples also invented a sign language to represent common objects or concepts such as “buffalo” or “exchange.” Earth-lodge villages were the only settlements on the Plains until the late 16th century; they were found along major waterways that provided fertile soil for growing corn, beans, squash, sunflowers, and tobacco. The groups who built these communities divided their time between village-based crop production and hunting expeditions, which often lasted for several weeks and involved travel over a considerable area. Plains villagers include the Mandan, Hidatsa, Omaha, Pawnee, and Arikara. By 1750 horses from the Spanish colonies in present-day New Mexico had become common in the Plains and had revolutionized the hunting of bison. This new economic opportunity caused some local villagers to become dedicated nomads, as with the Crow (who retained close ties with their Hidatsa kin), and also drew agricultural tribes from surrounding areas into a nomadic lifestyle, including the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Arapaho, and Kiowa. Groups throughout the region had in common several forms of material culture, including the tepee, tailored leather clothing, a variety of battle regalia (such as feathered headdresses), and large drums used in ritual contexts. The Sun Dance, a ritual that demanded a high degree of piety and self-sacrifice from its participants, was also found throughout most of the Plains. The Plains is perhaps the culture area in which tribal and band classifications were most conflated. Depictions of indigenous Americans in popular culture have often been loosely based on Plains peoples, encouraging many to view them as the “typical” American Indians. See also Plains Indian. This culture area lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Mexican Sierra Madre, mostly in present-day Arizona and New Mexico. The topography includes plateaus, basins, and ranges. The climate on the Colorado Plateau is temperate, while it is semitropical in most of the basin and range systems; there is little precipitation and the major ecosystem is desert. The landscape includes several major river systems, notably those of the Colorado and the Rio Grande, that create linear oases in the region. The Southwest is home to speakers of Hokan, Uto-Aztecan, Tanoan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Penutian, and Athabaskan languages. The region was the home of both agricultural and hunting and gathering peoples, although the most common lifeway combined these two economic strategies. Best known among the agriculturists are the Pueblo Indians, including the Zuni and Hopi. The Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham (Papago) engaged in both farming and foraging, relying on each to the extent the environment would allow. The Navajo and the many Apache groups usually engaged in some combination of agriculture, foraging, and the raiding of other groups. The major agricultural products were corn, beans, squash, and cotton. Wild plant foods, deer, other game, and fish (for those groups living near rivers) were the primary foraged foods. The Pueblo peoples built architecturally remarkable apartment houses of adobe and stone masonry (see pueblo architecture) and were known for their complex kinship structures, kachina (katsina) dances and dolls, and fine pottery, textiles, and kiva and sand paintings. The Navajo built round houses (“hogans”) and were known for their complex clan system, healing rituals, and fine textiles and jewelry. The Apaches, Yumans, Pima, and Tohono O’odham generally built thatched houses or brush shelters and focused their expressive culture on oral traditions. Stone channels and check dams (low walls that slowed the runoff from the sporadic but heavy rains) were common throughout the Southwest, as were basketry and digging sticks. See also Southwest Indian. The Great Basin The Great Basin culture area is centred in the intermontane deserts of present-day Nevada and includes adjacent areas in California, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. It is so named because the surrounding mountains create a bowl-like landscape that prevented water from flowing out of the region. The most common topographic features are basin and range systems; these gradually transition to high intermontane plateaus in the north. The climate is temperate in the north and becomes subtropical to the south. Higher elevations tend to receive ample moisture but other areas average as little as 2 inches (50 mm) per year. Much of the region’s surface water, such as the Great Salt Lake, is brackish. The predominant ecosystem is desert. The Great Basin is home to the Washoe, speakers of a Hokan language, and a number of tribes speaking Numic languages (a division of the Uto-Aztecan language family). These include the Mono, Paiute, Bannock, Shoshone, Ute, and Gosiute. The peoples of this region were hunters and gatherers and generally organized themselves in mobile, kin-based bands. Seeds, piñon nuts, and small game formed the bulk of the diet for most groups, although those occupying northern and eastern locales readily adopted horses and equestrian bison hunting after Spanish mounts became available. Some of these latter groups also replaced wickiups and brush shelters, the common house forms until that time, with Plains-style tepees; peoples in the west and south, however, continued to use traditional house forms well into the 19th century. Other common forms of material culture included digging sticks, nets, basketry, grinding stones for processing seeds, and rock art. See also Great Basin Indian. This culture area approximates the present states of California (U.S.) and northern Baja (Mexico). Other than the Pacific coast, the region’s dominant topographic features are the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada; these north-south ranges are interspersed with high plateaus and basins. An extraordinary diversity of local conditions created microenvironments such as coasts, tidewaters, coastal redwood forests, grasslands, wetlands, high deserts, and mountains. California includes representatives of some 20 language families, including Uto-Aztecan, Penutian, Yokutsan, and Athabaskan; American linguist Edward Sapir described California’s languages as being more diverse than those found in all of Europe. Prominent tribes, many with a language named for them, include the Hupa, Yurok, Pomo, Yuki, Wintun, Maidu, and Yana. Many California peoples eschewed centralized political structures and instead organized themselves into tribelets, groups of a few hundred to a few thousand people that recognized cultural ties with others but maintained their political independence. Some tribelets comprised just one village and others included several villages; in the latter cases, one village was usually recognized as more important than the others. The relatively few groups that lived in areas with sparse natural resources preferred to live in small mobile bands. Agriculture was practiced only along the Colorado River; elsewhere hunting and gathering provided a relatively easy living. Acorns were the most important of the wild food sources; California peoples devised a method of leaching the toxins from acorn pulp and converting it into flour, thus ensuring abundant and constant food. Fishing, hunting, and gathering shellfish and other wild foods were also highly productive. Housing varied from wood-framed single-family dwellings to communal apartment-style buildings; ceremonial structures were very important and could often hold several hundred people. The California peoples were also known for their fine basketry, ritualized trade fairs, and the Kuksu and Toloache religions. See also California Indian. The Northwest Coast This culture area is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the east by the Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Rocky Mountains; it reaches from the area around Yakutat Bay in the north to the Klamath River area in the south. It includes the coasts of present-day Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, much of southern Alaska, and a small area of northern California. The topography is steep and in many places the coastal hills or mountains fall abruptly to a beach or riverbank. There is an abundance of precipitation—in many areas more than 160 inches (406 cm) annually, but rarely less than 30 inches (76 cm). The predominant ecosystems are temperate rainforests, intertidal zones, and the ocean. This culture area is home to peoples speaking Athabaskan, Tshimshianic, Salishan, and other languages. Prominent tribes include the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka), Coast Salish, and Chinook. The peoples of the Northwest Coast had abundant and reliable supplies of salmon and other fish, sea mammals, shellfish, birds, and a variety of wild food plants. The resource base was so rich that they are unique among nonagricultural peoples in having created highly stratified societies of hereditary elites, commoners, and slaves. Tribes often organized themselves into corporate “houses”—groups of a few dozen to 100 or more related people that held in common the rights to particular resources. As with the house societies of medieval Japan and Europe, social stratification operated at every level of many Northwest Coast societies; villages, houses, and house members each had their designated rank, which was reflected in nearly every social interaction. Most groups built villages near waterways or the coast; each village also had rights to an upland territory from which the residents could obtain terrestrial foods. Dwellings were rectilinear structures built of timbers or planks and were usually quite large, as the members of a corporate “house” typically lived together in one building. Northwest Coast cultures are known for their fine wood and stone carvings, large and seaworthy watercraft, memorial or totem poles, and basketry. The potlatch, a feast associated with the bestowal of lavish gifts, was also characteristic of this culture area. See also Northwest Coast Indian. Lying at the crossroads of five culture areas (the Subarctic, Plains, Great Basin, California, and Northwest Coast), the Plateau is surrounded by mountains and drained by two great river systems, the Fraser and the Columbia. It is located in present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Topographically, the area is characterized by rolling hills, high flatlands, gorges, and mountain slopes. The climate is temperate, although milder than the adjacent Plains because the surrounding mountain systems provide protection from continental air masses. The mountains also create a substantial rain shadow; most precipitation in this region falls at higher elevations, leaving other areas rather dry. The predominant ecosystems are grassland and high desert, although substantial forested areas are found at altitude. Most of the languages spoken in this culture area belong to the Salishan, Sahaptin, Kutenai, and Modoc and Klamath families. Tribes include the Salish, Flathead, Nez Percé, Yakama, Kutenai, Modoc and Klamath, Spokan, Kalispel, Pend d’Oreille, Coeur d’Alene, Walla Walla, and Umatilla. “Flathead” is incorrectly used in some early works to denote all Salishan-speaking peoples, only some of whom molded infants’ heads so as to achieve a uniform slope from brow to crown; notably, the people presently referred to as the Flathead did not engage in this practice (see head flattening). The primary political unit was the village; among some groups a sense of larger tribal and cultural unity led to the creation of representative governments, tribal chieftainships, and confederations of tribes. This was possible in part because the Columbia and Fraser rivers provided enough salmon and other fish to support a relatively dense population; however, this region was never as heavily populated or as rigidly stratified as the Northwest Coast. Efficient hunters and gatherers, Plateau groups supplemented fish with terrestrial animals and wild plant foods, especially certain varieties of camas (Camassia). Most groups resided in permanent riverside villages and traveled to upland locales during fair-weather foraging excursions; however, horses were readily adopted once available and some groups subsequently shifted to nomadic buffalo hunting. These groups quickly adopted tepees and many other Plains cultural forms; they became particularly respected for their equine breeding programs and fine herds (see Appaloosa). Plateau fishing villages were characterized by their multifamily A-frame dwellings, while smaller conical structures were used in the uplands; both house forms were covered with grass, although canvas became a popular covering once available. In terms of portable culture, the Plateau peoples were most characterized by the wide variety of substances and technologies they used; continuously exposed to new items and ideas through trade with surrounding culture areas, they excelled at material innovation and at adapting others’ technologies to their own purposes. See also Plateau Indian.

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The Impact of Digital Tools on Student Writing and How Writing is Taught in Schools Part V: Teaching Writing in the Digital Age Given the myriad ways teachers see digital tools shaping how students approach writing, it is critical to understand how the digital ecosystem is shaping how writing is taught in schools today. On the whole, AP and NWP teachers in the study say that digital tools make teaching writing easier, particularly collaborative online platforms that allow them to work alongside students in the editing process and observe their students’ thinking and work in progress. In focus groups, these middle and high school teachers shared countless examples of the unique ways they use digital tools—ranging from whiteboards to GoogleDocs to wikis—to teach key writing skills. Such lessons are used to address all aspects of writing, including grammar, organization, voice, tone, critical thinking, and persuasion. AP and NWP teachers surveyed use a wide range of digital tools to teach writing It was evident in focus groups that in addition to the many impacts of digital technologies on student writing, these tools also have a considerable and largely positive impact on AP and NWP teachers’ perceptions of their own ability to teach writing effectively. Many of these teachers say interactive technologies are currently part of their learning environments, including using interactive whiteboards (52%), having students develop, share or post their work on a website, wiki or blog (40%), and having students edit their own work (36%) or others’ work (29%) using collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs and Moodle. The use of e-readers and cell phones as a learning tool varies by the subject matter being taught. It is not surprising that English and language arts teachers are the most likely to report e-readers being part of the learning environment. Math teachers, in contrast, are particularly unlikely to say that they or their students use cell phones in the learning process. Likewise, some groups of AP and NWP teachers are more likely than others to employ more collaborative online tools. For instance, the youngest teachers in this group (those under age 35) are the most likely to have students develop or share work on a website, wiki or blog (45% v. 34% of teachers age 55 and older). They are also more likely than the oldest teachers to have students participate in online discussions (45% v. 32% of teachers age 55 and older) and use collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs to edit work (41% v. 34% of teachers age 55 and older). Middle school teachers (those teaching grades 6-8) are the most likely to have students develop and share work on wikis, webpages or blogs. Just under half of middle school teachers (47%) have their students use these collaborative tools, compared with 41% of 9th-10th grade teachers and 35% of 11th-12th grade teachers. One could argue that some subjects lend themselves more easily to these types of online collaborative tools, and survey results reflect this. English teachers are the most likely to say they have students use these types of tools, often by a wide margin over teachers of other subjects. Conversely, math teachers are least likely to make use of these tools. Overall, teachers say digital tools have made teaching writing easier In both the survey and the focus groups, AP and NWP teachers described the impact of utilizing digital tools in the teaching process in largely positive terms. Overall, half of the teachers who completed the survey said that today’s digital technologies make it EASIER to shape or improve student writing, while just 18% said they make it MORE DIFFICULT. More experienced teachers are no more or less likely than their younger colleagues to say that digital tools make it easier for them to shape student writing. The only striking difference among teachers is again in comparing teachers of different subject matters. Among these AP and NWP teacher, English/language arts teachers (64%) are much more likely than teachers of math (32%), science (38%) and history/social studies (45%) to say digital tools make teaching writing easier. This positive sentiment about the impact of digital technologies on teaching writing was also reflected in many focus groups comments. In general, teachers noted how these technologies generally enabled them to “see their students thinking,” and move from talking about writing with their students to actually manipulating student writing in an interactive way. They also lauded these technologies for giving students a “hands on” experience in editing their own and others’ writing. Asked to describe how they teach writing, focus group participants said that the basics of writing are taught in English classes, and then skills are honed in other classes through practice. Teachers try to provide students with examples of good and poor writing, and will assign essays, papers, and free response questions throughout the year to give students the opportunity to work on their writing skills. Many noted the value of digital tools to provide students with writing examples, both good and bad; tools most commonly noted for this purpose were smart boards and teaching platforms such as Elmo and WebAssign. Thus, beyond simply providing students more opportunities to practice their writing skills, teachers noted that digital tools can be critically important in providing specific feedback to students on where and how their writing can improve. Many felt this interactive feedback helps make students more receptive to improving their writing. As students implement suggested changes in their writing, they (students) begin to see improvements and start to gain confidence. Moreover, by working on both their own and others’ work, they learn to identify and appreciate good writing. This is where teachers in the study see digital tools having the biggest impact. EXAMPLES of how AP and NWP teachers use digital tools to teach writing… I utilize Turn It In with my AP students primarily to prevent plagiarism. It’s a good resource, though, because the kids can also use it to check grammar, to peer edit, and to view previous students’ essays. I use it with my Smart Board to bring up essays to evaluate, critique, etc. I also use the Smart Board to study other types of writing as well as other forms of media (on line sources, photos, etc). These help with thinking, which indirectly helps with writing. It also helps kids see different forms of persuasion with also helps with their writing. I will occasionally use the Smart Board for grammar-type exercises to help with issues that creep up in their writing. Participation in scheduled, threaded-interactions at Twitter have helped some of my students to be in the same place and time as authors of the books they are invited to read. One instance of this was when I hosted a threaded discussion, which looked at two books that came out last fall, Laurel Snyder’s BIGGER THAN A BREADBOX and Anne Ursu’s BREAD CRUMBS. In my experience, so many of our students have underestimated the power of social media for making larger connections than those they currently realize by simply walking down the hallways of their own schools. My senior AP students are reading Dead Man Walking as a model of persuasive writing. I’ve taught this book for a number of years now, and one of the things I try to impress upon them is how many rhetorical strategies the author uses to try to justify her position. In the past I would have my students keep track of those strategies that they noticed (and that I pointed out) in a spiral notebook. But I had this feeling that they weren’t getting enough out of this activity. This year I had the class create a wiki to pool their resources. One of the things I wanted them to learn was the idea that there’s a progression from weaker to stronger pieces of evidence as an argument progresses. So after they entered their piece of evidence in the wiki, I had the class do an online activity with a GoogleDoc/Form where they ranked the evidence on those pages. This at least helped them look at all the examples of analogy, for instance, and then think about which ones were stronger than others. I suppose I could have done this with butcher paper and markers, but I only have so much wall space. GoogleDocs is wonderful for collaborative composing as well as quick feedback that students can see in real time. Last year, my students collaborated to compose Declarations of Education. This was the first time for them to use GoogleDocs. They were amazed by how easy it was, but also how quickly their writing could be seen and receive feedback. Knowing that their writing was being viewed motivated them to produce. Knowing that they were collaborating and their group could see what they were contributing amazed them. When they saw a comment, I heard things like, “Wait! Who is that? Let me respond!” Social media and the Internet provide students with mentors and mentor texts from whom and which they learn genres of writing and characteristics of effective communication. For example, I use social media to make appointments with a filmmaking mentor for a student; the student has learned editing/ composition techniques, as well as script-writing conventions from the web-app ScriptBuddy thanks to interactions with the mentor. Ning is used as a digital classroom portfolio to display students working projects: articles, photography, writing reflections, video production, class projects, digital storytelling,…There is a great video on called “Problems have Solutions,” where the students use technology to learn how to solve the Rubik’s cube, then construct a machine that solves the Rubik’s cube using logarithms. It is a place where we as a learning community can post and place our “working projects.” We believe it is better to have an imperfect something, than a perfect nothing. EXAMPLES of how AP and NWP teachers use digital tools to teach writing… GoogleDocs and SmartBoard combo also allows us to unpack the revision process, which back in my pre-Internet classroom days was pretty much a black box. Students used to print up a copy, do some peer editing, take some of feedback home, and return with a revision. A week ago, for instance, I had students take a stand on a controversial issue. The next day in class I had them find evidence to support their position in three ways: 1. where they normally find information (pretty much a basic Google search for most of them), 2. EBSCO database, and 3. Opposing Viewpoints. Yesterday they wrote a draft in class as per these instructions. Since they had shared their drafts with me, I was looking in on their com posing process as they wrote. This worked in a couple of ways. Obviously, I was able to supervise the kiddies and keep them on task. But more importantly, I was able to see the students thinking. At times I would comment on a student’s composing habits, other times students could ask a question and I could view the draft with them (with or without projecting it for the whole class to see). If I saw an interesting strategy or stylistic device a student was using, I could point that out to the group. Also, to see how struggling writers worked through a draft was instructive. I probably popped into their drafts most often. One of my favorite parts of utilizing these tools is the added level of collaboration students can have with their writing. I find it funny that for so many things we let students work in partners to collaborate and share ideas, but often when it comes to writing we make them do it independently. For some time I have thought that writing can be just as collaborative as any other activity we do with our students. One year, my students decided that we needed to improve our school’s Wikipedia page. We started thinking about all of the different things that would be needed to add to our Wikipedia page so we created our own Wikispace where we began to dump all sorts of information that we would need. Then, students broke up into groups to start composing the text that would be included on the page. It was so neat to look on the history tab of each page and see how different students had gone back and forth editing and revising the work to compose a more cohesive paragraph. Another thing I like to do with students is have them use something like Today’s Meet to brainstorm ideas when they are beginning a writing assignment. This is so helpful for all students because they are able to take, change, and add to ideas being shared by the whole class in order to further develop their own thoughts about a piece. I have found that many students like to talk out their writing ideas before they ever put something officially down on paper, and there are so many digital technologies that can assist students in this way. GoogleDocs has afforded students the opportunity to work with peers on research papers, to seek & receive feedback on a piece of writing, on a specific trait. They are able to read each others’ responses or writing and gain perspectives other than their own. Students begin to recognize a well written piece of writing by their ability to identify the specific traits of the piece, juxtapose a piece of writing that has not been edited. Software such as Word and Pages offer a safe place to become a better writer by providing a private platform to express themselves free from the conventions police. Conventions matter, but some of the students have expressed they will forgo attempting to express anything that is not “safe” and free from convention correction when writing for someone else or a specific person. They have expressed that it is deflating to only receive feedback on conventions, and little to none on sentence structure, voice, word choice…again, conventions matter! Digital technologies are tools and resources that have personally improved my students’ ability to express their ideas, aid in their sentence structure/flow, increase their lexicon, encourages them to develop their voice, and make conventions relevant. I was just reading a paper in Google Docs, commenting, etc. and was joined by my student in that document. She must have received an email that I commented, went to check out the document while I was grading it, and sat and watched as I read and commented. There’s something to that. I use the Mastering Biology site that comes with the Campbell Biology program. I also use the CPS “clickers” in class for review and during lecture notes. We also use a lot of technology in lab for both AP Biology and APES. This technology does not directly teach writing skills, but I can use the information and data collected with this technology to help students learn how to assemble the information into coherent written communication. EXAMPLES of how AP and NWP teachers use digital tools to teach writing… I utilize Turnitin with my AP students primarily to prevent plagiarism. It’s a good resource, though, because the kids can also use it to check grammar, to peer edit, and to view previous students’ essays. I use it with my Smart Board to bring up essays to evaluate, critique, etc. I also use the SmartBoard to study other types of writing as well as other forms of media (on line sources, photos, etc). These help with thinking, which indirectly helps with writing. It also helps kids see different forms of persuasion with also helps with their writing. I will occasionally use the Smart Board for grammar-type exercises to help with issues that creep up in their writing. Technology allows students to get faster feedback on their writing and allows the teacher to give that feedback flexibly and conveniently. We don’t have to wait for class to go over student work. I’m thinking about technology that’s actually really helped me to improve their writing. I’m thinking specifically about GoogleDocs, emailing, some other systems kind of like iBooks or the Amazon Kindle app where it’s allowed me to say, “Here, this right here is what you’re not understanding.” I’ve had three or four lines going back and forth on GoogleDocs on one sentence because that sentence just happens to be on a thesis and I’m not getting the thesis. I can do that with every student in my class in a reasonable amount of time because of that technological tool. Whereas if I was using paper the way that people used to do it, it’s much more difficult to say, “Here,” and then have a conversation going back and forth. I mean I would think it’s almost impossible to hand it back and then have another student hand back another piece of paper. All the classrooms in our school are equipped with Smartboards. This technology has allowed our students to move to another level in writing. They are more engaged with classmates’ writings and also able to analyze other works of art as a class. The more our students are able to engage with the writings of exemplary authors, the better writers they become themselves. It is one thing to just talk about the writing, but another to be able to manipulate it. At the same time they use digital tools to teach writing, 94% of AP and NWP teachers surveyed encourage their students to do at least some of their writing by hand In conjunction with the extensive use of digital tools in many classrooms, almost all of the AP and NWP teachers in the sample say they encourage their students to do at least some of their writing by hand. Their reasons vary, but in focus groups many teachers noted that because students are required to write by hand on standardized tests, it continues to be a critical skill for them to have. This is particularly true for AP teachers, who must prepare students to take AP exams with pencil and paper. In focus groups, others expressed the belief that students do more active thinking, synthesizing, and editing when writing by hand. Because of the temptation online to copy and paste others’ work into their own, some teachers said they feel the only way to ensure their students are original thinkers is to have them complete writing assignments entirely without the aid of the internet and digital tools. Still others say they have found that not all of their students are comfortable writing digitally. A common assumption about the current generation of middle and high school students—popularly referred to as “digital natives”—is that they all enjoy and are comfortable with using digital tools. Yet some AP and NWP teachers pointed out this is not the case, and that some of their students are more effective or more comfortable writers when writing by hand with pencil or paper. Finally, there was a small group of teachers in the study who do not see enough added value in digital tools to incorporate them into the teaching process. Where teaching writing is concerned, these AP and NWP teachers feel that tried and true methods continue to be the most effective. Why AP and NWP teachers have students do some writing by hand… I don’t incorporate technology at this time to help students learn writing skills. We use good old fashioned paper and pencil format. I am open to incorporating technology, but only if it truly enhances learning and I am not aware of any technology piece that would do it better than what I am currently doing. [In Spanish class] for oral work we use tons of technology. However, for writing, it is pencil/pen and paper. They have to write on paper for the AP Exam. They need to practice penmanship, and I do not want them using spellcheck on the computer. I also keep writing assignments as in-class assignments, and they don’t get to use dictionaries. If it is a research paper, then the system is different, but usually any research projects are done for oral presentation. Since the essay on the AP Exam is about writing a comparative essay based on the articles and listening material, that is what I also use to develop their skills. I do not incorporate technology at all to help students with writing skills. I require students to write in class using a pen and paper. I feel that this allows me to see their thoughts, not what they can find online. I like old-fashioned pen or pencil and paper. Technology is fine, and I am a blogger myself, but I like to see learning on pen and paper. I truly believe that since they must write for 3 hours on the actual [AP] exam it is important they hand write all essays for me. For learning writing skills, Word has spell check and grammar check (which although very good I think, it has hurt the student knowledge, they rely on the computer to correct it all). I make extensive use of technology for writing, but much less in AP because a major component of the exam, the essays, have to be handwritten. I recognize that there are many obstacles to computers being allowed to all students writing essays — issues of access, availability of the internet, and much more — but I really hope [we find] ways to overcome this in the near future. Recently I was having a conversation with a colleague who is concerned about how little writing students are willing to do for him in class. I have the same students. We use GoogleDocs and social media and they are on their cell phones and in on their Facebook pages or Tumblr blogs all day. I suggested to this colleague that when he asks them to write using pen and paper he is adding an unfamiliar element to their work. It’s most natural for them to compose on a screen. Quickly, I added that there are a few students who still prefer to write on paper first, but not many. This conversation came to mind when I saw your question because — as this example shows — I’ve begun to ask the question in reverse: What impact does it have on students’ writing when they don’t have the tools they normally use to communicate? Our 8th grade students are fairly well versed in their GoogleDocs Skills. We have been incorporating these tools for about the past four years, and at this point, the usage has become automatic and a deeply ingrained part of our learning process. It has been a goal of mine for about the past two years to build class in a way that these skills are just “the way we do things” so that they are as second nature as paper and pencil. However, because our high stakes state assessments are still paper based (for a few more years at least) we still do have writing and assessment on demand that is paper and pen based. Recently, we asked students to record their scores on various skill components…both digitally and with paper and pen. I assumed that the work composed on the computer would be much more “clean and refined”, but this was not always the case. We actually found that about 50% of the students scored better in mechanics and development when using paper and vice versa. We spent some time talking about this and really worked to help students to define what medium worked best for them. The plan is that if students know that they tend to compose better with paper and pen, then they (and we) will know to be more careful when composing digitally– and the reverse as well. This was a really interesting conversation. Especially, since we always hear about the “digital natives” of today, and it came through clearly that roughly half of students are upset that they may be required to do all testing digitally in the relatively near future. Curious… Additional challenges faced teaching writing in today’s digital environment While half of the teachers surveyed report that digital tools make teaching writing EASIER, 18% report that they make the task more difficult. The survey asked teachers to tell us the biggest challenge they face teaching writing today, and several core themes emerged: - disparate access to digital tools and widely varying skill levels among students - a “digital tools as toy” mentality among students - a lack of critical thinking skills in their middle and high school students - a limited definition among students of what constitutes “writing” The first theme, disparate access to digital tools across schools and among students, pervaded survey findings, with teachers of low income students reporting very different attitudes toward and impacts of the use of digital tools among their students. The topic of persisting digital divides in the educational arena was covered in depth in the second report in this series13, which discussed how teachers of the lowest income students not only worry that their students do not have the access to digital tools they need at home or at school, but that teachers at those schools are not receiving adequate support and training in how to use these tools effectively in the classroom. Together, many teachers say, these disparities are creating a wider gap between more advantaged and less advantaged schools and school districts. However, in addition to disparate access to digital tools, AP and NWP teachers point to widely varying tech skill levels students bring with them to the classroom. While some students have advanced tech skills and are very comfortable working with digital tools, others lack exposure or do not share the same comfort level. The assumption that all children who make up the generation widely referred to as “digital natives” are equally comfortable with and skilled in the use of the latest digital tools can be very damaging, these AP and NWP teachers noted. They often must remind themselves this is the case as they create assignments and decide which tools to use in their classes, and often devote class time covering what many would consider basic tech skills in order to ensure all students are on a level playing field. Students’ disparate access to, and skills using, digital tools… One challenge emerges with some things like GoogleDocs, blogs and others, and that comes for students who are working at a remedial level. When they haven’t had much previous exposure to things like sharing documents or, for some, even fully navigating email, then they’re not only behind in terms of meeting content standards, but they also tend to struggle in getting up on navigating some of the digital basics. I see it especially with some students who are not only struggling readers and writers, but also extremely slow on a keyboard, and since often they’re from lower income households, they don’t have the familiarity with things like texting and using a keyboard extensively. So, at times, there winds up the need for a balancing act: helping students improve their literacy skills, but also helping them master the basic digital tools so that they can improve their literacy skills. What we’ve created with technology is a piece of paper and pencil which can appear anywhere around the Earth in a nanosecond. That is pretty amazing. And, for better or for worse, that is where the world is heading. We are establishing that those with digital abilities to read and write will have the access to the information. Access to information is power. Our class has a Wiki…again, they don’t naturally take to knowing how to manage it physically. Basic digital skills (what I consider basic) such as setting up a link back to an essay on GoogleDocs is something I have to constantly review with them . 8th graders are so apt to click first and ask questions later…no matter how often and precisely cued. Coming from a very rural poverty area, most of my students do not have computer access at home. The only place they experience technology is at school. This is very unfortunate for my kiddos, because the department of education and our school have very rigid filters in place. This allows for no interaction between the students on social networks, Wikis, or blogs. We do have a computer lab in our school that is used as a language and math lab, but the students are not really taught computer skills or allowed to work in GoogleDocs. The lack of computer knowledge and proficiency is a scary thing, because very soon our students will be expected to take high stakes tests on computers. I believe today’s digital technologies have the potential to provide students more ways to tap into their creativity and their critical thinking skills. I’m a proponent of technology in the classroom and wish that my students had these tools available to them at school. In reality, however, I teach in a high poverty, rural district (m ore than 70 percent of the students receive free and reduced lunch). Our principal is of the theory that if you can’t do it with pencil and paper, then it doesn’t need to be done. Students do not have access to social media, Wikis or GoogleDocs. They are not allowed to use cell phones during school. Many students and staff (including myself and our principal) do not have Internet access at home because of where we live. Many of these AP and NWP teachers also noted the challenge they face shifting students’ perceptions of digital tools as “toys” to be used for social activities to viewing digital tools as important parts of the learning process. Several teachers described the “tool as toy” mentality many children develop through their early exposure to digital technologies at home. A child’s first experience with these technologies is often in the realm of play, entertainment, and communication with loved ones, which encourages the perception of digital tools as useful only for these tasks. When AP and NWP teachers use digital tools such as cell phones as a learning device in class, they note, it is not uncommon to have to “retrain” their students to see these devices as learning tools. Teaching students to see digital technologies as important tools for learning is a challenge… The first impact [of using digital technology in the classroom] is their realization that digital technologies carry the expectations and benefits of being a good communicator. Technology is toy before it is a tool in the lives of my students. So, I discover with them just how much they do not know about technology. While they may be willing and eager to use technology, they do not necessarily understand any of it as a tool or life application. We’re both a Google and Apple oriented school–teachers are encouraged to use Google Apps, Docs, etc. In my class, we set up our Google Reader app earlier this year. They learned what RSS stands for and what it means to use an aggregator such as Flipbook. My intention is to use that tool as an ongoing product for research–to encourage the concept that research is no isolated in on project or paper, but it is always a good idea to read and explore ideas as we write. I wouldn’t say my students are resistant to it, but it is definitely a literacy skill that they have little experience with…let alone comfort. At the 8th grade level, digital literacy is a real a ground floor venture. It is proving to be more about exposure and developing knowledge rather than setting them on their own to be digital readers and writers. Today, for instance, we tried cel.ly in class. Students are so trained to leap into texting for fun, and in that they expect immediate results, I was surprised at how specific and slow I had to be in instruction—text this phrase to this number–for kids who text to each other all the time, that basic engagement did not come naturally. Once we got into the lesson, they were able to warm to the idea of texting responses, offering their confusion, etc. about the short story they read the night before. Many of these teachers expressed the belief that teaching writing is less about the actual writing mechanics and more about the students’ ability to think critically. In focus groups, several teachers said they find today’s students so rushed in everything they do, and so accustomed to getting and processing information quickly, that they often approach the organization of their thoughts for a writing assignment the same way. Many teachers say a major challenge is getting their students to slow the process down, take sufficient time to analyze information closely and carefully, and only then begin the writing process. Instead, according to teachers’ accounts, they often see students speed through these tasks and underestimate the time it takes to produce a solid piece of writing containing a coherent and persuasive argument that synthesizes material well. Teaching students to take their time and think critically is a challenge… The biggest challenge is of course the students’ willingness to write and be patient in the process. There is always a level of frustration on their part because they want immediate results. I think with technology the process may be more efficient and students are able to get more immediate feedback from programs such as turnitin.com and criterion. The biggest obstacle in teaching writing is really not so much about the writing as it is about the thinking. Good writing relies on clear thinking. Getting students to think and communicate logically will always be hard; thinking clearly hurts! Technology allows students to get faster feedback on their writing and allows the teacher to give that feedback flexibly and conveniently. We don’t have to wait for class to go over student work. The survey included an open-end question asking teachers the biggest challenge they face teaching today’s students to write well. While many themes emerged, including grammatical issues, plagiarism, and having them develop an appreciation for the importance of writing well, one theme stood among the others – that was getting students to slow down and take their time. These AP and NWP teachers repeatedly mentioned the tendency of today’s students to want instant gratification, which they see as a serious detriment to the writing process. Not only do teachers tell us that getting students to think before they begin writing is a challenge, it is also a challenge to have them revise their work and produce multiple drafts. Asked “What is the biggest challenge today in teaching your students to write well, AP and NWP teachers say… Encouraging students to take their time in planning what they want to write. Students are always in a hurry to just write what they know and then show you. I want my students to show relationships in the content of what they write. Don’t just throw an answer out there or a topic out there. They are not as patient given the time commitment required to write a successful piece. Text speak is taking over. It’s all about getting things done FAST. Getting past their conditioning for immediate gratification. Truly effective writing takes time and students are not generally accustomed to working on projects which take longer than a class period. Getting them to really read and analyze what they are supposed to be writing about. They want the quick answer. They don’t want to have to search for it. They don’t want to have to analyze it. They want to go to Google, type a term in and find the info. They are not interested in really understanding that info. To do pre-writing activities so that they have thought through what they want to write before starting. Students tend to want to jump right in without thinking through their essay, story or poem. They want instant results and it is difficult to show them that writing is a process. It is not something you put in a search engine and receive results in .1222 seconds. In science, it is actually the critical thinking required to write analytically more so than the actual writing itself. For the writing itself, being able to write a coherent paragraph seems to be the biggest challenge. Most students seem to write simplistically and in a steam-of-consciousness manner. Teaching students that writing is a slow, deliberative process — a first draft can never be a final draft! The biggest challenge is to get students to slow down, think carefully, and revise their writing. The biggest challenge for teaching students to write well is planning and revising. Students do not often take the TIME to plan a well organized essay nor do they find it beneficial to revise. Time management. Students need time to proofread, peer review, edit, revise and rewrite. Too often pushing deadlines creates hurried work with poor structure and mechanics simply because they need a good proofread! Taking the time to evaluate and revise their writing. Writing is a process, and many students rush the process, and it is hard to get them to revise and edit. Convincing students that there is a need to revise and edit and revise again. Students tend to be too content with their first draft. Ultimately, most of these AP and NWP teachers say the value of digital technology in teaching does not lie within the tool itself, but rather in how it is used Ultimately, most AP and NWP teachers in the study say, digital tools used in the learning process are only as valuable as the pedagogy behind their use, and this speaks to the need for effective professional development in this area. While most of these teachers report having at least some training in how to use digital tools effectively in the classroom, they most often seek out that training on their own.14 What many desire is a more structured and comprehensive approach to the use of digital technologies in the learning process, as well as sufficient access to the tools and support that both teachers and students need. These tools do not accomplish these goals straight out of the box. The devil is in the details. Students need teachers who construct thoughtful assignments and inquiry projects, a classroom community and school culture which values creativity and expression and has structures in place to push students to continually further their craft. But, whether it be blogs or GoogleDocs or tweets or marble composition notebooks, students need to write frequently in low stakes ways to work these cognitive muscles. Also, we must constantly remember that the tool is not the thing — the learning and the literacies are the thing.Teaching kids to use GoogleDocs cannot replace teaching organization and developement. Perhaps it is now more important since so much writing can easily become first draft published writing (Tweets, blog posts, and even GoogleDocs positions) without the proper support and encouragement to thoughtfully revise. Technology tools do not replace quality instruction or a strong literacy community in the classroom. It concerns me that we rush to embrace these tools without understanding that access to technology in the classroom does not instantly improve students’ learning. We limit the potential of these tools (and our students’ potential) if we do not use digital technologies alongside a strong pedagogical foundation.Powerpoint presentations shown on a projector become 21st Century overhead transparencies. Multiple choice worksheets in GoogleDocs are still worksheets. Posting writing online isn’t better than turning it in to the teacher’s tray if she is the only person who reads your work. I do see that my students write m ore because they have more outlets for publishing their work and authentic reasons for writing, but they still must learn how to write well, work with others, manage deadlines, conduct research, and use the right tool for the task. I’m constantly reminded of two things as I continue to incorporate digital resources: a) it is always about the pedagogy–if you do not have a good plan, the technology itself is really an impotent tool without…it is no better than a toy b) training…training…training…we are not training our teachers enough in this area - See “How Teachers are Using Technology at Home and in their Classrooms,” available at http://www.pewinternet.org/Press-Releases/2013/Teachers-and-Technology.aspx. ↩ - See “How Teachers are Using Technology at Home and in their Classrooms,” available at http://www.pewinternet.org/Press-Releases/2013/Teachers-and-Technology.aspx. ↩

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Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Humanities - 1 Introduction - 2 Categories of Humanities Writing - 3 Elements of the Humanities Paper - 4 Resources To Use - 5 References - 6 External Links Writing in the humanities includes posing questions dealing with human values. The ultimate goal in writing in the humanities is to explain/share the human experience, to use writing as a tool to reflect upon life, and to tell how life should, or should not, be lived. "Humanities" as a discipline includes not only literature, but also philosophy, ethics, performing arts, fine arts, history, aspects of anthropology and cultural studies, foreign languages, linguistics, jurisprudence, political science, and sociology. In a humanities class, you might be asked to attempt the analysis of a poem, a performance or a play, a painting, a film or even a musical performance. There is often a difference in feel between writing in the Sciences and writing in the Humanities. Writing in the Sciences is often convergent (meaning oriented toward finding or articulating a specific answer to a specific question). Writing in the Humanities is often divergent (meaning oriented toward exploration of multiple answers to multiple questions). Categories of Humanities Writing Writing in the Humanities falls into three categories: theoretical writing, creative writing, and interpretive and analytical writing. Term papers and research papers are included in this discipline of writing when their topics pertain to the field of humanities. Theoretical writing involves writing on a topic from a theoretical perspective. In physics, for example, there is a theory on how the galaxy operates called the "string theory." A physics paper centered around the string theory would be considered a theoretical paper. Creative writing attempts to achieve, or create, an affect in the minds of the readers. The intended affect differs depending on the goals of the writer. The intention may be to expound on the grieving process (catharsis), or to make a person laugh or cry. The potential results are unlimited. Creative writing can also be used as an outlet for people to get their thoughts and feelings out and onto paper. Many people enjoy creative writing but prefer not to share it. Creative writing can take place in a variety of forms. Poems, short stories, novels, and even song lyrics are all examples of creative writing. Viewpoints regarding what exactly is encompassed under the term creative writing differ. To some, non-fiction can be considered creative writing because it is done from the author's point of view and may be written in an individual style that engages the reader. In fact, many universities offer courses in "Creative non-fiction." Others like to separate non-fiction from creative writing because it deals with details that actually took place, even if viewed subjectively. Regardless, the outlook of the writer is what matters, and whether something is considered creative writing or not is less important than producing a product that you can be proud of. A narrator is the voice or person who tells the story. One must never assume that a narrator of a story is related to the author in any way. Even if we, as an audience, are aware that the author of the story once had a similar experience to that of the narrator, we cannot make assumptions that there is any truth to the text. When writing or discussing criticism, the intent of the author is also off limits because regardless of the author intent, the value of a text is determined by reader response alone. An example of an author having a similar experience to the narrator of a story she'd written, is Charlotte Perkins Gilman's short story The Yellow Wallpaper. Because the author had released statements revealing that she'd had a smilar medical treatment in her life to the narrator of her story, we still cannot assume that the narrator and Gilman are one in the same person. A First-Person narrator is when one person narrates the story. Thus, a reader will recognize a first-person narrator because the pro-nouns "I" and "my" will be used. Because the story is narrated by one person, we are limited to the thoughts and observations of that person. There are many reasons that an author may choose to use a first-person narrator, but the reason is mainly to demonstrate the changes within one particular character, and also to build suspense. For example, if an author were to suddenly switch a first-person novel to a third-person narrator, the "who-done-it" aspect of the story would be ruined because we would suddenly be able to dive into the minds of multiple characters. There is also Third-person limited and Third-person omniscient. Third-person limited is when the narrator is limited to the thoughts of one particular character, but there is a little more freedom than with a first-person narrator because the narrator can more easily observe the behavior of others. Finally, a third-person omniscient narrator is when the lens of the storyteller is pulled back even further, but we are able to dive into the minds of any and all characters. Therefore, a third-person omniscient narrater is rather God-like in that it enables us to know absolutely anything and everything that is happening in the novel. This may sound like the most enjoyable way to compose, but as stated earlier, there are drawbacks to this kind of narrator in that it may be harder to create an element of surprise for the reader. Deconstructionism is an approach to literature which suggests that literary works do not yield a single, fixed meaning because we can never say what we truly mean in language. Early Modern Era Period extending from about 1500 to 1800, marked by the advent of colonialism and capitalism. Modernism Writing and art roughly made in at the start of WWI (1914) through the end of WWII (1945). Postmodernism is a literary and artistic movement that flourished in the late twentieth century, partly in response to Modernism. A common theme in this kind of work is self-reflexiveness. Interpretive and Analytical Writing - An interpretation involves the discovery of meaning in a text (or film or painting, etc.) or the production of meaning in the process of reading a text. Therefore, interpretive writing must address many questions. It tries to assist the reader in understanding specific events (literary, cultural, or otherwise) rather than just engaging in summary. For example, a student writing an interpretive paper about a specific book may try to explain the author's attitudes or views on a specific subject matter. The writer of the paper then uses the evidence found in that book to back up his or her claims. A poor example of interpretive writing is a book report. A good example of interpretive writing is a scholarly article about another text. Writing might ask questions such as, "Why did these events happen?" or "What was the significance of these events to the author or main character?" as opposed to, "What happened" or "How did these events come about?" The former questions encourage writers to explore their own thoughts or to delve into the mind of the writer of the text, or even attempt to put himself in the shoes of the protagonist. The latter is less challenging, as the book or piece of literature will plainly lay this type of information out for the reader. - Analytical writing examines the components of a text. Writers of analytical essays or articles consider information, break it apart, and reconstruct it in order to describe the information so another reader can make sense of it. Writers must make sense of a work before they can begin to describe its constituent parts. - Analytical writing focuses on the words "how" and "why." A writer often uses each of these two terms to give proof of their current analogies. By using these strong terms, a reader can feel that the writer is confident in their work and know "how" and "why" they should react. - Analytical writing happens in four steps. The first step is to clearly identify the problem, the question, or the issue. The second step is to define the issue. The third step is the actual analysis of the topic. Finally, the fourth step defines the relationship between the issue and the analysis of that issue. Analyzing and Interpreting Literature - There is a lot of overlap in the processes of analysis and interpretation, especially when writing about literature. Writing about literature (poems, short stories, plays, etcs) often involves making an argument that can be backed up with specific examples from the text. When interpreting a poem the writer should expect that they will have to include specific references to the lines, words, or phrases to which they are referring. A writer analyzing the main character in The Great Gatsby should include specific references that explain why they have reached a particular conclusion. - An essay dealing with literature should not be a summary of the text. It doesn't always hurt to give a few background examples, but the writer should focus on talking about the portions of the text that emphasize their points, not summarizing the entire piece for the reader. If the reader isn't familiar with the primary text, they can go back and read it themselves. The interpreter's job isn't to recap, but to make an argument, and hopefully provide some sort of illumination of the work. - A piece of literature should always be referred to in the present tense. - Take a look at this sample essay on the play A Midsummer Night's Dream Here the writer has chosen to focus on one specific scene in the play, and how it fits their argument about the duality and conflict present within the play. Notice that throughout the entire essay there are numerous examples from within the text. Had the author not included these, or had they just summarized everything briefly, the essay wouldn't be as strong as it currently is. Here the reader can see exactly what lines make the writer think the way they do. Also, notice that the paper isn't a summary of what happens in the scene. When the writer gives details about what happens in the scene, it is because these details relate directly to the topic of their paper. Research Papers and Term Papers Term papers have a variety of elements that make them stand out from other papers. They carry three distinct characteristics. First, there is a large amount of research that goes into a term paper. The research contains various findings such as: facts, statistics, interviews, quotes, etc. Researching and gathering data must include understanding that information once it is compiled. The second characteristic is the amount of preparation it takes in gathering, compiling, analyzing, and sorting through everything in order to create a draft of your data. Finally, the third characteristic involves knowing the rules that must be followed when writing a specific term paper in the humanities discipline. These rules will generally be conveyed by your instructor. Writing the research paper involves a bit of detective work. While there is much reading to be done on the chosen topic, reading is not the only pathway to gain information. As a writer in the humanities, you can also conduct interviews, surveys, polls, and observation clinics. You should research and discover as much information as you can about the given topic so you can form a coherent and valid opinion. Elements of the Humanities Paper Many styles of documentation are used when writing the humanities paper. Choosing the style depends on the subject being addressed in the paper and the style your instructor may prefer you use. When it comes down to actually writing your paper, be sure to include the following elements: an introduction, a thesis statement, the body of the paper (which should include quotations, and, of course, the citations), and the conclusion. Like most papers and essays, an introduction is absolutely necessary when writing in the humanities. There can be some confusion as to which should come first; the introduction or the thesis statement. This decision could probably be clarified by asking your instructor. Many writers include the thesis statement in their introduction. Generally speaking, however, the introduction usually comes before the thesis statement. The introduction should grab your reader and make them interested in continuing to read your paper. Ask a question, say something powerful, or say something controversial. Be specific, not vague. Say something interesting, not mundane. Relay something the reader may not know, not something that is public knowledge. The idea is to get the reader's attention, and keep it. A good intro may go something like this: After the introduction has been written, you can then go into your thesis statement. Many people regard the thesis statement as a continuation of the introduction, only in the next paragraph. The thesis statement should come at the beginning of the paper. It will introduce the reader to the topic you intend to address, and gives them a hint of what to expect in the pages that follow. Thesis statements should avoid words and phrases such as, "In my opinion..." or "I think that..." Start your thesis by taking a stand immediately; be firm in your statement, but not pushy. You'll either be given your topic for your paper or you will choose it yourself. In either case, after the topic is chosen, write a thesis statement that clearly outlines the argument you intend to address in the paper. The thesis statement will be the center of your paper. It should address one main issue. Throughout the paper, whatever you write will be focused on the thesis statement. As your paper develops, you may find you will want to, or need to, revise your thesis statement to better outline your paper. As your paper evolves, so does your thesis. In other words, when writing your thesis statement, keep your paper in mind, and when writing your paper, keep your thesis statement in mind. Your paper will defend your thesis, so write your paper accordingly. For example, if the topic is "Analyzing Mark Twain's 'Huckleberry Finn,'" your thesis statement might address the social implications or meanings behind the characters chosen for the story. Keeping the thesis statement in mind, you would then write your paper about the characters in the story. Let's say you are writing a philosophy paper. Your thesis statement might include two opposing arguments, with the hint that you intend to argue or prove one side of the argument. Many thesis statements are written in such a way as to try to prove an argument or point of view, but challenge yourself; make your thesis statement a statement of how you plan to disprove an argument. Maybe you want to attempt to show your readers why a specific point of view does not work. Your thesis statement should address one main issue. It takes a point of view or an argument, and the paper is the development of this argument. If your thesis statement is too simple, obvious, or vague, then you need to work on it a little more. You should try to write it in a way that will catch your reader's attention, making it interesting and thought-provoking. It should be specific in nature, and address the theme of the entire paper. The thesis statement may be written to try to convince the reader of a specific issue or point of view. It may also address an issue to which there is no simple solution or easy answers; remember, make it thought-provoking. Many thesis statements invite the reader to disagree. Don't be alarmed if you find yourself midway through your paper and wanting to change your thesis statement. This will happen. Sometimes a writer will start out thinking they know exactly the point they want to make in their paper, only to find halfway through that they've taken a slightly different direction. Don't be afraid to modify your thesis statement. But a word of caution; if you modify your thesis statement, be sure to double check your paper to ensure that it is supported by the thesis. If you have changed your thesis statement, it would be wise, even advisable, to have a third party read your paper to be sure that the paper supports the thesis and the revised thesis describes the paper. The "body" of your paper contains the evidence, analysis, and reasoning that support your thesis. Often the topic of the paper is divided into subtopics. Typically, each subtopic is discussed in a separate paragraph, but there is nothing wrong with continuing a subtopic throughout multiple paragraphs. It is good practice to begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the subject of the new paragraph and helps transition between paragraphs. A topic sentence will help keep you focused while writing the paragraph, and it will keep your reader focused while reading it. The purpose of a conclusion is to "wrap up" the discussion of your paper. Especially if the paper is a long one, it is a good idea to "re-cap" the main ideas presented in your paper. If your paper is argumentative, you'd likely want to re-enforce the standpoint introduced in your thesis statement; however, rather than repeating your thesis, offer closing statements that make use of all the information you've presented to support your thesis. Try to "echo" your thesis so that your reader understands that you have fulfilled the "promise" a thesis statement implies, but give your reader a sense of closure rather than simply restating everything you said above just ending it. Here are some strategies for closing your discussion: After summing up your main points/thesis you might - Comment on the significance of the topic in general: why should your reader care? - Look to the future: Is there more work to be done on the topic? Are there predictions you can make about your topic? - Ask something of your reader: Is there something your reader can do? Should do? Argumentative Research Papers One of the main things that differentiates a college level research paper from research papers below the college level is they almost always will be argumentative; that is, they will be taking a stance. The research is then used to back up the argument of the writer, or to put their argument into context. Students new to college will often attempt to simply provide information that makes the research paper becoming stale and unnecessary. If all the paper is doing is repackaging old information, why not just go back to the original source? Papers that just provide information risk unintentional plagiarism. If none of the information provided contains your own insights, then failing to cite everything means that it is plagiarized. Yet, most students would be reluctant to cite the entirety of their paper. Plagiarism results from including non-trivial information (ideas, facts, etc) from another source without acknowledging its source. Plagiarism is one of the most serious offenses that can be committed in academia and it involves varying degrees. Plagiarism at its most blatant includes handing in an entire paper that is not one's own; it also includes failing to document one's sources. When writing a research paper, avoid unintentional plagiarism. Because almost no knowledge other than eye-witness accounts is truly original, be sure to find sources for all non-trivial information. Plagiarism can be grounds for failing a paper or the course as a whole. Resources To Use The humanities category offers many good sources from which to gather information. The Internet is fast becoming an important source of information for humanities writing. There are many history sites, journalism and news sites, sites focusing on the history of film, sites dedicated to womens' issues, and so on. More traditional physical resources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, biographies, indexes, abstracts, and periodicals, and our old friend, the library. As you can see, there are many resources from which to choose when writing your paper. Start at the most basic level and progress from there. For example, if you are writing about a specific work of a famous author, the obvious place to begin is with a careful reading of the work in question. Once you are done, try to articulate what you know to be true, what you think is probably true, and what is open to question: that is, what you might need to find out. It is helpful to actually go through the physical process of writing out two or three key questions that you would like to focus on. At that point, you may want begin your further researches with a search through an encyclopedia, or do an online search for available resources, including interviews. After you have found the information you need there, you might then search a through a card catalog in a library for specific books. You may find that while searching for one specific book you will stumble upon many other useful books on the same subject. You can then begin to look through book reviews for information on your subject. Book reviews can be especially informative in that they will often will identify important themes, raise new questions, and broaden your sense of what is at stake in the text. Next, you may want to try searching for articles in periodicals, and even abstracts of articles, which will provide a summary of the content of the potential article. - The Bedford Anthology of World Literature - Academic Writing Support Materials for Humanities Students - Four Keys to Writing in the Humanities - Conventions of Writing Papers in Humanities

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The teacher or facilitator places the text and images throughout the room evenly to avoid congestion in one area. They can be placed on walls on their own or attached to chart paper for participants to write on. When the images are ready, participants are instructed to either write comments on a post-it note and place it next to the image/text, or write on a piece of chart paper under the image. A question can be posed at the beginning of the gallery walk to focus participants on a specific aspect of the content. For example, “As you are walking around, think about where you see the impact of go-go in DC.” Participants are asked to walk around the space as though they were at an art gallery. There is no talking during the gallery walk. This gives participants a chance to reflect silently. Give participants 10-15 minutes to write down their thoughts. Allow more time if necessary. The teacher or facilitator places the text and images throughout the room evenly to avoid congestion in one area. They can be placed on walls on their own or attached to chart paper for participants to write on. This is an introductory lesson to acquaint students with key people and issues in a unit of study on go-go in the DC metro area. It serves as a pre-reading activity for books and articles on go-go. Following the lessons, it is our hope that students will want to learn more and generate their own list of questions for further study. The lesson format is a “mixer” or “meet and greet” where students take on the role of a key person, place, institution, or object. In their role, they try to find answers to a designated list of questions by interviewing their peers, who are also in role. They begin with informational questions and then regroup for questions that require critical thinking and analysis, such as: - What role does go-go play in understanding gentrification? - Why did go-go emerge in DC and why is DC one of the few cities in the U.S. to have its own music form? Public historian Marya McQuirter wrote the bios. She provided this description of the multiples goals she had for them: "First, I wanted to use the bios as a way to tell smaller stories about go-go that would add up to a big story (or bigger stories) or history about go-go. Second, I wanted to show that the history of go-go is not simple, it is complex and that it involves musicians, singers, educators, politicians, history, money, property owners, a desire to dance, etc. Third, I wanted to place go-go within a history of music. I wanted to give weight to the idea that go-go is a true musical form. And to emphasize its musicality, its use of a wide range of instruments (particularly in the first decades) and that go-go musicians also played, enjoyed, influenced and were influenced by other music genres. Finally, I hoped to provide a context for teachers and students to appreciate how go-go is such a beloved music and culture in the city and to create a space to think critically about its past, present and future." For classes where some or all the students are not familiar with the go-go beat, we recommend beginning by introducing students to some audio clips. For all classes, we recommend playing go-go music during the mixer activity. Go-go cannot be understood on paper alone. Materials and Preparation - Music clips: Have clips of these two songs cued up and ready to play: “Bustin' Loose, “Chuck Brown and the Soul Searchers & “Welcome to DC,” Mambo Sauce - Name tags - Handout #1: Brief Bios.” There are 38 biographies in this handout. Print the handout and cut the paper into individual strips, with each strip displaying one biography. Each student or workshop participant and the instructor should receive one bio each. If there are more bios than participants, you can either give two bios to a few participants or reduce the number of bios distributed. If you reduce the number of bios, reduce them in multiples of six and delete the respective names from Handout No. 2. - Handout #2: Questionnaires: What’s My Name? What’s My Story? There are six (2A-2F) versions of this questionnaire to ensure students receive different questions. Print all six versions and make enough copies to cover the total number of students who will participate in the activity. Each student will receive one of the six versions of the handout. - Do a quick check-in with questions such as: - Who's heard of go-go? (If quite a few have, ask what bands/songs they can name or that they like.) - Who's seen a live go-go performance? - Whose parents/grandparents listen(ed) to go-go? - Explain that go-go has a multi-generational history in DC, so there are more people and places than the ones they named and luckily today you will get a chance to “meet” them. - If one or more students have not heard go-go, play two music clips: “Bustin' Loose” by Chuck Brown and the Soul Searchers and “Welcome to DC” by Mambo Sauce. Ask students: What do you hear? What are the similarities? What are the differences? Meet and Greet - Distribute one bio, questionnaire, and name tag to each student. Explain that for the rest of the class, they will take on the identity of the person, place, or thing on the bio they received. Point out that these biographies are simply brief introductions; the full stories could fill entire books. - Ask them to take a few minutes to read their bio. Then have them respond to the first two questions on the top section of the questionnaire, and to let you know if they have any questions. The two questions are: - What is your name? - What is one thing of significance about your own identity? - Have them put their role play name on their name tag and put it on. - Explain to students that they have the rare opportunity to attend a conference on go-go. In order to make the most of their time at this conference, they have a brief questionnaire to complete. This questionnaire will help them meet and learn about others at the conference. As they participate in the conference, they should stay in role, responding to questions from other participants, and in turn ask them questions. Each student should try to “meet” the people or places on their questionnaire that can help them answer their questions. Their conversations with each other should reveal the necessary clues for the student to figure out the names and fill in the blanks. - Launch the activity. At the beginning, you may need to remind students to stay in role. (If you have not done a mixer like this with your students before, you could model some interactions so they get the idea that they should meet and talk with people to try to find the answers to their questions.) - Once you have determined that most students have had enough time to complete their questionnaire, have everyone return to their seats. - Ask for a couple of volunteers to share what they found to be most surprising and/or interesting during the activity. Deepening Our Understanding of Go-Go - Explain that now the conference participants have been asked by the media to respond to some challenging questions. You can group participants so that they have the background needed to grapple with both questions. Group them according to what works best in your class. There is not a definitive answer to either question, so the challenge is to develop an informed response based on the knowledge and experience of the roles represented in each group. - What role does go-go play in understanding gentrification? (Bios 2, 7, 13, 35, 37) - Why did go-go emerge in DC and why is DC one of the few cities in the U.S. to have its own music form? (Bios 2, 5, 6, 8, 15, 19. 21, 33, 37, 38) - This is the conclusion of the activity. There are many possible next steps. For example, students can - Conduct research on the person, place, or thing they represented in the activity. They can share what they learned in the form of an essay, bulletin board display, a children's book, Wikipedia entry, radio theater, or iMovie. - Draft a description of go-go for the DC history textbook. If they were given one page in the book, what should it say? - Teach others in their school or community about the history and culture of go-go. Bios and questions developed by Marya McQuirter. Lesson developed by Deborah Menkart based on a “meet and greet” format used in many pre-reading lessons. On July 9, 2011, the D.C. community convened for a beat, the Go-Go beat. The Smithsonian Anacostia Community Museum hosted Evolution of the Go-Go Beat in Washington, D.C., the second program in a series devoted to Washington, D.C.’s homegrown genre of music. Go-Go music, the history of which has been carefully chronicled in The Beat! Go-Go Music from Washington, D.C., has West African roots and is recognized for its infectious heartbeat-based rhythm courtesy of its signature instruments, the congo, cowbell, and drum. Kip Lornell and Charles Stephenson, Jr., co-authors of The Beat!, invited the D.C. community-at-large to listen to talks from Go-Go artists. Sweet Cherie, Howard University Graduate and keyboard player of the all-female Go-Go band Be’la Dona, spoke highly of the Go-Go community describing it as “family.” Having just returned on a red-eye flight from a performance with the Godfather of Go-Go, Chuck Brown, in North Carolina, she warmly presented several audio recordings evidencing Go-Go’s past and continued employ in other musical genres like R&B, Pop, and Gospel. The audience’s response ranged from toe-tapping to nostalgic grins as Sweet Cherie played excerpts of Grace Jones’ Slave to the Rhythm, Jill Scott’s It’s Love, Beyonce’s Crazy in Love, Kirk Franklin’s Before I Die, Karen Clark Sheard’s Prayed Up, Cee Lo’s I’ll Be Around, Kelly Rowland’s Bump Like This…the list goes on like the beat. Gregory “Sugar Bear” Elliot, lead talker and bass player of Experience Unlimited (E.U.), whose ’80s hit, “Da Butt” featured in Spike Lee’s School Daze and gave Go-Go music one of its first national platforms, detailed the group’s quick rise from playing in small local Go-Go venues to performing in 20,000-person capacity stadiums. He also expressed disappointment with the school system’s removal of music programs from public education claiming “there may be many Miles Davises among us, but we’d never know it” for the lack of access to standard musical training. Similar to the sun’s unrelenting blaze on this hot D.C. afternoon, Faycez U Know gave a smoking live performance on the grassy area of the Anacostia Community Museum’s grounds as approximately 20 teachers stayed indoors to attend to the business of developing a Go-Go curriculum. The goal of the meeting, led by Teaching for Change, was to build a collaborative community of educators who will develop, field test, and promote lessons centered on Go-Go. Teachers separated into groups of three to brainstorm interactive and effective ways to address the five core areas of knowledge based on Go-Go music and using The Beat! Go-Go Music from Washington, D.C. as a primary textual source. As the teachers regrouped, they shared many well-constructed ideas inspired by the homegrown sound. Three teachers (Michele Bollinger from Wilson Senior High School, Monét Cooper from Capital City Public Charter School, and Michael Bolds from Cesar Chavez Public Charter School for Public Policy) talked about engaging students in a long-term multi-media project in which the students would create documentaries to include original photos, interviews, and primary documents. Felecia Wright from Anacostia High School thought students could use research and critical thinking skills to explore the relationship between Hip-Hop and Go-Go including why one has gained more national attention and the relationship between the musical/cultural forms. Reginald Dwayne Betts, a creative writing teacher, will entitle his lesson Rhetoric: The Art of an Illusion, exploring incidents of violence and Go-Go’s perceived association with them. Payne Elementary School teacher Mary Johnson is planning a lesson, The Language of Go-Go: Poetry and Figurative Language, Regional Language, Biography, and City Culture. Other ideas that surfaced included developing a business plan to promote a band as well as creating the social media and publicity for the band. Students would also learn some aspects of marketing by creating web pages, flyers and other promotional materials. Teaching for Change Associate Director, Allyson Criner, ended the gathering by asking teachers to name a student they will have in mind as they develop their ideas into actual lessons plans. The lessons will be field-tested. Teachers can still get involved by emailing firstname.lastname@example.org The Beat: Go-Go Music from Washington, DC by Kip Lornell and Charles Stephenson, Jr. University Press of Mississippi in 2009. One of the first books on Go-Go, The Beat set the stage for how we understand Go-Go. The Beat was originally published by Billboard Music in 2001. In some very fundamental respects, a go-go bears striking parallels to an African American Pentecostal church service. Both events, for example tend to be long, extending for hours with no predetermined endpoint. Nor do they hand out nearly printed programs detailing the event when you enter a Holiness church or as they check your ID when you come through the door at Deno's Club in Northeast. A go-go and a sanctified church service also blur the clear demarcations that separate performers from the audience. ...both a go-go and a Pentecostal church service succeed only when the majority of the people in attendance fully participate and become integrated into the event. The Washington Post, in particular, generally continues to report only negative stories on go-go. The Washington City Paper sometimes covers go-go events, mainly live performances and the occasional compact disc release. The city's other daily, the Washington Times, doesn't even seen seem to now that go-go exists. The latest information about D.C.'s go-go scene can be found on the internet....most folks turn to Kato's [ Kato Hammond's] "Take Me Out to the GoGo" website. Most go-go fans, have TMOTTGoGo.com bookmarked. I am a woman who happens to love and appreciate go-go music. I happen to be a woman involved in music. I also happen to be a woman at the go-go. My being a woman should not be an issue in go-go, but it is. Go-go is a man's world, a man's music, according to men. They may not say it, but they think it for sure. I'm here to dispute that, to debate it and to prove that the men are wrong about the women in go-go.... Percussion, not only the conventional drum and traps set but congas and timbales, remains one of go-go's core elements. Here is where the educational system in the District of Columbia helped to further the cause. In the 1960s the rivalry between the city's high schools really heated up, particularly on the athletic field. In the District of Columbia, marching bands are as much a part of the football field as the team itself. A Darryll Brooks observed, "There used to be a lot of competition between uptown bands and Southeast, like Spingarn and Eastern bands. We were very educated, musically." Go-go benefited from this phenomenon because so many of the students were involved with marching bands.... The role of the D.C. public schools did not cease with the involvement of young men (and they were mostly males) with percussion. The junior and senior high school marching bands at Taft, Woodson, Coolidge, Cardozo, Dunbar, McKinley, and others included horn and reed players...and many of the first generation of go-go bands utilized saxophones and trumpet players (part of the soul and funk legacy). The high school band experience helped the aspiring musicians in a number of ways. First, it taught them how to read standard musical notation. Secondly, they were placed in a context where they made music in large ensembles that required a great deal of cooperation. Finally, it reinforced the (essentially African American) concept that motion and music are highly compatible. The public schools' musical instruction received strong reinforcement from the D.C. Department of Recreation, which also played a vital role in educating D.C.'s aspiring musicians. The Department of Recreation also provided music lessons, especially for horn players, and assisted in sending a "Showmobile" with musical groups into the city's neighborhoods. Go-Go Live: The Musical Life and Death of a Chocolate City by Natalie Hopkinson Duke University Press 2012. Go-Go Live explores the place of go-go within the development of Washington, DC since the 1970s. It is an important reference for teachers who are unfamiliar with go-go and for teachers who are seeking content on how go-go is part of a larger and international history of black music and culture. The book contains photographs and extensive excerpts from oral histories Hopkinson conducted Indeed, three generations of Washington-area residents had been grooving to go-go ever since the guitarist [Chuck] Brown had created the sound in the mid-1970s, borrowing the Caribbean flavor he had picked up playing for a Washington Top 40 band called Los Latinos. Go-go has been compared to everything from funk to hip-hop and reggae, but it is best described as popular music--party music--that can take many forms. When you hear it, you know it's go-go by the beat: slow-boiling congas, bass drums, timbales, cowbells, and rototoms layered with synthesizers and a horn section. You also know it's go-go because the audience is part of the band. Together the musicians onstage and the people below it create the music live--always live--through a dialogue of sounds, movements, and chants. ...the essence of go-go is the live show....It is live and direct. Simple. True. For lives (and deaths) that are often made invisible in the mainstream media, go-go rituals comfort and reassure the crowd that they exist, that they are part of a community, able to hear news that may not necessarily be black and white. The violence and mayhem that erupted following King's death set the physical stage for the birth of go-go. The rebellion of 1968 reflected a distinctly consumerist, capitalistic, and hedonistic rage. The go-go scene filled a power vacuum, bringing together a steady crowd of Washingtonians in and around the city's core for fellowship, communion, and the expression of a postriot, post-civil rights movement urban reality. This new musical form helped bring new life to the charred urban core. Go-go flourished both because of and in spite of the decades of adversity that preceded the riots and intensified after them. Go-go established musical spaces in the ruins of social upheaval: in crumbling historic performance spaces such as the Howard Theater, in hole-in-the-wall nightclubs, such as the Maverick Room; in backyards, community centers, and parks. Once black and youth cultures possessed regional quirks, textures, and accents that reflected the places of the music's creation. Thanks to the dynamic rise of hip-hop, that is now less frequently the case. Go-go took such a wildly different trajectory to hip-hop that it could be seen as counterdiscourse to this standardization of youth culture. Both art forms have roots in urban youth culture, and their origins are both a byproduct of the urban centers' sociopolitical outlook following the collapse of the industrial economy in the 1970s, which caused middle-class flight and required the emergence of new urban public spheres. This power vacuum led to the rise of underground economies that snatched their own cultural and economic power. In the mid-1970s Bronx, that was hip-hop. In the mid-1970s Washington, D.C., it came in the form of go-go. Go-go's divergent path allowed it to maintain its function as a uniquely black public sphere. Its fidelity to time-honored cultural scripts such as live call and response, as well as its locally rooted distribution and economic system, makes a statement about how a public sphere should be structured culturally, aesthetically, and economically. Simply put: go-go never sold out. Go-go, with its live, heavily percussive instrumentation and discursive, non-linear narrative forms, remains aesthetically faithful to a long history of uniquely black public spheres. It lacks the polish and sheen of the high-tech production of contemporary hip-hop recordings or other kinds of popular music. There is a grit and texture to the music that accurately reflects, represents, and speaks to the communities of its creation, the communities where it is consumed and from which profits are taken. The content of the recordings are aggressively zoned toward individuals and neighborhoods otherwise ignored by mainstream news media. The lyrical content is not devoid of the negative influences that exist in all communities. However, the individuals both calling and responding to the messages reflect on black life in a way that is not distorted by multinational profit motives or the international gaze. - Two to four 50 minute periods to read, collect information and organize it - One to three 50 minute periods to draft a statement and present it. - Is anything ever completely independent of the influence of others? - In what ways do we connect with each other? - Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. - Analyze in detail how an author’s ideas or claims are developed and refined by particular sentences, paragraphs, or larger portions of a text (e.g., a section or chapter). - Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is valid and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; identify false statements and fallacious reasoning. Students will be able to identify elements from other musical and cultural traditions that have been incorporated into go-go. (Identify elements that influence the creation of something new) Students will be able to make an argument for which elements adapted by go-go were the most influential and necessary in the development of go-go music. One page outline for argument that defends student statement around the most important musical influences on gogo this argument should include: a clear position, a statement describing go-go, quotes from the text, references to video or audio clips Students should be prepared to present their statements in whole class or small group presentation, or formal class discussion. Before embarking on this lesson students should already know how to identify valid supporting evidence, know the structures used in class for formal discussion, and how to craft a clear a clear position statement. Lesson Plan - Hook Have students create comparison charts in which they compare themselves to parents and/or grandparents identifying features both physical and behavioral that they have inherited and then identify those elements that are strictly their own. Show images of a modern instrument and its predecessors allowing students to identify the elements that were kept and those that are unique to the modern instrument. (This comparison will allow the teacher to facilitate a conversation, where students are able to notice how particular elements taken from one place can influence the development of something new.) counterpart, syncopation, antiphony, lineage, vernacular, disenfranchised, predecessor, secular, traits Teachers will provide students with student friendly definitions of the terms above and then have them provide examples and non-examples of each. As they read students will locate and record sentences in the text where the words are used. Read Aloud and Modeling Teacher will provide students with a chart/timeline/or map, that allows them to record the different types of musical traditions influential to the development of go-go, mentioned in the text. Teacher will read the first two paragraphs of “The Roots and Emergence of Go-Go” Pg. 11-12 and model his/her thinking: She/he will identify the musical tradition, then list the elements of that tradition that can be found in go-go music. The teacher should chart this example so that students may use it as a reference. The teacher will ask students to read pages 12-15 and identify either a new musical tradition that influenced Go-Go or a particular element within the already identified musical tradition to add to the list already charted. After a set period of time students will be broken up into groups and assigned a section or sections of the chapter and tasked with looking for musical traditions and the elements in these that were influential in the development of Go-Go, they may also identify similarities in the development of other musical styles. After students have read their sections they should chart and post their findings and present to the class. Students listening to the presentation should have a format for collecting the information presented by their classmates. Teacher will then show students clips of the different types of music mentioned in the chapter and students will add to their lists based on the visual and/or audio clips presented. Video Clips and Audio Clips of Live performances from each of these genres: West African Ju-Ju http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NC0Tw4PmarA, R&B, Afro-Cuban/Latino, DC High School Marching Bands, Funk, Hip Hop, Latin, Go-Go Once students have collected all of their information they will be asked to choose one of the musical traditions that they believe was the most influential in the development of go-go and prepare for discussion by identifying textual evidence as well as evidence from the video and audio selection that will support their claim. Students will organize this information into an outline and use this outline as a guide for a class discussion (format to be determined by teacher). This outline and notes from the discussion may then be used to develop on page papers that show students ability to state a claim and support that claim with evidence.

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- encouraging wide reading; - exposing students to high-quality oral language; - promoting word consciousness; - providing explicit instruction of specific words; and - providing modeling and instruction in independent word-learning strategies. Each of these components contributes to helping students overcome the major obstacles to vocabulary growth. What to do about the size of the task We know that the volume of students' reading is strongly related to their vocabulary knowledge.1 Students learn new words by encountering them in text, either through their own reading or by being read to. Increasing the opportunities for such encounters improves students' vocabulary knowledge, which, in turn, improves their ability to read more and more complex text. In short, the single most important thing you can do to improve students' vocabularies is to get them to read more. - If, over a school year, a fifth-grade student reads for an hour each day, five days a week (in and out of school), at a conservative rate of 150 words per minute, the student will encounter 2,250,000 words in the course of reading. - If 2% to 5% of the words the student encounters are unknown words, he or she will encounter from 45,000 to 112,500 such words. - We know that students learn between 5% 10% of previously unknown words from a single reading. This accounts for at least 2,250 new words the student learns from context each year. The figure 2,250 new words learned a year is based on the lowest points of the estimated ranges. Even this conservative figure suggests that reading is a powerful influence on students' vocabulary growth. What kinds of reading are necessary to produce such vocabulary growth? Whereas some argue that almost any reading ultimately will have powerful benefits for students,3 others say that if students consistently select texts below their current reading levels, even wide reading will not result in measurable vocabulary growth.4 Nor is reading text that is full of unfamiliar words likely to produce large gains in word knowledge.5 To help students get the most out of reading, you should encourage them to read at a variety of levels — some text simply for enjoyment, which should benefit their fluency if nothing else — and some text that challenges them. You should also help students develop reading strategies that will allow them to read more challenging texts with lower levels of frustration. When students have been taught comprehension strategies, they tend to do more reading.6 Increasing their motivation to read is another critical factor in helping students make the most of wide reading. One powerful motivating factor associated with more reading is a classroom environment that encourages and promotes social interactions related to reading.7 Making available a variety of books and setting aside ample time for reading also motivate increased reading. As is true for any method of promoting vocabulary growth, wide reading has some limitations. One is that it obviously cannot be effective with very young students who are not yet able to read very much on their own. Another limitation is that, although wide reading may be effective in producing general vocabulary growth, it is not an effective method for teaching the words that students need to master a particular selection or a concept related to a specific content area. Finally, it is important to acknowledge that, as important as it is, wide reading does not produce immediate, magic results; its effects are cumulative, and emerge over time. You can encourage wide reading in a number of ways. You might, for example, recommend or provide lists of books for students to read outside of class, and make time in class for students to discuss what they have read. You can set aside a time each day for independent reading. And, of course, you can model the value you place on reading as they read, by telling students about the books you are reading. What to do about the differences between spoken and written English High Quality Oral Language As we discussed earlier, both English language learners and English-speaking students may achieve fluency in the language of face-to-face conversation and still have little exposure to or knowledge of the kind of language they encounter in school textbooks. Clearly these students need more exposure to written English, and wide reading is the most effective way of increasing exposure to this kind of language. But what can be done with students who are in the process of learning to read, and who cannot do a great deal of reading on their own? Here is one solution: Increase the quality of the oral language to which students are exposed — let them hear spoken English that incorporates more of the vocabulary and syntax typical of written, and particularly literate English. A very effective way to expose children to literate vocabulary is to read to them from storybooks, especially when the reading is accompanied with discussion.8 Authors of good children's literature have always found ways to talk "over children's heads" — using big words and other aspects of literate language — without decreasing children's interest or enjoyment. Both younger and older students appear to benefit from read-aloud activities, and older students can learn the meanings of new words as efficiently from hearing stories read to them as they can from reading the stories themselves.9 Making available (either in the classroom or school library) a selection of quality audio books and players that students can use on their own can also be a good way to expose them to a variety of good books and broad language experiences. Storytelling is yet another way to increase the quality of students' oral language experiences. Even when no text is involved, storytelling still exposes students to richer language than does normal conversation. Pretend play likewise involves rich language use. The quality of preschool children's conversations, and teachers' use of a more sophisticated vocabulary also have been found to affect students' language and literacy development.10 Asked what they could do to use more sophisticated vocabulary without intimidating or confusing their students, a group of teachers responded enthusiastically, "Make it fun!" We definitely agree. Playing with language is an essential component of language development. Word consciousness is the knowledge of and interest in words. Word-conscious students enjoy learning new words and engaging in word play. They know and use many words, and are aware of the subtleties of word meaning and of the power words can have.11 To become word conscious, students first need to develop a feel for how written language is different from everyday conversation. To this end, it is valuable to draw their attention to the distinctive characteristics of written language, even when reading aloud, and to help them learn to read like a writer, and to write with an audience in mind. Having students copy in their journals phrases or sentences from their reading that are examples of especially effective language use — vivid descriptions, striking metaphors, interesting similes, plays on words-can help make language more alive for them. Students can share their examples with the class, or they can post them in the classroom to serve as inspiration or models for others. Reading and discussing two versions of the same story — ideally, one with rich language and one with language that is less interesting — can promote word consciousness in younger students. Word consciousness can be promoted in a way that helps students become aware of differences between Standard English and non-standard varieties, without stigmatizing the latter. Shirley Brice Heath describes classrooms in which students learned to be "language detectives," studying how people speak differently in different groups and in different situations. She believes that this awareness made an important contribution to the students' academic success.12 It may be especially important to make such differences explicit for students less familiar with standard English. A number of oral and written word games can serve to promote word consciousness, including puns, limericks, Hink-Pinks, crossword puzzles, jokes, riddles, and anagrams.13 Encouraging students to play with words can create an interest in knowing more about them, and thus, can become a strategy for independent word learning. What to do about the limitations of sources of information about words Independent Word-Learning Strategies - the efficient use of the dictionary; - the use of word parts (prefixes, suffixes, roots, compounds) to unlock a word's meaning; and - the use of context clues. Instruction in dictionary use that focuses on having students look up words and use information from their definitions to write sentences does not provide students with the guidance they need to make dictionary use an efficient independent word-learning strategy. This is not to say, however, that dictionaries are not important aids to word learning. In fact, the more students are exposed to dictionary definitions, the better their word learning.14 The crucial point here is that students receive instruction in how to use what they find in a dictionary entry so that they are able to translate the cryptic and conventionalized content of definitions into usable word knowledge.15 This instruction includes modeling how to look up the meaning of an unknown word, thinking-aloud about the various definitions in an entry, and deciding which is the most appropriate definition for a particular context.16 Teaching students how to use information about word parts can be very valuable in promoting vocabulary growth. Many students, however, are not aware of this strategy. Even students who have learned to break words into parts in their decoding instruction may not understand that they can use this knowledge to figure out word meanings. Teacher modeling helps to make the strategy's value clear to students.17 Using word-part information can be especially helpful in learning certain content-area concepts. (See Teaching Word Meaning as Concepts) Context clues are clues to the meaning of a word contained in the text that surrounds it. These clues include definitions, examples, and restatements. Teaching students strategies for identifying and using context clues has been suggested as a major instructional technique for vocabulary development.18 A student learns a new word from context by making connections between the word and the text in which it appears. When a new word is first encountered, the student stores in memory some information about how it fits into what is being read. In subsequent encounters with the word, this information is reinforced, and more information about the word's role in particular contexts is added until the word is understood and used appropriately. As in teaching other kinds of strategies, teaching students to use context clues to develop vocabulary is an extended process that involves: modeling the strategy; providing explicit explanations of how, why, and when to use it; providing guided practice; gradually holding students accountable for independently using the strategy; and then providing intermittent reminders to apply it to reading across content areas. As we noted earlier, learning words from context is a long-term process, one that involves multiple encounters with words. The challenge is to create vocabulary instruction that compresses this process to enable students to learn more words in a shorter period of time.19 What to do about the complexity of word knowledge Explicit Instruction of Specific Words - Use both definitional and contextual information about word meanings, - Involve students actively in word learning, and - Use discussion to teach the meanings of new words and to provide meaningful information about the words. Use Definitional and Contextual Information In the past, vocabulary instruction most often consisted of learning lists of words and definitions (with a test on Friday). We now know that such instruction is of limited value, particularly in improving students' reading comprehension.20 Students need to know how a word functions in various contexts. Therefore, instructional methods that provide students with both definitional and contextual information do improve comprehension, and do so significantly. - Teach synonyms. Often a synonym is all students need to understand a new word in context. - Teach antonyms. Not all words have antonyms, but thinking about antonyms requires students to identify the crucial aspects of a word. For example, the word chaos implies an abyss, a void, or clutter, but its antonym, order, narrows the focus to the "clutter" part of the word's meaning. - Rewrite definitions. As we noted earlier, dictionary definitions can often confuse or mislead students. Asking students to restate a dictionary definition in their own words can be more effective than requiring them to remember the exact wording of the definition. - Provide example sentences. A good way to ascertain whether students understand a word's definitions is to have them provide example sentences in which they use the word. They may draw these examples from personal experiences ("Mom's kitchen is chaos.") or from textbooks ("After the great flood of 1937, there was chaos all over the Tennessee Valley."). - Provide non-examples. Another way to find out if students truly understand the meaning of a new word is to have them supply words that are not examples of the word's meaning. For example, point out to them that cry is not an example of the word guffaw, then ask them to think of other non-examples of the word (bawl, sniffle, whine, whimper). Coming up with non-examples requires students to think about the critical attributes of a word, much like providing antonyms. - Discuss the difference between the new word and related words. A discussion of the word debris, defined as "trash," "garbage," or "waste," might include a discussion of the differences between debris and trash, garbage, and waste. For example, debris might be the result of some sort of accident or disaster, whereas trash might include anything. Garbage generally refers to organic material, such as food leftovers, and waste implies something left over, rather than something resulting from a disaster. Such a thorough discussion encourages students to focus on the meanings of words. Some activities that provide students with contextual information include: - Have students create sentences that contain the new word. Encourage students to create sentences that show a clear understanding of the meaning of the word — not just "I like chaos." More acceptable sentences are those that include the definition, such as, "Chaos is when everything is in disorder." Even more acceptable are sentences that extend the definition, such as, "The scene was complete chaos — desks were turned over, paint was splashed on the floor, and the trash can was upside down." Of course, to write sentences containing a new word, students need examples of how it is used correctly. Definitions, even those that give brief examples, rarely provide enough information to guarantee that students have a real sense of how words are used. One way to scaffold students' use of new words is to have them complete sentence stems containing the word, e.g., "John thought it would pacify the teacher if "21 - Use more than one new word in a sentence. Asking students to use more than one new word in each sentence they create can force them to look for relations among words. - Discuss the meaning of the same word in different sentences. Many words have multiple meanings, which depend on the context in which the words appear. To prevent students from limiting word meanings to one particular context, have them use a new word in several different and varied sentences. For the word chaos, their sentences might include topics such as chaos in classroom behavior, chaos as clutter and mess, chaos in personal relations, and so forth. - Create a scenario. Invite students to make up a story in which a new word features prominently. If students are too young for this activity, have them draw a picture story for a new word. - Create silly questions. You might have students pair new words and use each pair to make a silly question.22 For the words actuary, hermit, philanthropist, and villain, their questions might include "Can an actuary be a hermit?" "Can an actuary be a philanthropist?" "Can a philanthropist be a hermit?" "Can a philanthropist be a villain?" Involve Students Actively in Word Learning Students remember more when they relate new information to known information, transforming it in their own words, generating examples and non-examples, producing antonyms and synonyms, and so forth. Instruction that works In one study of exemplary vocabulary instruction, activities were conducted in a five-day cycle. On the first day, the new words were defined, and students discussed the use of each word in context. This discussion took different forms, including discussion of examples and non-examples, pantomimes, and having students say "Yay" if the word was used correctly in a sentence and "Boo" if it was not. On the second day, after a review of the definitions, students might work on log sheets, completing sentences for each word. On the third day, they completed another log sheet, then worked on a timed activity in which pairs of students attempted in the shortest amount of time to match words with their definitions. This activity was repeated on the fourth day. After completion of the second timed activity, students were asked silly questions. On the fifth day, they took a post-test. These activities varied somewhat with different units. For example, students also completed a "Word Wizard" chart activity each day. A Word Wizard chart is a chart that contains new vocabulary words. These words can be taken from a storybook, from a text, or just be words that are encountered in some way. Every time a child in the class found one of these words in context, the teacher attached an adhesive note with the child's name and the context next to the word. The first child who received 5, 10, or some other number of notes became the Word Wizard. Students were given credit toward becoming a "Word Wizard" by finding examples of each word used outside of class. This program, or variations of it, significantly improved students' comprehension of texts containing words that were taught. As part of the program, it was revealed that twelve encounters with a word reliably improved comprehension, but four encounters did not. The instructional approach, which involved active processing of each words' meaning, had significantly greater effects than did a definition-only approach on measures of comprehension but not on measures involving the recall of definitions. These findings suggest that vocabulary instruction can improve comprehension, but only if the instruction is rich and extensive, and includes a great many encounters with to-be-learned words. Use discussion to teach word meanings. Discussion adds an important dimension to vocabulary instruction. Students with little or no knowledge of some new words they encounter in a vocabulary lesson are often able to construct a good idea of a word's meaning from the bits of partial knowledge contributed by their classmates. (When the class as a whole does not know much about a particular word, however, you may have to help. Perhaps supplying some information about the word, such as a quick definition.) Discussion can clarify misunderstandings of words by making the misunderstandings public. For words that a student knows partially, or knows in one particular context, the give-and-take of discussion can clarify meanings. When misunderstandings are public, the teacher can shape them into the conventional meaning. Discussion involves students in other ways. As they wait to be called on, students practice covertly, or silently prepare a response. Therefore, even though you call on only one student, many other students anticipate that they will have to come up with an answer. As a result, discussion leads to increased vocabulary learning.23 Without the practiced response, discussion is not likely to be valuable as a learning experience. Bringing instruction together This sample lesson illustrates how a teacher can bring together the three components of explicit vocabulary instruction to teach words that are key to understanding the story The Talking Eggs by Robert San Soucil. The words chosen for instruction are backwoods, contrary, dawdled, groping, rubies, and silver.24 For the key word backwoods, read the following sentence from the story: "Then the old woman took her by the hand and led her deep into the backwoods." Ask students to predict what backwoods means. Backwoods is a compound, and, when the information from the word parts is combined with some information from the context, its meaning should be fairly clear. Next, ask students to describe the backwoods briefly. The key word contrary can be taught the same way, beginning with reading this sentence from the book: "You do as I say and don't be so contrary," and asking students to predict the meaning of the word from context. For this word, have students discuss a definition for the word, such as "disagreeable, raising objections," and encourage them to explain how the definition fits in the context of the sentence. As a follow up, you have them create some sentences that contain contrary. This can lead to a discussion of another, related meaning for contrary, that of "from another point of view," as in the expression "to the contrary." For dawdled and groping, begin once again by reading sentences in the story that contain the words. Because these words are verbs, however, you might want to pantomime the meaning of each, rather than supply a conventional definition. Then ask students to create sentences that use the words. You might define dawdled with some non-examples, because it is a word that has some clear antonyms, such as hustled, ran, went quickly, and so on. For rubies and silver, begin by having the class discuss what precious things are. You might illustrate the words by providing pictures that show rubies and things made of silver. Next, work with the class to make a list of precious things, including rubies and silver, as well as gold, diamonds, and so forth. The words used in the sample lesson are highly dissimilar. They were selected for instruction only because they happen to come from the story they students were reading. The techniques used to teach the words, however, are somewhat similar. For four of the six words, the teacher starts with sentences from the text, then asks students to create additional sentences to extend the meaning of the word beyond the text. Finally, the teacher also includes a definition, either a conventional verbal one or a gestural one, for each of the words. The instruction this lesson illustrates is relatively minimal, designed to support the reading of the text. More elaborate instruction would shift the focus from the story to the vocabulary words, and might be useful in a classroom with many English language learners, or in any classroom when a greater emphasis on vocabulary is appropriate. More elaborate instruction also might include using additional sentence contexts for each word, a "yea or nay" activity ("Would you dawdle in the backwoods?"), or having students write a scenario, or story that contains these words. Explicit vocabulary instruction does seem to improve comprehension significantly, at least when the words taught come from the text students are reading. Nevertheless, some cautions are in order. First, teaching vocabulary as students read can, under certain circumstances, distract them from the main ideas of the text. Second, teaching words that are not important to understanding the text leads students to focus on individual word meanings rather than on the overall meaning of what they read. The more effort students expend focusing on word meanings, the less effort they will have available to recall information that is important to comprehension.25 Thus, to be effective, pre-reading vocabulary instruction should focus on words that relate to the major ideas in a text, rather than on words that are interesting or unusual.

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Here are the top 30 computers & technology books for teen & young adults. Please click Read Review to read book reviews on Amazon. You can also click Find in Library to check book availability at your local library. If the default library is not correct, please follow Change Local Library to reset it. : Programming is only for kids who are good at math and science. The reality: Anyone can learn how to code. Kids with an artistic bent and curious minds can give life to technology that shapes our daily experience. Don’t believe it? Give this book a try! It will prove to be the best investment for your kids. This book teaches kids how to create animations with code. No big words or scary concepts. Only step-by-step, visual programming laced with digital art, games, and storytelling projects. It is a great art and code mixer. Animation for Kids with Scratch Programming is the perfect first taste that any budding programmer could fall in love with. This book has three sections: *Section one starts with simple projects to help students learn basic programming concepts. Those projects give students hands-on learning experience in developing their own games and animations. *Section two provides students with animation techniques to fuel their creativity and imagination. It provides them tools to create more interesting animations. *Section three guides students through four complete animations, each with its own storyboard. Kids learn how to manage the complexities of development, the interactions of multiple characters, and the timing of separate events. Many of the animation techniques introduced earlier are utilized to create these projects. This book highlights the following areas: Art and Code: Art and code go together like cookies and milk. This book leads with what kids know – art, games, and story-telling. Let them discover their Aha moments while having fun. Simplicity: No kids study grammar to figure out how to talk. They learn by talking. Why should it be different with programming? No more concept overload and wordy explanations. Start coding from day one. Projects: The book guides students to create their projects step-by-step. The instant gratification gained in each project reinforces their confidence and love for learning. Use this book in classrooms or for self-learning. Techniques: This is the 1st book focusing on animation techniques in Scratch. Kids can use it as a great reference book for building their own games and animations. Storyboard: Actions and scenes have to be planned out just like in filmmaking. This book teaches kids how to use the storyboard to guide their programming logic. Before Christmas, the first five hundred copies sold will entitle the buyers with a two-hour free webinar class. In this online class, we will walk students through the first chapter. To register for the free webinar, please go to MentorsCloud.com. Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Science & Technology > Computers > Programming New Eden Township is more than a dungeon for Fillion Nichols. The medieval biodome community, where Fillion is serving time, is a birthright that torments his life and threatens his future. Sealed inside the experimental Mars colony, there is no escape from anyone, especially the young woman who has haunted his thoughts for nearly six years. To preserve his sanity, he focuses on one goal – decoding the mystery behind the Watson deaths. It is a mission that shatters his distorted perceptions of reality and helps rebuild the fractured elements of his life. Meanwhile, to prove his worth to the Daughter of Earth, a young nobleman ventures beyond the walls of the biodome and experiences the Outside world for the first time. But his quest takes an unpredictable turn when he meets Lynden Nichols and Mack Ferguson, who draw him into their world – a community also confined and isolated by society. The Anime Tech Movement’s computer underground is far from the rustic, honorable life the young nobleman knows. Yet, he discovers familiar elements within the high tech subculture that may sustain the home he left behind. As worlds converge, each young man faces a choice that will affect the survival of an entire community. And to save the generation they fight for, both men must defy the boundaries of everything they know. Youth cultures collide as The Biodome Chronicles continues in a compelling quest for truth, forging an unforgettable story rich in mystery, betrayal and love. Science Fiction & Fantasy > Science Fiction > Cyberpunk Make: Getting Started with 3D Printing is a practical, informative, and inspiring book that guides readers step-by-step through understanding how this new technology will empower them to take full advantage of all it has to offer. The book includes fundamental topics such as a short history of 3D printing, the best hardware and software choices for consumers, hands-on tutorial exercises the reader can practice for free at home, and how to apply 3D printing in the readers’ life and profession. For every maker or would-be maker who is interested, or is confused, or who wants to get started in 3D printing today, this book offers methodical information that can be read, digested, and put into practice immediately! Arts & Photography > Decorative Arts & Design This book is a research paper covers everything you need to know about WebRTC and the ecosystem around it to make educated decisions about launching new initiatives using this technology. Spanning over 100 pages, this book covers in a simple language what WebRTC is, what you can and can’t do with it, how the ecosystem is divided along with many vendor stories of those who adopted WebRTC. This book is useful if you are: * An entrepreneur, seeking to start a real-time communication related initiative * A product manager, trying to understand where WebRTC fits into your planning * A decision maker, who needs to make sense of the brave new world of WebRTC The book addresses the following key questions: * What is WebRTC? * What can WebRTC do, and what can’t it do? * In which browsers and environments can WebRTC be used? * What types of vendors are adopting WebRTC and how? * In which markets is WebRTC used and with what kinds of business models? The book is free of charge curtesy of Kandy by Genband who are sponsoring it. Business & Money > Industries > Computers & Technology A LitPick.com Top Choice award winner! Adam Locke’s latest stunt finally gets him expelled from the ninth grade and shipped off to a stuffy private school. When it turns out to be an undercover organization in need of fresh operatives, he and his new classmate Emma begin their clandestine training. Intrigue, danger, and adventure follow the pair around the world as they learn how to use the gadgets, technology, and tactics at their disposal. During their country-hopping education, they uncover a grave threat to their new way of life and the organization itself. Can a pair of teenagers contend with an international criminal intent on revenge? Check out book 2 of the Adam Undercover series, ‘The Consortium Directive’ coming Fall 2016. Children’s Books > Growing Up & Facts of Life > Friendship, Social Skills & School Life > Boys & Men “It’s not that our students aren’t reading and writing, but that where and what they are reading and writing is off the school radar. We can build a bridge between the literate lives of our students outside of school and the literacies we want to teach them.” –Dana J. Wilber The power of Dana Wilber’s insight is in its simplicity. Students are texting, networking, and blogging- i.e., writing and reading- all the time, everywhere, just maybe in places we aren’t necessarily paying attention to. Build on their authentic interest and motivation using the technologies they are already committed to and you’ve won half the battle. You won’t believe how engaged they are; they won’t believe they’re learning for school. In iWrite, Dana shows you how to guide students through the complexity of new literacies, including: - how to discern between media - how to account for audience and voice - how to choose appropriate genre - and how to harness what they already know to be more successful in school. Dana deftly elucidates the lives of Millennials, those students growing up around the turn of the 21stcentury, and the technologies embedded into their everyday reading and writing. She shows us how three accessible tools-wikis, blogs, and digital storytelling -can be used to scaffold learning for our students. And she demonstrates how they can help us address 10 key issues in the literacies of today’s students: - Meaning and identity - Interest and inquiry - Cognitive development Let iWrite show you how to capture students’ daily literacy practices and develop them for the kind of writing we want them to learn. Born in 1944, Mary Gorden grew up with dreams of becoming an astronaut and a scientist. But during the 1950s and 60s traditional attitudes about women in the workplace still prevailed. Mary’s searing memories of being told girls don’t” in response to her aspirations opens this compelling memoir of her journey through the groundbreaking new world of computer programming and the computer as a business tool. After she graduated from college in Wisconsin with a degree in mathematics, Mary made her way to Washington, D.C., where she began her first programming job. She then followed her heart to San Francisco in 1969 meeting her husband along the way. With her natural gifts as a logical problem-solver, Mary excelled in her programming work. Yet she was constantly pressured to leave the technical work she loved and to go into management. It was an unusual problem for a woman to have in the 1970s. Written in a no-nonsense style, Mary recounts challenging years in management and marriage––eventually discovering that she needed to leave both. She also writes about the outdoors as her passion and escape, of the intense freedom and focus to learn horseback riding and cross-country skiing, of navigating the skies as a licensed pilot, of her world travels and her love of her horses and her dogs. Over the course of her story business computing evolves from punched cards to the beginning of the internet, and opportunities for women continue to change and grow. Biographies & Memoirs > Memoirs Small business owners often begin their businesses with limited funds, focussing on urgent matters and necessities. While we understand that starting lean is critical to long-term success, we also know that there is a lot you can do to get your business growing immediately using the tools that are available so readily today! We are here to point you in the direction of success, by using inexpensive (sometimes, even FREE!) technology that can make a huge difference for your business. Computers & Technology More and more eBay sellers are gradually turning their entrepreneurial efforts on the world’s foremost online auction site into serious business enterprises. Whether they see their eBay business as a modest addition to their revenue or a potentially fulltime venture, they need expert advice on how to do it right. Filled with in-depth, easily-understood answers readers can flip to, as-needed, this is a one-of-a-kind resource for any eBay seller. Business & Money > Industries > Retailing “Virtual World Design and Creation for Teens” shows teens like you how to develop virtual 3D worlds using the simple, visual programming language, Alice. Virtual worlds can take the form of animated stories, movies, and games. This book will teach you step-by-step how to create virtual worlds, including developing your story, setting up your world, adding and animating characters, incorporating sound, and sharing your world with others. You’ll even discover how to add strategy to your worlds so they can be used as interactive stories or games. Written in clear language using hands-on projects and exercises to teach you each new skill, this book is easy to follow at your own individual pace. Computers & Technology > Programming > Game Programming Learn to Make Great Digital Photos for 5 Bucks is a tight, bright, four-color, quick reference manual for anyone who wants to learn to use their digital camera. Written by an intelligent expert of digital photography, the text is integrated with large illustrations (either photographs or software interface shots). Brief tips or warnings at page bottom address any ancillary points not covered in the basic how-to text. There’s nothing else. Readers will quickly learn the fundamentals of using a digital camera: your camera’s basic features, how to shoot in different lighting conditions, tips for different kinds of shots (portrait, landscape, close-up), basic rules all the pros know, and more than 50 tips and secrets that help get the perfect shot, or maybe just save your day. You’ll also learn what to do with your images after you’ve imported them into your computer: managing your photo files, editing and cropping, printing, and emailing them to friends and family. This book isn’t designed to be a complete reference, but an irresistible impulse buy for people who don’t normally buy books in this area–or for people who just want to learn the basics. Arts & Photography > Photography & Video > Digital Photography Google is not only the search engine of choice for millions of users, it is an immensely powerful tool for savvy businesspeople who know how to use its advanced features. “Go Google” is a comprehensive guide to everything readers need to know about Google’s myriad applications, including Google Apps, Google Docs and Spreadsheets, Google SMS, Google Base, and other services that will help businesses get organized – and get noticed. Complete with information on research tools like Google Local, Google News, and Google Alerts, this is the ultimate guide for businesses of every size. Business & Money > Marketing & Sales > Marketing > Multilevel Comencé este libro a los 17 años de edad, pero el camino ya lo había empezado mucho antes, y del camino sé que me falta mucho recorrer. ¿Por qué 30 reglas? Pues un mes tiene en promedio 30 días, y pensé lo bueno que sería tener una regla para pensar por día, y repetirla 12 veces al año. Sé que el camino del éxito es la perseverancia, pero si le sumamos un plan ¡mejor!. Martin Luther King cuando quiso transmitir lo que sentía por en su accionar dijo, “Tengo un sueño”, y esto representa el principal motivo para este libro: ¡Tengamos un sueño!. Primero soñemos donde llegar, luego vendrán los planes y los cambios, primero soñemos. Hoy en día es muy simple copiar y pegar, entre tanto Big Data con más de 500.000 artículos creados por día a través de diferentes personas de todo el mundo. En este punto nos vemos desafiados a lograr comprender la información, filtrar la más relevante y poder transformar creando algo de valor para el otro. Nos es imprescindible derribar un mito que dice que la generación de Nativos Digitales es experta por nacimiento en el uso de las Tecnologías de la Información y la comunicación (TICs). Estudios internacionales dejaron demostrado que esta generación desconocer cómo utilizar la información que los rodea para conectar ideas y generar nuevos contenidos. Las encuestas realizadas por ICILS indicaron que un 89% de los jóvenes confían en que saben cómo obtener información de internet, pero solamente el 2% logro efectivamente pasar una prueba diferenciando el contenido relevante de aquel que era falso. Podemos remontarnos al pasado y darnos cuenta que la educación desde el Siglo XIX hasta el Siglo XXI es algo que va evolucionando de una forma lenta en comparación con el resto de los avances desarrollados por la humanidad. Es por este motivo que deseo transformarla, y preparar a todas las generaciones, en los cinco continentes para adaptarse a un contexto que cambia continuamente, con un ritmo nunca antes visto. Es prioritario traer la educación a la actualidad y lograr generar un pensamiento proactivo y anticipatorio en todas las etapas de la vida. Comprender el comportamiento de una acción, de un sueño, de una compra, es el desafío que les propongo. Los invito a leer este libro y compartir sus opiniones luego. Soñar, educar, comprender, entender… ¡comencemos! Business & Money > Small Business & Entrepreneurship > New Business Enterprises The Comprehensive edition of AutoCAD and Its Applications combines the complete contents of the Basics and Advanced editions to provide flexibility in course design and teaching approaches. This package provides a complete program for teaching introductory and second-tier AutoCAD courses. Arts & Photography > Architecture > Drafting & Presentation //WELCOME TO THE JUNGLE/ The Internet…a world without rules, without boundaries. Where you can be anyone you want, whoever you aren’t. And it’s all just a click away…. Nick Annunciato wants to impress his new girlfriend’s father. So when he flies to Key West with his own father, who’s a cookbook author and chef, and his stepsister, Annie, to attend a local food festival, he places an notice on the Internet: “I’m in Key West looking for the obvious contraband.” Nick does get a response. But what he doesn’t realize is that he has unwittingly thrown himself and Annie into a dangerous swirl of murder, mayhem, and Cuban cigars. Who is the dead man missing a hand? Can Nick and Annie find the killer before he cooks up more trouble? Will this adventure be their last? Different people in different places. The one thing they have in common is a new address on the Internet: danger.com. Where all your fears come true. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Action & Adventure > Mystery & Thriller Drawing from fourteen years experience, author Leanne Beitel guides teens in touch typing and basic word processing skills specifically for Christian schools and/or home schools. Keyboarding for the Christian School gives clear directions and brief assignments with the following advantages:Biblical references for each unitGives screen shot examples from Microsoft Word XPCompares APA and MLA report stylesUses inspiring sample textsIncludes timings and grading chartUtilizes commonly-used proofreader’s marksText copy is formatted in 12 point Times New Roman font for readabilityKeyboarding for the Christian School is designed for time-constrained classes, skills review, or as a supplement to computer courses. A printable e-book version of this book along with Teacher Tools to create a typing course is available at https://christiankeyboarding.com Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Science & Technology > Computers Computers are everywhere, running our lives, handling our social interactions, serving as the backbone of every business. And yet, how well do we understand them? How much do we know about their rise to ubiquity? We take computers for granted, but there is a fascinating wealth of ideas waiting to be explored, a rich trail of information explaining how we got to where we are now. That trail includes grand dreams, intricate puzzles, mind-stretching concepts and a cast of colourful characters. Brown Dogs and Barbers is a story about computer science. Join me on a journey through the story of computing, discover just what makes the machines tick, learn why computers work the way they do and meet the cast of characters responsible for it all. Computers & Technology > Computer Science Millions rely on computers at work and at home, and email is a convenience that many take for granted. Information technology professionals develop, create, maintain, and operate computer-related technologies. In this book, the careers profiled include: Bioinformation; Computer animator; Computer game designer; Desktop publisher; and more. Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Reference When Sanjeev’s sister runs away to join her boyfriend Raj, a crewman on a cruise ship, they get word she’s been killed in a train wreck. Sanjeev goes in search of Raj, and instead finds her sister alive, but bound and gagged aboard ship. He also discovers a multi-million dollar computer chip smuggling operation and calls on Cyber.kdz to help him track down the thieves. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Action & Adventure > Mystery & Thriller The Internet gives us information, communication options, shopping opportunities, entertainment, and much more–all at the touch of a fingertip and much of it for free. But in exchange for these benefits, we may be losing a basic right: the right to privacy. By clicking to accept website user agreements, we often allow companies to track our activities online and to share our data with outside groups. In addition, the police and government agencies can also track people online–and this tracking is sometimes done secretly, without user agreements or search warrants. Privacy laws and the US Constitution are supposed to protect privacy in the United States, as are laws and conventions in other parts of the world. But judicial and legal systems have not kept pace with technology. And until laws catch up, users enter a legal gray area when they communicate digitally–an arena in which their most private conversations might not be protected from intrusion. Such intrusion can be dangerous: government agencies can use information obtained via digital spying to harass, arrest, or imprison citizens. Other groups can use private digital data to discriminate in banking, retail, housing, and other businesses. Around the world, critics are sounding the alarm about digital privacy. Many have called for stricter controls on data tracking. What rights do you have when it comes to privacy online? How can you be a smart cyber citizen and protect your personal digital data? These questions are at the heart of the Internet privacy debate. Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Science & Technology > Computers > Internet This insightful work combines Jeff Bezos’s life story, beginning in 1964 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with the creation of Amazon, in 1995, and its rise as the largest online retailer in the world. Bezos’s zeal and tirelessness has seen Amazon through the inevitable ups and downs that come with building a start-uptaking it from a garage and turning it into a worldwide powerhouse. Although Bezos has wide-ranging interests and investments today, Amazon remains the cornerstone of his work life, and he is determined to keep his company at the forefront of technological and commercial innovation. The narrative includes captivating sidebars on Bezos’s life and innovations, and fact sheets on his life and the company. A timeline helps readers glean pertinent facts about Bezos and Amazon quickly. Children’s Books > Computers & Technology > Internet Bren Mickler has fallen in love at first sight! Bren tries everything to catch her dream date – right down to starting an electronic dating service for her friends. She plugs everyone’s vital stats into a program she pulled off the Web, and the trouble begins. One disasterous and often hilarious match leads to another, and Bren finds that her attempts to win love actually keep her from finding it. Just when Bren thinks she’s ruined everything, the timeless message of I Corinthians 13 envelops her heart. And the verses had been there- literally right in front of her face on the TodaysGirls Web site – the whole time! Bren learns the gifts of Godly love and friendship, discovering that “the greatest of these is love.” Computers & Technology > Computer Science When P.C. and Mackenzie are invited to join Mac’s dad on a business trip in Monaco, they are thrilled. But their luxurious vacation is cut short when a serial killer thought to be long retired suddenly strikes again…in their hotel! Computers & Technology > Software > E-mail Eighteen-year-old Joshua Amandil and his best friend Kyle Frost are two computer science majors starting their sophomore year of college. All is routine until they stumble upon a projector hidden in their apartment which opens a portal to a virtual world created by the ultra-secret Spyrius Technology. Science Fiction & Fantasy > Science Fiction – High interest/low reading level books for middle- and high-school students – Attention-grabbing opener to provide immediate visual introduction to each book – Mock dialogues to present crucial vocabulary terms in context – Compelling visuals and information to help students build a background in each topic – Real-life case studies to show scientists’ problem-solving processes – Portfolio of tools, equipment, forms, and other real materials used by experts in the field – Science as Inquiry out of the classroom and into the real world – Forensic science is a hot topic, making these books the ones teens will want to read – Highlights of key historical moments in each discipline – Current events tie-ins – Career emphasis, featuring interviews with scientists in the field Computers & Technology > Software > E-mail Adam and Emma are used to being the youngest agents in the Arcanum Trivindico. Remarkable gadgets, vehicles, and advanced training continue to hone their abilities as undercover operatives. When the US government pleads for them to engage an unhackable global crime syndicate, the students are forced to abandon their unusual education. A pair of new classmates and a dangerous assignment bring questioned loyalties and sparks of romance. As they battle their way across an unfamiliar continent, each of them will be pushed to the limit to complete their mission. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Action & Adventure There is a lot of material on Scratch Programming on the Internet, including videos, online courses, Scratch projects, and so on, but, most of it is introductory. There is very little that can take students to the next level, where they can apply their Scratch and CS concepts to exciting and challenging problems. There is also very little material that shows students how to design complex projects, and introduces them to the process of programming. This book is meant to fill these gaps. In short, this book is for students who are already familiar with Scratch: its various commands, its user interface, and how it represents a variety of CS concepts such as, variables, conditional statements, looping, and so on. The book does not attempt to teach these concepts, but, it does provide a quick introduction to each concept in the free Supplement to the book. I call this an “interactive book” because it is something between a traditional book – which is static and passive – and a fully interactive online course. It does look like a book: it has a series of chapters, diagrams, a lot of text, etc. But it also contains links to online Scratch programs, code snippets, references, which the reader is expected to click and explore to fully benefit from the ideas presented. I have organized the book as a series of independent Scratch projects – each of which describes how to design and build an interesting and challenging Scratch program. Each project progresses in stages – from a simple implementation to increasingly complex versions. You can read these chapters in any order you like, although I have tried to arrange the chapters in an increasing order of challenge. Programming is a powerful tool that can be applied to virtually any field of human endeavor. I have tried to maintain a good diversity of applications in this book. You will find the following types of projects: -Simple ball games Learn the concepts: As the experts will tell you, concepts are really understood and internalized when you apply them to solve problems. The purpose of this book is to help you apply Scratch and CS concepts to solve interesting and challenging programming problems. Every chapter lists, at the very start, the Scratch and CS concepts that you will apply while building that project. Learn the design process: Besides these technical concepts, you will also learn the “divide and conquer” approach of problem-solving. This is a fancy term for the technique of breaking down a bigger problem into many smaller problems and solving them separately one by one. You will also learn the “iterative design process” for designing programs. This is another fancy name that describes the idea that something complex can be designed in a repeated idea -> implement -> test cycle, such that in each cycle we add a little more complexity. You will also learn a bit of “project management”. Project management helps you undertake a project, such as creating a complex program, and complete it in a reasonable time, with reasonable effort, and with reasonable quality. It involves things such as planning tasks, tracking their progress, etc. Audience for the book: The book is intended for students who are already familiar with Scratch. The level of challenge is tuned for middle- and high-school students, but elementary-school students who have picked up all the concepts in an introductory course might also be able to enjoy the projects presented in this book. The book would be a great resource for teachers who teach Scratch programming. They could use the projects to teach advanced tricks of programming and to show how complex programs are designed. Finally, the book is for anyone who wants to get the wonderful taste of the entertaining and creative aspect of Computer Programming. Computers & Technology > Programming > Game Programming Book by Corrigan, Jim Biographies & Memoirs How to build 4x4x4, 8x8x8 and 8x8x8 color LED cubes with several sample programs to demonstrate them. Computers & Technology > Hardware & DIY > Peripherals Madison Finn is back online, and she’s spilling all the details on her new friend, old flame, and very unexpected crush Madison, Aimee, Fiona, and the gang are ready for a new school year, but Madison knows that nothing is ever what you expect—especially when it comes to matters of the heart. Regardless of how prepared she is, the eighth grade is going to bring a bunch of awkward new experiences and some major surprises, including a new love interest—and a very confusing love triangle! Perfect for fans of the Dork Diaries, Back Online is the newest novel in the hugely popular From the Files of Madison Finn series. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Social & Family Issues > Friendship Best Selling Books for teen & young adults: Recommended Books for teen & young adults: Best Selling Computers & Technology Books for: Recommended Computers & Technology Books for: Last updated: Monday, December 5, 2016 9:56 AM

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The ability to forgo an immediate reward and wait for a larger reward delayed in time is known as delay of gratification (Mischel & Underwood, 1974). In pre-school children, delay of gratification provides a simple measure of self-control and self-regulation. Interestingly, the ability of pre-school children to delay gratification is predictive of a range of life outcomes that extend well beyond the pre-school years. For example, pre-school children that are better able to cope with a delay cope better in stressful and frustrating situations during adolescence (Mischel, Shoda & Peake, 1988; Shoda, Mischel & Peake, 1990). Further, Casey and colleagues (2011) demonstrated that children who have difficulty delaying gratification at age 4 have difficulty resisting temptations and displaying cognitive control in adulthood. With respect to life outcomes, difficulty in delaying gratification in childhood is correlated with poorer cardiovascular, respiratory, dental and sexual health (Moffitt et al., 2011), a higher body mass index (Schlam et al., 2013), increased aggression (Ayduk et al., 2007), criminal offenses (Moffitt et al., 2011), substance abuse (Madden et al., 1997), and lower self-esteem, academic achievement (Li-Grining, 2007; Mischel, Shoda & Rodriguez, 1989; Wulfert et al., 2002) and social skills (McIntyre, Blacher & Baker, 2006) in adulthood. Given its predictive nature, improving the ability of children to delay gratification has a number of potential benefits. Metcalfe & Mischel (1999) proposed a theoretical framework to explain why some children are capable of delaying gratification while others are not. In this framework, two distinct but interacting systems underlie the ability of children to delay. The “cool” or cognitive system is responsible for thought and reflection. This system allows the individual to reflect on the options at hand and select the one that best serves their long-term interests. The “hot” or emotional system is characterized by quick emotional processing and satisfying immediate needs. For example, in the delay-of-gratification maintenance paradigm (Mischel, Shoda & Rodriguez, 1989), the child is presented with an object they desire (e.g., a marshmallow), which is highly salient and activates the “hot” system, pushing children toward the immediately gratifying response of grabbing the marshmallow. On the other hand, the “cool” system allows children to reflect on the fact that, if they want to gain an even more desirable outcome (e.g., two marshmallows), they must wait. The balance between the “hot” and “cool” systems is thought to be an intrinsic trait, responsible for children’s differential performance on the delay-of-gratification tasks (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999). Importantly, however, numerous external factors can be used to either increase or decrease a child’s ability to delay gratification. For example, increasing a child’s attention to the salient attributes of the immediate reward, such as looking directly at the reward or talking about it, results in shorter wait times (Mauro & Harris, 2000; Mischel & Underwood, 1974; Putnam, Spritz & Stifter, 2002), while distraction techniques such as covering up the reward or thinking of the reward in a non-consummatory fashion results in longer waiting times (Sethi et al., 2000). In addition to salience and attentional strategies, parental style and attachment also predict delay behaviour. The children of parents who have an authoritarian parenting style tend to delay gratification while those with permissive parents do not (Mauro & Harris, 2000). Maternal regulatory strategies, such as distraction, reasoning, bargaining, indirect and direct commands, also impact children’s performance, with distraction being the most effective strategy (Putnam, Spritz & Stifter, 2002). Empirical research on the strategies and parenting styles that contribute to delay of gratification has been used to propose guidelines to improve self-control in childhood (Strayhorn Jr, 2002). One of these guidelines suggests modelling and fantasy rehearsal. Bandura & McClelland’s (1977) social learning theory posits that behaviour is learnt from the environment through observation. Models (e.g., parents) explicitly convey how tasks should be performed and, as a result, shorten how long it takes children to learn a task or skill. The model may be a live individual demonstrating a behaviour, a verbal description or explanation of a behaviour, or symbolic (i.e., the behaviour is modelled in a book, on television, or other media) (Bandura & McClelland, 1977). A number of factors contribute to the influence of models on children’s behaviour. For example, the more the child identifies with the model, the more likely they are to reproduce the behaviour (Bandura & McClelland, 1977). Bandura & Mischel (1965) demonstrated the influence models have on the performance of 4- and 5-year-olds on the delay-of-gratification task. After being tested on the task, children either observed an adult enact the opposite decision to what the child had just made or listened to a verbal description of the behaviour. For example, if the child chose to wait, the adult did not wait. Following this manipulation, children were immediately re-tested and again after a 4- to 5-week delay. Tellingly, children who at first delayed gratification shifted to choosing the immediate reward and children who initially chose the immediate reward tended to favour waiting for the delayed reward. Of note is the fact that the live model and the verbal model had a comparable impact on the immediate test, but only the live model influenced children’s behaviour at the 4- to 5-week follow-up. An attribute of symbolic models is that they can take the form of a story, which is attractive for young children who regularly have storybooks read to them. Illustrated stories are particularly effective with preschool children because they are visually interesting and easy to memorize (Strayhorn Jr, 1988). Picture books have the potential to provide children with information about the world, allowing them to acquire additional knowledge to what they learn by personal experience (Heath, Houston-Price & Kennedy, 2014). For example, picture books influence a child’s healthy eating behaviour (de Droog, Buijzen & Valkenburg, 2014; Heath, Houston-Price & Kennedy, 2014) and facilitate the acquisition of novel words and their extension to real objects, especially when these objects are realistically depicted in the picture book (Ganea, Pickard & DeLoache, 2008; Tare et al., 2010). Further, 18- to 30-month-old children can learn simple novel actions through picture book readings (Simcock & DeLoache, 2006). In addition to the pictures displayed, the behaviour of characters or the comments they make can also be used to show children how to achieve specific goals or acquire coping strategies (Strayhorn Jr, 1988). Narrations in storybooks may provide information about resolving problems successfully and indicate the personal qualities and behaviours that are associated with the achievement of a goal. Therefore, storybooks may foster messages coming directly from caregivers about which beliefs and behaviours are fundamental for success (Suprawati, Anggoro & Bukatko, 2014). Through repeating the story, as children often like to do, the child is free to imaginatively experience the behaviour or cognitive pattern of the model and rehearse it. Repetition may also help with abstraction, aiding a child’s ability to transfer the behaviour to situations beyond those conveyed in the story (Strayhorn Jr, 1988). It is known that the effectiveness of modelling can be promoted by presenting a model who encounters similar difficulties to the child, and who models how to overcome these difficulties through self-directed instruction (Meichenbaum, 1971). Children who have trouble in activities similar to those the model experiences are more likely to imitate the model than children who are successful in those activities (Gelfand, 1962), and models whose behaviour is rewarded are more likely to be imitated than models whose behaviour is punished (Bandura, 1965). Although the potential influence of symbolic models has been discussed extensively in the literature, few studies have actually investigated the potential impact of symbolic models on the ability of children to delay gratification. In one of the few studies, Lee et al. (2008) investigated whether the ability of preschool children to delay gratification could be influenced by either explicitly labelling the children as being very patient individuals, saying that they had heard they were able to concentrate well and do boring things for a long period of time, or by reading a story to them in which an impulsive child received only one gift whereas a patient child received two gifts. The children who were labelled as patient delayed significantly longer than children in the control group, demonstrating the power of self-perception and priming. However, no statistically significant differences were found between the storytelling group and the control group, although they did delay one minute longer on average than controls (Lee et al., 2008). The limited effect of storytelling in this study could be due to the fact that the story was only read once, and to a full classroom. It is an open question as to whether reading the story to children individually, and on multiple occasions, would produce more promising results. The current study was designed to examine the effects of both personal and impersonal storytelling on a 3-year old’s ability to delay gratification. Children were given storybooks to take home included either a personal or impersonal story, and parents were asked to read the storybooks to their children for approximately 1 week. Critically, the child’s ability to delay gratification was assessed both before and after the storybook intervention. We hypothesized that that children in the personal and impersonal storytelling conditions would delay gratification longer than those in the control condition, because models in the story demonstrated that waiting will be rewarded with a large gift and being impatient leads to a small gift. Further, it was predicted that children in the personal storytelling condition, whose names were included in the story, would wait longer than children in the impersonal storytelling condition. This second prediction was based on previous findings demonstrating that perceiving oneself as similar to the model enhances reproduction of the modelled behaviour and that observing similar others succeed reinforces one’s belief in one’s own capabilities (Bandura & McClelland, 1977; Schunk, 1987). A total of 83 (37 boys and 50 girls) 3-year-old children participated in the present study (Mean age: 34 months 20 days, Range: 30 months 17 days to 39 months 27 days). Three additional parents withdrew their children from the study after participating in the pre-test due to family reasons. One child was excluded from the sample because their post-intervention test took place one month after the pre-intervention test, due to unforeseen delays. All children were recruited from the Early Learning Project database of parents who had expressed interest in taking part in research at the University of Otago and participated with written consent from their parents. At the end of the experimental session, children received a small gift and parents received a patrol voucher to compensate them for their travel costs to and from the laboratory. This study was approved by the Human Ethics Committee at the University of Otago (Approval Number: 11/106). The experimental room contained a sofa and a child’s table with four different coloured chairs. Parents were asked to remain seated on the sofa behind the child, who sat at the table facing away from them. On the table in front of the child were two closed gift boxes of different sizes: the small gift box measured 8 cm in width and 6 cm in height, and the large gift box 16 cm in width and 13 cm in height. Each gift box could be opened by lifting the lid, to which an ornamental ribbon was attached. Gift boxes were chosen over wrapped gifts because taking a peak under a lid is easier than unwrapping a gift, presumably making it more tempting for children. The small gift box contained five stickers, and the large gift box contained either a male or female Playmobil® figure. Six versions of the picture book were created. The images in the picture book were the same for all conditions, except that girls saw princesses and fairy godmothers, while boys saw princes and wizards. Only the content of the story changed from one condition to the next. In the control story, two princes or princesses go for a walk in the forest, where they meet a benevolent magical figure (wizard or fairy godmother). One child is a bit hungry and is given a lollipop, while the other child receives a toy that they had supposedly lost in the forest and which the magical figure had found. In contrast to the control story, the personal- and impersonal modelling stories deliberately model a delay-of-gratification scenario. In these stories, the princes or princesses come across the magical figure and are offered a choice between receiving a small gift immediately or a larger gift later. One child is impatient while the other is willing to wait. The impatient child only receives a lollipop while the patient child receives a teddy bear (girls) or toy car (boys) after waiting for the magical figure to return with more ‘present potion’ or ‘magic present dust.’ The only difference between the personal- and impersonal modelling stories was that the patient prince or princess was named after the participant in the personal condition. All parents were asked to read the assigned storybook to their child every night before bedtime for 1 week. Families were contacted by telephone and were given a description of the experiment. When parents agreed for their child to participate in the study, the child was randomly assigned to one of three conditions: personal storytelling (n = 27), impersonal storytelling (n = 27) and control storytelling (n = 29). In the initial phase of the experiment, the children’s ability to delay gratification was assessed using the maintenance paradigm (Mischel, 2014; Mischel, Shoda & Rodriguez, 1989). This paradigm consists of a single trial where the total amount of time that the child is willing to wait for a reward is measured. Children were tested individually in a quiet room by a female experimenter. The experimenter brought the participant to the laboratory where the child was given 5 min to get accustomed to the room and its decorations. During this time the parent read and signed the consent form and completed a questionnaire. The experimenter then seated the child at the table, facing away from their parent. The behaviour of the children was filmed by a camera that was set up in the room. Parents stayed in the room with the child during the experiment and were asked not to distract the child by asking questions, directing the child’s attention to things in the environment, or making comments concerning the task. The children were shown both gift boxes, and were told that if they did not peek into the little gift box until the experimenter came back into the room (15 min) that they could keep what was in the little gift and would additionally receive what was in the larger gift box. The time started when the experimenter left the room, taking the larger gift with them. The dependent measure was the number of minutes between the moment the experimenter closed the door and the moment the child opened the lid of the gift box or the end of the specified 15 min period. Upon completion of the task, the children were given their assigned storybook and parents received instructions to read the book to their children once a day for 1 week. One week later, all children returned to the laboratory for a second test of their ability to delay gratification. The same procedure was used as in the pre-intervention. Parents filled out a questionnaire created by Busby Grant & Suddendorf (2011) assessing their child’s production and accurate use of temporal terms. The questionnaire is composed of a list of 18 temporal terms and phrases. Parents are asked to indicate whether their child uses these terms by answering with yes or no, and to rate how frequently and accurately their child uses these terms on a five-point Likert scale (1 = ‘never’, 2 = ‘occasionally,’ 3 = ‘sometimes,’ 4 = ‘often,’ 5 = ‘always’). Parents completed the questionnaire prior to children being assessed. The performance of children in each condition is shown in Table 1. Across the three groups, 30/83 children (Personal story: 8/27, Impersonal story: 10/27, Control: 12/29) waited the full 15 min at pre-test. With these children included, the average time children were willing to wait at the pre-intervention assessment was 7.81 min (Personal story: 7.94 min., Impersonal story: 7.18 min, Control: 8.29 min). Importantly, the average time children were willing to wait did not differ across the three conditions pre-intervention, F(2, 80) = .218, p = .804. |N (boy/girl)||27 (12/15)||27 (12/15)||29 (13/16)||37||46| |N (boy/girl)||27 (12/15)||27 (12/15)||29 (13/16)||37||46| To assess the potential impact of symbolic modelling, we conducted a repeated-measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with Condition (2: Personal storytelling vs. Impersonal storytelling vs. Control) and Gender (2: girls vs. Boys) as factors. The analysis revealed no significant effect of Session, F(1, 76) = .890, p = .348, suggesting the length of time children were willing to wait did not differ between the pre- and post-intervention phases. Further, there was no Session by Condition interaction, F(2, 76) = .316, p = .730, suggesting the absence of any change between pre- and post-intervention was true for all three conditions. Finally, there was no Session by Condition by Gender interaction, F(2, 76) = .104, p = .902, suggesting the absence of any change between pre- and post-intervention, for any condition, was true for both boys and girls. Overall, this shows that the modelled behaviour in the fairy tales did not lead to a statistically significant improvement in the children’s self-control. The absence of any change between the pre- and post-intervention sessions could be due to a ceiling effect as 30 (36%) children waited the 15 min at the pre-intervention assessment and consequently could not further improve at the post-intervention assessment. Therefore, a second repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted with these children excluded. A significant effect of Session was found, F(1, 47) = 4.29, p = .044, suggesting a change in the length of time children were willing to wait between pre- and post-intervention, but no interaction was found between Session and Condition, F(2, 47) = .686, p = .509, indicating that this change between pre- and post-intervention was present in all conditions. Finally, no Session by Gender by Condition interaction was found, F(2, 47) = 13.64, p = .452, suggesting the change between pre- and post-intervention was observed in all conditions, for both girls and boys. The fact that children were willing to wait longer in the post-intervention assessment may be due to the children being more comfortable with the experimenter and the context of the experiment. Since this improvement in waiting time was observed across all conditions we can once again conclude that symbolic modelling did not influence the children’s ability to delay gratification (Table 2). |N (boy/girl)||19 (10/9)||17 (9/8)||17 (10/7)||29||24| |N (boy/girl)||19 (10/9)||17 (9/8)||17 (10/7)||29||24| Out of exploratory interest we investigated whether the children’s use of temporal terms was related to their ability to delay gratification. We correlated the children’s mean waiting time (across pre- and post-intervention assessments) with scores obtained on the three questions in the temporal questionnaire. The number of temporal terms used by the children was significantly correlated with their ability to delay gratification, n = 83, r = .259, p = .018. Further, the frequency with which children used these terms, n = 83, r = .303, p = .005, and how accurately they used them, n = 83, r = .335, p = .002, also correlated with their waiting time. Importantly, these effects held when Age was partialed out (use of temporal terms, n = 83, r = .242, p = .029, frequency, n = 83, r = .287, p = .009, and accuracy, n = 83, r = .322, p = .003) suggesting this effect is not simply due to the fact that older children likely use these terms more frequently and have longer waiting times. With respect to gender, there was a significant effect of gender on the time children were willing to wait, F(1, 76) = 4.825, p = .031, but no Gender by Time interaction, F(1, 76) = .355, p = .553, suggesting this effect was consistent across the pre- and post-intervention assessments (Table 1). On average, pre-intervention girls waited 8.94 min and boys waited 6.42 min, with a similar difference post-intervention, where girls waited 9.60 min and boys waited 6.15 min. To investigate whether this difference was related to the children’s use of temporal terms, we conducted a series of independent-sample t-tests comparing boys and girls across the three time questionnaire measures. Interestingly, compared to boys, girls used significantly more temporal terms, t(81) = 2.912, p = .005, d = .63, and used them both more frequently, t(81) = 2.636, p = .010, d = .58, and more accurately, t(81) = 2.243, p = .028, d = .49 (Fig. 1). The aim of the current study was to investigate whether the self-control of 3-year-olds could be improved by exposing them to a symbolic model demonstrating self-control. It was hypothesised that children would assimilate the behaviour of the patient child in the storybook and, as a result, be willing to wait longer for a large reward. Further, it was hypothesised that naming the symbolic model after the child (personal storytelling condition) would have a greater influence on the children’s wait times than a symbolic model with an unrelated name (impersonal storytelling condition). In contrast to our predictions, neither children in the personal nor impersonal storytelling condition waited longer at the post-intervention assessment, and the wait times of children in these two conditions were no different to those of children in the control group. When children who waited the full 15 min at the pre-intervention assessment were excluded, a significant difference was found between pre- and post-intervention assessments but this difference was not influenced by condition. It must be acknowledged, however, that excluding the children who waited the 15 min on the pre-intervention assessment reduces the statistical power of the analysis and thus we must interpret the absence of an effect of condition with caution. The improvement between the pre- and post-intervention assessments may be due to a practice effect, with the presentation of the same task at pre- and post-intervention assessments resulting in the child being more familiar with the procedure and the task, and thereby enhancing his or her performance (Schmidt & Teti, 2006). Also, in the post-intervention phase children may have (correctly) assumed that the content of the gift box sitting in front of them was the same as in the pre-intervention phase, perhaps making it less tempting to open. With respect to symbolic models, our storybooks may not have influenced the children’s self-control because, being between 2 and 3 years of age, the children in the current study may not yet have developed the conceptual understanding required to assimilate the behaviour. Although the children in the current study could likely understand the story, they may not have understood that the story demonstrated the concept of patience and therefore did not apply this concept to their own behaviour. Sloutsky (2003) suggests that children learn concepts through both perceptual and attentional mechanisms, detecting similarities or discrepancies in the environment and creating categories based on the correspondences they observe. Presenting examples of the concept and contrasting examples helps children detect the important features and facilitates categorization. Concrete concepts (e.g. book, animal, tree) are learnt more easily than abstract concepts (e.g. patience, fairness), because perceptual similarities facilitate the categorization of these objects. Little is known about the development of abstract concepts (Baddeley, 1999; Sloutsky, 2003). It is possible that young children must be exposed to abstract concepts multiple times in varying contexts to fully understand the meaning of these concepts and to apply them in their everyday life. Further, Simcock & DeLoache (2006) showed that the understanding of the relation between a symbol and what it stands for is in its early stages at 2.5 years, supporting the statement that the children in our study may not have benefited from our picture-book due to their still-developing conceptual understanding. Separate from the concept of patience, our results suggest that the children’s knowledge of the benefits of waiting (i.e., receiving a bigger present) was not sufficient to keep them from opening the present before the 15 min elapsed. This discrepancy between knowledge and behaviour has also been demonstrated on card-sorting tasks where children must switch between sorting rules. Zelazo, Frye & Rapus (1996) presented children with a set of cards that had coloured shapes on them and had the children sort them according to a single rule (e.g., by colour). After learning the first rule, children were taught a new rule and were asked again to sort the cards by this new rule. Interestingly, 3-year-old children expressed knowledge of the new rule, but continued to use the old rule, whereas 4-year-old children displayed no difficulty switching between the two rules. Zelazo, Frye & Rapus’s (1996) findings demonstrate that, for children aged 3 years and younger, knowledge is not always sufficient to influence actions. In the current study, it is possible that the children’s knowledge of the benefits of waiting was not sufficient to overcome their prepotent response to open the gift. It is possible that children aged four and older may benefit more from symbolic models in storybooks than younger children. In our storybook, both the non-patient and the patient child received a gift from the magical figure: the first received a lollipop and the second received a toy. Social learning theory suggests that the rewards associated with the modelled behaviour influence the likelihood of the behaviour being imitated (Bandura & McClelland, 1977). It is possible that some children perceived the lollipop as more desirable than the toy and, consequently, displayed similar non-patient behaviour on our laboratory task. To exclude this possibility, it would be interesting to vary the magnitude (e.g., size), rather than the type, of the reward the child receives if they wait. Bandura & McClelland’s (1977) theory also recognizes the importance of perceived similarity between the model and the learner, which may have been lacking in our storybook due the stories being more fantasy-based. Placing pictures of actual children in the storybook would improve the similarity between the book and the real world and may increase children’s self-efficacy (Dowrick, 2000). A serendipitous finding of the current study was the relationship between the children’s production and accurate use of temporal terms and their ability to wait for the larger reward; that is, the more temporal terms children used and the more accurately they used them, the longer they were willing to wait. This effect held when age was partialed out, suggesting it was not simply due to older children having both a better vocabulary and longer waiting times. Previous studies have shown that children’s use of temporal terms begins at around the age of 2 and rapidly grows thereafter. Busby Grant & Suddendorf (2011) suggested that 3-year-olds often and accurately use terms representing the present and broad temporal terms such as ‘soon’ or ‘later.’ Specific terms related to the future or the past (e.g., yesterday, tomorrow) are learnt later than general terms (e.g., when I was little), between the age of 3 and 5 years. In our study, girls had a larger temporal vocabulary than boys and, interestingly, also waited longer than boys. Surprisingly, Busby Grant & Suddendorf (2011) did not find gender differences in the use or accuracy of temporal terms. Consistent with our findings, a recent meta-analysis reported that girls delay gratification for longer periods of time (Silverman, 2003). Speculatively, our finding suggests this link may be due to the ability of girls to use temporal terms, and that their use of temporal terms may reflect a clearer understanding of the past and future. It is possible that children with a larger temporal vocabulary are better able to project themselves into the future, and are willing to delay gratification to give their future-self a larger reward than what the present-self would receive. It is through conversations about the self in noncurrent situations that children learn about their extended self in time (Moore & Lemmon, 2001; Nelson, 2001). Between the ages of 2 and 5, children acquire the sense of self as continuous in time, with increasing capacity to talk about different experiences (Nelson, 2001), and it is also between these years that the ability of children to delay gratification slightly increases (Lemmon & Moore, 2007). To our knowledge, no studies have analysed the relation between knowledge of temporal terms and the ability to sacrifice an immediate reward in favour of a future larger reward. It is possible that the more specific temporal terms children understand and use, the better their understanding of time and the better their representation of the self in time. In our study, we did not measure the children’s general language competence which may also relate to their ability to delay gratification. Language impairments are known to correlate with maladaptive outcomes, such as ADHD (Bruce, Thernlund & Nettelbladt, 2006; Cohen et al., 2000), aggressive behaviours (Dionne et al., 2003; Estrem, 2005) and poor problem solving (Baldo et al., 2005; Cohen et al., 1998), which are all linked to low self-control. Language skills are thought to enhance the self-regulatory competence of children by enabling them to express themselves verbally instead of emotionally, reflect on their behaviour, and occupy themselves in the presence of emotional circumstances (Cole, Armstrong & Pemberton, 2010). For example, language may allow children to reflect on rules and shift their attention, rather than focusing on items that they cannot have (Roben, Cole & Armstrong, 2013). To our knowledge, very few studies have analysed the link between language and self-control. Beaver et al. (2008) conducted a longitudinal study from the beginning of kindergarten to the end of first grade over four time points. They discovered that language skills significantly correlated with self-control at the beginning of kindergarten; this result held over years, showing that higher language competences are associated with higher self-control. In their longitudinal study following children from 18 to 48 months of age over four time points, Cole, Armstrong & Pemberton (2010) analysed how early language development influenced anger expressions and the use of regulatory strategies. They found that language skills and the rate of language growth at 24 and 36 months were a strong predictor of anger expressions at 48 months, with higher language skills being associated with lower anger expressions. Higher language skills were also associated with children’s initiation of seeking the support of their mothers at 36 and 48 months, which lead to less angry expressions. The language skills of children were also associated with their ability to distract themselves at 36 and 48 months of age, indicating that higher language skills are associated with a higher frustration threshold. These two studies show a significant link between self-control and language competence. Therefore, in the future it would be of interest to study the relationship between children’s general language competences, their understanding of time and their ability to delay gratification, in order to identify how each one contributes to variations in self-control. With respect to limitations, in the present study we did not assess the children’s understanding of the theme or message of the storybook, although it is important to note that the book was short, had a simple story line, and was read to the children on multiple occasions. It would be beneficial in future studies to assess the children’s understanding of the book, perhaps by using the storybook as a prop and asking children to show and tell the experimenter what happens in the book. Previous studies have demonstrated that this show and tell technique is effective with young children (Hayne & Imuta, 2011; Scarf et al., 2013). A second limitation is that parents, and often siblings, were in the experimental room during the delay-of-gratification task. This may have influenced the children’s behaviour by distracting them or by giving implicit signals to not open the present (e.g., movements of the head, moving when the child reached for the gift) (Bandura, 1992; Putnam, Spritz & Stifter, 2002). Finally, parents may have coached their child between the pre- and post-intervention tests. For example, one parent noted that they tried to train their child on a delay-of-gratification task at home and thoroughly discussed the behaviours described in the book. In summary, the present suggests 3-year-old children do not assimilate a behaviour modelled in a storybook into their own behaviour. Between pre-school and primary school, a child’s language ability and conceptual understanding increases dramatically and, therefore, symbolic models may be more effective for children slightly older than those used in the present experiment. The positive relationship observed between the children’s temporal vocabulary and their ability to delay gratification suggests a larger temporal vocabulary may be linked to children’s understanding of the future and the past, and this may make it easier for children to envisage the self in the future receiving the large reward, making the small reward less tempting. Future studies may look to investigate the possible relationship between the ability to delay gratification and children’s perception of the extended self in time.

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Strong Communities for Children What are the Need of childhood training and care services? Children are able to realize healthier results when their different strengths, skills, wellbeing, and social practices are understood and sustained. Appreciating and regarding range is vital for children to cultivate a solid intellect of identity. Values of fair play and miscellany are connected to children raising a sense of belonging, identity, and interests so that they become active conversationalists and confident, involved students. The values of parity and diversity are acknowledged all over the world and nationwide in law and certified training in schooling. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child has supported children’s civil rights and safeguarded that equity and multiplicity are conspicuous in administration programs (Ferdinand, Kelaher, and Paradies, 2013). The codes of equity and diversity in early babyhood learning are consistent and cover a wide range of thoughts. They necessitate specialists to enthusiastically speak matters of difference and to support the significance of diversity and change. Therefore in order to embrace a strong community various methods can be implemented to see to it that people stay together in peace. To achieve this parents and cares play the most vital role followed by the ECEC services where young people can emulate and learn the need to embrace strong community apart from direct observation which may not be an effective methods. Child care across cultures can at times be perplexing, particularly as soon as the morals and beliefs of one principle are poles apart to those from another. As a result this can make it rigid for people to feel a sense of fit in to any society. Conversely, when close relatives and cares find a way of child-care that feels correct for them, it aids the entire intimate to cultivate a social distinctiveness and a sense of fit in. This is chiefly significant for kids, since a sense of belonging and a solid social identity supports their intellectual health and welfare. There are many things that can support people to develop a sense of fit in, and this includes: Enhancing a sense of traditional uniqueness is of great significance as it supports the development of a child’s self-worth and identity, and their feeling of belonging to their community (Abrams, Maxwell, Pope, and Belgrave, 2014). These are all defensive factors for psychological health and happiness in babyhood. Teenagers’ cultural identity progress through traditions, relationships, storytelling and language. Parents as well as guardians can help their kids to associate with their culture by partaking social stories and live out. Social networks and friendships are essential for both children as well as their relatives, since it assists children to feel part of the society. Creating relations with other relatives can aid an individual to feel wanted and part of the entire family. People are able to construct networks across various diverse communal and ethnic groups. At some point it is key to seek help for each person in times of stress. Accordingly, this can be useful as it assists an individual to look for help in their individual language while trying to cope up with challenging matters. Although at times it can take long to get the exact person to provide help to an individual, support is available from many points such as community organizations like ECEC services, government agencies such as family support services among many others. Relationships play a vital role in helping people understand one another and work together in peace. Going to an ECEC service can be a fresh experience to some societies, therefore developing helpful affairs can help construct a sense of fit in and attachment. A constructive association with an ECEC facility also means a clan is expected to beat ease about approaching instructors. Relations are an essential source of evidence and intuition about their offspring and the confidence or concerns they might hold for them. Educators can ask families what is important to them and request them to take part in the ECEC service. A direction gathering can help new kinfolks cultivate affirmative affairs with their ECEC facility. Constructive relations help families, express high opinion for diversity and nurture children’s communal and emotional good. Race-based perception is any kind of behavior that may cause unnecessary and biased shortcoming to the lesser ethnic/cultural groups and give chance to majority groups. It can happen at individual and organizational point. Racism can be counteracted by supporting constructive insolences and carry outs concerning multiplicity among persons and organizations. This includes finding perplexing practices that favor against those of different ethnic or cultural upbringings and promote comprehensive activities in their residence (Evans, Murphy, and de Jong, 2014). Mentors can inspire affirmative surroundings by welcoming diversity into the service. For instance, they can provide a variety of prospects for kids and their relatives to share their own story which is likely to build a surrounding of social respect and credit of diversity. Communal respect across beliefs consists of being vulnerable to diverse thinking and methods and appreciating the enhancement it offers. While mentors are aware of social transformations in child care, clever to the matters encountered by families and aware of authority differences, this enhances good interactions with people. As a matter of fact when babyhood teachers have respect for the multiplicity of relatives as well as societies, and the ambitions that they embrace for teenagers (Varney, 2014). It becomes easier for them to nurture children’s inspiration to study and strengthen children’s sense of belonging as experienced learners. It is true beyond doubt that feeling secure can take time to realize. Some people may have gone through substantial distress and disturbance in the process of struggling to or settle down in Australia. Such challenges may have continuing effects on folks. It is important that families take some time to talk about their practices and accept sensitive support when necessary. Folks are capable taking care of their offspring once they are conversant about and are associated to their societies. Admiration for diversity is connected to individuals’ sense of fit in. Once diversity is treasured and appreciated societies are expected to advance a sense of belonging to their society and social networks with others. Individuals that have caring and constructive connections in their life such as people talking to each other, confidence and depend on one another; they are less likely to experience feelings of despair and nervousness in comparison to people who have less communal links. A sense of fit in to a community and being communally allied to one another acts as a shock absorber to trauma when individuals go through problems. Youngsters’ link to their beliefs advances through children experiences. Particularly, sincere and safe expressive networks with the grownups that care for them support children to associate with their traditional distinctiveness. Children’s having a solid sense of their individual social past and the backgrounds helps children to construct a constructive ethnic personality for themselves. Similarly it develops kids’ sense of belonging and, this extends, their mental well-being. Identify one’s own intentions: Firstly it is important to consider why one wants to reach out to other persons. Being honest about an individual’s incentives play a significant role as it makes everyone feel safe. A person’s reasons might be as simple as boosting community in their neighborhood which is important for all to take care of each other. People need to begin with their own bias: people are supposed to be honest about their own stereotypes they hold of other people cultures, life experience and customs. It is true that all people have their stereotypes, but by acknowledging these differences it is possible to work together and overcome them. Parents should allow children to play together: children have a supernatural way to break through language barriers and cultural differences. This can be a starting point for building and developing powerful relationships with parents of their children friends (Morrison, 2012). People need to manage their expectations: in order to build a solid community individuals need to go slow so that to be in a better position to understand that they might not experience an immediate union. Trust takes time to build. They can create customs together for developing their relations, instead of assuming that what is right to them is also right to other people. People need not to appropriate: individuals can admire a culture that is not their own, but they can never own it. There is need therefore for people to be extremely careful about how they involve in certain matter, particularly matter of traditions, rituals and spirituality. The best way is to let someone from that culture to teach them on how they can best honor what is sacred to them. Be human: basically people differences are real and they shape how individuals experience the world. However, the most important thing is that all human beings have same needs and desires, thus identifying things that they share help them to remember that they still need one another for them to reach their full potential. Developing relationships: Relationships play a big role as it helps individuals to appreciate other people and to work together. Developing relations across beliefs requires upright interaction to support youngsters’ communal and emotive interests. Once a clan and an ECEC facility are evolving a fresh connection, it can aid to remember that sometimes people will understand things from a perspective that is different to their own. Children taking part ECEC service may be a new experience for some people, as is the idea that families and educators can work together to support children’s progress and wellbeing. Developing a bond with their kid’s ECEC service benefits families in many ways (Morales, 2015). For instance, it makes it easier for a kinfolk feel relaxed about forthcoming mentors and share key facts and awareness about their offspring, and the anticipations they might clench for them. Optimistic relations between relatives and teachers also express high opinion for diversity which raises youngsters’ social and passionate good. Every kid has an exceptional culture path that entails open, personalized education and expansion prospects that will allow children to realize their full potential. As at the moment the variety in Australian infancy surroundings is developing steadily. Currently there are over 350 languages pronounced in Australia with more than 10% of the people speaking a language apart from English at family level. People that come from ethnically different environments face a number of problems as they strive to discover their way in the wider Australian culture. Some of the collective problems include: At times language can be the main hurdle for people new to a place. Problems of interacting in English can lead to a number of challenges for kin struggling to discover their path into a new community. Language obstacles can demoralize an individual’s self-confidence, by making daily life tougher and make it tauter to form communal connections. Also language barriers make interactions with ECEC facilities quite hard for blood relatives and cares. Most people benefit if they are able to interact in the language they are most at ease with. When there is a difference in beliefs, and people practices it can lead to confusions. For instance, in certain cultures it is acceptable for persons to openly look down upon an offer; on the other hand, other cultures this is not the case. In case these dissimilarities are not known by both parties, it can lead to and misinterpretations on both sides. Taking care of children across different cultures can be hectic at some point. There are much dissimilarity in child raising practices among cultures, including but not restricted to the ways kids are shown love, approaches towards correction and how much importance is placed on family accountability linked with upholding children’s freedom. Certain ethnic practices can have very firm codes of conduct according to a child’s age or gender. Families might also be concerned about children losing their cultural identity through contact with children with different cultural backgrounds, attending ECEC services with assertiveness different to their exposure to the media. Belonging to more than one cultural group at times can be puzzling for children. Children from different cultural settings time and again find differences in the beliefs and expectations of them at home and at the ECEC service that they go to. Sometimes this means these children feel mixed up about what is expected of them at both places. At some point it can mean that they are faced with difficult choices when the expectations of others do not meet theirs. Consequently, in order to help children from different culturally settings at the ECEC service people and mentors need to discuss likely differences in child rising. In case this does not take place, cultural differences in parenting can create tension between folks and teachers, and confusion for children. Instructors may help children to become better when they appreciate and realize that they come from different settings which have unique ethnic distinctiveness (comprising particular beliefs of behavior and interaction). Similarly, under such conditions, youngsters and their people feel relaxed and treasured by their ECEC service. Persons travel from one area, state to settle down in a new place for different reasons. Folks can travel because of fear of being affected or victimized against issues like race, religion; or they can leave their motherland and ask to be acknowledged as an immigrant to be protected (Couchenour, and Chrisman, 2013). Settling down in a new place can be difficult. People need to get shelter, work, and an ECEC service, and make connections with organizations. It is vital that these people that have migrated gain access to upkeep to aid them settle down into their newfangled societies. Not knowing how things work in the new community can make resettling more challenging and stressful. Family, friends and others who would normally provide support may have been left behind in the move. There can be feelings of loneliness, isolation or worry for those left behind. It is true that these difficulties affect all members of a family. Nonetheless, having respect for the diverse cultural backgrounds is vital as it helps persons to feel appreciated within their locality. When folks develop networks with others, it helps them to go through puzzling times. With regard to this it helps to construct emotional state of belonging within communities and supports each person’s mental health. The familiarities of children and families from culturally diverse environments are molded by their run into a new culture, and it has substantial special effects on their sense of insertion and involvement with the larger society. ECEC amenities also play a fundamental part in supporting kids with diverse social upbringings and their families by upholding and carry out wide-ranging practices and supporting them to build durable connections to community support during times of evolution. Once teachers are conversant with every family unit specific state of affairs, ECEC facilities are capable to attain the culture, community and happiness necessities of children and their people. By understanding the desires and wellbeing of children and families from culturally diverse backgrounds and building relationships of dependence and understanding with parents and cares, ECEC amenities can make an affirmative variance to children’s psychological health and safety. It also helps to address technical hitches that can happen in an infancy background. ECEC amenities also sustain children and people from diverse settings by enhancing understanding and diversity appreciation. Children enjoy when ECEC carry out its services because it builds a comprehensive surrounding whereby everybody can take part and feel attached. A solid sense of fit in aids children to realize and recognize dissimilarities among them. In addition ECEC services can also help people to feel linked and with regard to this it develops ones identity by giving them the chance to interact with other kinfolks. While this takes place, it has various advantages to kids’ and people’s mental health and wellbeing, like developing fellow feeling and constructing constructive connections with other people. Early infant experts assess children’s learning and development by providing individualized support to attain best results. By assessing children’s strong point, capabilities and wellbeing is crucial so as to deliver receptive care and education. Specialists evaluate kids by learning what they know, their strong point and aptitudes, whereby they need support to find places where attentive intervention is required. Educators must understanding a child’s development standards and understanding equity and diversity by assessing children. Relatives and cares have sufficient information about their children that ought to be utilized in the assessment process, as well as considerations of context and children results. It is essential to understand that families will respond to valuation in distinctive ways, and it is significant to offer family support in certain cases. Personalized or segregated help is essential for every kid to attain their maximum potential. Fair play means knowing the multifaceted nature of shortcoming and acting with determination to address it. An example of differentiated instruction for Native students was the ‘Bridging the Gap’ project that aimed to support children’s literacy in the home. This inventiveness was intended to develop children’s early learning that forecast secure of school success. The project was centered on the need of this specific community to support children’s literacy at home and it had helpful effects on children’s relations with books, their self-confidence, their parent-child connections and their early learning abilities. An additional example of the significance of distinguished instruction is defined in case studies of children learning English as a second language. For instance, (Patterson, 2016) details how ordinary English as a second language practices in one school were disempowering children and restricting their aptitude to take part in extra language book learning. With the introduction of storytelling in the children’s first language allowed children and built on their strengths, empowering them to feel assured about their language aptitudes. Early childhood carry out are all-encompassing and quick to respond to diversity and children with extra needs. Inclusion means eliminating obstacles to meaningful participation and engagement. (Varney, 2014) offers some real ways to support inclusion in early childhood backgrounds through scheduling to support the child’s singular needs. This may include consideration of physical and flexibility requirements of specific goals with attention to learning styles and appropriate level. Adjusting to this approach can guarantee that all children take part at every level that is challenging and meaningful for them so that all learners can aggressively take part even if they are not capable to participate fully. Specialists build surroundings that encourage deferential relations between children, experts, families and the community. Specialists act as role models by having high prospects for each child and presenting respect for diversity (Kaplan, Sanchez, and Hoffman, 2016). By creating these approaches early childhood experts can have optimistic effect on children’s peer relationships which in turn leads to better results for children. Experts know that equity and diversity require responsive, individualized care and education sense that there is no one right method or theory to work with families who have diverse needs. 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Equity and diversity are vital in engagement with families as some families will require extra time, resources or support to make sure their unbiased engagement with the service. Family relations are multifaceted and affected by a number of factors and early childhood specialists should be ready to work with a diverse choice of families who may have diverse priorities and beliefs from their own. Family-centered practice call for an energetic and organized line of attack to ensure that families are involved at all levels of service delivery and decision making (CFCS, 2013). Getting Top Grades is No Longer a Dream for You. Early childhood experts enhance children to develop a sense of place and link to the surrounding. Place-based education link teenagers to a place, time, communal, and know-how. Educators can help kids to cultivate a sense of place and belonging by inspiring them to make sense through their communications with people and the surroundings. Research reveals that a place a strong role in identity formation and can give children a sense of connectedness to their community and environment. Specialists can support children’s networks to place through strong partnerships with families and the indigenous community. The above report has summarised that children are able to realize healthier results when their different strengths, skills, well-being, and social practices are understood and sustained. Appreciating and regarding range is vital for children to cultivate a solid intellect of identity. Values of fair play and miscellany are connected to children raising a sense of belonging, identity, and interests so that they become active conversationalists and confident, involved students. The values of parity and diversity are acknowledged all over the world and nationwide in law and certified training in schooling. Now take our online assignment writing services in Australia.

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The history of African music recording and archiving can be seen most clearly and compellingly by detailing the history of a few key individuals, who were pioneers in their field. At the turn of the 20th Century, a colonised Africa was viewed as backward and void of any real culture worth preserving, which is why these ethnomusicologists were not only groundbreaking in their ideas, but revolutionary. They understood, far before the rest of the Western world could even comprehend, that traditional African music – with its complexity of rhythms, flair for storytelling and historical richness – was worth preserving. Hugh Tracey 1903 – 1977 Arriving in Rhodesia – now Zimbabwe – in 1921 with his brother, who had been awarded land after his efforts in World War 1, the young man of only 18 years old had the foresight of a wise elder. He was surrounded by disdain for African culture from the Christian missionaries, who forbade the playing of the mbira, due to the pagan themes of ancestor worship and the insurrectional ideas gleaned from spirits that featured heavily in the songs. However, Tracey was able to see past the prejudice and ignorance. He was fascinated by the songs, which were sung by the Shona farmers, with whom he and his brother worked alongside on the tobacco fields. He was said to have been ‘bitten’ by Africa; ‘he got cultural malaria.’ Tracey, although very aware of the colonial oppression of African culture, or perhaps because of it, made it his life mission to record traditional African music; a mission which many others adopted after him. After making the first recording of indigenous Rhodesian music, being awarded the Carnegie Fellowship grant to study South Rhodesian music, with which he made over 600 recordings, and inspiring traditional English musicians, Ralph Vaughn Williams and Gustav Holst, at the Royal Academy of Music, who urged him to “discover every chord” of traditional African music, Tracey ran out of funding. He became a broadcaster, utilising every opportunity to promote African music. However, he could not stay away from Africa long, and in 1946 realised someone needed to fully dedicate their time to “appraising the social value” of traditional African music, otherwise it would disappear. Tracey would have to step up and be that someone, especially at a time when African radios wanted to broadcast in their own regional vernaculars but had no recordings of regional music to play. He was lucky enough to obtain funding from Eric Gallo, who owned a recording label in South Africa. They had a “gentlemen’s agreement” that any artists Tracey discovered who had commercial potential, he would forward to Gallo. He therefore started the career of some of Africa’s first popular musicians, such as Jean Bosco Mwenda. Masanga, by Mwenda, was one of the first truly popular songs in Africa. However, as Tracey’s particular concern was that the recordings he made were kept authentic and not manipulated for commercial use, he strayed from the popular African music he was helping to create, and continued to focus more on the traditional. He secured funding from various projects, after a lecturing tour in the UK, and set up The International Library of African music in 1954, where his 20000 recordings are today stored. The ILAM will be explored further in a later blog of this series. - There are a few of Hugh Tracey’s recordings available online on the British Library Sound Archive, under the David Rycroft South African Collection. However, to play these you need to be studying further or higher education to obtain access to these. - More Hugh Tracey, his Sounds of Africa and Music of Africa, can be found on the British Library Sound and Moving Image Catalogue – however, this simply confirms the existence of the recording. To listen to the recordings, one must make an appointment with the Listening Service to listen to the recordings on site at the British Library. - Michael Baird produced 21 CDs of Tracey’s work; Historical Recordings of Hugh Tracey series. These can be bought online at SWP Records and a review of most of the CDs can be found here. Michael Baird said “The sad conclusion after compiling this series is that so much music recorded by HT [Hugh Tracey] has since disappeared — within the space of fifty years. This is something HT foresaw and why he spent most of his life recording this music for posterity. It was not so much Tracey’s ‘knack’ of being at the right place at the right time, but his awareness and vision coupled with organisation and his tremendous energy which give us the opportunity to listen to the many exceptional musicians he recorded today. In this series we are able to present many of the foremost musicians of the 20th century from this part of Africa — and that is a gift. It is especially a gift to the peoples involved, for the legacy as played by their forebears belongs to them.” - ILAM has reissued, without modifications, on CD, Tracey’s Music of Africa Series - Several albums can be bought on iTunes Klaus Wachsmann 1907 – 1984 Wachsmann was a German born English ethnomusicologist, who travelled in Africa in 1937 as a missionary, serving in several offices in the Office of the Protestant Missions in Uganda. He was to do unpaid work with sacred music at Namirembe and with choral school choirs, before being promoted to more senior roles and then he was paid a salary. However, instead of quelling the African music culture – as those missionaries who Hugh Tracey encountered clearly did – Wachsmann lived for 20 years in Uganda working to preserve and archive it. During World War II, according to Peter Cooke in Ethnomusicology in East Africa: Perspectives from Uganda and Beyond, Wachsmann had his camera confiscated because he was regarded as a “friendly enemy alien”. This, coupled with the fact there was no running water at the Museum he was then to work in, explains why there are so few photographic records to go with his 1500 sound records. After his missionary work, he became Curator of the Uganda Museum and while there collected many musical instruments. He received a grant from the British Government in 1949 – demonstrating that even Government authorities began to realise how essential documenting traditional African music was – which enabled him to record these 1500 recordings with the help of a sound engineer, who was responsible for the fantastic quality of the recordings, which he kept at the Uganda Museum. Wachsmann left Africa, and his tapes, in 1957 and worked in London as the Scientific Officer in charge of Ethnological Collections at the Wellcome Foundation until 1963. It was then that he was invited to become a lecturer at UCLA and was reunited with his tapes at the university, as the Uganda Museum did not have the equipment to archive them adequately. However, disaster struck and the tapes were unfortunately destroyed by a flood of the UCLA basement, demonstrating the difficulties of archiving with an easily destructible medium like reel-to-reel tapes and the importance of now digitising these perishable recordings. The sound engineer who had recorded the music with Wachsmann kindly offered up the copies he had made a kept aside. Wachsmann went on to lecture at various universities and was awarded the bronze medal for “Devoted Service to Africa” from the Royal African Society in 1958. His legacy lives on as he gives his name to a prize for advanced and critical essays in organology, at The Society of Ethnomusicology. Moreover, the Klaus Wachsmann Music Archive at the Makerere University, Uganda, has recently been set up. There is a course in archiving at the university and archive at UCLA has been collaborating with Makerere University to provide up to date tools and skills, such as the digitisation of DAT and reel-to-reel tape. Dr Sylvia Nannyonga-Tamusuza from the university, in this article, sums up the importance of archiving “My hope is to create materials for secondary schools from the archive. In that way, (students) can be able to remember and to understand what was there before […] With the recordings, we can give (students) some background and some context; they would be able to understand and go find out more by themselves […] My thinking is that a culture that doesn’t have a history is a dead one.” - His recordings are available to play online, for anyone, in the Klaus Wachsmann Collection at the British Library. - Copies of his recordings can also be found at the UCLA archive, but cannot be streamed online. David Fanshawe 1942 – 2010 David Fanshawe recording the Luo Tribe, Kenya, 1973. Photo Judith Croasdell David Fanshawe did not limit himself to the confines of ethnomusicology and is described as an ‘internationally distinguished composer, ethno-musicologist, sound recordist, archivist, performer, dynamic and entertaining lecturer, record producer, photographer and author.’ As he was so broadly accomplished, he was involved in every aspect of the recording and archiving process of his music, which he gathered from across the world; beginning in the Middle East in 1966 and spreading through North and East African from 1969 till 1975. He later went on to record across the Pacific Ocean for ten years, from 1978. He is stated to have recorded hundreds of tribes and is commended for forming close relationships with them, which allowed him to gain permission to record their music. Mary K. Oyer, b. 1923 Mary Oyer graduated from Goshen College – a private Christian college, historically affiliated with the Mennonite Church – in 1945, but was soon to return as she was invited to teach the General Education course integrating the study of music and visual art. She continued to teach at Goshen College, when in 1968 Oyer applied to be sent to a US Government funded program for Black Studies, operated by the faculty of UCLA. She was accepted and spent the summer of 1968 at UCLA and then travelling to five Sub-Saharan countries, from Senegal to Kenya in the summer of 1969, with a stop off in Uganda on her way home. Here she encountered Evalisto Muyinda, an out of work court musician playing at the Kampala Museum. She was taken by the endingidi, the one-stringed fiddle he was playing; she made her first recording, using her friend’s recorder, and bought an endingidi from Muyinda. [Can be found in the search under ‘Working Title: Evalisto Muyinda at the Uganda National Museum’] My favourite part about the Mary K. Oyer African Music Archive is that when searching every track, it lists the accompanying commentary from Mary Oyer, so you can hear in her own words the description of the music and the story behind it. By the end of the summer, after initially deciding between a focus on music and art, Oyer knew she wanted to channel her efforts into indigenous music. As a teacher, ‘She saw the enriching possibilities for including cross-cultural music in her related arts courses at Goshen College’ and began to teach an annual African Arts course. Over 20 years, Oyer visited 22 countries as she was lucky enough to receive funding from various projects: Kenya National Archives, Kenya Conservatoire of Music, a teaching assignment Kenyatta University and she worked with Mennonite Central Committee and Peace Corp. She was able to use her role as teacher and lecturer to spread the importance and beauty of traditional African music to young school children in Indiana, up to university students across the US and Canada. Oyer’s legacy has been continued due to a few key individuals understanding the significance of her work. Professor Debra Brubaker began the archive, Solomon Fenton-Miller began digitising the tapes and creating an outline for an archive of the information found on those recordings and Lisa Horst Schrock completed the digitisation process and interviewed Oyer about her travels and field recordings. - All of Mary K. Oyer’s recordings can be found and listened to online in the Mary K. Oyer African Music Archive Database. You must email the Goshen College Music Department Office Coordinator (email address can be found on the website) to obtain a login and password to the database, who responded very quickly. There is a very useful Help page that makes it very easy to manoeuvre the archive. It is intended mostly for scholars, however, anyone expressing an interest will be granted access Peter Cooke, b. 1930 Another teacher, Peter Cooke, began recording traditional African music when he began teaching at the Makerere College School in 1964. He was bereft of recordings of local music, and, at this time, only had the recordings that Hugh Tracey had made a few decades before, which were from all over Africa. When asked about the importance of recording traditional African music, he states ‘It was crucial to me to be able to direct the attention of young Ugandans to their own musical traditions: so often at weekends my wife and I drove off with students from different parts of the country to sample the music of their own local village musicians.’ An impressive example of initiative that lead one man, and his wife, to create essential recordings, in order to inspire his students. He was then transferred to run the music department in the National Teachers’ College at Kyambogo, where his recording work ‘took on even more importance.’ However, when it came to the archiving of Uganda tribal music, Cooke faced a disappointing set back; ‘It was important to leave copies of materials behind for further use by the Ugandans and others that followed me after I left [Uganda] in 1968. Unfortunately the tape copies I left behind just vanished during the chaotic years of Amin’s rule.’ He then contrasts the situation in Uganda with the ease and quality of archiving in Scotland, where he next went on to work at the School of Scottish Studies, University of Edinburgh, highlighting the imperative need for a more sustainable system for archiving in Uganda. Cooke also noted the importance of dissemination, which is why his work is produced on CDs, with teaching booklets making use of well documented recordings, complete with transcriptions and texts. Cooke recording the Abasaasi, a team of drummers and singers outside the Kabaka’s country palace at Abamunanika in 1987 who had gathered to sing the praises of Prince Ronald Mutebi who had just returned from exile in London However, as Cooke’s aim is, and always has been, to make traditional Ugandan music available to Ugandans, he was determined to see his work accessible there and it is now available at the Makerere University, although it wasn’t a simple decision; ‘until I was assured that a well managed archive was being set up at Makerere I was loath to deposit my materials there, after what had happened at Kyambogo Teachers’ College. The Makerere archive eventually came about through the good works of Sylvia Nannyonga Tamusuza and her Norwegian partners, though I had approached the librarian at Makerere about such a possibility many years previously.’ He has also sent his recordings back to other places in Uganda, such as to the Batwa ‘through the good offices of Chris Kidd, a post-grad at the time who was working with the Batwa’ and the family of Benedicto Mubangizi, who Cooke describes as a ‘marvellous person – teacher, educator, choir trainer, composer and folklorist’. He had made copies of this musician’s work in the 1960s and 1980s and tries ‘as much as possible to get samples back to the individual musicians’ he works with, but states ‘This is not always possible.’ When asked about how he would like to change the way his materials are archived, Cooke’s concern, firstly at the Makerere University, is that the archive is not accessible to everyone; ‘I am also very concerned to see that the Makerere recordings are made available to more than simply the university staff and students in that institution. In other words I would like to see that listening facilities are afforded to any Ugandan who want to listen to recordings at the archive. At present I don’t know what the position is.’ In addition, he hopes that ‘one of the original aims of the Makerere archive is followed through – namely to create ‘out-stations’ where further copies of the material at Makerere are made available in different areas of Uganda.’ Soga ebigwala trumpet team at Nambote village 1994 His material is also available at the British Library, which is able to be accessed by everyone online. However, it is quite a difficult archive for novices to use, and, as highlighted by Cooke, ‘Alternative names are an example:- Ebigwala, bigwara , amagwara, magwara, amagwala etc. for the Soga gourd trumpets,’ that make searching on the British Archive, regarding East African music, often a tricky task. In addition, sometimes it is difficult to know, for those who are not experts, exactly how the East African words are spelt: Cooke suggests that ‘a “fuzzy” keyword search facility seems very necessary.’ Moreover, the British Library online archive is difficult to use for Ugandans, as they often experience power cuts, do not have the necessary bandwidth to stream the content and are unable to actually download the material for study. Cooke is well aware of the short falls when it comes to the availability and accessibility of his material, and calls for the improvement of the online facilities available to those who want to share their music. Finally, Cooke shared his thoughts on the future of archiving African Music, particularly in their country of origin. He gave frustrating examples of tapes being stored in terrible conditions, archives being so disorganised that, even with funding, it would take 20 years to archive properly and equipment being broken because it was not used according to instructions. However, there were examples that gave hope for the archiving of East African music, in Africa; ‘I visited the Ethiopian archives while stranded in Khartoum for four days (by Ethiopian Airways in 1988 I believe) and found […] local scholars, some of them trained in the UK, were doing good work with minimal resources and doing some fine fieldwork with video-cameras.’ He ends with ‘There are plenty of Ugandans who understand the value of a good archives. They need to be able to persuade their government to fund them properly. They also need to pull together.’ - Nearly all of Cooke’s material is available online at the Peter Cooke Uganda Collection, British Library - There is an archive of his work at the Makerere University in Uganda, which must be listened to onsite. The availability of this archive to the general public is unknown to Cooke (though his concern is that it should be available to everyone) - His personal website gives details of all published work he has done and where it can be found - He also has copies of his recordings at the Indiana Archive, Bloomington S. Nannyonga-Tamusuza, T. Solomon, 2012. ‘Ethnomusicology in East Africa: Perspectives from Uganda and Beyond’. Kampala: Fountain Publishers With thanks to everyone I interviewed and who kindly helped with any aspect of this article.

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Martha Harper’s Haint Avant-garde, revolutionary, even touted as a miracle worker, Mother Ann, an illiterate factory worker from Manchester formed the Shaking Quakers, better known as The Shakers. Their utopian, strictly celibate, and self-sufficient communities grew from a small group that immigrated to America in 1774 into flourishing communities, the southernmost of which was formed where I sat swatting mosquitoes in the humid night air. At their height in 1840 more than six thousand believers lived in nineteen communal villages from New England to Ohio and Kentucky, and there were twenty thousand members over a century. The most eccentric and defining aspect of the Shakers was their form of dance, the earliest of which was spontaneous. They whirled themselves around, trembling and shaking ecstatically until they fell to the floor in a trance. In the early 1800s choreography entered the worship service. An anonymous visitor described the preparation: "At half past seven p.m. on the dancing days, all the members retired to their separate rooms, where they sat in solemn silence, just gazing at the stove, until the silver tones of the small tea-bell gave the signal for them to assemble in the large hall.” They believed the dance kindled the fire of truth and the shaking warded off evil. As described in an article in The Telescope in 1909, the choreography became ritualistic and stylized. “A number of singers, probably a dozen or so, both sexes, would take their position in the middle of the room, half of them facing the other half, and begin a kind of song or chant. While doing so they would step back and forth in a fashion resembling a double shuffle. If the spirit seemed to move the watchers, they would rise and, two abreast, would begin marching round the singers in the center. Soon the march would turn into a dancing step, the faces would be uplifted, and the hands outstretched, palms upward, with a gesticulation as if the worshipers were grasping for blessing falling down from heaven. This would be continued indefinitely, sometimes the marchers and dancers falling from sheer exhaustion." All of their hymns, songs and music were composed and written by their members, generally, under ‘divine inspiration’. They developed their own form of music notation known as the "letteral system" using letters of the alphabet rather than conventional notes. In 1944 one of those tunes was resurrected and hit the world stage. Aaron Copland said he was thinking neither of Appalachia nor Spring when composing his now iconic ballet. Martha Graham renamed Ballet for Martha by using a line from a Hart Crane poem. Spring represents a body of water, not the season. O Appalachian Spring! I gained the ledge; Steep, inaccessible smile that eastward bends And northward reaches in that violet wedge Copland, who was known for using folk music in his ballets, steered away from this habit in Appalachian Spring with the exception, ironically, of one obscure Shaker tune – “Simple Gifts” – which he used as the basis of the finale and which then went on to become the most famous melody of the ballet. "Simple Gifts" was composed by Elder Joseph Brackett and originated in the Shaker community at Alfred, Maine in 1848. It was not a hymn, or song of worship; it was written specifically as a Shaker dance song. A century after the queer Shaker dances were formalized and the lyrics ‘Tis a gift to be simple were penned, the collaboration between Copland and Graham was born and lauded as groundbreaking. One wonders if she studied their movements for the similarity is striking. By 1911 that last of the original Shakers were dying. To attend a funeral of a Shaker one would think it was anything but. The funeral was an important religious service in their community and they looked upon death as a joyful occasion. Funerals were attended happily and with smiles. The women wore white along with their strange, tight-fitting bonnets with a frill at the back. In the former Shaker community in Harvard, Massachusetts lies a unique, one acre burial ground. The tombstone markers of individual Shakers including their death dates have been preserved. Created in 1792 using stone markers, a few of which are still in place today, approximately three hundred Shakers are buried here. In 1879, the town removed most of the stone markers and replaced them with cast iron markers in the unusual shape resembling a lollipop. Whenever I’m asked where I’m from I always say, ‘Originally’, pause for originally to sink in, ‘from Kentucky’. Compelled to further qualify the answer I add that I’m not from that part of the state - not those eastern mountains where the hillbillies live. The barefoot, gun toting, moonshining, coal dusted people from the hollows - that wasn’t, that isn’t, me. Then I feel badly about working so hard to convey that not all Kentuckians are the same. Truth is though, there is a sizeable difference in the section of the state where I grew up that lies within a kiss of Tennessee, and the eastern half that borders the Virginias. The Scots-Irish influence in the Appalachians was prominent in the 1770s when the first flow of settlers blazed across the Wilderness Road, over the Cumberland Mountains and into a region that was too dangerous for most to conquer. But by the late 1780s the eastern region of Kentucky could be considered a Little Europe where the Ulster-Scots, English, Scottish Highlanders, German Lutherans and the French Huguenots settled. Eastern Kentuckians have always suffered from dialect prejudice. The twang is strong, and the dialect is a-prefixing heavy. “I’ll come a-moaning and a-crying.” One might hear, “He clomb a tree,” and “I’m agin that idea.” I’ve scratched my head several times trying to understand this older form of their language, still spoken today. Hilarious really, given that my Southern accent was once as deep as the yellow loam of Mississippi. It is true that there is a darkness, a bleakness to the mountains raped of their coal. The most isolated families somehow survive an incredibly harsh life. But from the depths of the desolation rises the beauty of the old bluegrass music, their gift for storytelling and a poignant tradition that is still honoured – a home wake. This is ‘Home Funeral’, a photo taken by Shelby Lee Adams in 1990. At a home wake in the mountains, friends and families would file into the home of the deceased from the coal mines, the farms and the factories to pay their respects, and then gathered in the kitchen for sandwiches and coffee. A country wake in the mountains might last days as opposed to what was then the normal practice of a two-night maximum at our funeral home on the other side of the state. In our town, my father was responsible for turning the tide in the length of visitations by encouraging people to sit for one night instead of two. Even though he was heavy on the charm, I’m not sure how he managed that, come to think of it. I remember only one family that chose to hold a home wake instead of settling down in one of the dark, cool rooms in our funeral parlour. There may have been a few more, but it was very rare by the time I came along. I thought it would require less work for my father, but instead, there seemed to be an awful lot of to-ing and fro-ing and detailed organization. The phone rang constantly with calls from the townspeople who were unused to home wakes. Aggravated and confused, ‘Where the hell is he, Frank?’ It came to that. Mr. Watson died of a heart attack at a frightfully young age. Not yet fifty the day he fell to the floor in a silent heap, our community was shocked by the news. First, my father collected him, brought him to the funeral home and prepared him, then carted him back to his home. The Watsons (not their real name) lived just up the street from us, but my father couldn’t exactly wheel him across Main Street, so the hearse was employed to transport Mr. Watson back and forth. After he was laid out in his living room in a casket, the Watson’s home was open for visitation for a few days until the funeral. During the unusually long wake I pestered my father with questions. Why so young? Why no warning? What is heart disease? And most doggedly, why wasn’t he here with us? Mr. Watson’s family wanted him near, he told me. Couldn’t bear to part with him, not yet. Because he was fairly well known and suffered a particularly tragic death, Mr. Watson’s family decided to hold the funeral service in the church, a space large enough to deal with the overflow. My father drove to their house once again to transport him to the church, also on Main Street, and then, finally, to the cemetery. Mr. Watson was the father of a girl who was only a year younger than me and this made his death more memorable to me than his age, or his home wake. She and her older sister were father-less before they graduated high school. After Mr. Watson was buried, the grief took hold of them like a grief I’d never seen. Mrs. Watson and her daughters were always late to church on Sunday mornings. No matter what time they arrived for the service, they walked the long aisle all the way down to the front, everyone’s eyes upon them, and sat in the second row from the front, which was always, without fail, empty. When our hell fire and damnation preacher got going, the three females huddled closely together. They inched towards each other, leaving a long empty space at both ends of the pew. Then my friend placed her head on her mother’s shoulder and soon her little body trembled. The shiver turned into silent convulsions. The harder she tried not to make a sound, the more violently her body shook. She remained silent and animated, lost in her grief throughout the service. Their Sunday ritual did not end in just a few weeks; their grief rode them for a very long time. Both of Mr. Watson’s daughters were brilliant and eventually thrived…until one day the girl who was my friend fell to the floor in a silent heap. Dead. Heart attack. Before she was fifty. Funerals used to be so simple. They were never called a Celebration of Life, or a memorial service. Just funerals. Tom’s funeral. Jane’s funeral. As a child I never said, "You can’t come over to play today because we’re having a celebration of Mr. Slater’s life." It never looked like a celebration and it never sounded like a celebration. In 1888, when the successful novelist and phenomenal social reformist Mary Ward buried her mother in the Lake District, she called upon a group in Ambleside ‘who form a little society for performing music at funerals’ to play a hymn, some organ music and the ‘Death March’. She thought the ceremony was beautiful, simple and peaceful. For the sixteen years I lived in our funeral home the soft tones of the Hammond organ rose above the quiet chatter and hypnotized me and whatever audience the day brought. From that efficient music box poured the notes of one hymn after another. Our town was seeped in religion. A plethora of Southern Baptist churches outnumbered the one Presbyterian, the one Catholic, and the one Episcopalian church and thus defined the region. Holy Roller churches and their glittery loud services sprang up overnight. Tent revivals dotted the fields in the summer. I always thought it might be nice to change the repertoire. I wondered how my father would have reacted if a widow insisted that he use Chattanooga Choo Choo to open the service because it was her husband’s favourite. Or, could he substitute That Old Black Magic for The Old Rugged Cross? But there was no chance that a funeral service in our town would host anything other than a hymn played simply. The melodies of How Great Thou Art, Shall We Gather at the River and When the Roll is Called Up Yonder were played on the smooth keys of that organ over and over… And over. So I’m sure I’ll be forgiven for a certain numbness that washed over me when after a few years I no longer heard them. They remained in the background like a ghost sound and one refrain dissolved into another, into another. When I moved away, returning only for short spurts, then not at all, the world changed and funerals and their music changed with it. In 2006 a survey of five thousand Britains revealed their vote for the year’s Top 10 Requested Funeral Songs: Goodbye My Lover - James Blunt Angels - Robbie Williams I’ve Had the Time of My Life - Jennifer Warnes and Bill Medley Wind Beneath My Wings - Bette Midler Pie Jesu - Requiem Candle in the Wind - Elton John With or Without You - U2 Tears in Heaven - Eric Clapton Every Breath You Take - The Police Unchained Melody - Righteous Brothers Moving right along to the Top Country Funeral Songs of 2011 Dancing with the Angels - Monk and Neagel Angels Among Us - Alabama I Can Only Imagine - Mercy Me There You’ll Be - Faith Hill When I Get Where I’m Going - Brad Paisley Go Rest High on that Mountain - Vince Gill Daddy’s Hands - Holly Dunn Holes in the Floor of Heaven - Steve Wariner If I Had Only Known - Reba McEntire My Wish - Rascal Flatts ‘Glee’ Season 2 Episode 21, Funeral Song List Try A Little Tenderness - Otis Redding My Man – Barbra Streisand Pure Imagination - from Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory Some People - Gypsy Back to Black - Amy Winehouse Death makes its own music. Once a piece of music is heard at a funeral, whatever the tune may be, is it ever heard in quite the same way again? “She’s the one with the bun who looks like a grandma,” said the manicurist of the St. Regis hotel in Manhattan. The jaded employees of the grand hotel barely noticed the train of celebrities who normally paraded through reception and they were blasé about the international heads of states who’d slept there. But when Pauline Tabor waddled in on a bright March day, the manicurist and bellhop bounded up the stairs to catch a glimpse of one of the South’s most famous madams. Pauline’s story began sixty-eight years before her trip to New York. Roughly thirty miles north of the small community where we lived in my father’s funeral home, a two-lane road stretched past tobacco farms, cow pastures, a slew of churches, and the surviving buildings that the Shakers once owned, to Bowling Green, Kentucky, a sleepy little university town. Pauline was born to strict church-going parents in 1905. They made sure her virginity remained intact until her marriage at the age of 18 to a rogue who gave her two sons and nothing more except headaches and heartache from his carousing. Soon she was a divorced woman, a Sunday school teacher no less, with no means of support. She and her two children moved back into her childhood home. With her parents’ business swiftly failing thanks to the trickle down effect of the 1929 stock market crash, Pauline needed to contribute. She knocked on the doors of the few commercial streets in Bowling Green, but faced the prospect of no work as the Great Depression deepened. She tried door-to-door selling, but housewives tried to steal her merchandise, dogs bit her, lonely men at home propositioned her, and the commission checks were always late. With the help of an older man with whom she had a longstanding platonic relationship, she found her way to Louisville, Kentucky where she worked in a tobacco company until she was stricken with typhoid. For six months she languished and recovered so slowly that she had to call upon her parents to take her back to Bowling Green. Due to “damaged glands” she ballooned to two hundred and fifteen pounds, (15 5/14 stone) a burden upon her 5-foot, 6-inch frame. Almost penniless, again Pauline slogged along with samples of cosmetics and silk stockings to the doors of Bowling Green’s residents. One day while tired and hungry she decided to treat herself to lunch in a downtown hotel. After she dined, the bellhop slipped her a note from a gentleman who had noticed her arrival. Pauline met him in his room and asked him for ten dollars. He responded, “Honey, I don’t want to buy you. I just want to rent you for a while. Five bucks and nothing more.” The deal was agreed and thirty minutes later she left the hotel “not feeling a bit unclean or guilty” and realized there was money to be made. Miss May, the madam of a brothel in Clarksville, Tennessee kindly gave Pauline a two day crash course in whorehouse etiquette, health and safety, and how and when to grease palms of the people who ran the town. In addition, for the very short time Pauline remained a prostitute, Miss May taught her how to attract men in spite of her girth and lack of beauty. Bad luck followed her in her first attempts to set up a brothel. One house was destroyed by fire, another by a flood from which she was rescued by a man who floated by her house in a raft. Finally, in 1944 she settled into her most famous home, a red brick house on Clay Street located daringly close to downtown Bowling Green. When the house opened at six o’clock each evening Pauline expected routine. She inspected the girls’ grooming, cranked up the jukebox and opened the door. She required the girls to be flirtatious, seductive and to attract as many men as possible. If any one of the girls couldn’t muster enough bravado on a regular basis, she was out. The turnover for each client was about twenty to thirty minutes. Money was collected first and stored safely away. The prostitute then carefully washed the man with soap and water. A certain amount of foreplay was included, the job was performed, the girl washed the man again, and herself, then they both dressed and went back downstairs. A prostitute could service two to three men an hour. On busy nights, and most of them were, she could turn twenty to thirty tricks. When moralists accused prostitutes of being lazy, Pauline responded with, “Try working a twelve-hour shift in a busy house sometime.” No matter how busy the evening, Pauline knew exactly how much she was due. She split the proceeds fifty-fifty with each girl and any who tried to cheat her were swiftly kicked out the door, no second chances. Every man who appeared at her door was screened before they entered and before they left. She measured drunkenness, meanness and mental illness; apparently she could tell by the look in their eyes. She owned revolvers and shotguns and threatened a deserving man if he was unarmed. If he was carrying and robbed her, she waited until he was in his car, then shot up his car aiming to damage. Her clients were millionaires, politicians, policemen, lawmakers, teachers from the university, students and countless husbands whose marriages Pauline is certain she saved. One of her clients was known as the Peeping Tom Judge who paid Pauline for wardrobe space. For two years one of the prostitutes agreed to let him spy on her while he sat folded up in the chifforobe. One night, in a moment of excitement, he almost fell out. Pauline was furious and revoked his privilege forever. Pauline’s girls were given beautiful clothes, health checks once a week and allowed one week off a month as long as they didn’t flaunt or haunt the downtown area. They were housewives looking to earn enough to feed their children, students paying their way through college, women earning seed money to set up legitimate businesses, and beauties from all corners of the South. Her rules included no lesbians, because in her experience they were jealous and fought too much, and no falling in love with clients. She offered personal advice, foremost of which was to make as much money as quickly as possible, save it, and then get out of the business before it was too late, before they became too old and the job “damaged their souls”. She was a strong advocate for legalizing and regulating prostitution. Pregnancies occurred no matter the diligence in preventing them. Pauline’s best and most trusted abortionist was a black woman who used a bit of proper medicine, but relied most heavily on the folk cures handed down to her from her ancestors who were slaves. Pauline was perhaps the only madam of her era who was required to end a strike of prostitutes. She hired a new girl who was homely. This flat-chested woman braided her hair in long plaits, and did nothing to hide her freckles, relying instead on a clean, scrubbed look. She felt that to compete with Pauline’s beautiful and seductive women she had to maximize her Lolita image. Customers flocked to her and virtually ignored the others. The girls went on strike until Pauline fired the woman to keep the peace. Pauline particularly enjoyed the wealthy and lusty oilmen who reserved the house for a couple of days when they were in town. They spent freely and enjoyed themselves, unlike the politicians of which she said ‘didn’t know how to have a good time’. She allowed a few customers to fulfil their desire to be whipped and closed the house to other clients during marathon nights of screaming. A well-known Kentucky horse trainer requested an evening of horseplay, tied to the bedposts. At his command, he was whipped into such a violent frenzy that he broke free. When he got out of hand Pauline ran in and smashed him over the head with a heavy water pitcher. She charged him a fortune. The madam indulged her love of antiques and decorated with Tiffany lamps, chandeliers, Gallé cameo glass and heavy ornate furniture. Her most valuable piece was a cabinet made by two brothers in Ohio County, KY in the mid 1700’s. Her beautiful bedrooms were always freshly wallpapered, every room a different colour and each room was meticulously colour coordinated, including the sheets. She created lush lawns and gardens. In the 1970s her antiques were valued at $500,000. So it was all good, dirty fun and games. No. Not quite. You can’t run a notorious house of prostitution in the town in which you were born without tears and suffering. Bowling Green was only about 20,000 people strong in the 1940s. Downtown was merely more than a pretty park square with a smattering of shops lining a few blocks. Any friendships from her childhood, marriage, or life as a young woman were over. Her sons were sent to their grandparents for extended stays and suffered ridicule and embarrassment. Pauline Tabor couldn’t walk down the street without people pointing, staring, hissing and being subjected to punishing remarks from the group she called the ”Holy Joes”. Money helped. When the hypocrites came to her in secret and asked for cash handouts she never rebuked them. Her charity knew no colour boundaries. Black families were grateful for the food, clothing and toys she provided at Christmas. Her own family members were not shy of asking favours. “When I first when into the business I would meet some of my family on the street and they would duck into a door to keep from speaking to me. But when I started making a little money they would go out of their way to see how sweet they could say, ‘Hi Pauline’. That’s when I started ducking in doors.” Pauline retired a wealthy woman in 1968. She bought a 148-acre farm and became one of the nation’s first organic farmers. She even married again for a short time and after his death said that her bookmaker husband was “marvellous” and spoiled her. Law enforcement and Holy Joes had tried to run her out of business for ages, but it was urban renewal that tore down the red brick house. When Pauline found out that a few men were selling the bricks, her anger led her to action. “If a couple of shrewdies figure to make a killing on the bricks of my house, by God I’ll not be upstaged. I’ll tell stories that bricks can’t voice.” She did just that in her book, PAULINE’S – MEMOIRS OF THE MADAM ON CLAY STREET. She never named names, but told the truth, sometimes brutally, in a jolly and entertaining voice. The book was published in 1971 in a regular hardback edition. Also published was a special numbered edition covered in red velvet and enhanced with a brass lock and key. Years later I found a dusty old copy of the velvet book and read it in one sitting, drop-jawed and blushing. After the publication of her book, the producers of The Dick Cavett Show flew Pauline to New York for an appearance on his nation wide television show. The staff at the St. Regis said she wasn’t famous - she was infamous. The producers settled her now 240 pound frame in a rocking chair, which suggested to the audience that a sweet old grandmother was going to entertain them with a few homespun tales of the South. Imagine the crew's, guests' and television audience’s reactions when Pauline frankly and explicitly described her forty-year career as a madam. If there was one thing my father taught me it was that it doesn’t matter how big your life has been, or how small, how celebrated, or quiet. It comes to this.

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What’s Greek history without distortions, inaccuracies, and falsehoods? In the western Aegean, in a narrow pass by the Gulf of Malis, 300 Spartans and their Hellenic allies, led by King Leonidas (Gerard Butler), stand defiantly against the invading armies of King Xerxes, circa 480 BC. As wave after wave of wrathful invaders attack Leonidas’ stubborn hoplites,1 the Spartans hold their ground and grind their enemies. After a few days of gory, grimy fighting, the Spartans are betrayed, overwhelmed, and slaughtered. With 300, director/co-writer Zack Snyder portrays the battle of Thermopylae in horrific, gruesome fashion. But rather than use a historical approach to tell this story, based on Frank Miller’s graphic novel, Snyder opts for two poetic genres — allegory and heroic epic — to frame his film. Though 300 has been popularly received, academic critics, particularly historians, have decried Snyder’s embellishments and his omission of certain historical facts, challenging his perspective of Spartan life and questioning his depiction of the battle. They argue that Snyder’s use of historical materials to construct a periodic narrative is illegitimate because “history” neither supports nor authorizes his interpretation.2 The problem with this perspective is the lack of literary contextualization. Film and literature are different kinds of texts in relation to historical writing, and these historians clearly wish to rescue history from foolish storytellers. The problem is that historical events do not stand free from human narratives. In fact, oral poetry’s role in the creation of historiography is quite profound. In early antiquity, poetry met both artistic and intellectual needs to preserve knowledge, and the rhythmic patterns and other mnemonic systems made knowledge fixed (in stories) and easier to recall because they were often cast in poetic narratives. Though oral knowledge represents a culture’s effort to preserve its traditions, this knowledge was also vulnerable to revision or loss. No doubt, historians are concerned about the veracity of historical claims, but they often fail to affirm the role poetry and sophistic rhetoric played in the creation of the historiography of Hellas, for without poetic structures or rhetorical techniques, vast amounts of knowledge would have been lost.3 Snyder frames 300 within the ancient poetic tradition, one in which a bard allegorizes a story of Leonidas, his life, and the battle itself. Here, the narrator is the poet Dilios (David Wenham), and he is one of Leonidas’ hoplites. His narrative is expository and dramatic, but, most of all, highly rhetorical. His verse-making is a blending of prose and poetry meant to penetrate the hearts of his audience and galvanize their passions, for his listeners are an army of pan-Hellenic warriors ready to charge the Persian perimeter at Plataea a year after Leonidas’ defeat. This war poet-as-teacher makes a number of arguments about civic responsibility, pride, and ethics.4 He even makes a fortiori arguments using patriotic themes and ancient oaths to illustrate the importance of sacrifice and justice.5 This poetic tale — even with the embellishments — is what is called an epideicticportrait, one in which an audience learns of the virtues of a person and his life. One probable reason why Snyder chose a poet to tell this story is because the poet was a potent persuader, a credible authority, and a moral guide to warriors in early antiquity.6 In this heroic narrative, Dilios employs a range of tropes (particularly metonymy) to simplify yet illustrate the political, cultural, and moral contrasts between the west and the east. Here, we must remember that Sparta was an oral society that relied heavily on the memories of its citizens to communicate its traditions and histories. Particularly, right before battle, troops would be reminded of their previous fights to rouse their passions. However, modern historians often find this part of the ancient world deeply problematic. Why? For one, academic historians try to portray history from a value-neutral viewpoint, so ancient oral accounts (that were later transcribed) are too subjective for their standards. But too often we forget that our modern notions of historiography are the offspring of an ancient Hellenic culture in which philosophy, poetics, and rhetoric constituted important social activities. The dynamic tension created among the ancient interplay of emotive speaking, narrative-making, and history scripting represents the norms of another culture, norms that are often at odds with modern standards for historiography. As we listen to our bardic storyteller, the film unfolds in allegorical and heroic fashion. In this soldier’s tale, the world is dichotomized between heroes and monsters — between the hypermasculinized Spartans, with their echoing voices and intense stares, and the heavily gothicized and imperious Persians. Like most allegories, both the heroes and enemies are idealized and caricaturized. Snyder contextualizes this allegory with modern perspectives, all in a baroque mixture that pits civilization against its zombified enemies. Within these contrasts are some potential problems with the narrative, but more on that later. Dilios portrays the Persian army, led by the goliath-sized but svelte Xerxes (Rodrigo Santoro), as an exotically multicultural yet highly grotesque array of animals who are enslaved by Xerxes’ realpolitik. While the God-on-this-Earth Xerxes prostrates his slaves and sits in the rear, his soldiers charge the phalanx’s whirlwind of swords and spears. By sharp contrast, Leonidas fights alongside his troops because he is grounded by many ethical beliefs and civic codes, one of which is that battlefield conduct brings judgment on the entire city-state. Because Spartan citizens closely identify with their polis, or city-state, their ethos is collective, an ethos engrained in the lockstep formations of the phalanx and the chain of command that orders the battlefield. Within this disciplinary sphere is knowledge of how a group of warriors hang together against overwhelming forces. The film explains the importance of the phalanx and illustrates compellingly some of its martial strategies. Because each soldier relies on the other for his life, he must willingly transform his individual skills to create and maintain group cohesion in the killing zone. In a key scene, the importance of this belief is emphasized when Leonidas, who believes that one weak member weakens the entire group, rejects the help of a Spartan outcast because of his physical limitations and lack of battlefield experience. Despondent, this disfigured outcast is then seduced and bribed by Xerxes into betraying the Spartans. In many ways, this sequence portrays Spartan culture as an exclusive society, open only to its citizens, in which social power flows from group dynamics. For Snyder, the phalanx is emblematic of Spartan life, but we begin to see this life as something more than a construct for the privileged when we see Xerxes and his army in less than human terms. Grotesque in their makeup and swarmish in their movements, the Persians do not merely want to preserve their own traditions; they wish to devour people and consume cultures. The garish and ghoulish Xerxes doesn’t desire to persuade a hostile audience — he hungers for their servitude or death. 300‘s allegorical universe is simple, even oversimplified. Snyder celebrates certain western values and condemns eastern hegemony because he wants his audience to understand what’s at stake — the fate of western civilization. His sympathies are clear because the Spartans, even with their overdetermined masculinity, look more human and act more human than their serpentine enemies. This portrait illustrates how Spartan heroes prosper in a variety of western virtues — civic, moral, physical — while Xerxes bewitches his followers with his exotic mysticism. Although Spartan culture esteems public honor and civic service as its noblest of virtues, there are severities in Spartan communal life that are dramatized early: they practiced infanticide, as imperfect infants were routinely killed as a matter of policy, and boys had to survive the wild alone to earn their promotions. Although these points stress the draconian nature of life in an armed camp of professional soldiers, they become concessions (and thematically ancillary) to Snyder’s larger argument regarding the greatness of the public sphere in which Spartan life is conducted. Through conversations, meetings, and councils, warriors and their leaders compete to give good advice and compose persuasive speeches on how to live their lives. In addition, Snyder couches his themes in an epic manner. Certainly, the battles are grand in shape and scope, and the consequences of this invasion are significant. But Snyder is also interested in illustrating a conflict between competing definitions of battlefield valor. True to historical accounts, Spartans based their strength on the phalanx. At their most effective, the phalanx easily plowed its enemies, piling up the dead quickly. Quite interestingly, Snyder organically contrasts the phalanx with the one-on-one Achillean fighting style his audiences are used to seeing. For instance, when Spartan soldiers break the rank-and-file and charge ahead, they expose themselves and endanger others. Although their individual fighting skills are quite remarkable, the Spartans begin to fall when they fight outside of the phalanx. The manner in which they perish may go unnoticed to the causal observer until the Captain’s son is beheaded when he stands apart from the group. I don’t know if this thematic point is Snyder or Miller’s, but 300 chooses the Spartan method of combat over the Achillean method as the means by which valor is earned. For the Spartans, personal arête (the goodness or excellence of a thing or person) must be subsumed to the greater excellence and honor of the group. However, the final image of the Spartans is as a wave of sword-wielding individuals and not as a phalanx. Unfortunately, this lasting portrait undercuts Snyder’s argument that the phalanx is emblematic of Spartan life. Nevertheless, 300‘s epic approach emphasizes the best possible ideals of Spartan life. We see soldiers sacrificing their lives to defend their land; we see a classical culture that allows women (or a noble woman) a public voice; we see the free inquiry of debate in council and even witness the problems associated with political sophistry. Because Snyder uses allegory to create thematic clarity, his poetic choices mean he will distort and even omit bleaker and significant historical truisms.7 But what is pan-Hellenic history without distortions and inaccuracies? Most modern historians have a deeply ambivalent understanding of classical narratives. In this era, the emerging art of historiography has been influenced by two traditions — poetics and rhetoric — both of which are steeped in oral systems of memorization and communication. For Hellenic storytellers, the choice to rely on poetic embellishment or rhetorical training was a learned one, for the accumulated tradition of myths, legends, and speeches was all that the early Greeks had. Homeric bards, for instance, used poetry to sing heroic tales not so much to preserve historical facts but to teach cultural values. Herodotus walked the fault line between fact and fiction to create his version of reality, and even the empiricist Thucydides (student of the rhetorician Antiphon) warned his audiences about his historical embellishments. This juxtaposition of fact and fiction was part of the norm of early Hellenic historiography. As Sylvie Honigman noted, “Chronological and factual inaccuracies, the blending of fact and fiction — none of these would have undermined the reliability of the narrative in the eyes of the author’s contemporary readers” (Honigman 66). Early historiographers relied on a creative and dialectical synthesis of fact and fiction to weave their narratives because historical storytelling was meant to entertain and persuade. Because of these circumstances, when modern historians focus on early antiquity, they encounter a confusing and ambiguous world characterized by mysticism and legend, prophecy and drama, gossip and truth, fact and fiction, advocacy and argument. But the reason why the poet-at-heart Snyder embraces allegory is because he is trying to evoke the pathos of his audience, so he never lets us forget we are watching a quasi-poetic narrative with a beginning, middle, and end. He uses allegory to put into narrative form some artistic and political truths that were never fully meant to demonstrate pan-Hellenic history and its conflicts with the east because his goal is to persuade his audience to the virtues of western civic life. Snyder’s approach is, of course, more comic book poetics than a documentary of early Hellas, but he does make some interesting points about ancient historiography. One problem with the narrative is that Leonidas sends Dilios away (to communicate messages to Sparta and his wife, Queen Gorgo) before the decisive battle ever occurs. However, Dilios manages to retell Leonidas’ death in clear fashion. This blunder would seem to undermine the credibility of the narrative, but Snyder’s point is that this kind of transition between the facts at hand and a poetic retelling of events serves to underscore a larger point that the poetic oratory, and language itself, enacts history not just as a fact-based compendium but as a highly instructive and persuasive enterprise — one in which fact and fiction (or rhetoric and poetics) exist dialectically. In this sense, Snyder is honoring a classical approach to historiography. The film also tries to come to terms with this tension (the blending of fact and fiction) by identifying oral memory and history as two converging sources of valid knowledge. In this sense, oral history can present valid arguments about episteme, but this historical knowledge is prone to amplification and fallacy because of its oral nature. In300, Dilios’ verses are distilled from the spirit of poetic storytelling and rhetorical techniques, both of which are legitimate and important parts of Hellenic historiography. And this perspective is the basis of the narrative of 300, one that critics and historians have grossly overlooked or purposely ignored. Complimenting this poetic perspective is Snyder’s baroque approach to dramatically blending illustration or “painterly effects,” CGI and live action. This baroqueness is a prominent part of the film’s style, a style with highly idealized details. What makes his aesthetic approach baroque is his synthesis of classical if not rhetorical ideas with the modern effects of cinematic artistry. Interestingly, though Snyder seems to develop an empathic understanding of Spartan culture, his approach to filmmaking is not at all Spartan-like. Lavish, excessive, and often self-indulgent, 300‘s moral universe embraces a highly elaborative aesthetic style to make simple ethical arguments, yet this baroqueness does compliment Snyder’s more interesting scenes regarding collective action. For many critics, Snyder’s historical distortions and allegorical embellishments create aesthetic dissonance; however, I find Snyder’s baroque view of classical storytelling rhetorically appealing — and persuasive. Borza, Eugene N. “Spartans Overwhelmed at Thermopylae, Again.” Archeology: A Publication of the Archeological Foundation of America. 22 March 2007. 11 April 2007.http://www.archaeology.org/online/reviews/300.html. Finley, M.I. The World of Odysseus. Intro. Bernard Knox. New York: Viking, 1982. Hanson, Victor David. “History and the Movie ‘300.’” Private Papers. 11 October 2006. 23 June 2007. http://victorhanson.com/articles/hanson101106.html. Honigman, Sylvie. The Septuagint and Homeric Scholarship in Alexandria: A Study in the Narrative of the ‘Letter of Aristeas.’ London: Routledge, 2003. Lendon, J. E. Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005. Lytle, Ephraim. “Sparta? No. This Is Madness: An Expert Assesses the Gruesome New Epic.” 11 March 2007. 15 April 2007. Toronto Star.http://www.thestar.com/article/190493. - A heavily armed infantry soldier of ancient Greece. [↩] - Ephraim Lytle, assistant professor of Hellenistic History at the University of Toronto, in his “Sparta? No. This Is Madness,” attacks 300 for its idealization of Spartan life. Strangely, Lytle criticizes the caricaturized characters but doesn’t mention the allegorical framework of the narrative. Remarkably, he concedes that stories often make liberal use of the facts, but he goes on to discuss how 300 abuses history. In an equally problematic analysis of the film, Eugene N. Borza, professor emeritus of ancient history at Penn State, also doesn’t address the poetic narrative. Although he concedes that judging the film based on a historical analysis would do the film a disservice (because the film is more interested in promoting comic book heroics than adhering to the known facts), he goes on to point out historical and geographical inaccuracies of the script and production anyway. Furthermore, he acknowledges the caricaturizing, but he does not explicitly affirm the film’s allegorical framework. He then addresses the speaking style of the characters but does so in a somewhat decontextualized or anachronistic fashion. Rather than critique the narration in relation to known poetic and rhetorical narratives of early antiquity, he situates 300‘s rhetorical style with the Graeco-Roman Plutarch. Finally, even the usually alert Victor David Hanson fails to inspire in his defense of Snyder, praising the film for honoring the spirit of Hellas rather than focusing on a defense that contextualizes the narrative (important, since the Greeks invented narratives). [↩] - In our era, many historians are still caught between the binary that history is “objective” and historical literature is “subjective.” [↩] - We can be certain that Dilios, with his poetic omniscience, represents Snyder. [↩] - Snyder’s a fortiori arguments are directed at us. [↩] - M. I. Finley makes this point in The World of Odysseus. [↩] - Historians and critics have gleaned 300 for inaccuracies and glaring omissions. And there are plenty. For instance, Sparta wasn’t a free society in the modern sense, for Spartans did have helots, serfs who were neither slaves nor free men. Initially, the Hellenic soldiers under Leonidas numbered more in the thousands than 300 to 600 as the film portrays. Leonidas, by historical accounts, probably died much sooner in battle than portrayed. There is also some debate regarding Spartan helmets. The historian J. E. Lendon, in his excellent Soldiers and Ghosts,argues that Spartan hoplites in the fifth century were known to have preferred conic helmets (pilos) that didn’t cover their faces. Literally, the soldiers wished to fight their foes face-to-face. In 300, their helmets are more Corinthian. Why? Though the Spartans may not have switched to conic helmets until later in the century, I suspect such helmets crowning masculine warriors may provoke unintended laughter. But we must also contend with any number of titanic statues of Leonidas donning a Corinthian helmet. There are, of course, linguistic anachronisms, such as use of the words hell and the term Greece itself. Never mind the British and Australian accents of these English-speaking Grecians and Persians. These particular artistic choices speak more to the needs of contemporary western audiences than to a director’s commitment to authentically recreating a historical period, more recently attempted in The Passion of the Christ and Apocalypto. These embellishments, which exist in relation to many of the historical truisms in the film, serve to illustrate how literary or cinematic history works as a partner to historiography. For historians, I suspect their ire is stoked because literary history merely stands in for the real thing itself — history. Much worse, these kinds of representations are often false or illusory substitutes for the truth that historical writing rather than literary history can best represent. [↩]

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This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts| A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable form of information storage and transfer. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script. Writing is usually recorded onto a durable medium, such as paper or electronic storage, although non-durable methods may also be used, such as writing on a computer display, on a blackboard, in sand, or by skywriting. The general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category. In the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols or graphemes) of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters (or letter pair/groups) represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora. In a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, and abugidas or alphasyllabaries, with each character representing a consonant–vowel pairing. Alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Most systems will typically have an ordering of its symbol elements so that groups of them can be coded into larger clusters like words or acronyms (generally lexemes), giving rise to many more possibilities (permutations) in meanings than the symbols can convey by themselves. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these smaller groupings (sometimes referred to by the generic term 'character strings') in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, or expressed orally. A special set of symbols known as punctuation is used to aid in structure and organization of many writing systems and can be used to help capture nuances and variations in the message's meaning that are communicated verbally by cues in timing, tone, accent, inflection or intonation. A writing system will also typically have a method for formatting recorded messages that follows the spoken version's rules like its grammar and syntax so that the reader will have the meaning of the intended message accurately preserved. Writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a full range of thoughts and ideas. The invention of writing systems, which dates back to the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic Era of the late 4th millennium BC, enabled the accurate durable recording of human history in a manner that was not prone to the same types of error to which oral history is vulnerable. Soon after, writing provided a reliable form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for an early form of mass communication. The creation of a new alphabetic writing system for a language with an existing logographic writing system is called alphabetization, as when the People's Republic of China studied the prospect of alphabetizing the Chinese languages with Latin script, Cyrillic script, Arabic script, and even numbers, although the most common instance of it, converting to Latin script, is usually called romanization. - 1 General properties - 2 Basic terminology - 3 History - 4 Functional classification - 5 Graphic classification - 6 Directionality - 7 On computers - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 External links Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a writing system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some symbols on information signs, such as the symbols for male and female, are also not language related, but can grow to become part of language if they are often used in conjunction with other language elements. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, but are often used in writing and thus must be considered part of writing systems. Every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven and slow. Once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. One of the great benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. All writing systems require: - at least one set of defined base elements or symbols, individually termed signs and collectively called a script; - at least one set of rules and conventions (orthography) understood and shared by a community, which assigns meaning to the base elements (graphemes), their ordering and relations to one another; - at least one language (generally spoken) whose constructions are represented and can be recalled by the interpretation of these elements and rules; - some physical means of distinctly representing the symbols by application to a permanent or semi-permanent medium, so they may be interpreted (usually visually, but tactile systems have also been devised). In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines. Thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field. Text, writing, reading and orthography The generic term text refers to an instance of written or spoken material with the latter having been transcribed in some way. The act of composing and recording a text may be referred to as writing, and the act of viewing and interpreting the text as reading. Orthography refers to the method and rules of observed writing structure (literal meaning, "correct writing"), and particularly for alphabetic systems, includes the concept of spelling. Grapheme and phoneme A grapheme is a specific base unit of a writing system. Graphemes are the minimally significant elements which taken together comprise the set of "building blocks" out of which texts made up of one or more writing systems may be constructed, along with rules of correspondence and use. The concept is similar to that of the phoneme used in the study of spoken languages. For example, in the Latin-based writing system of standard contemporary English, examples of graphemes include the majuscule and minuscule forms of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet (corresponding to various phonemes), marks of punctuation (mostly non-phonemic), and a few other symbols such as those for numerals (logograms for numbers). An individual grapheme may be represented in a wide variety of ways, where each variation is visually distinct in some regard, but all are interpreted as representing the "same" grapheme. These individual variations are known as allographs of a grapheme (compare with the term allophone used in linguistic study). For example, the minuscule letter a has different allographs when written as a cursive, block, or typed letter. The choice of a particular allograph may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument, the stylistic choice of the writer, the preceding and following graphemes in the text, the time available for writing, the intended audience, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's handwriting. Glyph, sign and character The terms glyph, sign and character are sometimes used to refer to a grapheme. Common usage varies from discipline to discipline; compare cuneiform sign, Maya glyph, Chinese character. The glyphs of most writing systems are made up of lines (or strokes) and are therefore called linear, but there are glyphs in non-linear writing systems made up of other types of marks, such as Cuneiform and Braille. Complete and partial writing systems Writing systems may be regarded as complete according to the extent to which they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language, while a partial writing system is limited in what it can convey. Writing systems, languages and conceptual systems Writing systems can be independent from languages, one can have multiple writing systems for a language, e.g., Hindi and Urdu; and one can also have one writing system for multiple languages, e.g., the Arabic script. Chinese characters were also borrowed by variant countries as their early writing systems, e.g., the early writing systems of Vietnamese language until the beginning of the 20th century. - Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BC - Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c.5300 BC - Early Indus script, c. 3500 BC. - Nsibidi script, c. before 500 AD The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic[dubious ] of the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BC with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion. A similar debate exists for the Chinese script, which developed around 1200 BC. Chinese script are probably an independent invention, because there is no evidence of contact between China and the literate civilizations of the Near East, and because of the distinct differences between the Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to logography and phonetic representation. A hieroglyphic writing system used by pre-colonial Mi'kmaq, that was observed by missionaries from the 17th to 19th centuries, is thought to have developed independently. Although, there is some debate over whether or not this was a fully formed system or just a series of mnemonic pictographs. It is thought that the first consonantal alphabetic writing appeared before 2000 BC, as a representation of language developed by Semitic tribes in the Sinai-peninsula (see History of the alphabet). Most other alphabets in the world today either descended from this one innovation, many via the Phoenician alphabet, or were directly inspired by its design. Several approaches have been taken to classify writing systems, the most common and basic one is a broad division into three categories: logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic (or segmental); however, all three may be found in any given writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to categorise a system uniquely. The term complex system is sometimes used to describe those where the admixture makes classification problematic. Modern linguists regard such approaches, including Diringer's - pictographic script - ideographic script - analytic transitional script - phonetic script - alphabetic script as too simplistic, often considering the categories to be incomparable. Hill split writing into three major categories of linguistic analysis, one of which covers discourses and is not usually considered writing proper: - discourse system - morphemic writing system, e.g. Egyptian, Sumerian, Maya, Chinese - phonemic writing system Sampson draws a distinction between semasiography and glottography - semasiography, relating visible marks to meaning directly without reference to any specific spoken language - glottography, using visible marks to represent forms of a spoken language - logography, representing a spoken language by assigning distinctive visible marks to linguistic elements of André Martinet's "first articulation" (Martinet 1949), i.e. morphemes or words - phonography, achieving the same goal by assigning marks to elements of the "second articulation", e.g. phonemes, syllables - syllabic systems - pure syllabic, e.g. Linear B, Yi, Kana, Cherokee - morpho-syllabic, e.g. Sumerian, Chinese, Mayan - morpho-consonantal, e.g. Egyptian - pure consonantal, e.g. Phoenician - pure phonemic, e.g. Greek - morpho-phonemic, e.g. English - syllabic systems Faber categorizes phonographic writing by two levels, linearity and coding: - logographic, e.g. Chinese, Ancient Egyptian |Type||Each symbol represents||Example| |Syllabic||syllable or mora||Japanese kana| |Alphabetic||phoneme (consonant or vowel)||Latin alphabet| |Abugida||phoneme (consonant+vowel)||Indian Devanāgarī| |Abjad||phoneme (consonant)||Arabic alphabet| |Featural||phonetic feature||Korean hangul| A logogram is a single written character which represents a complete grammatical word. Most traditional Chinese characters are classified as logograms. As each character represents a single word (or, more precisely, a morpheme), many logograms are required to write all the words of language. The vast array of logograms and the memorization of what they mean are major disadvantages of logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, since the meaning is inherent to the symbol, the same logographic system can theoretically be used to represent different languages. In practice, the ability to communicate across languages only works for the closely related varieties of Chinese, as differences in syntax reduce the crosslinguistic portability of a given logographic system. Japanese uses Chinese logograms extensively in its writing systems, with most of the symbols carrying the same or similar meanings. However, the grammatical differences between Japanese and Chinese are significant enough that a long Chinese text is not readily understandable to a Japanese reader without any knowledge of basic Chinese grammar, though short and concise phrases such as those on signs and newspaper headlines are much easier to comprehend. While most languages do not use wholly logographic writing systems, many languages use some logograms. A good example of modern western logograms are the Hindu-Arabic numerals: everyone who uses those symbols understands what 1 means whether they call it one, eins, uno, yi, ichi, ehad, ena, or jedan. Other western logograms include the ampersand &, used for and, the at sign @, used in many contexts for at, the percent sign % and the many signs representing units of currency ($, ¢, €, £, ¥ and so on.) Logograms are sometimes called ideograms, a word that refers to symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas, but linguists avoid this use, as Chinese characters are often semantic–phonetic compounds, symbols which include an element that represents the meaning and a phonetic complement element that represents the pronunciation. Some nonlinguists distinguish between lexigraphy and ideography, where symbols in lexigraphies represent words and symbols in ideographies represent words or morphemes. The most important (and, to a degree, the only surviving) modern logographic writing system is the Chinese one, whose characters have been used with varying degrees of modification in varieties of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and other east Asian languages. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Mayan writing system are also systems with certain logographic features, although they have marked phonetic features as well and are no longer in current use. Vietnamese speakers switched to the Latin alphabet in the 20th century and the use of Chinese characters in Korean is increasingly rare. The Japanese writing system includes several distinct forms of writing including logography. Syllabic systems: syllabary Another type of writing system with systematic syllabic linear symbols, the abugidas, is discussed below as well. As logographic writing systems use a single symbol for an entire word, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound followed by a vowel sound, or just a vowel alone. In a "true syllabary", there is no systematic graphic similarity between phonetically related characters (though some do have graphic similarity for the vowels). That is, the characters for /ke/, /ka/ and /ko/ have no similarity to indicate their common "k" sound (voiceless velar plosive). More recent creations such as the Cree syllabary embody a system of varying signs, which can best be seen when arranging the syllabogram set in an onset–coda or onset–rime table. Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. The English language, on the other hand, allows complex syllable structures, with a relatively large inventory of vowels and complex consonant clusters, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. To write English using a syllabary, every possible syllable in English would have to have a separate symbol, and whereas the number of possible syllables in Japanese is around 100, in English there are approximately 15,000 to 16,000. However, syllabaries with much larger inventories do exist. The Yi script, for example, contains 756 different symbols (or 1,164, if symbols with a particular tone diacritic are counted as separate syllables, as in Unicode). The Chinese script, when used to write Middle Chinese and the modern varieties of Chinese, also represents syllables, and includes separate glyphs for nearly all of the many thousands of syllables in Middle Chinese; however, because it primarily represents morphemes and includes different characters to represent homophonous morphemes with different meanings, it is normally considered a logographic script rather than a syllabary. Other languages that use true syllabaries include Mycenaean Greek (Linear B) and Indigenous languages of the Americas such as Cherokee. Several languages of the Ancient Near East used forms of cuneiform, which is a syllabary with some non-syllabic elements. Segmental systems: Alphabets An alphabet is a small set of letters (basic written symbols), each of which roughly represents or represented historically a phoneme of a spoken language. The word alphabet is derived from alpha and beta, the first two symbols of the Greek alphabet. The first type of alphabet that was developed was the abjad. An abjad is an alphabetic writing system where there is one symbol per consonant. Abjads differ from other alphabets in that they have characters only for consonantal sounds. Vowels are not usually marked in abjads. All known abjads (except maybe Tifinagh) belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that Semitic languages and the related Berber languages have a morphemic structure which makes the denotation of vowels redundant in most cases. Some abjads, like Arabic and Hebrew, have markings for vowels as well. However, they use them only in special contexts, such as for teaching. Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full alphabets. Of these, the most famous example is the derivation of the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician abjad. This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language. The term abjad takes its name from the old order of the Arabic alphabet's consonants 'alif, bā', jīm, dāl, though the word may have earlier roots in Phoenician or Ugaritic. "Abjad" is still the word for alphabet in Arabic, Malay and Indonesian. An abugida is an alphabetic writing system whose basic signs denote consonants with an inherent vowel and where consistent modifications of the basic sign indicate other following vowels than the inherent one. Thus, in an abugida there may or may not be a sign for "k" with no vowel, but also one for "ka" (if "a" is the inherent vowel), and "ke" is written by modifying the "ka" sign in a way that is consistent with how one would modify "la" to get "le". In many abugidas the modification is the addition of a vowel sign, but other possibilities are imaginable (and used), such as rotation of the basic sign, addition of diacritical marks and so on. The contrast with "true syllabaries" is that the latter have one distinct symbol per possible syllable, and the signs for each syllable have no systematic graphic similarity. The graphic similarity of most abugidas comes from the fact that they are derived from abjads, and the consonants make up the symbols with the inherent vowel and the new vowel symbols are markings added on to the base symbol. In the Ge'ez script, for which the linguistic term abugida was named, the vowel modifications do not always appear systematic, although they originally were more so. Canadian Aboriginal syllabics can be considered abugidas, although they are rarely thought of in those terms. The largest single group of abugidas is the Brahmic family of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in India and Southeast Asia. The name abugida is derived from the first four characters of an order of the Ge'ez script used in some contexts. It was borrowed from Ethiopian languages as a linguistic term by Peter T. Daniels. A featural script represents finer detail than an alphabet. Here symbols do not represent whole phonemes, but rather the elements (features) that make up the phonemes, such as voicing or its place of articulation. Theoretically, each feature could be written with a separate letter; and abjads or abugidas, or indeed syllabaries, could be featural, but the only prominent system of this sort is Korean hangul. In hangul, the featural symbols are combined into alphabetic letters, and these letters are in turn joined into syllabic blocks, so that the system combines three levels of phonological representation. Many scholars, e.g. John DeFrancis, reject this class or at least labeling hangul as such. The Korean script is a conscious script creation by literate experts, which Daniels calls a "sophisticated grammatogeny". These include stenographies and constructed scripts of hobbyists and fiction writers (such as Tengwar), many of which feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonologic properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character "features". Most writing systems are not purely one type. The English writing system, for example, includes numerals and other logograms such as #, $, and &, and the written language often does not match well with the spoken one. As mentioned above, all logographic systems have phonetic components as well, whether along the lines of a syllabary, such as Chinese ("logo-syllabic"), or an abjad, as in Egyptian ("logo-consonantal"). Some scripts, however, are truly ambiguous. The semi-syllabaries of ancient Spain were syllabic for plosives such as p, t, k, but alphabetic for other consonants. In some versions, vowels were written redundantly after syllabic letters, conforming to an alphabetic orthography. Old Persian cuneiform was similar. Of 23 consonants (including null), seven were fully syllabic, thirteen were purely alphabetic, and for the other three, there was one letter for /Cu/ and another for both /Ca/ and /Ci/. However, all vowels were written overtly regardless; as in the Brahmic abugidas, the /Ca/ letter was used for a bare consonant. The zhuyin phonetic glossing script for Chinese divides syllables in two or three, but into onset, medial, and rime rather than consonant and vowel. Pahawh Hmong is similar, but can be considered to divide syllables into either onset-rime or consonant-vowel (all consonant clusters and diphthongs are written with single letters); as the latter, it is equivalent to an abugida but with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Other scripts are intermediate between the categories of alphabet, abjad and abugida, so there may be disagreement on how they should be classified. Perhaps the primary graphic distinction made in classifications is that of linearity. Linear writing systems are those in which the characters are composed of lines, such as the Latin alphabet and Chinese characters. Chinese characters are considered linear whether they are written with a ball-point pen or a calligraphic brush, or cast in bronze. Similarly, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Maya glyphs were often painted in linear outline form, but in formal contexts they were carved in bas-relief. The earliest examples of writing are linear: the Sumerian script of c. 3300 BC was linear, though its cuneiform descendants were not. Non-linear systems, on the other hand, such as braille, are not composed of lines, no matter what instrument is used to write them. Cuneiform was probably the earliest non-linear writing. Its glyphs were formed by pressing the end of a reed stylus into moist clay, not by tracing lines in the clay with the stylus as had been done previously. The result was a radical transformation of the appearance of the script. Braille is a non-linear adaptation of the Latin alphabet that completely abandoned the Latin forms. The letters are composed of raised bumps on the writing substrate, which can be leather (Louis Braille's original material), stiff paper, plastic or metal. There are also transient non-linear adaptations of the Latin alphabet, including Morse code, the manual alphabets of various sign languages, and semaphore, in which flags or bars are positioned at prescribed angles. However, if "writing" is defined as a potentially permanent means of recording information, then these systems do not qualify as writing at all, since the symbols disappear as soon as they are used. (Instead, these transient systems serve as signals.) Scripts are also graphically characterized by the direction in which they are written. Egyptian hieroglyphs were written either left to right or right to left, with the animal and human glyphs turned to face the beginning of the line. The early alphabet could be written in multiple directions: horizontally (side to side), or vertically (up or down). Prior to standardization, alphabetical writing was done both left-to-right (LTR or sinistrodextrally) and right-to-left (RTL or dextrosinistrally). It was most commonly written boustrophedonically: starting in one (horizontal) direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction. The Greek alphabet and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page. Other scripts, such as Arabic and Hebrew, came to be written right-to-left. Scripts that incorporate Chinese characters have traditionally been written vertically (top-to-bottom), from the right to the left of the page, but nowadays are frequently written left-to-right, top-to-bottom, due to Western influence, a growing need to accommodate terms in the Latin script, and technical limitations in popular electronic document formats. Chinese characters sometimes, as in signage, especially when signifying something old or traditional, may also be written from right to left. The Old Uyghur alphabet and its descendants are unique in being written top-to-bottom, left-to-right; this direction originated from an ancestral Semitic direction by rotating the page 90° counter-clockwise to conform to the appearance of vertical Chinese writing. Several scripts used in the Philippines and Indonesia, such as Hanunó'o, are traditionally written with lines moving away from the writer, from bottom to top, but are read horizontally left to right; however, Kulitan, another Philippine script, is written top to bottom and right to left. Ogham is written bottom to top and read vertically, commonly on the corner of a stone. In computers and telecommunication systems, writing systems are generally not codified as such,[clarification needed] but graphemes and other grapheme-like units that are required for text processing are represented by "characters" that typically manifest in encoded form. There are many character encoding standards and related technologies, such as ISO/IEC 8859-1 (a character repertoire and encoding scheme oriented toward the Latin script), CJK (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and bi-directional text. Today, many such standards are re-defined in a collective standard, the ISO/IEC 10646 "Universal Character Set", and a parallel, closely related expanded work, The Unicode Standard. Both are generally encompassed by the term Unicode. In Unicode, each character, in every language's writing system, is (simplifying slightly) given a unique identification number, known as its code point. Computer operating systems use code points to look up characters in the font file, so the characters can be displayed on the page or screen. A keyboard is the device most commonly used for writing via computer. Each key is associated with a standard code which the keyboard sends to the computer when it is pressed. By using a combination of alphabetic keys with modifier keys such as Ctrl, Alt, Shift and AltGr, various character codes are generated and sent to the CPU. The operating system intercepts and converts those signals to the appropriate characters based on the keyboard layout and input method, and then delivers those converted codes and characters to the running application software, which in turn looks up the appropriate glyph in the currently used font file, and requests the operating system to draw these on the screen. - "Definitions of writing systems". Omniglot: The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages. www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 2013-06-29. - Hessler, Peter (2006), "Artifact K: The Lost Alphabets", Oracle Bones: A Journey Between China's Past and Present, Harper Collins, pp. 401–417, ISBN 9780060826581. - Coulmas, Florian. 2003. Writing systems. An introduction. Cambridge University Press. pg. 35. - David Crystal (2008), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th Edition, p.481, Wiley - Hadumod Bußmann (1998), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, p.1294, Taylor & Francis - Hadumod Bußmann (1998), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, p.979, Taylor & Francis - Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer (2012), The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology, p.194, Cengage Learning - StackExchange: Is it plausible to have two written forms of one spoken language that are so different as to be indecipherable? - Metaphor and Analogy in the Sciences, p.126, Springer Science & Business Media (2013) - David N. Keightley, Noel Barnard. The Origins of Chinese civilization. Page 415-416 - Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature. By Dr Gwendolyn Leick. Pg 3. - Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-631-21481-X. - Millard 1986, p. 396 - Haarmann 2004, p. 96 - David Diringer (1962): Writing. London. - Archibald Hill (1967): The typology of Writing systems. In: William A. Austin (ed.), Papers in Linguistics in Honor of Leon Dostert. The Hague, 92–99. - John DeFrancis (1989): Visible speech. The diverse oneness of writing systems. Honolulu - Geoffrey Sampson (1986): Writing Systems. A Linguistic Approach. London - Alice Faber (1992): Phonemic segmentation as an epiphenomenon. Evidence from the history of alphabetic writing. In: Pamela Downing et al. (ed.): The Linguistics of Literacy. Amsterdam. 111–134. - See Primus, Beatrice (2004), "A featural analysis of the Modern Roman Alphabet" (PDF), Written Language and Literacy, 7 (2): 235–274, retrieved 2015-12-05. - Cammarosano, Michele. "Cuneiform Writing Techniques". cuneiform.neocities.org. Retrieved 2018-07-18. - Cammarosano, Michele (2014). "The Cuneiform Stylus". Mesopotamia. XLIX: 53–90 – via https://osf.io/dfng4/. - Threatte, Leslie (1980). The grammar of Attic inscriptions. W. de Gruyter. pp. 54–55. ISBN 3-11-007344-7. - Cisse, Mamadou. 2006. "Ecrits et écritures en Afrique de l'Ouest". Sudlangues n°6, https://web.archive.org/web/20110720093748/http://www.sudlangues.sn/spip.php?article101 - Coulmas, Florian. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell. - Coulmas, Florian. 2003. Writing systems. An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Daniels, Peter T, and William Bright, eds. 1996. The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0. - DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6 - Haarmann, Harald (2004). Geschichte der Schrift [History of Writing] (in German) (2nd ed.). München: C. H. Beck. ISBN 3-406-47998-7. - Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X (paperback); ISBN 0-8248-1842-3 (hardcover) - Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 390–398. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978. - Nishiyama, Yutaka. 2010. The Mathematics of Direction in Writing. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol.61, No.3, 347-356. - Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback) - Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing Systems. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1756-7 (paper), ISBN 0-8047-1254-9 (cloth). - Smalley, W. A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems. London: United Bible Society. - Writing Systems Research Free first issue of a journal devoted to research on writing systems - Arch Chinese (Traditional & Simplified) Chinese character writing animations and native speaker pronunciations - Sensible Chinese A practical guide to approaching the Chinese writing system - decodeunicode Unicode Wiki with all 98,884 Unicode 5.0 characters as gifs in three sizes - African writing systems - Omniglot: The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages - Ancient Scripts Introduction to different writing systems - Alphabets of Europe - Elian script a writing system that combines the linearity of spelling with the free-form aspects of drawing. - (in Russian) Written of the World - (in Hungarian) Ultraweb.hu – főoldal

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GradesK to 12 tag(s): reading lists (79) In the ClassroomThis is a great starting point for reluctant readers. Provide this list (or link) to parents to use during the summer months to help with the "I'm bored" days. Why not challenge your students to read their way through the list during the school year by setting a personal goal and documenting their reading journey in a reading journal, blog, or class wiki with one page per student? They will enjoy looking back over their reading year! Grades1 to 12 In the ClassroomMark this in your Favorites as a professional reference. You may even want to assign students to create their own webquests following these guidelines. If you mentor new teachers, share this resource when they are designing their first web-based projects. Grades2 to 12 In the ClassroomUse this resource as a way to practice material and improve students' scores in preparation for an actual test. Use this resource to practice involved questions that like those found on the state tests. Practicing with various question formats builds confidence and improves performance. Create quizzes and tests that students must pass before moving on to other content or other harder tests. Use these as progress steps along the way to help students learn the content as they progress through a unit. Learning support teachers may want to work together with small groups to create their own "practice" quizzes before major tests. Everyone can create, publish, share and take tests of any subject or syllabus on this site. Kudos!John, , Grades: 0 - 12 GradesK to 12 In the ClassroomUse this site as a guide when lesson planning. Demonstrate to older students how different types of questions will lead to further learning and strengthen critical thinking skills. Display the diagrams and information on the site on your interactive whiteboard to help students explore different questioning techniques. When studying a particular unit, challenge cooperative groups to create their own essential questions (and other types of questions) and create electronic "posters" or word graphics using tools such as Piclits (reviewed here) or Typogenerator (reviewed here). Grades1 to 12 In the ClassroomUse Speakit as your teacher's helper. Be sure to test it out on classroom computers and devices before using it with students. During research or computer explorations, allow students to use this read aloud feature. Honor the students who heavily rely on hearing as their preferred form of comprehending material. In lower grades, research on computers now becomes an easier task. This extension is perfect for ESL/ELL or learning support students to help with vocabulary development, comprehension, fluency, and repetitions. Grades2 to 6 tag(s): myths and legends (25) In the ClassroomEnable every student to be successful in creating a new myth. Never again, hear, "I do not know what to do!" Mythmaker is interactive whiteboard Ready! Use this tool to help reluctant writers, ESL/ELL, or SPED students have extra support to allow them to become independent. Gifted students can study societies who generated myths, and make further myths for further explanations. Create your own classroom myths! Grades2 to 5 This site includes advertising. In the ClassroomSpellaRoo can be used in the classroom or a link on your class website for extra enrichment and practice. Use as a center activity, interactive white board game, or offer as reward time. Challenge your students to create their own "spellaroo" challenge to share with the class. How about an online poster creator, such as Padlet (reviewed here). GradesK to 5 In the ClassroomEducators new to teaching or changing grade levels will find a wealth of useful advice such as; on how to build a chart stand with PCV pipes, use Elkonian boxes, and develop reading fluency. Veteran teachers, literacy coaches, and school leaders will find Mrs. Waltke's site a model to emulate in their own school. An impressive part of this site is the Excel template weekly lesson plan that integrates a drop down menu of state standards Tennessee. This is a great way help educators target specific subsets of skill while creating curriculum, documenting, and sharing lesson plans. Share a link or two at time with parents for at home practice or extra help for individual students. Grades3 to 12 This tool also has a "read" section where you can see what others have written. Since this section is unmoderated and open to the public, it could contain writings not appropriate for the classroom. Stick with the writing prompts page to avoid this issue or prescreen before sharing. In the ClassroomOneword can easily be displayed on your interactive classroom whiteboard at the front of class or as an inspirational "sidebar" as students enter class. Preview that day if you plan to display the public submissions, since they are unmoderated! Teachers may use their school email (or free gmail account) address for submissions. When working on individual computers, you may want your students to write their entries offline and save them for the class to submit to a single account. The whole tedious task of entering student names and email addresses can be alleviated by the teacher signing up and creating a free account. This will also provide you with a continually expanding list of more "oneword" features and give you access to all of your entries in one place. Another option of course is keep it old school; students open their journals and just write. Like many other familiar writing prompts, they can be used in a number of ways, including daily warm-up activities, journal entries, free-writing, or as an "anytime" or "when you're finished" activity. The element of surprise is inherent in Oneword, which provides built in motivation, as students, ready-to-write, wait for the word to appear on the screen and then, without hesitation... Go! This is a spontaneous exercise in flow; therefore you may want to revisit these one minute entries and choose some for revising and editing into a cohesive piece at the end of a week or other designated time period. You can also use the prompts for student volunteers to model writing techniques on your interactive whiteboard. Have students brainstorm lists of words that would be good writing prompts that are only "one word." ESL/ELL students will improve vocabulary with such brainstorms. Teenagers can try something new by creating an interactive book online with the collection of various different entries for one word. Not sure how to do it? Create an online book using a tool such as Bookemon, reviewed here. Because the site is not moderated, any unsavory or objectionable entries are on full display. I did not request a membership so I don't know if there is a way for members to flag inappropriate comments. Not for my upper elementary kids, though I may use the idea off line.Ann, PA, Grades: 1 - 5 Grades1 to 9 In the ClassroomCreate your puzzles by following the simple directions. These can be used both online and in print form. You or your students can create games for use on an interactive whiteboard (students highlight the answers in different colors). Have students create their own to challenge classmates! If you have kinesthetic learners or those with weak fine motor skills who have trouble with pencils, the whiteboard is a real help. Make it a center. Build a class collection of student-made games and puzzles for use over and over. Tip: If you take a screenshot of a word search or print it to a pdf, you can save it electronically. Screenshots: Prtscrn key on a Windows machine, then PASTE into a document; Command+shift+4 on a Mac; press both buttons at once on an iPad to save a screenshot to the camera roll. GradesK to 4 tag(s): native americans (80) In the ClassroomSome arts & crafts materials are needed for these lessons. This would be a great option to accompany the study of Native Americans in an elementary classroo, drawing in your language arts time for story writing and telling. Grades2 to 12 In the ClassroomUse these tools for any subject area and for any content. Be sure to look at the sample activities that are great to use as is or can stimulate thinking into your own projects. Use the timeline as an introduction to the first year by discussing their summer activities, major events in a students life, inventions or technology that made a difference in their life, events in their favorite book, and more. To understand content in perspective, create a timeline to be sure students understand why some events happen at particular times. For example, our understanding about biology greatly changes after the invention of the microscope. A great sample activity to Create your own Museum is the celebration of neighborhoods which can create a greater understanding about different people. Create a museum for each different kind of biome that showcases what would be found there. Create a museum for a time period in history but created by a specific group of people. View each of the museums and note the differences in what is portrayed using the lens of that various segment of the population. Create writings or blog posts portraying the differences in the museums and why these differences exist. Even young students can make a simple timeline of their own life of the life cycle of a butterfly to build the concept of linear representation of time. GradesK to 12 In the ClassroomUse this great resource to create Jeopardy games for any content area. This resource is perfect for use on an interactive whiteboard or projector with a student emcee. Use for vocabulary/terms, identifying parts of anything, and reviewing for any curriculum topic. Use as an opener to a unit to determine what students already know. Play as a review game to assist learning for all students. Encourage students to create the clues and answers to their own Jeopardy review games as a creative way to review and reinforce. Learning support teachers may want to have students create review games together. You or your students can copy and paste the HTML code for any game on your web page, wiki, or blog for easy access to any Flash Jeopardy Game. Grades1 to 9 Editor's note: There is one group of links (to sites that start with "hometown.aol") that no longer work. Since this is only a small portion of the site, TeachersFirst continues to list the resource for its many GOOD links. Roll your mouse over the links before clicking and check the address in the gray bar at the bottom left of your screen. Don't bother with the hometown.aol links. This site includes advertising. tag(s): readers theater (13) In the ClassroomMark this one in your favorites, then let student groups select from scripts to record their own audio podcasts or create a Thinglink, reviewed here, of a tale, illustrated with a selection of copyright-safe images or student drawings. Or have students make a high-tech excerpt from a reader's theater script by creating avatars to read each part using Voki, reviewed here. Sequence the embedded conversation bits on a class wiki so viewers can enjoy the performance by clicking through them in order. These wiki excerpts could be used to "advertise" an upcoming performance or a featured literary piece. GradesK to 12 After you save and publish the work, share the URL so people can read the entire book online, either among an audience of "just my friends" or publicly. They also offer the embed code to place your books on a class or school web page, wiki, or blog. The easiest option is to copy the address of the new window displaying the interactive book. There is an option to have the book printed for a fee, but this is not required. You can also read books created by others (if they make them public). Use the fully-public option to create learning materials for classes to access year to year for at-home review or reading practice. This site requires a simple registration. Teachers can set up an edCenter for their school or class in accordance with school policies. See more detailed suggestions "In the Classroom" below and in our sample book! Newer mobile device options include players to view your books on iPads and more. This site includes advertising. In the ClassroomSKIP the profile and friends areas to get to the book creator to play with the tools a bit. Before you get too involved, create an edCenter to minimize advertising and create books in your own teacher-friendly class environment. Use the edCenter to register students and establish privacy settings for your class. No student emails are required. On the Create Books page, choose from using a blank book, starting from a file, or using a template. Choose "school" to see projects from other classes or a sample created by you or a student team working in advance along with you. Explore ready-made themes (seasonal, topical, etc.) or use "open theme." Choose book dimensions (match layout shape to any uploaded files, such as PowerPoint slides). Enter settings and description of your book (editable later), including who is allowed to "see" it: everyone, just friends, or private. Again choose a "theme" - more of a category where Bookemon will list your completed book. A logical option is "school." Experiment with tools to upload files (within file limits), add images, add text, etc. Written help is offered as you go, but there is no video demo. SAVE often. Turn margins on to avoid chopping content. To share the book, you must "publish" it (i.e. finalize). Once published, locate the book under "My Books" and use options to share (by email--and see the URL to copy from there), "Make a new edition" to create a new version--also useful for treating the original as a template for later books), Post to Other Sites offers embed codes. The BEST option is to click the book COVER which opens a new window without ads or "stuff," and copy the ADDRESS of that window to paste into email, etc. You can also mark that clean window view as a Favorite on a classroom computer! Use your edCenter settings to manage social networking features. This will avoid the "public" Bookemon features such as opportunities to share address books, use social tools such as Facebook to share your books, etc. Teacher-controlled edCenter accounts are probably the easiest option for managing within school policies. With younger students, have them begin their work in PowerPoint then upload for whole-class books. See an example, created by the TeachersFirst Edge editors . The example is full of ideas for classroom use from Kindergarten to high school, including science concept tales, poetry books, general writing, math problem solve-its, and more. ANY grade can use this tool, depending on the amount of direction by the teacher. (By the way, the correct answer to the problem in the sample book is c. 27.) Another idea: have students create personalized books for their parents or grandparents for special occasions (Mother's Day, Father's Day, or Grandparent's Day). Use the mobile device features offered in your BYOD classroom to make and share books, PDF's, and more. Tip: Use this site for a guided introduction to social networking as a class, an excellent teaching opportunity for digital citizenship in the context of a project. This is one of the best creative tools for gifted students to go above and beyond regular curriculum. Don't let the "juvenile" appearance fool you. Even older students can write and include images to create and share books of any length. Any independent research or writing project can become an interactive book. Even advanced science experiments and lab reports can be shared online using this tool. Once you have one book, you can use that as a template for others. Inspire your gifted students to create literary magazine or even a personal online "portfolio" of writing, artwork, or photography presented in interactive book form. Includes an education-only area for teachers and students Parent permission advised before posting student work created using this tool Includes Interaction w general public/ public galleries with unmoderated content Includes social features, such as "friends," comments, ratings by others Requires registration/log in (NO email) Premium version (not free) includes additional features or storage Products can be shared by URL Includes teacher tools for registering and/or monitoring students This is one of my all time favorite creative tools. Very versatile. Great for making "buddy books" or for teacher-created learning "books." Make one as a whole class to summarize a science unit in primary grades. I even use it personally to make fee online "gifts" for children I know. I did purchase one print version, and it looked great.Thinking, PA, Grades: 5 - 10 GradesK to 12 See a sample PocketMod checklist, notes, and calendar booklet (with a separate page of folding directions) and one made from a PDF of the Pennsylvania Science and Technology Standards, converted using the free downloadable software. This site includes advertising. tag(s): organizational skills (122) In the ClassroomGo to PocketMod and follow the simple drag-and-drop visual screen to create the PocketMod from their many organizer options. Print and fold (NO Acrobat Reader required). More skilled users should consider downloading the free "PDF to PocketMod" converter that will take any pdf document and format it to the small, foldable format. If you have handouts in pdf format or can make them from your scanner/copier, you can make ANYTHING into a PocketMod. The converter assumes you have Acrobat Reader. Have students design their own study guides before a chapter test or maintain a project checklist to be submitted along with the completed project to build better organizational skills. Warning: Students will quickly learn that PocketMod is a great way to make CHEAT SHEETS. Be forewarned of student cleverness! Grades2 to 8 In the ClassroomThis site is perfect for interactive whiteboards or projectors. Display the site on your board when discussing current events, use as a learning center for students to read and journal, or have students look up vocabulary words featured on the site. Practice with Main Idea or summarizing using these interesting informational texts. ESL/ELL learners can also find accessible news stories here. Provide this link for students to use at home to keep up with current events. Grades1 to 4 In the ClassroomTake advantage of the free lesson plans and activities offered on this site - a great resource for a Social Studies class. Grades4 to 8 In the ClassroomIn your classroom, use Clockwords as a center activity, reward activity, or team game with your interactive whiteboard or projector. Challenge your students by using vocabulary words from science, math, or language arts. Within your class, look for high scores among students or teams. Be sure to provide this link on your class website. Incorrectly spelled words are not counted as valid words. Help this by supplying a dictionary or an online dictionary link. Grades3 to 12 tag(s): timelines (57) In the ClassroomCreate an ever-growing timeline throughout the school year by adding events discussed in class so students understand where events relate to each other in history. Create a timeline with events in American History and add a layer of authors' works to connect literature's time periods to history. Have your students use Preceden to create a timeline of their life and their family's life. Then use events from their life for writing a memoir, poetry, etc. Science students could create a timeline for the stages of mitosis for a cell or the life cycle of a forest or an animal. Have students in government or history create timelines related to topics you are learning about in class.

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Strategies and Definitions of 3D Animation Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional academic writers. You can view samples of our professional work here. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. Published: Mon, 26 Feb 2018 2.1 Definition of Animation 2.1.1 A Technical Definition of Animation Various definitions of animation exist that cover technical, physiological, through to philosophical aspects. In a technical sense, Myers (1999, [Online]) describes animation, the form that we have become familiar with, as a series of drawings that are linked together and photographed. ‘The drawings have been slightly changed between individualized frames so when they are played back in rapid succession there appears to be seamless movement within the drawings'(Myers 1999, [Online]). Jonsson (1978, p. 2) also describes animation in a technical sense: A strip of movie film consists of still pictures – called frames – each one slightly different from the one preceding it. When the film is projected and run continuously these still pictures give an illusion of movement (Jonsson 1978, p. 2). Morrison (1994, p. 5) simply defines, animation as ‘the illusion of movement’: This illusion of movement can be achieved by quickly displaying a series of images that show slight incremental changes in one of the depicted objects. If you play back these images fast enough, the eye will perceive movement (Morrison 1994, p. 5). It is safe for one to conclude that animation and motion picture in general, when viewed by a human is an illusion, the rapid succession of ordered singular frames tricking the viewers eye into perceiving there is an apparent seamless movement. This technical definition of animation is closely linked to the history and evolution of motion picture, also to human physiology and how the eye and the brain perceive movement. 2.1.2 The Beginnings of the Motion Picture ‘Animation cannot be achieved without first understanding a fundamental principle of the human eye: the persistence of vision'(James 2002, [Online]). Animation literature shows that the appreciation of this principle is not only linked with the history of animation and motion picture but much earlier, beginning long ago in our past. ‘Since the beginnings of time, human beings have tried to capture a sense of motion in their art'(James 2002, [Online]). Williams (2001) points out several examples; a 35,000 year old pre-historic cave painting of a boar in Northern Spain ‘displaying four pairs of legs to show motion'(Williams 2001, p. 11). Egyptian temple paintings of figures that ‘progressively changed position'(Williams 2001, p. 12). Ancient Greek ‘decorated pots with figures in successive stages of action. Spinning the pot would create a sense of motion'(Williams 2001, p. 12). Other examples are cave and wall paintings, medieval tapestries, scrolls, and paintings which all ‘tell continuous stories’and some of which attempt to illustrate ‘repetitive motions'(James 2002, [Online]). Theories that were born in the ancient world by classical scholars were to prove very important in the genesis of animation, as The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) points out. It identifies historical figures such as the Greek Aristotle (384-322 BC), who ‘observed light and motion after effects’, dating back to 340 BC (The Private Lessons Channel 2002, [Online]). The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) then points out that later, in 130 AD, Greek astronomer and geographer Ptolemy (100-178 AD) discovered the aforementioned persistence of vision. In elaborating a point made by Thomas (1964, p. 8), one can see how these ancient scholars came to such discoveries; Imagine a torch lighted with fire, being whisked around in a circular motion in the darkness, the eye seeing a continuous unbroken circle of light. ‘This type of phenomenon must have been known to the ancients'(Thomas 1964, p. 8). 2.1.3 A Physiological Definition of Animation – The Persistence of Vision While there is evidence of a fascination with the visual documentation of movement and narrative in prehistoric and classical periods, it was not until these notions were later revisited by 19th century inventors, that modern animation principles emerged. One of these inventors was the Frenchman Peter Mark Roget, also the author of the famous Roget’s Thesaurus, who in the 1820’s rediscovered ‘the vital principle, the persistence of vision'(Williams 2001, p. 13). Williams (2001, p. 13) explains the persistence of vision on the following way: This principle rests on the fact that that our eyes temporarily retain the image of anything they’ve just seen. If this wasn’t so, we would never get the illusion of an unbroken connection in a series of images, and neither movies nor animation would be possible. Many people don’t realise the movies don’t actually move, and that they are still images that appear to move when they are projected in a series (Williams 2001, p. 13). Jonsson (1978, p. 2) gives a more physiologically oriented explanation: What makes this possible is a quality of our brain called persistence of vision – that is; although the frame we are viewing at any given moment is in fact still, the image burns itself onto our retina, so that it remains with us for a small fraction of time – while we view the next one and if the difference seems to be a reasonable follow-on, an illusion is created (Jonsson 1978, p. 2). Concluding that technical and physiological aspects work hand-in-hand in motion picture, Jonsson (1978, p. 2) explains that for the eye to record an apparent continuous seamless movement, a certain frequency of frames per second needs to be displayed. Morrison (1994, p. 5) states that ‘human visual acuity is low enough that only 12-15 different pictures (or frames) need to be displayed per second to produce the illusion of movement’. The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) states that ‘the number of frames per second, or fps, directly correlates to how smooth the movement appears’. ‘If the frame rate is too slow, the motion will look awkward and jerky. If the frame rate is too high the motion will blur'(The Private Lessons Channel 2002, [Online]). For the eye to record a normal, continuous movement that is not too fast, and not too slow there needs to be a frequency of around 24 to 30 fps displayed by a projector. Jonsson (1978, p. 2), states that this is the sole principle by which both live-action and animated films work. 24 fps is used in cinema, 25 fps is used for PAL television (Europe and Australia), and 30 fps is used for NTSC television (America and Japan). In relation to the illusion of movement and persistence of vision, both Wells (1998 p. 10) and Furniss (1998 p. 5) portrays the view of well-known Scottish-born animation identity Norman McClaren: Animation is not the art of drawings that move, but rather the art of movements that are drawn. What happens between each frame is more important than what happens on each frame; Animation is therefore the art of manipulating the invisible interstices that lie between the frames (McClaren qtd. in Furniss 1998 p. 5). James (2002, [Online]) states that Roget demonstrated the persistence of vision principle in his invention, the thaumatrope. James (2002, [Online]) and Williams (2001, p. 13), describe it as a disc held between two pieces of string, which was attached to both of the disc edges. Each flat side of the disc had different images; one a bird, the other an empty birdcage. Twirling of the disc with the pulling of the string results in the bird appearing to be in the cage. ‘This proved that the eye retains images when it is exposed to a series of pictures, one at a time'(James 2002, [Online]). The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) notes that two other inventors are credited with this invention, the Frenchman Dr. John Ayrton, and Englishman Dr. Fitton, depending on the source. 2.1.4 The Early Evolution of the Motion Picture Crucial to the evolution of Animation and indeed Motion Picture were other related inventions. James (2002, [Online]) describes other optical devices of a similar nature to the thaumatrope, such as the phenakistoscopeinvented in 1826 by Joseph Plateau, and the zoetropeinvented in 1860 by Pierre Desvignes. Williams (2001, p. 14) mentions another similar invention, the praxinoscope, invented by the Frenchman Emile Reynaud in 1877. Clark (1979, p. 8) states that these contraptions ‘relied for their effect on either an endless paper band or a cardboard disc bearing series of pictures drawn in progressive stages of an action’. ‘Viewed intermittently through slots or reflected in mirrors the drawings came to life and appeared to move'(Clark 1979, p. 8). Another invention included the flipbook, or kineograph pad, first appearing in 1868. Another important invention relevant to Motion Picture was photography. The first photographs were taken ‘in the late 1820’s by a Frenchman, Nicéphore Niépce'(Thomas 1964, p. 6). In the 1870’s ‘Sir Charles Wheatstone’s moving picture stereoviewer’was created to view a series of actual photographs in ordered succession (Thomas 1964, p. 16). Thomas (1964, p. 18) points out that the first to capture and record a sequence of images, was the English/American Eadweard J. Muybridge, where he famously captured a horse and carriage trotting. He then played the captured images back in a viewing device, known as the zoopraxiscope. Another important revolution in the evolution of the Motion Picture was that of nitrate celluloid film invented by H.W. Goodwin in 1887. Nitrate celluloid film was ‘a chemical combination of gun cotton and gum camphor'(McLaughlin 2001, [Online]). Thomas (1964, p. 29) acknowledges the birth of Cinema to the famous American inventor Thomas A. Edison, and the Scot William Kennedy Laurie Dickson. In 1892 Edison and Dickson succeeded ‘in building a camera capable of taking moving pictures at a rate of forty-six per second on Eastman celluloid film'(Thomas 1964, p. 29). Edison’s and Dickson’s viewing device, influenced by Austrian Ottomar Anschütz, was named the kinetoscope. Thomas (1964, p. 29) describes it as ‘a viewing cabinet by means of which only one person could view a film at a time’. As the images were not projected, the viewer had to use a small eyepiece to look into the cabinet in order to see the moving images. Instigated and influenced by the work Edison and Dickson, other inventors set about evolving the kinetoscoperesulting in viewing devices with the ability to project images. The most well-known of these inventors were the Lumière brothers, who in 1895 ‘designed a camera and projector which they call the cinématographe'(Thomas 1964, p. 30). The Lumière brothers ‘became the first to give a public exhibition of moving pictures'(Thomas 1964, p. 30), which they held on the 28th of December 1895, at the Grand Café in Paris. It is interesting to note that Estonian animator Priit Pärn in his surrealist-inspired short film 1895, pays tribute to the Lumière brothers, and invention of the cinématographe. Thomas (1964, p. 31), concludes that ‘the interest shown by the public in these first cinema shows gave rise to a rapid growth in a new industry’. In time, with the advent and advancement of various technologies and techniques, the first true animated films were born. 2.1.5 A Philosophical Definition and Discussion of Animation ‘Animation is the art of bringing something to life. How it’s brought to life can be done any number of different ways’, simply states Ludwin (1998, [Online]). Bringing something to life is indeed a very important theme in animation. To better understand the definition of animation, it is useful to find out the original term from which the word animation derives. Wells (1998, p. 10) notes that animation derives from the latin word ‘animare’, which means ‘to give life to’, and that the animated film ‘largely means the artificial creation of the illusion of movement in inanimate lines and forms’. The famous Zagreb School of Croatia relates the definition of to animate back to this original meaning. ‘They suggest, that to animate is “to give life and soul to a design, not through the copying but through the transformation of reality”‘(Wells 1998, p. 10). ‘When you’re animating and moving an object, you’re instilling life in something'(Lubin 2003). This leads us onto animator’s philosophies, ideologies and animation aesthetics. There are many differences in philosophy among animators and opinion of what the essence of animation actually is. One interesting example illustrating the philosophical differences of opinion is with respect to the extent of which animation should reflect real-life. For instance, the copying of real-life movements using motion capture techniques, are not favoured by all animators. Stefan Marjoram of the Aardman studio notes that motion capture is alright in sports games, but it doesn’t necessarily make you a good animator. ‘Animation’s not about copying real life, after all – a lot of people use motion capture for that. For me animation is about exaggerating real life'(Ricketts 2002, p. 51). Lubin (2003) agrees: That’s absolutely right. I mean if you’re doing a game and you want to get Tiger Woods’swing, fine. But Motion Capture which is only about animating humanoid animation, why bother? Just get real actors (Lubin 2003). When asked the question on what the public perception of Animation is, Tom Lubin in an interview on 1 April 2003 stated that ‘it depends on who you ask’and ‘it depends on the show’. Some animation would be dismissed as stuff for ‘something to baby-sit’little kids with, whilst other animation has a broader market encompassing all age groups. I think the public has a very broad view of it depending on their interests'(Lubin 2003). Lubin (2003) also pointed out that ‘animation has been successful for a really long time’, and he stated that it was telling that the Academy Awards now, in the last few years, actually gives an Oscar for the best feature in animation. This has ‘to do with the public’s perception of animation as a viable stand alone'(Lubin 2003). Animation ‘at its most creative, is a truly beautiful artform'(White 1988, p. 9). The term art and its related words feature heavily in many animation definitions and philosophies originating from the birth of modern animation. Winsor McCay the first American animator of the early 1900’s, who many have dubbed the father of the animated cartoon, once stated: Animation should be an art…what you fellows have done with it is making it into a trade…not an art, but a trade…bad luck (Crandol 1999, [Online]). Crandol (1999, [Online]) points out that McCay’s warning and prediction inevitably became true. Indeed a studio production system with ‘a streamlined, assembly-line process’was formed out of the necessity to satisfy time, expense and demand factors (Crandol 1999, [Online]). Wells (1998) also mentions several times that the domination and ‘the proliferation of mass-produced cel animation'(p. 35), such as that produced in America and Japan, ‘has led to animation being understood in a limited way’by society (p. 24). Wells (1998, p. 35) elaborates stating that: The amount of cheaply produced, highly industrialised cel animation made in the USA and Japan had colonised television schedules, and perhaps, more importantly, the imaginations of viewers (Wells 1998, p. 35). Crandol (1999, [Online]) also points out that the ‘collective nature of the studio may prevent the artists from receiving the amount of praise an artist working solo garners’. Wells (1998, p. 7) makes the point that this type of animation has somewhat diminished animation in the eyes of society as a legitimate artform: Animation has been trivialised and ignored despite its radical tendencies and self-evident artistic achievements at the technical and aesthetic level. Ironically, the dominance of the cartoon(i.e. traditional ‘cel’animation in the style of Disney or Warner Brothers, which is predicated on painting forms and figures directly onto sheets of celluloid which are then photographed) has unfortunately misrepresented and the animated film because it art seems invisible or, more precisely, is taken for granted by its viewers. The cartoon seems part of an easily dismissed popular culture; ‘animation’, as a term, at least carries with it an aspiration for recognition as an art and, indeed the popular evaluation of other animated forms (Wells 1998, p. 7). Although there appears to be a domination of the of American and Japanese style of animation and its entertainment premise as suggested, affecting the common perception of animation, large difference in styles and approaches have occurred and do exist. In an interview with an animation Domain Expert on 1 May 2003, he made the point that European animation, due to the many various nations and peoples, have contributed a large number of diverse artistic visual styles, contrasting to the American or Japanese styles. He also stated that many animated works are not always of the purely entertainment premise. One example he stated was in the communist period of Eastern Europe where animation was state controlled, focusing on allegorical social comment, the animators slipping in their own secret messages in the films past the censors. Even with the domination of industrialised mass-produced animation, and the influences it has on the audience, Crandol (1999, [Online]) remarks that there have been many animators ‘careful not to let business logistics overwhelm the artistic potential of the medium’. Crandol (1999, [Online]) concludes that as long as are creative people working, animation ‘will continue to be the best of both worlds: a trade and an art’. Tom Lubin, Head of Training at FTI (Film &Television Institute), in an interview on 1 April 2003, in response to the question of animation being an art responded ‘I think it is. Well you need art skills to do it. But actually that not as important to me as storytelling. What animation is, is storytelling’. Storytelling and its importance to Animation will be specifically discussed and investigated in Chapter 3: The Principles of Storytelling. ‘To give life to’was a major inspirational theme in the animation process I went through, so to was the art of animation, as I have personally and purposefully embraced it when conducting the creative animation process. This will be touched upon in part 2 of the dissertation; The Self-Reflective Case Study. 2.2 The Animation Process The Angus &Robertson Dictionary and Thesaurus (1992, p. 788) defines the word process as ‘a series of actions which produce a change or development’, and ‘a method of doing or producing something’. From these meanings the animation process can be described as what I am researching and undertaking in my Honours project; the pattern of methods an animator undertakes from start to finish in the creation of an animated work, or animation. Animation and the animation process, like many other disciplines, have undergone a paradigm shift due to technological advancements. Indeed technology has been the catalyst for many paradigm shifts as Utz (1993, p. 16) points out. Due to the ever-increasing accessibility and affordability of various technologies, an animator’s methods, actions and options have changed when implementing the animation process. See Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in the Animation Process, for a more detailed discussion of this subject. Referring to these changes in the animation process, animator George Griffin believes the role of the animator in an artistic sense has changed very little: Despite the enormous upheavals in technology, the independent animator’s artistic role remains essentially the same: to draw time, to construct a model of ideas and emotions, using any means available (Griffin qtd. in Laybourne 1998, p. xi). 2.3 Types of Animation For a description of the various types of animation such as traditional 2D animation, stop-motion animation and computer generated 3D animation, please refer to Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in the Animation Process. Through investigating the various definitions of animation it can be seen that they cover and include many different aspects. The technical definition of animation is closely linked to the history and evolution of motion picture, and this is turn is linked to the understanding of human physiology and how the eye and the brain perceive movement. The different philosophical definitions and viewpoints animators hold also cover many different aspects, varying immensely. This chapter directly relates to the practical component of the Honours project, as described in part 2 of the dissertation; The Self-Reflective Case Study. This is due to the fact that when creating the 3D animated pilot and series concept, I related to and strongly agreed with various animation philosophies that were discussed in this chapter e.g. ‘to give life to’, as mentioned beforehand. On some occasions these philosophies affected and influenced the way that I would conduct my own practical animation process. A brief investigation on society’s perception of animation subject matter was also relevant for the target audience of the series concept. Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:

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A passion for sharing the gift of literacy with young children is the reason many professionals enter early childhood or elementary education. No matter what ages you teach, you know a strong background in early literacy helps children succeed. Now-iconic research backs this up. Studies highlight the integral relationship between reading proficiently before third grade and high school graduation, college and career success, and avoidance of poverty. What exactly should teachers and schools do to support their youngest learners in developing an early literacy foundation? We’ve compiled this mega-list of tips and resources from recent research, experts in the field, and fantastic teachers so that you can get straight to incorporating them into your schools and classrooms to benefit your students. 1. Invite student talk with engaging questions. Source: The Measured Mom Oral language is a key component of early literacy. Consider starting the year with daily “Would you rather…” questions. They are great for modeling how to support answers with reasoning. Later you can move onto other open-ended questions to keep the conversation flowing. Provide sentence frames for ELL students to help formulate answers. 2. Up your participation opportunities. Source: Kindergarten Smarts Why give only a few students the chance to talk when everyone can? Even young students can share ideas in pairs effectively if you teach them how. We love this rundown from Kindergarten Smarts of how to teach kindergarteners to partner share (and the free food-themed partner icons!) 3. Make time for storytelling. Humans have been sharing stories for centuries. Tell oral stories—true, made up, or retold—to engage students in a different way than reading aloud. Coaching children to tell their own stories supports language development, reading comprehension, and narrative writing. Practicing the vocabulary and literary language structures of storytelling is particularly helpful for ELL students. This “Mini Crash-Course on Oral Storytelling” from Two Writing Teachers has tons of tips for getting started. 4. Focus on building knowledge along with skills. Literacy expert Catherine Snow emphasizes building children’s background knowledge in addition to focusing on finite skills like letter recognition and phonological awareness. “Your skills as a reader are a product of all of the accumulated knowledge of your lifetime,” Snow urges. So, don’t miss that opportunity to welcome a guest speaker, talk about a cool insect found on the playground, or drop everything to observe a weather event. Children will draw on these experiences later to understand what they read. 5. Plan interactive read alouds. SOURCE: Our Elementary Lives Help students get the most out of your read alouds by planning comments and questions ahead of time. These color-coded, pre-printed sticky notes from Our Elementary Lives give us serious teacher envy! 6. Read it again! Of course, you have a million books you want to share with students, but slowing down to read some of them a second (or third, or fourth) time is worth it. Repeated read alouds have so many benefits, like supporting vocabulary growth, guiding children towards deeper comprehension, and scaffolding content for diverse learners. 7. Honor pre-readers’ interactions with books. Source: The Daily Cafe Coaching kids to interact with books before they can read conventionally is an early childhood classroom game changer. One place to start: Teach students “The Three Ways to Read a Book” from the popular Daily 5 model. 8. Invite students into the club right from the start. Calling students “readers” and “writers” from Day 1 makes a big impression. Make it a point to specifically compliment the emergent reading and writing behaviors you observe. This will encourage students to make them habits. 9. Set your classroom library up for success. It’s no secret that the classroom library is a key feature of a literacy-focused classroom; this is true even when your students can’t read yet. Encourage kids to take ownership of the space (and the books in it) with the ideas in this blog post from the Center for the Collaborative Classroom. Don’t forget to add a super-cute reading nook for enjoying all those titles. 10. Use a variety of instructional texts. When young students are ready to attend to print in their own books, different types of texts encourage different types of skill-building. Patterned books, rhyming books, stories and nonfiction all have merit. Do you (or does your reading program) love the teaching power of decodable texts? Expert Tim Shanahan says use them if you find them useful, but don’t put all your eggs in the same /b/ /a/ /s/ /k/ /e/ /t/. 11. Prioritize the vocabulary words you teach. Research suggests that pausing to offer a quick, kid-friendly definition of a word in context is one of the best ways to teach children new words. Intentionally choosing a few words to focus on at a time is key, so plan ahead to hone in on the most useful words for your students. 12. Review vocabulary words in playful and memorable ways. Source: My Heart Belongs in First Young students love to learn new words, but they do need engaging review to make them stick. Strategies should be tailored to their pre-reading status. Act out words, draw them, or play brainstorming games to generate examples and non-examples. Build excitement around using words by keeping a tally chart or making a special sound (Ding!) when someone uses a target word spontaneously. Encourage students to create touchstone memories by pairing words with the books that introduced them. 13. Encourage “word consciousness.” No matter how excellent your vocabulary teaching, you could never teach students every single word they need to know. Up students’ attention to words by making using and exclaiming over sophisticated words part of your classroom culture. We love the ideas in this article for incorporating precise words into your daily routines. Why call the weather “hot” when it can be “sweltering?!” 14. Incorporate literacy across the curriculum. Help literacy learning happen all day. Share read alouds that weave literacy learning into math, science, and social studies. Tasks like writing a sentence about a story problem or generating vocabulary words to describe an object in science help keep reading, writing, and speaking goals in mind across all lessons. 15. Get down to the sound level. Source: A Teachable Teacher Early childhood teachers love rhyming and alliteration activities, and why not? They’re tons of fun! Don’t let your phonological awareness instruction stop there, though. Research hails a focus on segmenting, blending and manipulating individual sounds as better tickets to reading success. Keep yourself “on task” with these handy “Phonemic Awareness Teacher Task Cards” from A Teachable Teacher. 16. Be strategic when teaching the alphabet. Kids have to learn the letters and sounds of the alphabet. Best case scenario: they learn them quickly so they can use them in reading and writing. Researchers recommend ditching a traditional “Letter of the Week” approach. Instead, introduce a new letter each day in a strategic sequence with lots of review. This Reading Mama’s “Teaching the Alphabet” series has tons of research-inspired tips and ideas. 17. “Capitalize” on students’ names. We have no trouble believing in what researchers have dubbed the “own-name effect”—the idea that children have a leg up when learning the letters in their own names, especially the first one. (Experience tells us that this works for names of classmates, too.) Display students’ names around the classroom wherever possible and refer to them often. Creating multi-use name materials like these name kits is worth the time, too. 18. Provide explicit and systematic phonics instruction. The research just keeps stacking up that indicates it’s a key piece of successful reading instruction for kids. Keep phonics engaging with hands-on activities. 19. Make time for handwriting! Source: Mrs. Wills’ Kindergarten It feels old-school to spend precious teaching minutes on handwriting, but brain research (and seasoned teachers!) tell us it’s critical. Prepare preschoolers for writing with hands-on activities. For older students, check out this “Minute to Win It” practice routine from Mrs. Wills’ Kindergarten. (Her awesome punch card system for keeping track of student mastery is genius, too.) 20. Engage students in the entire writing process. Show students the end goal of writing—to share their thoughts with others—and give them a map for getting there. Whether you use a published writing curriculum or plan your own lessons, your work should include guiding students through generating ideas, planning, writing, revising and publishing writing in different genres. Check out this post from Teach to Inspire for lesson ideas across the writing process. 21. Encourage invented spelling. Students attempts at spelling words are amazing (and sometimes hilarious) windows into their letter-sound knowledge. Invented spelling gives kids essential practice in breaking words down into sounds and rebuilding them on paper. Plus, it helps kids share their ideas in writing without being dependent on an adult to write. 22. Build good habits from the start. Balance encouraging students to take risks with nipping poor habits in the bud. If you teach Nico to start “N” at the top every time he writes his name, or teach a student who loves writing dialogue that it’s “said,” not “sed,” you won’t need to steal time from other learning to correct ingrained mistakes later. Insist that kids read for meaning and attend carefully to print from the start. This avoids having to address rushed or error-prone reading as students progress. 23. Use tech wisely. If you use literacy-related apps and games with students, make sure you pair them with rich conversation about the concepts they address. This is crucial to make sure virtual tasks serve the intended purpose. Or, use technology to teach students to document their hands-on learning with an app like Seesaw. 24. Deliver mini-lessons for mini people. Present direct literacy instruction in small bites. Learn about the structure of a mini-lesson, practice it, and use it again and again across all areas of literacy. 25. Use multisensory teaching strategies. Multisensory teaching gives kids lots of opportunities to take in information and make connections. It’s a perfect match for early learners who, by design, thrive when they can see, touch, and manipulate learning materials. 26. Protect opportunities for literacy learning through play. The disappointing departure of blocks and play kitchens from many early childhood classrooms means missed opportunities for literacy learning in meaningful contexts. Tasks like making a menu for a class restaurant, creating medical charts for stuffed animal vet patients, or labeling items in a “museum” of block creations are powerful early reading and writing skill-builders. Amanda Morgan of Not Just Cute offers many ideas for promoting literacy learning through play. 27. Get moving! 28. DON’T skip recess. Or better yet, extend it. Time for active play is essential for young learners and boosts learning and attention at other times of day—especially a long literacy block. 29. Support students’ social-emotional growth. Research shows that self-regulation, self-esteem, and ability to cope with frustration and anxiety all play into students’ capacity to grow their literacy skills. Don’t skimp on supporting students’ development of these important skills. (Of course, great books can help. Check out this list of books to teach social-emotional skills.) 30. Use assessment to inform teaching. It’s increasingly common for teachers to be asked to collect extensive data about their young students’ literacy skills. Don’t lose sight of the primary goal, though. Experts Peter Johnston and Peter Afflerbach remind us, “Assessment is formative when it makes teaching more responsive.” Observation checklists, documenting of student conversations, and running records are helpful tools for identifying student needs. 31. Learn from a developmental spelling inventory. Source: This Reading Mama One type of formative assessment that’s particularly helpful for planning phonics instruction and informing writing conferences is a developmental spelling inventory. We’re partial to the Primary Spelling Inventory from Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction. (Bonus: In our experience, young students feel so grown up when completing this task.) 32. Find a data management system that works for you. Assessment information isn’t helpful unless you can use it. Find systems that work for you for keeping track of data for yourself, and for sharing it with students in developmentally appropriate ways. Start with these ideas. 33. Make the most of small group instruction. Many schools have moved towards more focused small group instruction by adopting guided reading, but don’t stop there. Flexible small groups can be formed to teach writing strategies, phonics, and comprehension strategies, too. Plan meeting frequencies so kids who need more, get more. 34. Individualize instruction using conferences. Conferring with students is an ideal way to target individual needs. Having a clear structure and a bank of appropriate teaching points in mind for emergent readers and writers helps maximize every brief interaction. This free resource from expert Jennifer Serravallo is full of useful info. 35. Take notes! Great conferring notes are so useful for planning your next move. Distractions are constant in the lower grades, so an easy-to-use system for keeping track of your work with students is essential. This post from Two Writing Teachers covers myriad analog and digital options. 36. Make sure colleagues are “on the same page.” We’re borrowing a pun from Nell Duke, here, because we completely agree. Learning standards tell us the “what” of early literacy teaching, but the “how” is just as crucial. It’s also subject to inconsistent interpretation. Use these guides from the Michigan’s Early Literacy Task Force as inspiration for outlining agreements about best practices in your school. 37. Collaborate virtually. Teacher collaboration is definitely no longer limited by geography. Join Facebook groups for curriculum programs you use, like this one for the Units of Study in Writing. If you’re a little late to the Twitter game, catch up with the free online course Twitter for Educators and begin building a Personal Learning Network related to early literacy. 38. Give a new teacher a hand. We’ve heard countless comments from teachers about how they felt unprepared for certain aspects of literacy instruction as newbies. Knowing what to teach when and supporting kids who struggle take practice! Give support with dedicated coaching for new teachers. 39. Make sure students get consistent messages. Learning to read and write is hard enough! Offer training for all those who support young learners in your school. Cover details like which keywords you use to cue short vowel sounds or how to correctly segment words when supporting invented spelling. 40. Make your whole school a print-rich environment. Noting print in their environment is a key component of building early literacy concepts. Being surrounded by it wherever students travel in school means more opportunities to notice it. Get a group of staff together and spend an hour after school creating kid-friendly labels and signs. Or, better yet, involve students in the process. 41. Team up with specialist teachers. Viewing early literacy as a team effort benefits kids. Music teachers can support learning songs and chants used in the classroom for shared reading. (This is especially helpful if your teacher talents don’t include singing in tune!) Art teachers can support students’ ability to draw with detail, which ties in nicely with early writing lessons. Talking about works of art with young children is also fantastic for building oral language. This post from Tinkerlab offers helpful guidance. 42. Gather your cheerleaders. Authentic purposes for reading, writing, and speaking help students develop literacy skills. Get school community members to help. The principal who responds to a Kindergartener’s persuasive letter, the custodian who asks for student help writing reminder signs to keep restrooms tidy, and the fifth-grade buddies who joyfully attend a first-grade readers’ theater performance all send the message that students’ work matters. 43. Buddy up. Speaking of fifth-grade buddies…multiage literacy pairings have so many benefits. Older kids can provide examples of fluent reading. They also motivate younger learners in a different way than adults. Dedicating time to literacy activities shared between grades sends the message that literacy is important across your entire school. 44. Host family literacy events. The best family literacy events build excitement about reading and writing and showcase strategies in a way that’s accessible to your school population. We love these simple suggestions from Colorin Colorado, like providing a variety of read alouds and fun activities so families can join in however they are comfortable. 45. Enhance and celebrate literacy learning with video. It’s no secret that video is an engaging communication medium. Use it to introduce literacy concepts, document learning, and share information with families. A free educator Animoto account makes it simple to create and share compilations. Even young students can learn to use digital storytelling apps like 30hands Storyteller, as shown by superstar teacher Kory Graham. 46. Rethink your reading log. Reading logs can be a great way to encourage reading at home, but a common complaint is that they zap the pleasure right out of it. How about shifting to an open-ended, family-focused reading log like this one? (Be sure to let families know that for pre-readers, being read to or “reading the pictures” definitely count!) 47. Send family tips via text. Operating under the premise that many parents want to support their kids’ learning, but could benefit from gentle “nudge” reminders about appropriate ways to do so, researchers are exploring the benefits of texting educational tips to parents. So far, they’ve seen favorable results. It’s an approach to consider if you’re looking to share early literacy tips with families in a new way. 48. Encourage families to support children’s early literacy in the language they speak best. ELL families should be encouraged to tell oral stories and read aloud in their home languages. Help families seek out books in their home languages, or share wordless books that they can adapt themselves. 49. Champion the public library. If you aren’t already BFFs with a children’s librarian in your school’s community, what are you waiting for? Public libraries encourage family literacy when school’s not in session. Plus, they offer tons of knowledge-boosting perks like special programs and museum passes. Join forces to let your students’ families know about the resources available to them. 50. Aim for JOY. Remember the end game: cultivating in children a love of reading, writing, and communicating with others that fuels a lifetime of learning. Marvel over books, words, and student successes together every day. We know schools are doing amazing work to promote early literacy. Which strategies have been successful in your school to promote early literacy? What’s still challenging? Share your thoughts in our WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook.

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The essential ingredient of a good story is sequence: a plot in which one event follows another in an orderly way, and every element plays its part in advancing the story line. Ever since Aristotle, it has been generally accepted that a story must have a beginning, a middle, and an end, and that these elements should normally be closely connected to one another. To be sure, we are perhaps more plot-driven in our culture than at most times and places in history. We tend to be impatient with slow-moving novels, and we expect our stories to evidence a tight narrative structure. A book like Victor Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame, which contains a whole chapter that simply describes the view over fifteenth-century Paris from the roof of the cathedral, quickly makes us seek out the abridged version. Yet even that chapter has a function within the larger narrative of The Hunchback, giving the book a gothic, overdecorated tone that matches the architecture of the cathedral itself. What function does Numbers 15 play in its context though? Why does the writer suddenly switch from telling a story to recounting what seems at first sight to be a series of miscellaneous laws? Is this simply poor storytelling technique? Or is there a method to his apparent madness, a reason why these particular laws fit into this particular context and move the overall narrative forward? You may remember that we asked the same question back in our discussion of Numbers 7 and found there that the laws inserted in the narrative had a particular significance within their specific narrative. The same is true here. Numbers 15 is primarily about different kinds of sacrifices. The connection between the various sections of this chapter and what precedes this chapter becomes clear when you understand the purpose of these sacrifices. Israel’s sacrifices served a number of different functions in their religious life. Some sacrifices provided atonement for sin, others paid tribute to their heavenly overlord, while still others were the means of enjoying table fellowship with their covenant King. In this chapter, all three purposes are present. The opening section focuses on the meal aspect of these sacrifices (vv. 1–21), the offering of the first dough functions as tribute to the King (vv. 22–26), while the remainder of the section on offerings discusses which sins can be atoned for and which cannot (vv. 27–36). The case study of the man gathering wood on the Sabbath is included at this point as an example of a sin that cannot be atoned for, and then the chapter closes with the requirement that the Israelites wear tassels on their garments as a reminder of their covenant God (vv. 37–41). As we will see in our next study, this last section sums up the theme of the whole chapter, describing the obligations that flow from a relationship of grace. First, the narrator describes the offerings made by fire (vv. 1–13). These sacrifices were not those that were required to atone for specific sins but rather those associated with more general fellowship with God, whether burnt offerings or fellowship offerings.1 These sacrifices were offered in the fire on the altar, and the smoke from the sacrifice ascended as an aroma pleasing to the Lord, as if the Lord too were participating in the meal. The regulations in Numbers 15 strengthen the picture of table fellowship between God and man by requiring a symbolic balanced meal at these offerings: a large portion of meat must always be accompanied by the appropriate carbohydrates and beverage. A grain offering of two quarts of flour mixed with oil was required with a sheep or a goat, together with a drink offering of a quart of wine (vv. 4, 5). Moreover, a sheep or a goat was only the small-size serving. These sacrifices also come in “regular” portions (a ram; vv. 6, 7) and “super-size” (a bull; vv. 8–10). In each case, the accompanying “side orders” had to be scaled up to match (vv. 11, 12). REBUKE AND PROMISE In the context of the surrounding narrative, these laws were both a rebuke and a promise. They were a rebuke to the unbelief that doubted the goodness of the Promised Land: if the future Israelites would be able to offer such substantial meals to their God, then they themselves would hardly go hungry. There would be abundant food for all. Yet alongside the implicit rebuke is a clear promise of grace for the future: in the days ahead, the Lord will enjoy fellowship with his people on a continuing basis. God and man will still eat together at one table. Aren’t you amazed by God’s overwhelming grace to sinners? I don’t know about you, but if I were the Lord, my patience with Israel would have been long since exhausted by this point in the journey. He had brought them safely all the way from Egypt. Yet at the threshold of entry into the Promised Land, the majority of the scouts fell victim to unbelief and spread a bad report about the nature of the land and the power of its occupants (13:32). For their part, the people chose to believe the bad report of the majority, which left the Lord out of the equation entirely, in spite of the passionate pleas of Joshua and Caleb to trust God. They were ready to stone Joshua and Caleb, elect new leadership, and march right back to Egypt (14:1–4, 10). Even after the people heard the Lord pronounce judgment on their unbelief and send them back toward the wilderness, their next act was a further step of unbelief, trying now to enter the land without the Lord’s help (14:40–45). What is the Lord to do with such a people? I know what I would do! After all this ingratitude, if I were the Lord, I would have been ready to wipe out the whole nation on the spot, whatever Moses might say on their behalf. The Lord’s very next word to his people after this renewed act of unbelief was this, however: “When you come into the land you are to inhabit, which I am giving you …” (15:2)! Isn’t that incredible? God’s good plan for this people was not aborted in spite of all of their sin. There was a future for Israel in the land of promise, a future of intimate relationship. What is more, God didn’t simply restore Israel while keeping them at a distance. Sometimes we do that. Perhaps we promise a friend that we will take him or her to the airport next week. In between our making the promise and the time for the trip, though, we have a falling out. We may still do what we said we would for our friend because we feel obligated, but the atmosphere on the trip may be like the inside of a freezer. We do what we have promised, but we do not restore the relationship. God is not like us, however. He welcomes Israel back into his presence, to share fellowship. Our God is indeed, as Moses said, “slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love, forgiving iniquity and transgression” (14:18, quoting Exodus 34:6, 7). God’s grace is also evident in the insistence of the passage that this fellowship with the Lord extends to both native-born Israelites and sojourning aliens alike (vv. 13–16). The rules are to be the same for both. Once again the significance of that ruling in this context goes beyond the obvious. On the one hand, it is certainly true that in this regulation there is a faint foreshadowing of the gospel call to the nations, that one day Jews and Gentiles would be able to stand before God side by side on the same terms. Far from the Gentiles always being enemies to be feared, one day at least some of them will come to worship Israel’s God. Aliens and strangers were to be welcomed into the covenant community. However, that is not the only significance of the regulations here. In this context the key significance of this ruling is surely that one day in the future there will be native-born Israelites! There will one day be a generation of children who from birth can call the Promised Land home. At this point in the book of Numbers, this declaration calls for faith on the part of Israel. The Israelites were still themselves wandering aliens, trekking through the wilderness. In fact, they had just been condemned to wander there for another forty years (14:34). Yet God promised that their children would nonetheless enter the Promised Land and inherit it as their own. This regulation that sojourners and native-born Israelites be treated alike depends on, and reaffirms, that promise. One day there would be native-born Israelites, people with a natural birthright of access to God that mere aliens and sojourners in their midst would envy. The new generation of native-born Israelites, the very ones whom the older generation in their unbelief had asserted would become plunder for the inhabitants of the land (14:3), would actually have profound rights and privileges before God. However, along with privileges also come responsibilities, as we see in the next sequence of laws concerning the first dough (vv. 17–21). Since God is the one who gives the land to his people, they in turn need to make an offering from everything that it produces. That is the principle behind the requirement elsewhere that Israel tithe all of their crops and herds and that every year they offer the firstfruits to the Lord. In the days to come, though, they were also to take the first portion of every batch of dough2 and present it to the Lord. This law also presupposes that the people will receive the promise of the land, which will provide grain and flour in abundance. What is more, this regulation brings the law of firstfruits home to every household: the firstfruits of both the threshing floor and the vat were already claimed by God (Exodus 22:29; cf. Numbers 18:12, 13), but that would merely have been a single annual obligation, much like we have to file an annual tax return. Now they had to bring the first cake out of every batch of bread that they prepared to the priest as a gift to the Lord. In that way the cooks would constantly be reminded of the one from whom their daily bread came. THE WAY TO TRUE FREEDOM When you look at these laws in their narrative context, they thus show us profound spiritual truths. To begin with, they challenge our instinctive notion that obedience to God’s Law is bondage and that doing whatever we want brings freedom. In the previous chapter Israel chose the way of unbelief, which led to disobedience. They were afraid that if they obeyed God and did what he required, it would lead to death for themselves and bondage for their children (14:3). Yet, in reality it was their unbelief that led to their lives being wasted in the wilderness. Disobedience broke their relationship with God and led to death. On the other hand, faith follows the way of obedience to the demands of God’s Law, which in turn, as these regulations underscore, leads to life in God’s presence and fellowship with him. The goal of God’s regulations is not to ruin our lives but to fulfill them. The same negative dynamic often operates in our own lives. Why is it that we give in to sin and disobedience so often, even though we know what we are doing is wrong? Why is it that we are so ineffective when we try to sanctify ourselves by our own effort, by telling ourselves to work harder? Such an approach rarely brings about lasting change in our lives because the root of our sin lies buried more deeply than our effort can reach. Tackling sin with mere effort is like trying to fight a tank with a water pistol: our weaponry cannot reach the heart of the issue. In fact, our heart is the heart of the issue: the underlying dynamic that drives our sin is our unbelief.3 Like the Israelites, we have false beliefs about God that we persist in doggedly in spite of all of the evidence to the contrary. Until these deep-rooted core beliefs are challenged, little real change is possible in our lives. That is why even when we recognize that our sinful patterns lead to painful consequences, we often find that we cannot change them. The fundamental problem that drove Israel’s patterns of sin was their failure to believe that God is good and had good purposes for them. Faced with oversized enemies entrenched in fortified cities, Israel concluded that they would certainly die in any attempt to conquer the land (14:3). This is unbelief. In spite of the evidence of the firstfruits of the land in the shape of an enormous bunch of grapes (13:23), Israel chose instead to believe the majority report of the scouts that the land was bad and that it devoured its inhabitants (13:32). This is unbelief. When the Lord condemned them to wander another forty years in the wilderness, they then decided they could conquer the giant-infested land after all, with or without God (14:40–45). This is unbelief. Unbelief drove their disobedience. THE DYNAMICS OF UNBELIEF We need to clarify something at this point, however. When we speak of unbelief, it sounds very passive. Sometimes people will say, “Oh, it’s wonderful that you believe the things you do about God. You are a person of such faith. But I’m afraid I don’t have your kind of faith.” They make it sound as if Christians have the ability to believe in something, but they, poor souls, do not. Actually, though, unbelief is a position involving just as much faith as belief. Unbelief is as strongly committed to its view of the world as belief is. There is no such thing as a faith-free zone in this world. This is clear from the example of the Israelites. Their actions were all profoundly irrational, if the Creator God of the universe was committed to them. They only make sense if Israel believed that God was actually their enemy, determined to do them harm. Unbelief is the opposite of faith not in being the absence of faith, but in being faith in the opposite set of propositions about God. Unbelief is the firm faith that, for all practical purposes, God does not exist, God does not care, God is not involved actively in my life. The same dynamic of unbelief drives our own patterns of sin. Does giving in to sin really work for us? Does it fulfill us and leave us feeling warm and cozy all over? Does not following the path of sin, in most cases, leave us in the wilderness, thirsty and hungry and profoundly empty? So why do we continue to do it? Why are we so easily led astray into temptation and sin? It is because at a deep level we don’t really believe that God is good and has good purposes for us. We have a deep-seated practical belief that, on the contrary, God is not really working all things for our good. If we believed profoundly in God’s existence, power, and good purpose for us, then studying his laws and following them would become so natural and obvious that our lives would be transformed from the center outward. THE ROAD TO RELATIONSHIP That is why Numbers 15 makes a fitting sequel to Numbers 14. Israel’s unbelief and disobedience that led to a broken relationship was not the end of the road for God’s relationship with his people. Relationship with him is, after all, the good purpose for which God has designed us. The Westminster Shorter Catechism tells us that we were made “to glorify God and to enjoy him forever.” Or to put it another way, we were created to enjoy a relationship of close fellowship with God. Why was God going to bring Israel into the Promised Land? Was it simply so they could have a beautiful place in which to live, equipped with all of the ancient conveniences? Far from it: entry into the land was merely the beginning of God’s purpose for them. Once they were in the land, Israel would begin to offer these sacrifices, which would then be the means of their experiencing rich fellowship with the living God. Whereas Numbers 14 showed that disobedience leads to death, Numbers 15 shows that the doorway to a life-giving relationship with God is still open. If the older generation had truly believed that was God’s enduring purpose for them, as Joshua and Caleb did, then they would have been prepared to take on whatever giants they faced in order to enter the land. They would not even have feared death if they had truly believed in God’s good purpose of lasting fellowship with himself. The nature of God’s good purpose for us is an important point to grasp because for some people around us sin does seem to be “working”—at least, if our understanding of the purpose of existence is skewed. If the chief end of man is to have a comfortable life, surrounded by everything our heart desires, then sin is definitely working for some people. That is what troubled the psalmist in Psalm 73. He saw people around him who had no commitment to follow God and pursue his ways, yet whose lives were free from visible trouble and pain, who seemed outwardly to be prospering (vv. 2–12). His faith was jolted, and he wondered if his obedience to God was just so much wasted effort (vv. 13, 14). Visiting the sanctuary reoriented the psalmist’s thinking, however. What he saw there was exactly what Numbers 15 makes provision for: rich fellowship between God and his people that transcends the generations. There in the sanctuary, the psalmist realized what he had that the wicked lacked: God’s presence and favor with him now and the prospect of that fellowship continuing on into glory. “Whom have I in heaven but you? And there is nothing on earth that I desire besides you. My flesh and my heart may fail, but God is the strength of my heart and my portion forever” (vv. 25, 26). He grasped afresh the fact that God’s good purpose for his people was fellowship with them, both now and forever, and suddenly the position of the wicked didn’t seem so enviable after all. Embracing that relationship as his highest desire changed his heart and dealt with his grumbling spirit. The motivating power of all sin lies in failing to believe God’s good purpose for us, which is for us to glorify him and enjoy him forever. Temptation always offers us something: Satan never goes fishing with a bare hook. It doesn’t always deliver what it seems to offer, but it always offers something. Yet whatever temptation offers us, it cannot offer us the opportunity to glorify or to enjoy God. Whatever we are pursuing when we sin, it is always something less than God’s good purpose for us. It is a functional idolatry of something other than the Lord. In practice, we are believing that something else is better than experiencing joyous fellowship with him forever. Something else has become our chief purpose in life, the desire that is driving us. Perhaps it is comfort or pleasure or pleasing people or succeeding in our career or having the perfect home. Idols come in all shapes and sizes, but until we do what the psalmist did and reorient our thinking at the most basic level, sin will always seem more attractive to us than righteousness as a means to satisfy our idolatry. As long as something other than fellowship with God is our chief purpose in life, we will easily be seduced away from obedience. THE CONSEQUENCES OF FELLOWSHIP Desiring fellowship with God above all else is not only the foundation for our obedience—it will shape our attitude toward giving as well. Numbers 15 makes substantial demands on the resources of God’s people. We may well not grasp how substantial they were since we don’t typically own working livestock, but an ox was the equivalent of a tractor or a car in the ancient world. Imagine taking your car to church as an offering and watching it go up in flames. That would be quite a commitment! The animal sacrifices laid out in the opening verses were thus not cheap, and even the commitment to give the first of every batch of dough would have meant an offering if not daily, at least weekly. It would be almost like setting another place at your table every mealtime for the Lord. How does your heart respond to such demands from God? Do they seem reasonable and desirable or burdensome and repressive? Let me suggest that our response to the Scriptural obligations for giving is a good diagnostic test of what we are really thinking about God and about our chief purpose in life. The issue is not how much we give but our heart attitude to giving. Under the new covenant, we are no longer obligated to bring sheep and bulls to offer God, along with loaves of bread and offerings of wine. Nor are we obligated to bring to church the first roll out of every batch of sourdough bread that we bake. As a pastor, I certainly appreciate it when people in my church bring me a cake or a meal they have made, but they are not under any Scriptural duty to do so. How do we respond to that freedom? If we don’t really think God has our best interests at heart, and our chief desire is something other than fellowship with him, we will view that freedom as freedom from giving. We may still give something to the Lord, because it would look bad if we let the plate pass us by Sunday by Sunday. We may even give a large amount, if doing that feeds our functional idolatries by making others think well of us. However, we will be giving essentially for our own sake, and not for the Lord. How will we respond, however, if we are thoroughly convinced that God is good and has the good purpose of fellowship with us, now and forever? We will desire to excel in the grace of giving, to use Paul’s terminology (2 Corinthians 8:7). We will seek to cut down our other expenses so we can give more generously to the Lord’s work, so that others too—others who are presently aliens and strangers when it comes to God—can know his beauty and enjoy his fellowship as their supreme purpose as well. Often discussion of our giving revolves around the question “To tithe or not to tithe?” Am I obligated to give 10 percent of my income to the Lord, as Old Testament believers were, or does that requirement no longer apply to me? However, that question is already headed in the wrong direction.4 Even in the Old Testament, the tithe was merely the first of many obligations and opportunities to give, obligations and opportunities that flowed out of Israel’s relationship with God and the grace they had received from him. It is not coincidental that the various offerings that speak of fellowship with God come before the requirement to offer tribute through the first dough offering. Knowledge of God and his grace is foundational to the requirement to give. Indeed, many of the offerings in Numbers 15 were voluntary, not compulsory, and there was certainly no rule that established how large the cake offered from the first of the dough had to be. If Israel’s thinking about God was correct, it would have been constantly evident to them that everything their land produced came to them from the Lord, the one who had given them the land in the first place. If they understood that, then the question on their lips would not be “Do I have to give?” but “How much am I able to give?” It is the same for us. If we understand that everything we have comes to us from the Lord and that he has a good purpose for us, which is nothing other than fellowship with him, then we are ready to ask ourselves, “How much am I able to give?” In fact, it is even more true for us, for we understand more fully the cost at which our fellowship was bought. For the Old Testament saints, their fellowship meals with God were never vegetarian affairs. An animal had to die for the fellowship between God and man to take place. That is not coincidental. It is a picture of how fellowship between God and man would ultimately be restored through the death of Christ on the cross. Our Savior didn’t ask, “How much do I have to give?” He didn’t just give the first lump of his dough or even sacrifice a costly bull out of his own resources. For the sake of our fellowship with the Father, he offered himself as a living sacrifice, nailed to the cross. His fellowship with the Father was temporarily broken so our fellowship with the Father could be permanently restored. All of his sufferings were experienced so the vision depicted in the fellowship sacrifices of Israel could become a reality: God and man seated together around a table, enjoying rich fellowship together. As the apostle Peter put it, “you were ransomed … not with perishable things such as silver or gold, but with the precious blood of Christ, like that of a lamb without blemish or spot” (1 Peter 1:18, 19). If we understand the sacrifice of Christ, by which God pays for our forgiveness, then obedience to his law is transformed. No longer is it a burden for us to bear as slaves; now it is an opportunity for us to serve as sons or daughters, a way for us to experience deeper fellowship with him. If we understand that God’s goal for us is to redeem us from an empty way of life and give us the fellowship with him that we were created for, then nothing can be too much for him to ask. God’s gift of Jesus proves beyond a shadow of a doubt his care for us and the power of his desire for relationship with us. He so wanted us to be with him for eternity that he died for us on the cross. Why then will we persist in our unbelief? How can we remain skeptical about God, no matter what difficulties face us? Why do we hold back from doing what we know God wants us to do because we fear it may be too costly? His unquenchable purpose for us is that we may know him and enjoy him forever, and his plan for our lives is entirely directed toward that goal. The gospel rescues us from our wilderness of unbelief and brings us into a new relationship with God even now, with all of its privileges and responsibilities. It continues to transform us day by day until we enter his presence, once and for all. How awesome that such grace should be shown to sinners! How incredible that such mercy should be shown to us! Yet in Christ, God who is full of grace has shown rich mercy to us so that we should be called the children of God, heirs of his promise. This blog is taken from Kent Hughes book called Numbers: God’s presence in the wilderness (pp. 179–188).

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The Odyssey, traditionally attributed to Homer, is one of the two great Greek epic poems1. It tells the story of Odysseus' journey home from the Trojan War. Over the course of his ten-year journey, Odysseus encounters many perils: giants, a cyclops, witches, spirits and gods. At the time that The Odyssey was composed, the Greek alphabet had not yet been developed and the poem is a product of a completely oral tradition. The ancient Greek epic tradition was an oral-formulaic tradition. In oral-formulaic traditions, generations of poet performers develop a special poetic language that consists of a vast number of metrical phrases (formulae) and longer story elements (themes or type-scenes) out of which long narrative poems are extemporaneously constructed. Although this technique may seem restrictive and eliminating originality, in fact, the poets were able to use many of the same literary devices used by modern novelists. For the Odyssey to be the well-known story that it is today, Homer's telling of the Odyssey must have been well worth listening to. One of the characteristics of a good story, now as then, is that the audience is captivated, glued to their seats, so to speak. Homer achieves this using many different techniques that can be categorised into four main groups: - The use of figures of speech, such as metaphors - Fantasy, ie the supernatural - The relationship between characters and plot Figures of Speech While there are other methods and tactics that Homer uses, the following are the most common and most important ones: A formula is where part of the text is repeated; for example '... as dawn rose red and rosy fingered...' is a common formula in the Odyssey. The repetition not only helps the bard2 or rhapsode3 to remember what comes next in the story, but it also has to do with very complex Greek grammar, where a certain adjective for a hero would be called for in a certain case. The same would go for any kind of character and a poet would have these phrases ready to use, having learned his craft from a master. As a result of the rhapsode using the formulae, the story should 'flow' better. However when you read, as opposed to hearing formulae, they may end up seeming monotonous, as things get repeated on a larger scale or more often. Another good example of this use of formulae can be found in the epic Gilgamesh where it is used a great deal, with entire paragraphs often repeated, making it hard to read at times. A metaphor is when one thing is described as something else, thereby portraying a clear idea in a 'visual' way. Metaphors and similes help to maintain the audience's interest, because the technique captures the imagination. Metaphors are used to explain things that the audience may not be able to comprehend by relating it to something that they have already seen. For example, when Odysseus has just slain the suitors and Homer compares the dead suitors to a mound of dead fish, conjuring up the image of fish twitching and flopping. This would definitely capture the attention of an audience as not only do these scenes portray the mighty power of the hero but are also gruesome enough to keep the attention of a more modern, possibly bloodthirstier, audience. A simile is when something is described and/or compared to something else using the words 'like' or 'as'. The simile is perhaps the most characteristic figure in Homer's repertoire, often being hugely extended into mini-narratives of their own. In the same scene Odysseus is: ... like a lion when he comes from feeding on a farmer's bullock, with the blood dripping from his breast and jaws on either side, a fearsome spectacle... An epithet is an adjective put alongside a character's name to describe them either in general terms or at that particular moment in time. For example Odysseus is often referred to as resourceful or cunning. Often epithets are used to help explore a character's traits. Homer's descriptions of Odysseus help with his character development, giving the audience ideas to think about, helping them enjoy and understand the story, thus maintaining our interest in it. At other times the epithet is somewhat incongruous, demonstrating the fact that the epithets are fundamentally metrical place-holding formulae. Dramatic irony and pathos are two other literary techniques that Homer uses to good effect in the Odyssey. Dramatic irony is when the audience either are familiar with the story or are informed about something that the characters do not know, so they can foresee what will happen before the characters do. A good example of how Homer uses dramatic irony is just before the battle in the hall, '... believe me, this bow will break the heart and spirit of many a companion here'. These words are spoken by Leodes, the first of the suitors to attempt to string the bow. This is dramatic, as it is the bow that he is talking about that will kill the suitors and so it truly is '... the bow that will seal our fate', as Antinous said. Pathos is when a feeling of sorrow or pity towards something or someone is aroused by the author. The use of pathos helps to bring the audience into the story, allowing them to feel for the characters as if they were real, living people. Bringing the audience into the story in this way enables any author, to easily maintain audiences' interest. An unexpected example of this is when the Cyclops stops the last ram, the one that bears Odysseus, and tells it his feelings. This speech creates pathos for the Cyclops, who until this point we have not felt any sympathy for. This dramatic twist is completely unexpected and we start to feel sorry for a creature that has devoured several of Odysseus' men. Suspense is a major part in keeping a modern reader's interest. One must remember that the original audience would already know the story of Odysseus. Suspense is something that the story offers to the modern reader. The interests of the ancient audience were vastly different. The Gods and Fates Gods and the vagaries of fate are the main representations of the fantastical and supernatural in almost all Greek epics. These allow for the stories to be far more fascinating and interesting, and with a world as large as that of the gods, there is a lot that can be done. Natural phenomena such as rainbows couldn't be rationalised in ancient Greece, but could be explained by the presence of the gods or gods' will. Homer can then include in his story things that are seemingly impossible like the Cyclops and the Laestrygonians, and when made so vivid, the supernatural power of the gods and the various monsters is captivating. This can be seen in Homer's description of the Laestrygonians as 'powerful' and 'more like giants than men'. With a pervading sense that the gods can do as they please, order is needed as a counterfoil. This is provided by fate, which is a line that no one, not even Zeus, can cross. This gives the audience a sense of security; we are told from the very beginning that it is fated that Odysseus will make it back to Ithaca. This is very similar to the Roman version of the story, The Aeneid, written by Virgil, where the audience is told near the beginning that the hero is fated to found the city that will become Rome. This intricate network of gods, bound by fate, is possibly what makes the Odyssey and other Greek epics what they are. This exploration of the relationship between gods and fate is lost in modern literature. What the modern reader has instead is fantasy, such as The Lord of the Rings, the Harry Potter books and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Characters vs Plot The characters themselves help to maintain the interest of the audience. Often overlooked, it's not necessarily the individual characters that are important, but the framework they create that is necessary for all epics. At the centre of the book we need a hero who is 'strong in mind and body'. This is exactly what Odysseus is and the audience is told this at the very beginning where Zeus himself says those words about Odysseus. Aristotle argued in his work on literary theory, Poetics, that plot was more important than characters to evoke emotion in the audience, and the Odyssey serves as a good example for his argument. With the involvement of the gods and fate, who oversee and intervene where necessary. We also have evil, in the shape of the suitors, as well as various capricious women such as Circe, Calypso and Athena, over whom 'good' is trying to conquer. The idea of good triumphing over evil would have been enjoyed, allowing the audience to listen to the sub-stories in good spirits, making it less likely for them to stop listening. Overall, Homer uses a wide range of techniques to maintain the audience's attention; these are mainly similes and metaphors, epithets, dramatic irony and pathos, suspense, the gods and fate and the characters themselves. Each element contributes to making the story exciting and interesting. Who Is Who? You will, unless you read this, be inundated with names that you have never heard of before. The main players are: Odysseus' Friends and Family Odysseus - Hero, 'wise beyond all mortal men', husband to Penelope, father to Telemachus and son of Laertes. Lost on his way back from Troy. Penelope - Odysseus' faithful wife, who is trying to keep the suitors4 at bay. Telemachus - Odysseus' 20-year-old son, who goes looking for his father as well as looking after the family house, his inheritance and his mother. Laertes - Odysseus' father; lives in seclusion in the country and doesn't play a large role in the book. Eumaios - Swineherd; a faithful servant of Odysseus. Philoetius - Cowherd; a faithful servant of Odysseus. Eurycleia - Faithful old servant of the family. She mainly looks after Penelope in this book, although she did raise both Odysseus and Telemachus. Nestor - Comrade to Odysseus at Troy, sends his son to help Telemachus search for his father. Menelaus - Leader of the attack on Troy, along with his brother Agamemnon. Helen, Menelaus' wife, has been abducted by the Trojan, Paris, which led to the war in the first place. Argos - Odysseus' old hunting dog. Alkinous - King of the Phaeacians, to whom Odysseus tells most of his story in a kind of a 'flash-back'. Nausicaa - Daughter of King Alkinous; rescuer of Odysseus. Demodokos - Blind minstrel who brought Odysseus to tears with his stories of Troy, thus giving his identity away. The Opposition on Ithaca Antinous - Ringleader of Penelope's suitors and the first to die. Eurymachus - Another of the lead suitors, who threw a stool at Odysseus when he was disguised. Melanthius - Goatherd; no longer faithful to Odysseus and is now on the side of the suitors. Gods, Monsters and Immortals Athena - Goddess of wisdom and war. She is Odysseus' guiding light through his journey, acting as his counsel, watching over him wherever he goes. Calypso - Nymph who wants Odysseus as her husband and so keeps him on her island for seven years. Circe - Goddess/witch who turns some of Odysseus' men into swine, but then helps Odysseus on his way. Poseidon - 'Earth shaker', god of the sea who hinders Odysseus because of what he does to Polyphemus, his son. Polyphemus - A cyclops, that is, a giant with a single eye in the centre of his forehead. He is the most powerful cyclops of all, and son of Poseidon. Teiresias - Blind Theban prophet whom Odysseus seeks in the underworld. Zeus - King of the gods, upholder of fate, ruler of the sky. Athena's father. Hermes - Messenger god, carrying Zeus' commands to and fro. Also helps Odysseus defeat Circe. Scylla and Charybdis - Scylla is a six-headed monster that eats passing sailors, Charybdis is a neighbour of Scylla's and is another monster who creates whirlpools and eats passing ships. This summary may seem long but it is an epic, after all. Book One - The book starts halfway through the story as Athena gains permission from Zeus to let Odysseus leave Calypso's island where he is being held. Athena, in disguise, tells Telemachus to go to his father's former comrades to see if they know where Odysseus is. Book Two - The suitors turn down Telemachus when he asks them for a ship, but Athena, always there when you need her, guides him by night to one that is moored. She then rounds up a crew for him as well. Book Three - Telemachus meets Nestor, one of Odysseus' mates from Troy. Nestor has news of other warriors at Troy which he then tells to Telemachus, but none of Odysseus. Telemachus goes with Nestor's son to Sparta to see if another of Odysseus' comrades has any better news. Book Four - After finding Menelaus and his wife, Helen, Telemachus starts his journey back home with new-found confidence. Menelaus and Helen have told him of Menelaus' travels back from Troy; among his adventures is his meeting with an old man of the sea who tells of Odysseus' troubles on Calypso's island. Book Five - Features the retelling of the story of Odysseus being trapped on Calypso's island because she is in love with him and won't let him go. Athena intervenes with Zeus and gets him to tell Calypso, through Hermes, that enough is enough and that after holding him for seven years she must now let Odysseus go. Odysseus is determined to continue along his fated path and builds a raft to carry on with his journey. He is hindered by a storm created by Poseidon, and is still angry about Polyphemus (see book nine), that washes him up on the shores of Phaeacia where he hides in the woods, naked, and goes to sleep. Book Six - The princess of Phaeacia and her maids who are playing close by the beach, wake Odysseus with all of their noise and he goes to see what is going on. He finds the princess Nausicaa who tells him to come to the palace later and meet the king and queen. She also gives him some clothes to wear, along with some detailed instructions. Book Seven - Odysseus begs for help from the king and queen at Phaeacia, giving a short version of his story. However he does give them his name. Book Eight - Odysseus is at the palace where the king and queen entertain him according to ancient Greek customs. After shedding tears repeatedly when Demodokus tells of Troy, prompting them to question him, Odysseus proudly tells them who he is, and agrees to tell them the story of his journey so far. Book Nine - Odysseus first tells of his encounter with the Cicones, a race of people that lived near the north east of modern Greece, and how they had a mighty battle. He then tells of the Lotus-eaters and how his men were nearly kept there, overcome by the power of the lotus fruit. Next comes the particularly gruesome story of the Cyclops: 12 men went over to the island of the Cyclops and entered a cave. When the Cyclops returned, he began to eat Odysseus' men, keeping them captive in the cave for days. Odysseus finally came up with a cunning plan: to blind the Cyclops and escape from the cave. He and some men put a hot stake in the Cyclops' eye after first getting him drunk on exceedingly strong wine5 and then once the Cyclops has opened the cave, they escaped by clinging to the underside of the Cyclops' sheep as they ran out. Just as the shipmates are leaving the island, Odysseus calls back, telling the Cyclops his real name, which is possibly the most thoughtless and unintelligent thing that Odysseus does in the entire epic, as armed with his name, the Cyclops, Polyphemus, curses Odysseus. Book Ten - Odysseus and his men first sail to the floating island of Aeolia where they meet the god of the winds. Aeolus gives Odysseus a bag full of all the winds so that he can get home safely, but his 'Fools of men', thinking Odysseus is cheating them of some spoils, open the bag and they are blown back to Aeolus' island. They are promptly thrown off the island and so continue their voyage. They come to the land of the Laestrygonians where these giants of men destroy all the fleet, except for Odysseus' boat and crew, who manage to escape amid the turmoil. Odysseus next arrives at the island of Aeaea where half of his men are turned into pigs by Circe. He goes to save them and is helped by Hermes. Following the god's instructions, Odysseus defeats the witch-like Circe and his men are returned to their true form. After a year of banquets it is time to move on, and so Odysseus and his men set off, but not before they are told by Circe that they have to go into the underworld to seek advice and thus ensure their return home. Book 11 - Odysseus follows Circe's instructions and makes a sacrifice after entering the halls of Hades. He sees the prophet Teiresias, who tells Odysseus what is to happen to him in the future. Odysseus also sees the ghost of his mother, a member of his crew that died on the island of Circe and various Greek heroes. Book 12 - Odysseus next sails on, past Scylla and Charybdis, to the island of the sun god where they are warned not to harm the cattle. However Odysseus' men, driven by hunger, go on to kill and eat some of the cattle and Zeus, in his anger, strikes Odysseus' ship with lightning, all of the crew but Odysseus die, and Odysseus is swept up onto Calypso's island, where he spends the next seven years. At this point Odysseus stops telling his story to the Phaeacians. Book 13 - The king of Phaeacia gives Odysseus passage on a ship and he eventually arrives back on the coast of Ithaca. Once on Ithaca, Athena helps him on his way to get rid of the suitors by changing his appearance and disguising him as a beggar. Book 14 - In disguise, Odysseus goes into the hut of his swineherd, Eumaios. Not knowing where Eumaios' allegiances lie he does not tell him his true identity but instead tells him made up stories. Eumaios doesn't believe him, but enjoys the stories anyway. Book 15 - After finding out that Odysseus is on Calypso's island, and will leave there shortly, Telemachus leaves Sparta and goes home to Ithaca. With Athena's help, he avoids an ambush by the suitors. Book 16 - Telemachus goes into Eumaios' hut where Odysseus reveals himself, telling him that he must keep Odysseus' return a secret. The suitors start to wonder what to do next as their ambush failed. Book 17 - Telemachus goes from the swine herder's hut to the palace to see his mother, Penelope. Odysseus, disguised as the beggar, also goes to the palace with the guidance of Eumaios. On the way he is taunted by Melanthius the goatherd who is now in allegiance with the suitors. Once there, Odysseus tries to get (his own) food off of the suitors, but instead Antinous, a main suitor, throws a stool at him. Book 18 - Odysseus has a boxing match with a beggar called Irus and wins. Penelope goes to see the suitors in the hall to receive the gifts that they have finally presented to woo her. While there, her servant Melantho insults Odysseus. Once again Odysseus has a stool thrown at him, however this time it is thrown by Eurymachus, another of the main suitors, incensed by Irus' loss to what appears to be an old man. Book 19 - In preparation for what is to come, Odysseus and Telemachus, with help from Athena, take all the weapons down off the walls in the main hall. Odysseus, in disguise, tries to convince Penelope that he is still alive and is heading home. Penelope gets her maid Eurycleia, to wash Odysseus' feet as a thankful gesture to his soothing words. As Eurycleia does so, she sees a scar that reveals to her Odysseus' true identity, however she promises to keep quiet. Later Penelope tells Odysseus about the task she will set the suitors. Book 20 - Omens tell how Odysseus will succeed in what he wants. So does a seer, Theoclymenus, who tells how the suitors will die. Odysseus continues to discern which of his servants have been loyal to him. Book 21 - The suitors decide to have a contest to see who shall be the husband of Penelope. They have to string Odysseus' bow and fire an arrow through 12 axe heads (the axe heads have small loops on them), but none of the suitors can even string the bow. When, after an argument, Odysseus, still in disguise, has a go, he strings the bow and easily fires the arrow through all 12 of the axe heads. Book 22 - With weapons from the storeroom, Telemachus fights by his father's side. They first kill Antinous and then the suitors decide to attack in waves. Athena is on Odysseus' side, as usual, and makes all their attempts fail. Eumaios and Philoetius, both loyal to Odysseus, find Melanthius getting weapons for the suitors. They tie him to a plank and hoist him to the ceiling. When all the suitors are dead, the unfaithful maidservants are called to clean up the mess and are then killed. Odysseus does some fairly nasty things to Melanthius including ripping off part of his anatomy and feeding it to the dogs! Book 23 - Eurycleia goes to wake Penelope and tell her the news, but Penelope doesn't believe her. Eventually she goes down to look for herself. Penelope doesn't recognise Odysseus at first and Telemachus is very agitated by this. To add to the suspense, after a quick bath Odysseus returns to Penelope, Athena having removed the disguise. Penelope puts Odysseus to the test by telling him that they should move the bed out of their bedroom. He knows that this can't be done as he built it into a tree that grows in their room and when he says so, Penelope knows that he is indeed Odysseus. Book 24 - Odysseus sees his father, Laertes, and reveals his identity. Hermes takes the souls of the dead suitors down to the halls of Hades where they meet warriors that died at Troy. The relatives of the suitors start to make plans to get back at Odysseus for what he has done, but Athena and Zeus make up a plan for peace in Ithaca. There is a fight where a few of the suitors' relatives are killed but then Athena makes an appearance and tells everybody to stop and live in peace. Although this is the end of the book, Odysseus still has to go on a small quest. He must walk inland until he finds a people that don't know of the sea, and there he must make a sacrifice to Poseidon to gain forgiveness for blinding Polyphemus.

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Crest of the Ojibwa people |Regions with significant populations| |United States, Canada| |Catholicism, Methodism, Midewiwin| |Related ethnic groups| |Ottawa, Potawatomi and other Algonquian peoples| The Ojibwa or Chippewa (also Ojibwe, Ojibway, Chippeway) is one of the largest groups of Native Americans-First Nations in North America. They are divided between the United States and Canada. Because they were formerly located mainly around Sault Ste. Marie, at the outlet of Lake Superior, the French referred to them as Saulteurs. Ojibwa who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. Ojibwa who were originally located about the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas. They were fearless warriors and, with the use of gun technology from the British, they were able to defeat and push back the Sioux and Fox tribes to become the unchallenged inhabitants of vast areas of the northern plains around the Great Lakes. They are known for their birch bark canoes, sacred birch bark scrolls, the use of cowrie shells, wild rice, copper points. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics. The Ojibwa Nation was the first to set the agenda for signing more detailed treaties with Canada's leaders before many settlers were allowed too far west. They also signed numerous treaties with the United States, seeking to keep at least portions of their ancestral lands to be designated as their reservations and avoiding the tragic relocations of many other tribes. Today, as a major component group of the Anishinaabe peoples—which includes the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, Odawa and the Potawatomi—the Ojibwa peoples number over 100,000 in the U.S., living in an area stretching across the north from Michigan to Montana. Another 76,000, in 125 bands, live in Canada, stretching from western Québec to eastern British Columbia. Despite facing poverty and high levels of unemployment, many contemporary Ojibwa continue to follow traditional ways, both practical and spiritual. They are active in resource management, seeking ways to live in harmony with their environment. The name Ojibwe (plural: Ojibweg) is commonly anglicized as "Ojibwa." The name "Chippewa" is an anglicized corruption of "Ojibwa." Although many variations exist in literature, "Chippewa" is more common in the United States and "Ojibwa" predominates in Canada, but both terms do exist in both countries. The exact meaning of the name "Ojibwe" is not known; the most common explanations on the name derivations are: The Saulteaux (also Salteaux pronounced [ˈsoʊtoʊ]) are a First Nation in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, Canada, and a branch of the Ojibwa. Saulteaux is a French language term meaning "people of the rapids," referring to their former location about Sault Ste. Marie. The Ojibwa/Chippewa are part of the Anishinaabe peoples, together with the Odawa and Algonkin peoples. Anishnaabeg (plural form) means "First- or Original-Peoples" or it may refer to "the good humans," or good people, that are on the right road/path given to them by the Creator or gitchi-manitou (Anishinaabeg term for God). In many Ojibwa communities throughout Canada and the U. S., the more generalized name Anishinaabe(-g) is becoming more commonly used as a self-description. The Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin, and is still widely spoken. It belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; however, Central Algonquian is an areal grouping rather than a genetic one. Ojibwemowin is the fourth most spoken Native language in North America (after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut). Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great Plains. The Ojibwa presence was made highly visible among non-Native Americans and around the world by the popularity of the epic poem The Song of Hiawatha, written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in 1855. The epic contains many toponyms that originate from Ojibwa words. According to the oral history of the Anishinaabeg and from their recordings in birch bark scrolls, the Ojibwa came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island (the English language translation of many Native American tribes' name for the continent of North America), and from along the east coast. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years and knew of the canoe routes west and a land route to the West Coast. When the Anishinaabeg were living on the shores of the "Great Salt Water" (presumably the Atlantic Ocean near the Gulf of St. Lawrence). They were instructed by seven prophets to follow a sacred miigis shell, a whiteshell (cowry) toward the west, until they reached a place where food grew upon the water. They began their migration some time around 950 C.E., stopping at various points along the way, most significantly at Baawitigong, Sault Ste. Marie, where they stayed for a long time, and where two subgroups decided to stay (these became the Potawatomi and Ottawa). Eventually they arrived at the wild rice lands of Minnesota and Wisconsin (wild rice being the food that grew upon the water) and made Mooningwanekaaning minis (Madeline Island: "Island of the yellow-shafted flicker") their new capital. In total, the migration took around five centuries. Following the migration there was a cultural divergence separating the Potawatomi from the Ojibwa and Ottawa. Particularly, the Potawatomi did not adopt the agricultural innovations discovered or adopted by the Ojibwa, such as the Three Sisters crop complex, copper tools, conjugal collaborative farming, and the use of canoes in rice harvesting (Waldman 2006). Also, the Potawatomi divided labor according to gender, much more than did the Ojibwa and Ottawa. The first historical mention of the Ojibwa occurs in the Jesuit Relation of 1640 under the name Baouichigouian, known by the French as Sauteurs because of their residence about the Sault de Ste. Marie (Thwaites 1640). In 1642, Raymbaut and Jogues found them at war with a people to their west, probably the Sioux (Hodge 1910). The Ojibwa were described as "equaling in physical appearance the best formed of the Northwest Indians, with the possible exception of the Foxes" and exhibited great determination and courage in their conflicts with their enemies (Hodge 1910). Yet they were friendly toward the French, and although they encountered missionaries Christianity took little hold, due to the power of their indigenous beliefs and their shamans. Through their friendship with the French traders, they were able to obtain guns and thus successfully end their wars with the Sioux and Fox on their west and south. The Sioux were driven out from the Upper Mississippi region, and the Fox were forced down from northern Wisconsin and compelled to ally with the Sauk. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Ojibwa were the nearly unchallenged owners of almost all of present-day Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, including most of the Red River area, together with the entire northern shores of Lakes Huron and Superior on the Canadian side and extending westward to the Turtle Mountains of North Dakota, where they became known as the Plains Ojibwa or Saulteaux. The Ojibwa together with the Ottawa and Potawatomi peoples formed the Council of Three Fires which fought with the Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux. The Ojibwa expanded eastward, taking over the lands alongside the eastern shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay. The Ojibwa allied with the French in the French and Indian War, and with the British in the War of 1812. In the U.S., the government attempted to remove all the Ojibwa to Minnesota west of Mississippi River, culminating in the Sandy Lake Tragedy and several hundred deaths. Through the efforts of Chief Buffalo and popular opinion against Ojibwa removal, the bands east of the Mississippi were allowed to return to permanent reservations on ceded territory. A few families were removed to Kansas as part of the Potawatomi removal. In British North America, the cession of land by treaty or purchase was governed by the Royal Proclamation of 1763, and subsequently most of the land in Upper Canada was ceded to Great Britain. Even with the Jay Treaty signed between the Great Britain and the United States, the newly formed United States did not fully uphold the treaty, causing illegal immigration into Ojibwa and other Native American lands, which culminated in the Northwest Indian War. Subsequently, much of the lands in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, parts of Illinois and Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota and North Dakota were ceded to the United States. However, provisions were made in many of the land cession treaties to allow for continued hunting, fishing, and gathering of natural resources by the Ojibwa even after the land sales. The Saulteaux were originally settled around Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg, principally in the Sault Ste. Marie and northern Michigan areas. White Canadians and Americans gradually pushed the tribe westwards to Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, with one community in British Columbia. Today most of them live in the Interlake, southern part of Manitoba, and in Saskatchewan; because they lived on land ill-suited for European crops, they were able to keep much of their land. In northwestern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, the Ojibwa signed the numbered treaties in the nineteenth century. British Columbia had no signed treaties until the late twentieth century. These numbered treaties were some of the most detailed treaties signed for their time. Often, earlier treaties were known as "Peace and Friendship Treaties" to establish community bonds between the Ojibwa and the European settlers. These earlier treaties established the groundwork for cooperative resource sharing between the Ojibwa and the settlers. However, later treaties involving land cessions were seen as territorial advantages for both the United States and Canada, but the land cession terms were often not fully understood by the Ojibwa because of the cultural differences in understanding of the land. For the governments of the US and Canada, land was considered a commodity of value that could be freely bought, owned and sold. For the Ojibwa, land was considered a fully-shared resource, along with air, water and sunlight; the concept of land sales or exclusive ownership of land was foreign to the Ojibwa at the time of the treaty councils. Consequently, legal arguments in treaty-rights and treaty interpretations continue to bring to light the differences in cultural understanding of these treaty terms. Most Ojibwa were of the Woodlands culture, hunter-gatherers who harvested wild rice and maple sugar. They had no salt and so used maple syrup as a preservative to preserve their food (Sultzman 2000). However, the Ojibwa lived across a wide area and adapted to their local environments. The eastern Ojibwa lived a sedentary lifestyle, engaging in fishing, hunting, the farming of maize and squash, and the harvesting of Manoomin (wild rice). The Plains Ojibwa farmed little and were mainly hunters and fishers, adopting the culture of the Plains Indians, hunting buffalo. A third group were known as the "Bungee," a transitional culture between the eastern Woodlands and the western Plains culture. They also developed a form of pictorial writing used in religious rites of the Midewiwin and recorded on birch bark scrolls and sometimes on rock. The many complex pictures on the sacred scrolls communicate historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. Ceremonies also used the miigis shell (cowry shell), which is naturally found in far away coastal areas; this fact suggests that there was a vast trade network across the continent at some time. The use and trade of copper across the continent is also proof of a very large area of trading that took place thousands of years ago, as far back as the Hopewell culture. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads were also traded over large distances. The use of petroforms, petroglyphs, and pictographs was common throughout their traditional territories. Petroforms and medicine wheels were a way to teach the important concepts of four directions, astronomical observations about the seasons, and as a memorizing tool for certain stories and beliefs. The Ojibwa would bury their dead in a burial mound; many erect a jiibegamig or a "spirit-house" over each mound. Instead of a headstone with the deceased's name inscribed upon it, a traditional burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's doodem. The Ojibwa viewed the world in two types: animate and inanimate, rather than male and female genders. As an animate a person could serve the society as a male-role or a female-role. John Tanner, who spent 30 years living as an Ojibwa after having been kidnapped, documented in his Narrative that Ojibwa peoples do not fall into the European ideas of gender and its gender-roles, having people who fulfill mixed gender roles, two-spirits or egwakwe (Anglicised to "agokwa"). A well-known egwakwe warrior and guide in Minnesota history was Ozaawindib. Tanner described Ozaawindib as "This man was one of those who make themselves women, and are called women by the Indians" (Tanner 2007). The Ojibwa people were divided into a number of odoodeman (clans; singular: odoodem) named primarily for animal totems (doodem). Five original totems were Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Bear) and Moozwaanowe ("Little" Moose-tail). The clans had distinct responsibilities that worked together to care for the people, such as chieftainship, a type of police, teachers, spiritual guides, and so forth (Schneider 2003). Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans, with the band often identified by the principle doodem. Ojibwa understanding of kinship is complex, and includes not only the immediate family but also the extended family. It is considered a modified bifurcate merging kinship system. As with any bifurcate merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same term with parallel-cousins, because they are all part of the same clan. Complexity wanes further from the speaker's immediate generation, but some complexity is retained with female relatives. For example, ninooshenh is "my mother's sister" or "my father's sister-in-law"—my parallel-aunt—and also "my parent's female cross-cousin." Great-grandparents and older generations, as well as great-grandchildren and younger generations are collectively called aanikoobijigan. This system of kinship speaks of the nature of the Anishinaabe's philosophy and lifestyle, that is of interconnectedness and balance between all living generations and all generations of the past and of the future. Before contact with Europeans, Ojibwa religion had little formal ceremony. They relied on shamans for healing by use of medicinal herbs. Contact with Europeans exposed them not just to a different culture but to new diseases against which they had little or no defense. Efforts to deal with sickness evolved into the complex Midewiwin Grand Medicine Society, a secret society whose qualified members performed elaborate ceremonies (Sultzman 2000). The Ojibwa have a number of spiritual beliefs passed down by oral tradition under the Midewiwin teachings. These include a creation myth and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwa because spirits guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as used for ceremonies. Pictographs were also used for ceremonies. Traditional stories known as the aadizookaanan ("traditional stories," singular aadizookaan) are told by the debaajimojig ("story-tellers," singular debaajimod), only in winter in order to preserve their transformative powers. In the aadizookaan many 'manidoog ("spiritual beings") are encountered. These include, but are not limited to: Gichi-manidoo (Gitchi Manitou, Gitche Manito) is the "Great Spirit," God, the Creator of all things and the Giver of Life, sometimes translated as the "Great Mystery." Manitou is an Anishinaabe word for spirit, spiritual, mystery, mysterious, or deity. Historically, Anishinaabe people believed in a variety of spirits, whose images were placed near doorways for protection. With the coming of Christian missionaries and their need to translate the idea of monotheism, Gitche Manitou meaning "Great Spirit" was coined. The term Manitou itself refers to the concept of one aspect of the interconnection and balance of nature/life; in simpler terms it can refer to a spirit. This spirit is seen as a (contactable) person as well as a concept. Everything has its own manitou—every plant, every stone and even machines. These Manitous do not exist in a hierarchy like European gods/goddesses, but are more akin to one part of the body interacting with another and the spirit of everything; the collective is named Gitche Manitou. Nanabozho (also known by a variety of other names and spellings, including Wenabozho, Menabozho, and Nanabush) figures prominently in Anishinaabe storytelling, including the story of the world's creation. Nanabozho is the Ojibwa trickster figure and culture hero (these two archetypes are often combined into a single figure in First Nations mythologies). He was the son of Wiininwaa ("Nourishment"), a human mother, and E-bangishimog ("In the West"), a spirit father. He was sent to Earth in the form of a rabbit by Gitchi Manitou to teach the Ojibwa, and one of his first tasks was to name all the plants and animals. Nanabozho is considered to be the founder of Midewiwin. He features as the protagonist of a cycle of stories that serve as the Anishinaabe origin myth. The cycle, which varies somewhat from community to community, tells the story of Nanabozho's conception, birth, and his ensuing adventures, which involve interactions with spirit and animal beings, the creation of the Earth, and the establishment of the Midewiwin. The myth cycle explains the origin of several traditions, including mourning customs, beliefs about the afterlife, and the creation of the sacred plant asemaa (tobacco). Nibiinaabewag/niibinaabekwewag ("Watermen"/"Waterman-women," singular nibiinaabe/nibiinaabekwe) are mermen and mermaids. Nookomis (the "Grandmother") is the Earth-Mother, the one from whom is derived the Water of Life, who feeds plants, animals, and men. She is also known as Ogashiinan ("Dearest Mother"), Omizakamigokwe ("Throughout the Earth Woman") or Giizhigookwe ("Sky Woman"). Wiindigoog (singular wiindigoo, Anglicized to Wendigo) are giant, powerful, malevolent cannibalistic spirits associated with the Winter and the North. If a human ever resorts to cannibalism to survive, they are said to become possessed by the spirit of a wiindigoo, and develop an overpowering desire for more human flesh. Wiininwaa ("Nourishment") is a woman who became immortal through manidoowiziwin (the process of taking on qualities of a Manitou). She is the daughter of Nookomis and mother of Nanabozho. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn or Eastern Land) to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. However, one of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing when the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while the one returned into the ocean. The six great miigis beings then established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Then these six miigis beings returned into the ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem. At a later time, one of these miigis beings appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. The prophecy stated that if more of the Anishinaabeg did not move further west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new settlements and European immigrants that would arrive soon in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with miigis shells (cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (Abnaki) of their safety in having many more of the Anishinaabeg move inland, they advanced along the St. Lawrence River to the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes. First of these smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, which Mooniyaang (Montreal, Quebec) now stands. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the Wayaanag-gakaabikaa (Concave Waterfalls, Niagara Falls). At their "third stopping place" near the present-day city of Detroit, Michigan, the Anishinaabeg divided into six divisions, of which the Ojibwa was one of these six. The first significant new Ojibwa culture-center was their "fourth stopping place" on Manidoo Minising (Manitoulin Island). Their first new political-centre was referred as their "fifth stopping place," in their present country at Baawiting (Sault Ste. Marie). Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwa divided into the "northern branch" following the north shore of Lake Superior, and "southern branch" following the south shore of the same lake. In their expansion westward, the "northern branch" divided into a "westerly group" and a "southerly group." The "southern branch" and the "southerly group" of the "northern branch" came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island located in the St. Louis River estuary of Duluth/Superior region where the people were directed by the miigis being in a vision to go to the "place where there is food (wild rice) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred as their "seventh stopping place," was at Shaugawaumikong (or Zhaagawaamikong, French, Chequamegon) on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present La Pointe near Bayfield, Wisconsin. The "westerly group" of the "northern branch" continued their westward expansion along the Rainy River, Red River of the North, and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the Pacific Northwest. Along their migration to the west they came across many miigis, or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy. The Ojibwa also have a story of a Great Deluge that has been passed down from generation to generation over the centuries. They tell of a time long ago when the Anishinaabeg began to argue amongst themselves and lost respect for all living creatures. The Creator, Gichi Manidoo, saw this situation and brought a great flood on the earth, killing almost every person and living thing. This punishment is a lesson that has guided Ojibwa lifestyle, teaching them to live in harmony with all creation (Cubie 2007). Objects like drums, pipes, and tobacco play significant roles in ceremonies. A drum represents the "circle of life" and must undergo a special ceremony before it can be used to heal and unify people (Schneider 2003). Asemaa (Tobacco) represents east. Though pure tobacco is commonly used today, traditionally "kinnikinnick"—a giniginige ("mixture") of primarily red osier dogwood with bearberry and tobacco, and occasionally with other additional medicinal plants—was used. The tobacco or its mixture is used in the offering of prayer, acting as a medium for communication. It is either offered through the fire so the smoke can lift the prayers to the Gichi-manidoo, or it is set on the ground in a clean place as an offering. This is done on a daily basis as each new day is greeted with prayers of thankfulness. Tobacco is also the customary offering when seeking knowledge or advice from an Elder or when a Pipe is present. A dreamcatcher (or dream catcher; Ojibwe asabikeshiinh, is a handmade object based on a willow hoop. Traditionally, the Ojibwa construct dreamcatchers by tying sinew strands in a web around a small round or tear-shaped frame (in a way roughly similar to their method for making snowshoe webbing). The dreamcatcher is decorated with personal and sacred items such as feathers and beads. The resulting "dream-catcher," hung above the bed, is then used to protect sleeping children from nightmares. The Ojibwa believe that a dreamcatcher filters a person's dreams: Only good dreams would be allowed to filter through; bad dreams would stay in the net, disappearing with the light of day (Andrews 1997). The "jingle dress" is a dance dress worn by women participating in the "Jingle Dress Dance" at a Pow wow. Made of cloth, the dress includes several rows of metal cones, which are sewn across the dress on the skirt (and blouse, in some areas). The metal cones create a jingling sound as the dancer moves. The Jingle Dress Dance is characterized by light footwork danced close to the ground. The dancer dances in a snake-like pattern around the drum; her feet never cross, nor does she dance backward or turn a complete circle. The jingle dress is considered a healing dress. Its origin is attributed to several Ojibwa communities in which a vivid recurring dream was experienced. The dream came to a Midewinini, a medicine-man or shaman. In the dream there were four women, each wearing a jingle dress and dancing. The dream also gave instructions on how to make the dresses, what types of songs went with them, and how the dance was to be performed. The story continues that the reason for this recurring dream was because the daughter (in some versions the grand-daughter) of the Midewinini was gravely ill. When the dance was performed in the presence of the child, in the way shown in the dream, the child recovered. This happened around 1900 and spread throughout Ojibwa reservations. In the late 1920s, the jingle dress was given to the Lakota and it spread westward into the Dakotas and Montana. Every year at the first snow, a traditional Snowshoe dance is performed. This dance celebrates the coming of the snow, an essential part of the cycle of life for which they give thanks, and also reminds them of the necessity for snowshoes to aid them in traveling through snow in order to hunt and they dance in hope of a successful hunt and thus to survive the winter. The snowshoe dance was performed around a tall pole with a pair of snowshoes suspended from the top. The snow-shoe dance … is exceedingly picturesque, being danced with the snow shoes under the feet, at the falling of the first snow in the beginning of winter, when they sing a song of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit for sending them a return of snow, when they can run on their snow shoes in their valued hunts, and easily take the game for their food (Catlin 1995). Sweat lodges are very important in Ojibwa spiritual life. A visit to the sweat lodge cleanses both the body and spirit. Supported by fasting and meditation, the sweat lodge is a place to receive guidance on how to live one's life in accord with the spirits (Schneider 2003). The Sun Dance (known as the Rain Dance among the Saulteaux) is a ceremony practiced by a number of Native Americans, particularly the Plains Indians. There are distinct rituals and methods of performing the dance, but they generally include dancing, singing, praying, drumming, the experience of visions, fasting, and in some cases piercing of the chest or back. Most notable for early Western observers was the piercing many young men endure as part of the ritual. The object of being pierced is to sacrifice one's self to the Great Spirit, and to pray while connected to the Tree of Life, a direct connection to the Great Spirit. Breaking from the piercing is done in one moment, as the man runs backwards from the tree at a time specified by the leader of the dance. The Government of Canada officially persecuted Sun Dance practitioners and attempted to suppress the Sun Dance on many Canadian plains reserves starting in 1882 until the 1940s. The flesh-sacrifice and gift-giving features were legally outlawed in 1895. Despite the subjugation, Sun Dance practitioners, including Saulteaux, continued to hold Sun Dances throughout the persecution period, minus the prohibited features. At least one Cree or Saulteaux Rain Dance has occurred each year since 1880 somewhere on the Canadian Plains. In 1951 government officials revamped the Indian Act and dropped the legislation that forbade flesh-sacrificing and gift-giving (Pettipas 1994). Contemporary Ojibwa still use the sweat lodge during important ceremonies and to pass along their oral history. Teaching lodges are common to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar. Many of the Ojibwa take part in sun dance ceremonies across the continent. Several Ojibwa bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-Lake Michigan areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwa tribal councils cooperate in the 1854 Treaty Authority, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the waters of Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty #3 manages the Treaty 3 hunting and fishing rights around Lake of the Woods. Members of the Red Lake Band of Ojibwa in northern Minnesota are making efforts to live in harmony with their land, restoring fisheries, and enhancing wetlands and other wildlife habitats. Despite facing poverty and high levels of unemployment on their reservation, tribal members support these conservation efforts. Although their lifestyle has changed significantly, the traditional "ricing" practice is being restored in the belief that it helps both people and wildlife, bringing a greater balance to life. When gathering rice in the traditional way they knock some grains back into the lake to sustain future harvests, as well as leaving others on the plants as food for birds. A commercial wild rice farm now offers income and also the habitat needed for both waterfowl and shorebirds (Cubie 2007). Ojibwa people have achieved much in many walks of life—from the chiefs of old to more recent artists, scholars, sportsmen, and activists. The following are a few examples. All links retrieved February 14, 2015. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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Alexandre Cabanel (1823-1889), The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Paradise, oil on canvas, private collection. During John Milton’s life, England experienced a great deal of religious turmoil as the Puritan movement sought to reform the Church of England. With this movement, predestination gained recognition with the teachings of John Calvin, whose main doctrinal points were: total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints (better remembered as TULIP). Opposed to the Calvinistic teachings, Jacobus Arminius, who founded Arminianism, denied the existence of predestination by countering each one of Calvin’s five points and adding three of his own: equal and impartial love, libertarian free will, and universal call for salvation. Residing between two opposing theological ideologies, John Milton, considered a compatibilist because of his work in De Doctrina Christiana, believed free will and predestination were compatible and could not exist apart. As religious conflict was a dominant component of English society during his lifetime, Milton’s work, Paradise Lost, reveals the conflict inherent in 16th century society, and his attempt to reconcile what appeared to be irreconcilable religious beliefs has remained to this day a subject for academic debate. While his work conjures up a plethora of questions that induces much controversy, one question in particular that has retained its importance within critical discussions on Paradise Lost is whether or not Milton’s character of God is a good God or a bad God. Since Milton first avowed to “justify the ways of God to men” in the opening book of Paradise Lost, Milton’s depiction of God has resulted in many interesting debates in which critics have used several different approaches, such as theology, aesthetics, and theory, including both psychoanalysis and structuralism, focusing primarily on the narrative form, to determine whether or not Milton succeeded in his goal (Paradise 1:26). Theological arguments about God’s character abounded in the mid-20th century between C. S. Lewis and William Empson, who was considered an Anti-Miltonist by reader response critic Stanley Fish. To begin, Lewis, in his famous monograph, A Preface to “Paradise Lost,” worked to reverse the effects Romanticism had over Miltonic criticism and return to the time in which Milton was remembered as a Christian poet, not of the “Devil’s party” ever since the infamous line by William Blake, a critic during the Romantic period, who said that Milton “was of the Devil’s party without knowing it” as well as the other famous Romantic critic, P. B. Shelley, who argued that Milton attributed “no superiority of moral virtue to his God over his Devil” (Blake 211, Shelley 1107, Rudnytsky 255). Lewis, unlike the Romantic critics, who attributed no “superiority” to Milton’s God, celebrated how the “degrees of value are objectively present in the universe” and “the goodness, happiness, and dignity of every being consists in obeying its natural superior and ruling its natural inferiors” (Lewis 73). Furthermore, Lewis adds that “the great moral which reigns in Milton is…that Obedience to the will of God makes men happy and that Disobedience makes them miserable… If you can’t be interested in that, you can’t be interested in Paradise Lost” (Lewis 71). Ultimately, Lewis argues that those who criticize Milton’s God simply “dislike God” in general (Lewis 130). While Lewis opposed the Romantic critics, Empson in his work Milton’s God actually adopts the same vein of argument as Blake and Shelley, “who said that the reason why the poem is so good is that it makes God so bad” (Empson 13). Poetically, Empson appreciates Milton’s work and even his representation of God saying that “the poem is not good in spite of but especially because of its moral confusions,” but as a work of theology, Empson finds fault with Milton’s God (Empson 13). Though he agrees with Lewis that Milton’s God is “merely the traditional Christian God, to Empson, “the Christian God the Father…is the wickedest thing yet invented by the black heart of man” because of his sadistic treatment of his Son (Empson 25). Empson believed that for the Son to bargain with God in regards to his death on the cross, God first has to have a “craving to torture his Son” (Empson 246). Furthermore, the scene in Paradise Lost in which Satan is deluded by God into believing he has escaped, by his own power, from the Stygian lake, which ultimately leads to the Fall of Man, strengths Empson’s claim that God “was determined to make man fall” and also that he “intended to lead [Satan] into greater evil” (Empson 112, 42). In the end, Empson argues that the only way the poem can be read without a “growing horror” is to “reject its God” (Empson 25). To Fish, however, Empson is not a “fit reader” because he does not do justice to Paradise Lost, which is “in favor of the epic voice rather than an eagerness to put that voice on trial,” and if one were to consider Lewis’ comment, Empson’s argument becomes diluted because the only reason he attacks and rejects Milton’s God is because he already doesn’t like the Christian God, making him a biased reader as Fish would argue. According to Peter Rudnytsky in his article “Freud as Milton’s God: Mapping the Patriarchal Cosmos in Psychoanalysis and Paradise Lost,” Lewis has “gained the upper hand over the Romantic scion” that is Empson, whose baseless attacks focus more on “the metaphysical truth claims of Christianity” than on Milton’s God, within this critical debate over Milton’s God (Rudnytsky 259). However, Rudnytsky suggests a way in which the debate could turn in Empson’s favor. Rather than focus on the obviously subjective, atheistic claims made by Empson against God, Rudnytsky says that Empson’s arguments about the character of God when looked at through a psychoanalytic framework hold ground against theologians like Lewis as well as critics like Fish. For instance, Empson’s comparison of God to a parent when he says, “A parent who ‘foresaw’ that the children would fall and then insisted upon exposing them to the temptation in view would be considered neurotic, if nothing worse; and this what we must ascribe to Milton’s God,” only holds water when looked at comparatively to John Rumrich’s work Matter of Glory: A New Preface to “Paradise Lost” as well as Bernard J. Paris’ Heaven and Its Discontents: Milton’s Characters in “Paradise Lost,” which focus more heavily on psychoanalysis (Empson 116). In his work, Rumrich writes about the theme of glory in Milton’s work and says that “from psychoanalytic perspective, the usual emphasis of Milton scholars on oedipal issues of law, obedience, and punishment has resulted in the corresponding neglect of the epic’s primary, pervasive concern with negotiations between narcissistic longing for perfect recognition and the recalcitrance of an unresponsive reality” (Rumrich 4). Expanding on Rumrich’s idea of “narcissistic longing for perfect recognition,” Paris boldly proclaims that God is the narcissist, who “is extremely dependent on others,” and through his dependence, Heaven is unmasked as a “glory system” (Paris 43, 11). To explain the glory system, Paris uses the quote by Raphael – “freely we serve / because we freely love” – to argue that although Heaven appears to be based on freedom it is actually based on “coercion and the threat of punishment for disobedience; all that remains “is a choice between service freely rendered and service exacted against his will,” and to Paris, such a choice is “ominous when it is seen to be a manifestation of God’s narcissism” (Paradise 5: 539, Fish 18, Rudnytsky 269). For further explanation, Paris draws a parallel from Shakespeare’s King Lear and the love test Lear gives to his daughters to God and his treatment of Lucifer and His Son because both father figures reward the child that gives them what they want. Not only a narcissistic parent that picks favorites among his children, Paris also argues that Milton’s God is an abusive parent while his children, i.e. Adam and Eve, exhibit self-blame, which is typically found in trauma victims. Under the guise of free will, Paris, in attending to Adam’s response after the fall in which he “absolve[s]” God and blames himself, argues that God invariably convinces humans that the fall is their fault when in actuality it is God who caused the events that led to their fall from innocence. A quote by Donna Orange clearly expounds on Paris’ argument: “‘[trauma] always included two moments if it were to become pathogenic” the original shocking repetitive abuse or neglect’ – God’s series of actions that lead to the Fall – ‘followed by the disavowal, hypocrisy, and rejection both by the perpetrators and by others to who the devastated child might have turned’ – the brainwashing of Adam and Eve by God and his deputies into believing that they are the guilty ones’” (Orange 79, Rudnytsky 272). In using Paris’ psychoanalysis of God’s character, who he considers an abusive father figure, Empson’s original rejection of Milton’s God as being good turns the table on Lewis’ argument, at least in Rudnytsky’s opinion. The other critical debate that interests Rudnytsky focuses on Fish versus A. J. A. Waldock, who like Empson was labeled an Anti-Miltonist. While Lewis and Empson argued on the basis of whether or not Milton succeeded in “justifying the ways of God to man,” Fish and Waldock focus their attention on the issue of whether or not Paradise Lost is a consistent or self-contradictory piece of poetry. To Waldock, Adam’s decision to fall with Eve induces “two incompatible responses” – to believe that Adam did both right and wrong – but for Fish, these conflicting responses are consistent with Milton’s intention by positing that Milton expects his readers to view the conflict “in a context that would resolve a troublesome contradiction and allow him to reunite with an authority who is a natural ally against the difficulties of the poem” (Waldock 56, Fish 47). Fish argues that the poem can only be read as inconsistent, as Waldock argues when he points out the clash between Adam’s love for Eve and his obedience to God, if it is read “from a point of view that excludes God,” and Fish, as a reader response critic, claims that such a reading is a fault of “the distorted perception of the reader rather than in the flawless design of the poem” because no clash can exist when readers align themselves with God’s point of view (Fish 264, Rudnytsky 257). While Waldock’s emphasis on the structural contradictions that he deemed to be defects appear convincing, Rudnytsky argues that a stalemate exists between the two debaters because Waldock’s claim cannot assail Fish’s declaration that all those who oppose him are simply fallen readers. Much in the same way that he used psychoanalytic theory to support Empson’s argument, Rudnytsky suggests that Waldock’s argument may trump his opposition so long as it is viewed through a theoretical framework. Using Kenneth Burke, Waldock’s argument moves away from the theological approach to God and towards the logological approach, or in other words the rhetorical and narrative approach that focuses on the way in which God is presented in Paradise Lost rather than on the metaphysical claims of truth connected to Christianity. In essence, Burke’s logology acts to highlight the “inescapable contradiction[s]” Waldock argued about but was unable to clearly explain, such as the conflict between the God’s foreknowledge and the notion that Adam and Eve possess free will (Rudnytsky 256). To elucidate, Burke shows how free will cannot exist from a logological perspective: Theologically, Adam could have chosen not to sin, he could have said yes to God’s thou-shalt-not. But logologically, Adam necessarily sinned. For if he had chosen not to sin, the whole design of the Bible would have been ruined…Logologically, to say that Adam didn’t have to sin would be like saying that Oedipus didn’t have to kill his father and marry his mother, except that in the case of Ada, it looks like more of a choice. (Burke 252). In other words, Burke is arguing that if considered a narrative then the story of the fall and the idea that Adam had a choice is nothing but an illusion because the reader knows the outcome in advance as it must match the “whole design of the Bible.” The logology and theology are at odds with one another because the narrative structure of the poem requires that the reader turn a blind eye to the hegemonic theology and entertain the notion of free will. Like Empson who found difficulty accepting the passage of Satan escaping from the Stygian lake by his own will, Waldock cannot accept the paradoxical line, “the will / And high permission of all-ruling Heaven,” or the line, “with reiterated crimes he might / Heap on himself damnation, while he sought / Evil to others” (Paradise 1:210-215). To Waldock, this scene is not an example of free will but rather it shows that only by God’s permission can action take place, and in accordance with Burke’s theory, the narrative has to match the Biblical narrative so ultimately the notion that Satan has a choice in what he does is foolish. Yet despite this logological attack on free will, Lewis and Fish both ascribe to the Augustinian idea that “though God has made all creatures good He foreknows that some will voluntarily make themselves bad and also foreknows the good use which He will then make of the badness” (Lewis 67). This debate then reaches an impasse resembling the rabbit-duck paradigm as Rudnytsky argues that Paradise Lost can be approached either theologically or logologically but not both simultaneously (Rudnytsky 263). Like Rudnytsky’s conclusion that Milton’s God can be either good or bad depending on which perspective the reader chooses – theology or logology in regards to free will – Samuel Fallon in his essay “Milton’s Strange God: Theology and Narrative Form in Paradise Lost” argues that “positive theology demands negative poetry,” which is based on Joseph Fletcher’s theological poem, which incidentally left out any mention of God in it, because to Fletcher, in accordance to William Ames Calvinistic belief, one’s “understanding of divine action is a convenient illusion” (Fallon 34). So instead of focusing on the issue of free will versus predestination that was the central conflict of the debate between Lewis/Fish and Empson/Waldock, Fallon focuses on the incompatibility of God’s immutability and his ability to act – can God act if he is unchanging? Is there any point in trying to justify the ways of God to man as Milton did? For Fletcher and Ames, the answer is no, evident by Fletcher’s avoidance of bringing God into narrative form, which would require bringing an eternal and infinite God into temporal punctuality, but Fallon, focusing on Milton’s narrative, particularly the relationship between God the Father and his Son, attempts to understand how an eternal being can enter into a temporal world. Even Milton, within his more methodical systematic theology of De Doctrina Christiana, addresses this conflict when he says, “Admittedly, God is always described or outlined not as he really is but in such a way as will make him conceivable to us. Nevertheless, we ought to form just such a mental image of him as he, in bringing himself within the limits of out understanding, wishes us to form” (Doctrina 6:133). In other words, narrative, according to Milton himself, will never accurately depict God as he truly is, but regardless, Milton attempts to explain the metaphysical issue of God acting in time in his epic poem through his depiction the relationship between Father and Son. For instance, in Book 10, when the Son descends to earth to dispense punishment to Adam and Eve, his distinction as the Son is replaced with “the more ambiguous and expansive God,” whereas in heaven the distinction is clearly made between the Father and the Son distinguishing them as two different entities, but on earth they merge to become one (Fallon 41). By losing the distinction, Milton can keep the Father “safely beyond this world” (Fallon 42). The issue appears not only in Book 10 but throughout the poem as it highlights the Father’s ineffability by instead describing the Son as seen in Book 3, “Beyond compare the Son of God was seen / Most glorious, in him all his Father shone / Substantially expressed, and in his face / Divine compassion visibility appeared” (Paradise 3:138-41). In this scene, the Son is turned into the sign of the Father, referencing William Shullenburger’s argument of structural linguistics in regards to this filial relationship. As Fallon argues, the Son acts first as the signifier, or the representative, of the Father and then slowly guides him into self-expression removing him from “inaccessible limbo” (Fallon 43). To explain himself, Fallon references the Father’s speech, the Son’s plea, and the angel’s hymn in Book 3. Starting with the initial speech by the Father, Fallon reminds his readers that the Father, who despite his thundering presence, is not understood by his angels as they only grasp an “ambrosial fragrance” and a “[s]ense of new joy ineffable diffused” (PL 3:135, 137). However, once the Son engages the Father and acts as mediator by redirecting the speech away from the Father’s “dry logic” not understood by the angels towards a plea to save humanity, the Father responds more fluidly with a prophetic story to assure man’s salvation seen in lines 3:175-82 with the dialogue eventually ending more smoothly than his first speech as the angels sing; through the Son, the Father is “coax[ed]…into personality, into sociability, into narrative” (Fallon 43-44). Without the Son to mediate though, the Father’s words are lost in translation evident when he honors the Son, which ends in disaster as it is the moment that leads to Satan’s rebellion; ultimately, the Father needs the Son. Furthermore, Fallon addresses the angels themselves by calling them unreliable narrators because like humans they are “locked in time and place” and are “attempting to understand the events they have just witness, to make sense of this God and his Son…they are liable to misread God” (Fallon 49). The angels too in the way they refer to the Son reinstates the hierarchy of the Father as superior to the Son, in their hymn on lines 3:372-415, as they continually follow their praise of the Son with prepositions referencing the Father. Despite the Son who is the one hurling the thunderbolts, for instance, the Father is actually credited with praise – “He heaven of heavens and all the powers therein / By thee created, and by thee three down” (Paradise 3:390-91). These prepositional phrases – “He by thee” and “Son of they Father” – are the “only way to keep the Father in the story. The action belongs to the Son” (Fallon 51). Even though Fallon reveals how the Father, by means of his Son, interacts with his creation through dialogue, he addresses how the Father still exists outside of the poem’s narrative by pointing out how “an immutable God cannot become human or die,” making him appear vulnerable, even impotent, in comparison to the Son, which reveals the structural problem unavoidable within the narrative – “the limited sphere of action in which the Father can move” (Fallon 45). He cannot do what the Son or Satan can do, which is “match the story’s progression with any growth of his own;” he is not a dynamic character making him uninteresting to readers, who can more easily sympathize with Satan or the Son as they are better equipped for narrative (Fallon 47). After comparing the dynamic and static status of the characters, Fallon draws his conclusion: [God] resists narrative expression, and even when the Son gradually leads him into it, his entrance remains in many ways hollow. He never quite belongs, and is never completely understood either by his angelic audiences within the poem or by his readers outside of it. Ultimately, it is not hard to see how this metaphysical remoteness could be translated into ethical estrangement, into personal coldness and indifference. (Fallon 47) Finally, Fallon finishes with the statement that “God is, if not inexpressible, better left unexpressed” because “God fails narrative as much as narrative fails God” (Fallon 52). Whereas most critics thus far have tended to see Milton’s theological and poetic impulses as mutually antagonistic, believing that the poem’s theology makes God attractive and Satan unattractive, while the poem’s poetry does the opposite, Joel Slotkin, on the other hand, in his article “Poetic Justice: Divine Punishment and Augustinian Chiaroscuro in Paradise Lost,” argues that these elements – the theology and poetry of Milton’s poem – work together to create the dual character of God because as structuralism teaches, something is only understood by its opposite. To support his argument, Slotkin uses aesthetics, primarily sinister aesthetics, as well as the Augustinian chiaroscuro, “the fusion of light and dark,” to analyze God’s character, in effect “presenting divine punishment and the infernal as a source of aesthetic pleasure” so as to “grant God some of the appeal of a Renaissance literary villain” (Slotkin 101). Essentially, Slotkin’s aim aligns with Milton’s ultimate purpose; he wants to justify the ways of God, especially God’s justification of the existence of evil and to first achieve this Slotkin references Milton’s De Doctrina to create a theological baseline of what God’s relationship with evil is. To summarize, Milton believes in the Augustinian concept previously summarized by Lewis, which is that God creates good but foreknows that some will choose to be bad – a badness that he also foreknows how to make good. Additionally, within De Doctrina, Milton also makes the claim that God’s providence governs both evil and good occurrences, and he clearly “distinguishes between the evil that God permits”, which is “malum culpæ,” the evil of crime, and “the evil that God causes,” which is “malum pœnæ,” the evil of punishment (Slotkin 103). Upon describing Milton’s theological standpoint on the existence of divine evil, Slotkin moves on to explain how Milton’s theology fits within sinister aesthetics by labeling God as a “sinister allegorist” because he “afflicts his creations with punishments (malum pœnæ) that are horrible representation of their own evil for artistic purposes, namely to delight and instruct heavenly and human audiences” (Slotkin 106). So by punishing evil with evil, Milton’s God falls into the Augustinian chiaroscuro as he possesses elements of both light and dark, evident by his creation of both heaven and hell. Even within heaven itself, Raphael says that God elicits from his angels a “grateful vicissitude” as he alternates between day and light – “(For we have also our evening and our morn, / We ours for change delectable, not need)” – which because of its normative aesthetic variety not its practicality gives pleasure (PL 6:8, 5:628-29). As for hell, God designs it using the same chiaroscuro elements but with a sinister twist as he alters between ice and fire; because Satan attempted to pervert God’s heavenly design, God punishes him with an inverted “hellish” heaven – the punishment must befit the crime. As they are his creations, heaven and hell reveal the light and dark qualities belonging to God that fall into both normative aesthetics as well as sinister aesthetics, which is exemplified by the Son, who is Milton’s chiaroscuro vision of God as he is both savior and punisher (Slotkin 112). Though Slotkin incorporates the normative aesthetic virtue of God’s character, he devotes more attention to the sinister because it acts as both a descriptive and proscriptive medium that teaches readers the importance of “internal worship” (D 6:656). In the end, Slotkin concludes that Milton’s God can be best understood by his aesthetically appealing darkness that balances his light, by his chiaroscuro combination of sinister as well as normative, and lastly by his use of divine punishment (Slotkin 120). These three aspects of God’s character that Slotkin highlights show that “Milton’s own use of the sinister is not his poetic self rebelling against his religious self, but rather his poetic self enabling his internal worship” (Slotkin 120). In the end, Paradise Lost is, for some, such as Empson, a great work of literature lacking in theological truths, and for others like Waldock, Milton’s work is a poetic fail riddled with contradictions. To these men, Fallon concludes that a positive theology cannot exist within narrative. Then there are the other critics like Lewis and Fish as well as Slotkin who find no fault with the theology in Milton’s epic poem. So whether analyzed on the basis of theology, theory (psychoanalysis and structuralism), or aestheticism, the character of God within John Milton’s Paradise Lost is, to this day, an irresolvable issue. Blake, William. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. Print. 210–215 Burke, Kenneth. The Rhetoric of Religion: Studies in Logology. Berkeley: University of California, 1970. Print. Empson, William. Milton’s God. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Print. Fallon, Samuel. “Milton’s Strange God: Theology and Narrative Form in Paradise Lost.” ELH 79.1 (2012): 33-57. Project MUSE. Web. 16 Dec. 2015. Fish, Stanley E. Surprised by Sin: The Reader in “Paradise Lost.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Print. Lewis, C. S. A Preface to “Paradise Lost.” London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Print Milton, John. De Doctrina Christiana. See The Complete Prose Works of John Milton. Ed. Don Wolfe, Vol. 8. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1953. Print. —. Paradise Lost. ed. Alastair Fowler. 2nd ed. Harlow: Longman, 1998. Print. Orange, Donna M. The Suffering Stranger: Hermeneutics for Everyday Clinical Practice. New York: Routledge, 2011. Print. Paris, Bernard J. Heaven and Its Discontents: Milton’s Characters In Paradise Lost. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2010. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 24 Dec. 2015. Rudnytsky, Peter L. “Freud as Milton’s God: Mapping the Patriarchal Cosmos in Psychoanalysis and Paradise Lost.” American Imago 71.3 (2014): 253-287. Project MUSE. Web. 16 Dec. 2015. Rumrich, John P. Matter of Glory: A New Preface to “Paradise Lost.” Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987. Print Shelley, Percy B. A Defence of Poetry. In R.B. Noyes (ed.), English Romantic Poetry and Prose New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. Print. 1097-1112. Slotkin, Joel. “Poetic Justice: Divine Punishment and Augustinian Chiaroscuro in Paradise Lost.” Milton Quarterly 38.2 (2004): 100-27. Wiley Online Library. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Web. 16 Dec. 2015. Waldock, A.J.A. “Paradise Lost” and Its Critics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966. Print.

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Single Reality. Science is a way to look at reality. Reality is observed, if possible measured, in a way that is as objective and reproducable as possible. There is only a single physical reality. Objective Observations put into Scientific Language. Science creates languages to describe the observations. Either new words are created or old words get a more specific, well-defined meaning. There is no consistent language of science but many different jargons serving different parts of science. Theories for Predictions. Science creates theories that put observations into a useful order of cause-effect relationships. These theories may allow to understand phenomena, but - more important - to make predictions that can be compared to reality. Only at this stage science becomes applicable to economy or society. Science Society. Science works within an academic society according to certain rules and values. Original publications are of primary importance to work up the hierarchy. Famous universities, renowned journals, scientific networks, access to fundings play an important role (in the end the Nobel Price). Authority and reputation are the cornerstones of this system. "In order to talk about the nature of the universe and to discuss questions such as whether it has a beginning or an end, you have to be clear about what a scientific theory is. I shall take the simpleminded view that a theory is just a model of the universe or a restricted part of it, and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to observations that we make. It exists only in our mind and does not have any other reality (whatever that might mean). A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements: It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the result of future observations. For example, Aristotle's theory that everything was made out of four elements, earth, air, fire and water, was simple enough to qualify, but it did not make any definite predictions. On the other hand, Newton's theory of gravity was based on an even simpler model, in which bodies attracted each other with a force that was proportional to a quantity called their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Yet it predicts the motions of the sun, the moon, and the planets to a high degree of accuracy. Any physical theory is always provisional, in the sense that it is only a hypothesis: you can never prove it. No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory. On the other hand, you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory. As philosopher of science KarlPopper has emphasized, a good theory is characterized by the fact that it makes a large number of predictions that could in principle be disproved or falsified by observation. Each time new experiments are observed to agree with the predictions the theory survives, and our confidence in it is increased; but if ever a new observation is found to disagree, we have to abandon or modify the theory. At least that is what is supposed to happen, but you can always question the competence of the person who carried out the observation." Stephen W. Hawking, in "A Brief History of Time", p. 11 The quotation serves the purpose to show how on of the greatest living scientist looks at science and how naturally the view of the scientific process by KarlPopper is accepted as appropriate. -- HelmutLeitner Science is at least broken up into: Each of these investigate a different domain with different characteristics that require different methods to gain new insight into them. Science is measured against reliability and validity. Reliability is how likely the result can be reproduced by another person. Validity is how closely the result corresponds to the situation at hand. The natural sciences have the easiest time of doing this since their frame of investigation is nearly uniform for all observers and it doesn't change that much over time. Thus, two groups doing the same experiment in different locations at different times should get the same result. Further, the results of an experiment do not significantly affect future investigation. That is, natural science is nearly mutually exclusive. That isn't the case with social sciences. The frame of investigation varies for all observers, and it changes frequently over time. Worse, the results of an experiment can significantly change the results of future experiments. If we discover that purple people run slower than green people, purple people may be inspired to train, and eventually they as a group may come to run faster than green people. Natural sciences also benefit from subject-object dichotomy, since it is essentially solipsist. The observer, being humans, cannot gain direct access to the frame of investigation. The external world is a substratum to the social or cognitive world, and thus nothing we think can change it. While it is frequently the case that scientists collectively hold some ridiculous conceit for some period of time due to PeerPressure and SocialNormalization, eventually the Truth (i.e. the external frame) will assert itself after enough observations. The nice thing about the external world is that at certain sizes, energies, and speeds it happens to be consistent and coherent according to Classical Logic (or, rather, Classical Logic is a reflection of the natural universe at a human-oriented frame of reference), and thus it is difficult to hold an illusion for too long before things crumble apart. The social sciences do not operate like this. First, the observer is intimately a subject in the linguistic system that formulates the frame of investigation. While there are techniques to limit the degree to which the observer transfers information into the socio-linguistic network (society) she is investigating, fundamentally the very act of observation can transfer transformative information into the network. Unobtrusive observation fares better, but even then the observer's modelling system is affected by the frame being observed. Note that Classical Logic does not change by slamming particles together, but a social scientist's stereotypes of the situation might. As a subject in the network, then, sometimes it's best to just accept this and invert the need to monkey the subject-object dichotomy from the natural science. The researcher can become a full and active participant in the society being observed, even attempting to actively change it in some radical way. The reliability may be low, but the validity may be high. Or not. We're talking about storytelling. For what it's worth, Science has not reconciled this problem. The need for Science to be repeatably testable and means that its investigations should not modify the observed frame. Politics is like a science that is testable, but not repeatably so. Still, we do learn things over time about how to run a society, but we do not know how to do this as efficiently as we investigate the natural world. Not Humble. Science tends to overestimate its own achievements and importance. In building authority, the certainty of knowledge often becomes misrepresented. A scientific "best guess" or "state of the art" easily becomes a false "truth". Politics and economy request "the right answers" for their money in exchange. Let's forget that most of science is built on simplification. Humbleness doesn't fit in. Not Open. Science tends to diminish the reality of phenomena that are hard to observe or measure. Love, joy, beauty or consciousness have no equivalent theories or terms in science. So science and its application - technology - are basically unable to produce joy or beauty. The problem is not so much, that science can't cope with these, but that we have lost the confidence to be able to judge in terms of these superior values. For example: modern architecture strives for new technical effects, not that people have joy, perceive beauty or feel at home. Not Freedom of Will. Science works primarily in a deterministic cause-effect thinking model. The natural scientific model of a human being or mind is that of a machine. This is the case, even though we know and experience every day, that it is different. Deterministic thinking is - although we have the picture of "clockworks versus clouds" - dominating our modeling the world in a way that hinders to see and solve problems correctly. How shall a society of free people be built, when we are effectively disabled to think about what "free" means. Not Understandable. Science tends to work in an analytical way towards miniscule details, losing the big picture. This is a problem from the scientific system. It is much easier to specialize on a detail and observe something new (and publish) than to find new ways to synthesize a picture (and be accepted and publish). Although the big pictures are much more needed to make science accessable and useful to the public. No Spirit. Sciencist often falsely assume that an objective reality is all that we can understand and know. Our understanding is naturally limited by what the brightest minds can understand, but the second part is even more problematic because it means that science will not even consider external influences which are outside of the whole. So, for example, the notion of a creator of the universe that exists outside the universe is unscientific, because there is no possible evidence that could prove (even to a small degree) the existence of such a creator. Science simply says nothing about such a creator and many people mistake this silence for negation - worse, some people turn to science searching for an assent to their beliefs about the creator (or a lack thereof) when really the question is not a scientific one at all. These persons are asking a question in the wrong language, and, unsurprisingly, tend to come up with nonsense for an answer. One interesting idea I've heard about Science (capital S) is that it is instrinically Protestant, specifically Calvinist, which is why it doesn't translate well to other cultures. -- SunirShah This idea is highly questionable. The Muslim world led the world in science during Islam's golden age. There have been many Jews in scientific research. What the Jewish and Muslim cultures had in common were strong rationalist traditions. Indian mathematicians discovered ideas in math and astronomy long before Luther. AdinaLevin My current thoughts on science are here [science] but I am not sure if this stuff is OnTopic and also it might cut a little close to philosophy of religion. Incidentally, don't get put off by copyright disclaimer meatball terms are fine. --AndrewCates Classical logic is incomplete. It only works in certain frames, particularly discrete and mutually exclusive frames. There are other logics, like something I call the Logic of Flows. -- SunirShah Do you mean that we are too focused on the moment that we miss the process? And, in fact, our language is very poor in describing processes in any other way then as a sequence of events. -- Gideon FormerContributor? Exactly. We focus on events out of time and in "measurable" stasis, rather than seeing the world as fluid. Hence an obsession with TheIndividual in 19th and 20th century Western culture which is a, erm, logical end result of Greek classical logic. Other societies do not have such an atemporal viewpoint, but rather take a LongView?. Of course, you might get into Eastern Fatalism as well. The advantage of only thinking about the next quarter and never looking back is that things are always capable of changing. The disadvantage is that things can get worse. The only LongNow memory we have to stave ourselves against destruction is ArchitecturalCollaboration? (i.e. putting a rail on a cliff's edge) or other things embedded in an external frame, which may include a PrintCulture? TextAsObject? frame (i.e. a LegalSolution). The difference would be trying to control each and every single spammer by IP address or content rather than looking at spam as a statistical problem of flows. If we create an opportunity, out of the mass of AnIndividuals, there will be some pressure to exploit that opportunity. If we close that opportunity, that mass of individuals will be blocked. If we make that opportunity expensive, a smaller number of those individuals will try. At some point, the level is tolerable, like dust in a room. It's can never be zero, but we want it to be tolerable. We do not live in a hermetically sealed room, but instead we close the doors & windows and dust. The SurgeProtector is about this as well; block major energy bursts so that TheCollective can get the rest. Classical logic is incapable of dealing with this, which is why statistics was invented. (cf. http://www.paulgraham.com/spam.html) The interesting thing about decomposing things down over and over again, at a certain point you have so much data you can only analyze it in a logic of flows (i.e. statistically). PostModern science is about that, and that is partially why it investigates communities rather than individuals. And a lot of that has to do with the growth of computers in the investigation of science since there was enough power to number crunch vast reems of data, and thus the impetus to collect it. At least that's the case in the social sciences. -- SunirShah I sometimes wonder how science would have developed if we would have had fast computers in the 17th century. I guess our mathematics would look very differently: we would have invested much more effort in to algoritmics instead I guess. This means in a sense that science is a subjective view influenced heavily by language, history and chance, and is in fact not an objective view of the world. -- Gideon FormerContributor? I like some line of thoughts Andrew follows on his webpage. He talks about the "explanatory power" and "predictive power" of science. One could add "descriptive power" as a first stage. This - together with noting the power-element of science - could create another view onto science. -- HelmutLeitner Science should not have dogmas, it should have theories. Science should not have assumptions, it should have hypotheses. Both hypotheses and theories are used to guide exploration of the unknown, but they are always tentative and open to refutation and redesign. Science is a process by which a community of information gathering and processing units (observers) cooperate to produce representations (models) of physical systems and understanding of physical reality. We have no way of knowing what physical reality includes until we explore. Carl Sagan took seriously the idea that there might be a creator or intelligent designer. His novel Contact explores the issue of the form that might be taken by evidence for a creator of our universe. Francis Crick took seriously the idea that life on Earth could have originated somewhere off of Earth. It is possible to hypothesize that intelligent beings from another planet have in the past intervened in the development of life on Earth, possibly creating new forms of terrestrial life. We simply have no existing data to support these creation hypotheses. If mathematics is the queen of science, physics must be the king. It has been a common sociological phenomenon that many physicists, ignorant of other sciences, assume that the features of physical science define all of science. In particular, some physicists have made a dogma out of the idea that science MUST make predictions. Scientists from other branches of science (such as Ernst Mayr) have made to point that prediction is of little importance to some scientific endeavors. Some aspects of the universe are worthy of scientific study but do not readily lend themselves to prediction. Physicists often dismiss such scientific disciplines as butterfly collecting, but that does not stop other scientists from exploring topics such as the diversity and evolution of life. -- JohnSchmidt Maybe we do have data to support these and other hypotheses, but are we limited by our cultural, philosophical, or religious bias from understanding them? It's like not being able to see a reality which is stranger then we are able to imagine. A reality for which we don't even have the proper words and syntax to express our ideas in. This is a human limitation, not a scientific limitation. Just look at the hypotheses of the earth going around the sun. All the evidence was there for many centuries and still it did not fit the scientific framework of the time. When facts don't fit the framework, the facts are filtered out, while the framework remains. How is a scientist going to DefendAgainstCulturalBias? of her time? [There are things you can not say] because they break the framework most powerful people are working on. Frameworks which they have build their whole careers upon. Often it takes generations for frameworks to change. Heretics are often punished, only a few hundred years ago one could be put to death for expressing the idear in the previous paragraph. Only much later, when the frameworks have changed, will their genius be recognised. Science to me is no more then a idea: A general methode of investigation. I don't belief any more in Science (with a big S) or in scientific proof. It's all just interpretation based on filtered facts, while not all filters are known. The Truth is only one of many truths, the truth as we see it today; Tomorrow is another day, maybe it will bring it's own truth? -- Gideon FormerContributor? This is a remarkably anti-science screed (not the discussion afterwards) for a page with a very neutral title and fairly neutral introduction. "Science is a way of describing the world....SUITABLE FOR JOYLESS EGOTISTS WHO HATE BEAUTY AND WISH TO DESTROY FREEDOM AND UNDERSTANDING." Unless someone wants to move this to WhatsWrongWithScience?, I will begin making additions to the top portion of the page to describe the enormous benefits of classical logic, mathematics, and scientific inquiry. -- JasonCorley You really don't have to shout. You have a good point, although it might be more WhatsWrongWithCurrentScienceCulture?. Science as a tool has enormous benefits. However, no tool is useful for all things and one needs extreme skill to handle any tool. Especially a hard to use and powerful tool like science. Most of the problems noted above have nothing to do with science, but with the sad fact that most scientist don't really have the skill and sophistication to handle the power of this tool. Most scientist suck at science. Human nature may not be compatible. Maybe we could redefine Science? Maybe this should be the number one task of every scientist. What is there beyond science? It there some tool which is more powerful and more suitable then science? Maybe we are looking for a new kind of science? Current science has its roots in the renaissance, maybe this is TheSecondRenaissance? where we find ourselves in need of a better tool then good old science? -- Gideon FormerContributor? Jason, Gideon, I wonder why you see this page primarily negative. Science has positive and negative aspects and both are represented. Science is a way to look at the world and as many people as possible (everybody) should understand the fundamentals, the methods and the limits. There are no stronger tools for the same purpose, but we can use the tools more skillfully. -- HelmutLeitner Helmut, the good point I was referring to was that idea that maybe part of the things on this page should get their own page. I have no problem with science in itself nor with this page as such, just that some parts are maybe a little off-topic. I'm not sure that there are no stronger tools then science, but maybe these tools could augment science instead of replacing it? I tend to agree that we need more people to understand the fundamentals and principles of science. We need to promote [Scholarship]. The science in scholarship are the principles and fundamental concepts of investigation, research and objective peer review. This can be augmented to deal with new subjects of research when the time comes. This is the kind of science which should be taught and explained to as much people as posible. Scholarship does not enforce a framework upon its users, it allows the freedom to augment and extend it when needed. There is however another kind of Science, the popular cultural framework of natural philosophy which claims to contains The One and Only Scientific Truth. It has little to nothing to do with the science from the previous paragraph. It will be very damaging to humanity if this where to become a new (false) religion where the framework of thought and adherents to the opinions of some elite (dogma) are more important than objective research and honest facts. We should really have two words for these concepts. Maybe we should use ScientificMethod? for the fundamental principles and concepts, but use NaturalPhilosophy? when we talk about the current populair framework? This distinction would clean up much of the confusion of the page. -- Gideon FormerContributor? I like the idea that science need some kind of update. Modern science started in a time when most people could not have direct access to the activity of scientists. It is now possible to put every working scientist on the internet. Maybe if all scientific activity took place in the public domain in a open source fashion, there would be less of a division between the world of science and the rest of society. Everyone agrees that science can have powerful impacts on society. Maybe this power needs to be regulated by making science (particularly science funded by tax dollars) more open to public review. -- JohnSchmidt Let us also not forget that the FirstRenaissance? caused a reading culture to emerge, perhaps this SecondRenaissance? will cause a scholarship culture to emerge? Like then it would have been hard to imagine a world where most (if not all) people could read. In turn it maybe hard for us to imagine a world of scholars, just try it. This could however be a posible outcome. Both blogs and wiki seem to point in this direction. (This is one of the themes of meatball it seems). This will change scholarship and the whole concept of reading/writing; no longer will it be author to audience but instead it will become peers to peers (notice the plural). Likewise science will chance in the process, it may return to its root meaning (latin: knowledge). -- Gideon FormerContributor? As I am beginning to edit, I am noticing that the "problems with science" section appears to be full of, well, how can I put this diplomatically - falsehoods. Alternately, if they are not falsehoods, they are not actually talking about science. "Not humble"? Compared to what other human endeavour? A method of seeing the world that depends almost entirely on carefully carving out a piece of ignorance from a vast sea of uncertainty is not humble? It says "A scientific "best guess" or "state of the art" easily becomes a false "truth"." A) in what universe? and B) even if it did, how is that conceivably a fault that can be laid at science's feet, when it's a tremendously unscientific view? The bit about modern architecture being sterile and technical and completely ignoring emotion and anything not easily quantifiable also appears factually incorrect. I just picked a random architectural journal from Google, [Architecture News], and on the front page at this moment (31 Jul 2005) is an article about a Penn Station renovation that is aimed at keeping the famous sky-lit appearance of the historical (and certainly emotion-laden) New York landmark, an article about reclaiming an industrially blighted San Mateo area as a public park with essentially the whole article given over to examining how to allude to nature in every piece of the architectural design of the park, and, one click away in the "Design and Trends" section is a piece entirely about emotion - an analysis of the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin. This is just with a couple of clicks. I am sure that an architectural professional could tell us far more about the subject than just these few blurbs. My cognitive science knowledge is limited, but I can tell you that even with the tiny introductory course that I took several years ago, I know that the statement "The natural scientific model of a human being or mind is that of a machine." is one hundred percent incorrect. That is not even remotely close to where cognitive science is, or at least how it is taught. And the question "How shall a society of free people be built, when we are effectively disabled to think about what "free" means?" again seems to be talking about something other than science altogether. If we can't think about what 'free' means, how is that science's fault? How is that a "problem with science"? The only thing I could find to salvage at all is the very last of the "problems", regarding science's completeness. I've done what I can to fix it, but there really is a lot to do up there and I'm wondering, given the direction the discussion is going (more fruitful, less about science) if the page should just be split up and started over. -- JasonCorley Jason: Replace natural scientific with natural philosophical and that statement about the mind as a machine is correct. Lack of completeness is not really a problem, because we barely know al the questions to ask so how could be ever have all the answers? Depending on where you are in this page the word science can mean anything: ScientificMethod?, NaturalPhilosophy?, ScientificCommunity? or AcademicCommunity? and more. It does not really answer the question WhatIsScience? very well. What I think has happend, is that one or some of the pages which point here had a discussion (I may have participated) which caused this page to be written with a minor bias towards the subject. At that time we did not realize that our usage of the word science was very broad and under-defined. I think the time has come to resolve this with a compleet rewrite. But first I want to read some of the pages which point here to understand the usage of WhatIsScience. -- Gideon FormerContributor? An excellent resource is Latour's Science in Action, which I'm building a summary & roadmap on SocialConstructionOfScience. -- SunirShah I think the page is pretty good as it is (no wonder, I wrote a large number of the initial paragraphs). It doesn't claim to talk about the science community and it doesn't. A sociological perception of science won't help much, because it contains increased constructivism. Suddenly the importance of "controversy" and "rhetoric" comes in. This is not how science is done or advanced. It comes afterwards, when you want recognition. It's human cover. If I remember correctly, WhatIsScience was originally a reaction to the question whether Meatball does scientific work and what that means in this context. In my opinion it means: to observe, to explore, to create language, to exchange experiences, to build models, to look whether the models produce useful results. Natural science show best how this may work, it has the most valuable results, it is the ideal that others try to follow. Costin noted in private communication, criticising pages like WhatIsScience, that a lot of world view topics and politics crept into Meatball recently. I think this is true, one can observe it. I'm not sure, whether this is good or bad. Obviously, these topics are interesting to Meatball's current active members, so this content is accepted. It probably wouldn't have been three years ago. This creates an inconsistency, especially if certain political statements are rejected. Suddenly the question turns up, whether MeatballWiki has a political color - it would then cease to be like a society. Science is also always under attack of political forces that want to exploit the term. Non-science wants to sell as science (for example Marxism). Politics constantly wants to buy science, for example to change perception (e. g. to deny global change of climate from air pollution). But in giving such examples, one becomes political at the same moment. This is the point to become realistic and simple, not philosophical, sociological and complex. -- HelmutLeitner All this means that science has become overloaded with different and incompatible meanings which makes it a non-sense term in practice. Without a clear and neutral definition one can not use it anymore. This confusion only serves the people who want to exploit this term for their own agenda. Therefor I advised the use of different terms instead. For now I suggest that we refrain from rewriting until we come to some consensus about the meaning of science on this page. -- Gideon FormerContributor? Gideon, perhaps you could put an alternative view side by side. Currently it's totally unclear to me, which direction this could lead. -- HelmutLeitner I must confess that the potential problems section does not reflect what I expect science to be. Instead, it looks like a prejudice collection from people outside of science, or an analysis of the social effects of science. It is not at all a reflection of how I viewed myself while I studied biology, nor a reflection of what our professors seemed to believe. Perhaps we can just look at the first point in that list: Not Humble. How do I even start my argument when my experience indicates that is not true? There's no example for this point, so I can't criticise the interpretation or selection of the example. Should I post a counter-example? Should I cite Socrates? Talk about Popper? Maybe that's part of the frustration Gideon feels as well. -- AlexSchroeder The problem relates to the title of the page vs. the content. "WhatIsScience" leads to invalid sentences like "Science tends to overestimate its own achievements and importance." 'Science' is not an actor, but a process, and it's not true that the process of Science leads inevitably to hubris. WhatIsScience is more accurately specified on SocialConstructionOfScience, but that only looks at it anthropologically rather than from the myths and ideals and objectives that motivate Science, which is probably more what this page ought to be. What's written here is more of a Social Criticism of Scientists, which is not very convincing in its current "Science is" form. -- SunirShah Mmmh, maybe a language or perception problem? I'm not responsible for all points of the "potential problems" section, but for the majority. "potential" doesn't mean "always existing", it means "inherent", maybe "lurking below the surface". That people take their business more serious than it is, is a general problem, not a social construction. For the preacher his belief is most important, for the artist the culture, for the politician his political view, for the scientist his scientific truth, for the entrepreneur the money, most philosophers think their theories supreme, Plato thought he (the philosopher) should sit on the throne. Einstein wasn't humble when he said "God doesn't throw dice", obviously he felt to know about the nature of God (and he was wrong). Artifical Intelligence wasn't humble about its goals and ETAs. No scientist going for funding is humble or even realistic about what he will achieve. These problems are not everywhere, but they can be found regularly and they are not constructed but part of human nature or the systems. Just as I can state without doubt that "openness" is a potential problem of online communities. Maybe InherentProblemsOfScience? to avoid thinking that science is meant to be criticised unfairly. -- HelmutLeitner I've been experimenting recently with avoiding the word "science". I still talk about the same things, but I substitute some other, more specific word than the generic "science" or "scientists", as suggested by Gideon. For example, "Physicists invented the atomic bomb". "Chemists synthesized aspirin". "Experimental physicists invented the transistor. Later, quantum physicists explained the principles of operation of the transistor." "Mechanical engineers invented the steam locomotive and Jell-O(TM)." It helps me avoid pointless debates on the definition of terms. (Did "scientists" send a man to the moon, or was it "engineers"? Or perhaps "technologists"?) (Are the people who set up "political experiments" really scientists?) But perhaps I'm succumbing to exactly the sort of "reductionist" thinking that AndrewCates warns about. -- DavidCary

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Patients suffering from dementia have a brain disorder that makes them have difficulty in remembering things. Their thinking skills are also affected while depression becomes common to them as a result (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2011). Diagnosis of the condition will be important in organizing the best care plan. With an increasing fear of losing their identity and respect, the health care plan would revolve in boosting the confidence of the patients. Utilizing methods that improve the sense of self identity in patients must be involved in care plans of patients. While employing these methods, there will be a need to maintain communication with the patients and co-workers, and consider both legal and ethical guidelines within the framework you will be providing your services. A family is very important to a patient who is suffering from this condition. Health care providers will have to ensure that family bondages are still maintained. Care plans are different for different members and families play a very important role in providing the patient history of the patient. They are the closest people hence when they are involved in care plans; it will enhance reduction of the symptoms of dementia. Dementia Patients have feelings. These emotional characteristics are expressed in different ways. Some become aggressive, violent, calm and sad or swing their moods spontaneously. Any type of mental health care plan should consider how it can manage these feelings. It will involve doing activities with the patient, using family members or make use of safe external intervention. Dementia is a brain condition that affects memory and thinking abilities of individuals. Reasoning is also affected as result. Effective tools that will involve monitor the cognitive behaviour of individuals; improve their thinking and triggering their memory should be used consistently. Mental health care plan for the dementia condition will therefore involve psychiatrists and psychologists who are capable of diagnosing patients that suffer from it. The family will help in understanding the patients especially during assessment procedures. The nurses and other mental health care experts will help in providing care and carrying out the medical instructions of the doctors. They will also have to form close relationship with the patients in the course of the condition until there is an improvement in the health of the patients. The government and other health bodies will have a duty to ensure that health care and services given to the patients and management support to the health workers are done under the provision of laws, health Acts and ethical requirements. Provision of mental health care within legal and ethical framework is clearly described in the made and amended laws. There are two most important guidelines that explain how, when and to whom should mental care be given. These are the Mental Health Act 2007 and the mental capacity Act 2005. The Mental Health Act 2007 states that an approved mental health professionals, approved clinicians and Section 12 approved doctors be the only people who can provide mental health care. The approved mental health professionals are approved by the local social services authority for 5 years at a time. The health workers are demanded to fully involve the patients in planning their treatments and also to consider their wishes. Family members and other carers must be involved unless the patients refuse. Any type of treatment or care plan carried out must be less restrictive to the patients. During examination of a patient for diagnosis, the Act requires me to take into account my observations and any evidences that I find reliable in helping me diagnose a person. The Act requires me to be aware of the effects for administering medication and prescribing minimum medication to allow patients communicate adequately with his advocate who will present him in a mental health inquiry. I am further restricted from administering dosage that, under the professional standards, is excessive and inappropriate. The mental capacity Act 2005 presumes that all patients are able to make their own decision hence any action must first be discussed with the patients before it is executed. The patients referred as adults have the right have the right to be supported to make decisions and the right to make unwise and strange decisions (Jenkins, 2012). Decision will only be taken if all practical steps to help them make decisions fail. When making decisions for these patients the Act gives the following checklist of things that must be taken into account. I should not make assumptions based on age, appearance, condition or behavior, not make a decision on patient’s end-to-life plan with a desire to end their lives, considering the patient’s wishes and opinions, considering views of other carers and people who had interest in the welfare of the patients and making a decision in the best interest of the patients. Before interacting with dementia patients I set a positive a mood. Persons with dementia experience periods where their personality and behaviour change. They may respond in a way that might look unpleasing or aggressive. While trying to reach them and offer health care services, I have learnt to have a positive attitude towards them. My body language on the other hand communicates what I want the patient to know. It includes facial expression to show how happy I am for him, my tone of voice being very soft while showing affection by physically touching him. Dementia conditions cause people to be less focused and attentive. Maintaining a conversation with them and hence ensuring that I achieve my objective of getting information has not been easy. External distraction from noise sounds and movements will disrupt communication with them. When I want to talk or explain something to them, I always employ all factors that will catch their full attention. The surrounding in which I will work with my patients must be very silent. I first turn off any media tools, shut the door or close the curtains to prevent the patients from being distracted by movement of other patients and staff. I have learnt to address them with names (Roberts, 2012) every time I talk to them, or use some of their favourite phrases that they like to respond to. In some cases I use gestures like moving my hands to illustrate something, move around, sitting down, eye contact and emotional expression to show empathy. While talking to them I talk less using few words that will provoke them into making long statements. The patients cannot store a lot of information in their brains. They easily lose track of the words made in long sentences. I have realized that the only way you can maintain a conversation is by using simple and easy to understand words which convey a clear message. The patients will show signs of not understanding the message you have tried to give them. In this case the question asked or the message given is rephrased. One study by the Department of Health (2011) found that dementia patients stay longer in hospitals compared to people who do not suffer from any kind of cognitive impairment. Therefore, I have learnt to be very patient in these situations because different patients with diverse conditions of dementia have different levels of understanding. Therefore, I rephrase and interpret some information many times before the patients understand. Sometimes no progress is made and the patient fails to understand messages intended for them. Working in the dementia wing comprising many dementia patients, I have found that each patient has his or her own special needs apart from the general needs that we have knowledge about. There are different levels of dementia. Some are severe such as the Alzheimer’s disease. In order to understand them and provide them with a proper health care plan, I involve all my sense organs when assessing these patients. As long as they talk, I ensure that I lend my ears to them and capture everything they say. No understatement should be made concerning the importance of listening to people living with dementia (Cullen & La Fontaine, 2012). My eyes will also be involved in observing them during assessment or how they respond to questions or medication. While interacting with them at this time I have to have a ‘heart’, meaning that I should show affection to the patients when they express any kind of emotion. People living with dementia tend to have low-esteem characters. They feel less worthy hence become stigmatized. To help them build more confidence of themselves and of the things that they do, I involve them in creative activities. I assist them in either painting, poetry, making textiles or storytelling. These activities have been found to restore their self-esteem, identity and thus maintaining communication between them and the carers (Killick & Craig, 2011). During these activities they usually open up to people and lead to establishment of trust. Music and creative writing is part of other creative activities that I use to understand the feelings, needs and fears that a patient goes through (Buchalter, 2011). During working with the patients and all parties that are involved in provision of mental health care, I have faced complex and challenging situations. Not every patient responds positively to the health care plan. Some of them form aggressive behaviours that are believed to have arisen as a result of taking some medication hence an expression of side effects. Due to the general risks of a possible alteration of the brain functions, the patients acquire abnormal characters that are violent. I have witnessed some patients who only respond aggressively (Roberts, 2012)when they are presented with a particular thing, see a person, are distracted or feel that they are either restrained or forced to do something. Their reason to react in this way should be in no way regarded to be a deliberate action but instead to be understood to a result of brain action decline. I have learnt that these type of patients can be helped by giving them time and space to behave that way, they can be asked to go for a walk, a change in topic can help them deviate their actions or can be given something that arouse their interest and in turn lower their aggressive actions. In most cases dementia patients are very restless. They like moving around their rooms take anything in sight which they might break or play with. This is as a result of being bored or tired of being where they are. Some will wander far away from where they are receiving their care plan which can be at home or in hospitals. We have cases where some have gone missing. The best way I have learnt to minimize restless is by taking them for a walk regularly outside their care centers. This refreshes them and they will become occupied throughout their time because the idle period of time that they usually spend on their own would have been reduced. The longer they suffer from the disease the more the negative effects and of the symptoms of the disease are exemplified. The patients forget more. Patients with mild cognitive impairment have been found to develop dementia and an increase in memory loss over a period of time (Okonkwo, Griffith, Copeland, Belue, Lanza, Zamrini, Harell, Brockington, Clark, Raman & Marson, 2008). In many scenarios patients have asked me a question many times and I had to give answers every time they ask. This has helped me to become very patient. I had to give some instructions repeatedly. I have discovered on several occasions that these instructions have not been followed. I have managed to solve this challenge through making posters with instruction or message written on it then sticking them at strategic points that I know my patients will come across them. In some cases I rephrase some instructions or repeat them but after a period of time to avoid invoking any negative response or behaviour from my patients. Supervising them and monitoring their actions has also helped me into guiding them into performing some important tasks hence they have felt good about themselves. Working in mental clinic or department in the hospital can put the health workers at risk of suffering from stress, exhaustion and other mental conditions. Teri, McKenzie & LaFazia (2005) have reported higher levels of mental and physical stress in health workers. I have formed a very good working relationship with my co-workers and authorities. While serving the patients I have gained an important skill of constantly keeping accurate records about the progress of patients. I have understood that I am only put on somebody care during my shift under people take shifts. Recording accurate information is an ethical responsibility that I am required to observe. It is among the other ways that I am able to convey a message to another health worker whom I would not know but will have a responsibility of caring a patient that was put under me. I have in some cases been burden with stresses and information from some patients that I could not manage. One study reported that care givers are pressed down with workload to an extent that it precluded sustained interactions with their counterpart residents whom they worked with (Ward, Vass, Aggarwal, Garfield & Cybyk, 2008). I have devised a way in which I can relive some of the pain and stress that I go through. I communicate it with a psychologist who has helped me a great deal in resuming my duties. I have also recognized their importance by seeking help from them when dealing with patients. Whatever I do to the patients or I take a break I usually inform the relevant staff member so that the patient does not lack any health service. Working in a mental health setting requires medical practitioners having knowledge of the legal and ethical requirements of their roles. I understand that dementia condition is just like any other disease. It does not discriminate the person to attack. I provide non-discriminate care to people with dementia the same way I would to people who are cognitively well (DoH, 2009). In addition to equal medical care, I observe quality standards of health care to all patients as one of the objective requirements of Department of Health (DoH, 2010). The care quality Commission is responsible for ensuring quality and proper care (Mental Health Act 2007) As a practicing nurse towards provision of care to the dementia patients, I am very much informed and an effective member of the workforce that I work with. These are requirements that are defined in the thirteenth objective of the national Dementia Strategy (DoH, 2009). I believe that I have fully accomplished this requirement by having skills, knowledge and understanding that I can properly and ethically use to provide quality health care to people with dementia. In addition, I have the approval of local social services authority which is another requirement in the Mental Act 2007. Royal College Nursing (2011) states some of qualities that I possess and others that health workers must have in provision of quality health care. It includes being fully trained and educated, having senior management support and showing some leadership skill but generally I need to possess these five principles that will ensure I provide good dementia care. They involve being skilled and have time to care, partnering with careers, ability to perform assessment and early identification, providing individualized care and ensuring that I work with patients in a dementia friendly environment (Thompson, 2013). Working with the dementia patients would need monitoring of the services and development that you are making as a nurse. Jasper (2003) sees the importance of reflective practice as a way of development and when trying to communicate with patients. This will help me in monitoring my progress and effectiveness of the care that I give to my patients. A good feedback will encourage me to keep on providing even better care while a negative feedback will help me change my methods and health care services that I have been using. Critical reflection will enable to add up more knowledge and experience hence my understanding and personal qualities will continue to develop (Titchen, 2004). Clinical supervision can also influence change in practice and development of knowledge and skills in clinical settings as a result of reflective practice (Mann, Gordon & MacLeod, 2009). I am required under the healthcare regulations to provide both the patients and their families with information regarding the health status. The patients are made aware of their decision making rights before any treatment action is taken by the medical team. This will include medical procedures and tests. In addition, I am required to help in preparation and planning the end-of-life care discussions with both the patients and the family (Alzheimer’s Association, 2009). They would also need to be aware what the health facility will do during this period. I have been given a right to socialize and interact with dementia patients and also showing them some affection when it is necessary. Under these guidelines I understand the boundaries when making these advancements. While showing affections to patients, I ensure that my actions feel right and are done in good faith. These actions should only provoke necessary information instead of inappropriate feelings. Through full understanding of the medical guidelines and requirements, I have understood the importance of having medical handbooks that specifically describes the code of practice of medical personnel. One such rule that has completely stuck in my mind and I usually apply it is making use of my professional knowledge, judgment and skills before execute a medical action based on “evidences for best practice and person’s best interests (NMC, 2009). Reading these books have made me have great interest and curious to read even more handouts that update on the medical practice. The more I read, the more I want to practice them. This has enabled me to have more experience, interact and network with a lot of people. Alzheimer’s Association (2009). Recommendations for Professionals Working in a Home Setting; Phase 4. Gould, E, Tilly, J. & Reed, P. (Eds). Alzheimer’s Association Buchalter S. (2011). Art Therapy and Creative Coping Techniques for Older Adults Jessica Kingsley Publishers Cullen, L. & La Fontaine, J. (2012). “Reflections on Establishing and Delivering a Dementia Adviser Service.” Journal of Dementia and Mental Health Care of Older People. Volume 16, Issue 3 Department of Health (2009) Living well with dementia, A National Dementia Strategy, London Department of Health (2010) Quality outcomes for people with dementia: Building on the work of the National Dementia Strategy, London Department of Health (2011). Common Core Principles for Supporting People with Dementia. A guide to training the social care and health workforce. London Jasper, M. (2003). Beginning reflective practice. Nelson Thornes Ltd., Cheltenham Jenkins, K. (2012). Mental Capacity and the Mental Capacity Act 2005: A literature review. Colechurch House 1 London Bridge Walk London: Mental Health Foundation Killick J. & Craig, C. (2011). Creativity and Communication in Persons with Dementia. A Practical Guide. Jessica Kingsley Publishers Mental Capacity Act 2005: Code of Practice Issued by the Lord Chancellor on 23 April 2007 in accordance with sections 42 and 43 of the Act. London: TSO Mental Health Act 2007 No 8. New South Wales Nursing and Midwifery Council (2009). Accountability. Available at: http://www.nmc-uk.org/Nurses-and-midwives/Advice-by-topic/A/Advice/Accountability/ Okonkwo, O. C., Griffith, H. R., Copeland, J. N., Belue, K., Lanza, S., Zamrini, E. Y., Harell, L. E., Brockington, S. C., Clark, D., Raman, R. & Marson, D. C. (2008). Medical decision-making capacity in mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 71: 1474-1480 Roberts, J. (2012). Dementia care – How to deal with the challenges of communication. England: United Kingdom Homecare Association Limited Royal College of Nursing (2011) Dignity in dementia: transforming hospital care. A summary of findings from survey of professionals March 2011, London Teri, L., McKenzie, G., & LaFazia, D. (2005) “Psychosocial treatment of depression in older adults with dementia.” Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. Vol. 12 Issue 3, pp. 303-316. Titchen, A. (2004) Helping Relationships for Practice Development in McCormack, B., Manley, K. & Garbett, R. (eds) Practice Development in Nursing. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Royal College of Psychiatrists (2011). Report of the National Audit of Dementia Care in General Hospitals.Royal College of Psychiatrists, London. Thompson, R. (2013). Dementia: Commitment to the Care of People with Dementia in Hospital Settings. 20 Cavendish Square, London: Royal college of nursing Ward, R., Vass, A., Aggarwal, N., Garfield, C. & Cybyk, B. (2008). “A Different Story: Exploring Patterns of Communication in Residential Dementia Care.” Ageing & Society. Vol. 28, Issue 5. pp. 629-651

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‘Tell me a story!’ What child has not expressed those words? Children find the fantasy world a story transports them into, comforting, entertaining and enlightening. As a prelude to sleep stories allow them to dream the impossible. They explain the strong emotions children experience as they grow up, teach them about their tribe, their culture and their place in the world and give them a shared sense of purpose. Throughout human history, stories have been the glue that has civilized and bound people together in a community as humane beings. Stories stimulate our imagination, opening up the infinite opportunities that life presents. Developing imagination, Albert Einstein believed, was more important than imparting knowledge, as wondering is the basis of invention, of all development and understanding. It would be a dystopian world without stories. But stories have had different functions over the centuries and ‘children’ have been variously defined and regarded. Western notions of childhood have changed dramatically, especially in the past 300 years, as has the way stories have been presented and enjoyed. The idea of childhood as a special stage of life is a relatively new middle-class phenomenon. Before the 18th century children were seen as little adults, dressed as adults and expected to work like adults. They got no special consideration at law; until 1780 over two hundred offences were punishable by hanging for children as well as adults. The youngest convict on the First Fleet was John Hudson, a nine-year-old chimney sweep who had been convicted of stealing clothes and a pistol. The reality of life for young children has been an economic, social and cultural construction over centuries. So, given the current Australian and Children’s Screen Content Review, which is to determine the future of regulation for children’s media content, it is important to ask some fundamental questions. Is childhood today a chronological stage or a system of constructed values? Has childhood changed since the Children’s Television Standards (CTS) were introduced in the early 1980’s? Do we still mean the same thing when we talk about a children’s program in 2017 as we did when quotas were implemented in 1984? And what special functions do such defined programs fill that warrant ongoing regulatory protection in a dramatically changing digital world? The rise of childhood can be traced back to the Reformation. The Puritans of the 17th Century were the first to stress the child’s moral autonomy. They believed children had to be taught to think for themselves; to internalise moral values and to make choices for which they were personally responsible so they supported the need for education. During The Age of Enlightenment, in 1762, Rousseau published his treatise on education, Emile, arguing his theory of the innocence of childhood. Liberal and permissive attitudes to children began to take root, but the ideals of the time didn’t match social practice. Rousseau left his five illegitimate children in foundling homes. ‘Woman is especially made for man’s delight’, he wrote, and ‘for that reason there is no need even to teach girls to write’. By 1830, despite calls for education, half Britain’s workforce in the cotton mills was child labor. The English Factory Act of 1833 limited child labor to 8 hours a day, but because adults argued for the same terms, the limit remained at 10 hours. Child exploitation only came to an end with the passing of The Education Act of 1870, which required children up to the age of 10 to attend school. It was a start toward the protection of the youngest in society, but it was also because factory owners needed more literate workers who could read instructions for using machinery safely and efficiently. Many needy parents protested and absenteeism from school was common. The poor continued to be exploited while the children of the affluent middle-class were shipped off to boarding schools, separated from adults and sheltered from the real world. But by the late 19th century, following the industrial revolution, in Australia as well as Britain, growing economic demand for an educated and relatively healthy workforce had produced education for all, and altered the nature of childhood. In the pre-industrial age stories were told by bards orally and the experience was shared by all ages. The stories, although often cautionary tales, were told uncensored. Fairy tales were not about beautiful princesses in gauzy dresses but ‘about child murder, cannibalism, starvation, deformity, desperate human creatures cast in the form of beasts, or chained by spells, or immured alive in thorns’. 1 Such stories enabled people to indulge their lust for sadism; evil was omnipresent but good triumphed. Characters were simplified and polarized to promote understanding among the uneducated; the good were beautiful, the evil were ugly. The overriding message of such stories was that life is a struggle against severe difficulties; they are unavoidable but if you are steadfast in meeting unexpected and unjust hardships, obstacles can be overcome and mastered. They were valuable life lessons for adults and children. 2 This oral form of group entertainment disappeared when the printing press was invented and children were sent to school and separated from their parents. As they were taught to read, their stories became simpler and more didactic. The long-accepted and traditional elements in stories were squeezed out of the official child culture to protect children from knowing about the murder and mayhem and horrors of life that might ‘disturb’ them. Stories acquired taste; they began to taste childish. Humanists taught courtly behavior. Religious reformers did not see the need for anything but religious reading. If children wanted adventure it could be found in the bible. Both groups agreed the ‘chapbooks’ (akin to comics) were harmful for children. This developing storybook culture no longer reflected the needs of children in a shared community; it reflected the needs and values of middle-class parents and teachers who expected to train well-behaved children to be seen but not heard. Emotionally, children were cast adrift to deal with their inner impulses and feelings. Human enterprise seizes opportunity and in the early eighteenth century it was discovered money could be made from a children’s publishing industry. The Arabian Nights (1706) and Mother Goose (1760’s) a compilation of nursery rhymes appeared. Grimm’s Fairy Tales (1812) were considered too grim for children. Swiss Family Robinson (1812) was basically a religious work. Alice in Wonderland (1865) a fanciful tale and Tom Thumb’s Pretty Song Book (1744) a book of nursery rhymes, emerged along with others by liberal minded authors who brought new themes and attitudes to children’s books. The toy industry also took off and experts were beginning to complain that toys had become so elaborate they left nothing to the child’s imagination. The seeds of the debates that have raged about children’s entertainment since were sown. The dominant philosophical notion put forward by child advocates was that of childhood vulnerability and their need for protection from the secrets of adult life for as long as possible. One of the contradictions of this history is that the glorification of childhood coincided with the greatest exploitation of children. In literature and art the romantics were exalting the purity and innocence of childhood while at the same time the family and the church, which should have been responsible for nurturing children, were agents of repression.3 The industrial revolution in the 19th century led to children serving as unskilled labor on the production line in the mills, as chimney sweeps, as pick-pockets, as well as lace makers. Eight year old girls dragged coal trucks through wet tunnels on their hands and knees. Charles Dickens wrote a stream of novels exposing the plight of working-class poor and abandoned children. But it would be another century before changes in industrial policy, education, social and welfare reform, a greater knowledge of child development and appreciation of individual differences, would lead to childhood being seen, as it is today, as a stage with special needs. When these changes came they were driven as much by economic need as concern for the well-being of children. But it would become apparent, despite the repression of the Victorian Age, that children could not be coerced into becoming models of conformity. They simply did not fit a narrow stereotype. The nineteenth century’s effort to standardize childhood through schooling failed. It would be some time before it was understood that the purpose of education should be to awaken a child’s mind. Such a debate about the purpose of education and schooling is ongoing. Charles Darwin was the first to keep systematic notes on one of his children to study child development and by 1900 child experts began to emerge and their theories split along several lines. Studies looking at the differences between children found a range of abilities. Behaviorism was one branch that aimed at conditioning children and molding them to a teacher’s or parent’s will. The French Psychologist Jean Piaget insisted children developed in stages, each step building on previous capacities toward mastery over their world. Research that followed called this ‘stage theory’ too rigid and arbitrary. A spate of books on child rearing emerged with Dr Benjamin Spock dominating the field. He challenged behaviourism, relying on work on children’s emotional development. Parents by this time were beginning to worry about whether their children would like them as friends rather than authority figures. Harvard University’s Professor Howard Gardner argued that we have multiple intelligences. His work challenged the inadequacy of IQ tests built around words, numbers and logical reasoning which overlooked the intelligences of those with visual, aural and kinesthetic abilities. He saw no division between thinking and feeling and drew attention to the full range of human intelligences. He believed in the plasticity of young minds, which has been borne out by recent brain research. But despite what has been learned about child development and subsequent changes aimed at improving the well-being of children, many of the tensions in social attitudes toward them remain with us. There is a crisis of confidence among many child-rearing experts, parents and teachers, about how best to rear children. Neither parents nor the wider society are offering children the clear guidance they need and want. There are those who argue that children must be protected and socialized, taught moral values and know their place. With others limited guidance or permissiveness replaces firm rules. A desire for their child’s constant happiness and success drives many parents to indulge children, praise mediocrity in the cause of equality, or give them everything but their time. Adolescents especially are searching for purpose, belief and causes today for without goals that incorporate them within a social group they become self-centred. It is not surprising they are confused given the dramatic 21st century changes in family structure, the impact of globalisation and economic rationalism along with rampant consumerism which has commodified them. Once again an economic revolution has changed the nature of childhood and in turn influenced storytelling. Many of these changes have occurred since the Children’s Television Standards were introduced by the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal in 1984. But over the same period we have made significant progress in our understanding of child development and the functioning of the brain. Thirty years were added to our life expectancy across the 20th century and for the first time children are a minority, less than twenty per-cent of the population. The social structure in 2017 is radically different from the post war years when most people married and had children and the roles of men, women and children were more clearly delineated. These changes have led to a different experience of childhood. Education, equality for women, the cost of living, work demands and sexual liberation have altered family life. Women are less prepared to accept the role of dependent housewife and the dual income family has to organize its time differently. Divorce, single parenthood, step families, same-sex couples and multi-generational families make for a varied experience of family life. Parenthood has become a private choice rather than a biological inevitability. Close to a third of our population now comprise free-living young adults aged between 25-40 enjoying long but insecure work hours and very adult-oriented entertainment, often with little interest in marriage or other people’s children. And though many of these young adults hold on to the family ties they have, and claim an interest in eventually marrying and having children, the longer they delay the less likely it is to happen. And they question why, as singles, they should accept responsibility for other people’s children. Children are not their future. Add to this social upheaval the communication revolution and the impact of mass and social media. Our storytelling and children’s entertainment has changed dramatically as a result of these changes. Neil Postman claimed technology, starting with the invention of the printing press, eroded the concept of childhood. It disappeared altogether, he claimed, with the advent of television, when once again children were fully exposed to the world of adult values and behavior. It has become impossible to maintain the position that children must be shielded from adult secrets. We have returned to the days when stories were shared by the bards for social groups of all ages. 4 Marshall McLuhan correctly proclaimed the medium was the message as households were redesigned to accommodate the television set. Houses were redesigned to have a family room with the set in the corner turned on all day talking to itself and preschoolers became the heaviest viewers living, exposed to more hours of programming than any other age group. 5 Initially television broke down the pattern that had occurred across the 18th and 19th centuries of separating children from adults for their entertainment, as most houses did not acquire multiple sets. Through television children once again got to know the adult world for what it is but they were not participants in this world. The stories they saw rarely integrated children. But it became clear television could tell stories that clarified life and give, in pictures as well as words, an understanding of the joys and frustrations children encounter. All around the western world people debated how television should be used for the benefit of children and what types of stories we should tell them via the medium. At first such story telling was seen as the responsibility of broadcasters, who once they were assigned a licence and television sets had been adopted widely throughout Australia, were reluctant to spend resources on what they saw as a minority market. Regulations were enshrined and for more than a decade children’s production flourished with subsidy from governments and quotas placed on broadcasters. Even so there was still disagreement among teachers, child psychologists, writers and television producers about what was desirable children’s programming. Then in the 90’s cable television disrupted the market bringing international children’s channels with the realization there was money to be made from branded character-based programming screened all day. Competition changed the nature of quota programming which had to earn overseas sales in the global marketplace. The conflicting views among the story-telling industry stakeholders that followed and are current are not dissimilar from positions espoused over the last two hundred years. The difference is, media companies are now big businesses and children are big business. In this climate do we still try to target, isolate and ‘protect’ children or do we expose them to programming made for the mass market? What needs do we try to fulfill when commercial broadcasters have demonstrated clearly if they are required by regulation to schedule children’s programming there is no way known they will meet the spirit of those regulations. Creating children’s stories in any medium is tough work, not because the production demands are greater than with most entertainment for adults, but because there is so much humbug surrounding so many issues that relate to children. Although we understand child development much more than we did when the romantics first emerged they are still around. They seem to have completely forgotten how they felt as children. They remember only the good things about their childhood and block out the unpleasant, the traumatic and the naughty and fearsome villains, whom they believe do harm to children. They may know the world is a tough place but they would like children’s programs to compensate for all the other unsuitable trash they might view. The ‘neo-puritans’ are still about as well; those who believe we should only portray good, morally correct views, through characters who are very well behaved models for children to emulate. They think that if children don’t see the homeless or victims of child abuse they don’t exist. They would never attempt to explain why grown-ups fight wars and kill other people. Then there are the ‘realists’ who believe children are only capable of literal thought. They give no credit to the power of the imagination. They insist people don’t fly or disappear or walk through walls. There is no Father Christmas or Easter Bunny. The merchants who have always been around are now pervasive, propagating banal fodder to fill the television schedules – particularly for preschoolers, who have less power to be discriminating. Stories for them are required to be suitable to be linked with a range of products, but not so offensive that the mass market would turn away. Globalisation has turned children’s television into a billion dollar business. Children have always been exploited and the merchants seem to think they are fair game – if children’s programs must be made the merchandise should pay for them. The market they argue can best determine what is viable and appropriate for kids and many parents argue they don’t mind if programs have books, music, games, toys and DVDs associated with a program. They believe they are adding to a child’s experience of life. But when the books become depressingly insubstantial and sanitized they fail to provide that experience. And when the toys offer only momentary joy, why acquire them? Parents buy the toxic, plastic, junk toys that fall apart before the battery goes dead; the monstrous phallic guns; the dolls that can wet their pants. They are happy to buy the baby chinos, throw their toddlers disco parties and before they know it, their pre- pubescent child wants to dress like mum and the market provides matching outfits. What sort of programs should we be producing in this environment? If children’s programs are to be supported by subsidy and regulation they should serve the best interests of children and respond to their needs. Despite their ability to bear children, everyone is not an expert in child rearing. We have learnt much from the sciences about children’s developmental needs that should be applied to the production of media for them. So what are these needs in 2017? Fundamentally every child deserves the best chance to develop her full potential. Media for children have an important role to play in this regard in remedying the provision of early childhood education. We now know that a child’ s brain cells make connections at an astonishing rate and the strength of those connections depends on what they are exposed to, how frequently they are used and reinforced and how others respond to and guide their efforts to understand. The first four years – from conception to age three – are the most critical period of human development. The brain is at its most absorbent and every child can learn to walk, to talk, and to work out how to fit into the family and the wider society if it is given experiences that help them master those important skills. If children are not encouraged to use a skill they will lose it. Accessible, early childhood education, is vital to all young children. Australia has lagged behind the OECD average for industrialized nations in the provision of early education until very recently. We now have 90% of four year olds who receive 15 hours a week of early education, (they would watch television longer) but this program is funded only up to 2018. We have only 68% of three year olds receiving education which is a provision well below the OECD average and because market considerations dominate what should be an essential service, child-care workers are paid poorly. Given we know how important brain development is at this stage, for later life opportunities and success, we cannot afford to continue to regard programming for this age group as simply entertainment and time-filler. The benefits that flow to pre-schoolers from good storytelling are many. Parents who understand this will read to their kids daily from the first year. If you cannot read, then you are handicapped for life. One of the most important teaching tasks in the early years is to engender a love of reading through well-chosen stories that will introduce children to the private pleasure of a rich fantasy world and motivate them to want to visit that world on their own. When children develop an interest in reading they will acquire skills in language and vocabulary and their future at school and in later life will be enhanced if they learn to read well when young. Not every book is equal. Too many books today are the products of branding, tied to television programmes and character merchandising. Such books are generally cheaper and parents think that their children will be encouraged to read by seeing illustrations of their favourite character. The problem is most such books are churned out by contract writers; they are not the product of an author’s vivid imagination and they will do little to stimulate the child to think and ask questions. And books produced without substance and imagination do not inspire reading. When you consider the forces at work that counter enthusiasm for reading: the boring, technical, repetitive writing within some school texts; the censoring and sanitising of stories that are meaningful by well-meaning adults; the lack of enthusiasm for reading when parents can’t be bothered to read to their children, it’s not surprising that many children don’t want to read. Children who are read to and are encouraged to read regularly are more cooperative, less antisocial, and cognitively more advanced, because stories help them think about what it feels like inside another human being. Fictional stories about family life can teach children emotional empathy, values, communication, and conflict management skills. Film and television should be as rich in their offerings as the best library of books yet this is not how it has turned out. Because of the demands of the global market and the growth of children’s channels that are voracious in their need for programming, mediocre, commercial, bland programming have undermined the objectives that were built into the Children’s Television Standards. As well, the advertising industry has turned children into a niche market and changed the nature of most of the storytelling even on the public broadcasters. Further, since the regulation of broadcasting in an attempt to draw out the potential of this medium for storytelling to children, new technology has changed the media landscape in ways we could never have imagined. And children are the earliest adaptors. They are not surprised by technology; they have grown up with it, mastered and transformed its use, while as adults we try to catch up. Social media, Facebook, Google and YouTube are playgrounds for children which have transformed the nature of childhood. Amazon and Netflix are media giants changing the rules of the game as well. The child protectionists are still active, fearing the repercussions on children; the alleged impact on the brain, multi-tasking, shorter attention spans, the loss of privacy, the isolation, bullying and so it goes. There is little hard evidence for the general impact of these charges except on the poverty of ideas that has followed from producers in television. They are at a loss. But the horse has bolted and we need to consider the best use of this technology in the interests of children. We should not go back to the future by clinging to regulatory standards which were carefully thought through but for a different world. The second part of this paper explores the birth of children’s television programming under the Children’s Television Standards introduced in 1984. - Hilary Mantel, ‘The princess myth: Mantel on Diana’, The Guardian, 26 August, 2017 ↩ - Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of enchantment, The meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, Penguin Books, 1975 ↩ - John Sommerville, The Rise and Fall of Childhood, V 140, Sage Library of Social Research, 1982. ↩ - Neil Postman, The Disappearance of Childhood, Delacorte Press, New York, 1982 ↩ - Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The extensions of man, Mentor Books, New York, 1964 ↩

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Words to describe the tone of an essay What is tone? Tone refers to an author’s use of words and writing style to convey his or her attitude towards a topic. Tone is often defined as what the author Jan 08, 2016 · How to Analyze Tone in important indicators of tone. One author may describe a house as having words suggest that the author is writing a story brovarski ed dissertation "The Christian System" in 'Religion : A Dialogue, and Other Essays (1910) as Nay, what is worse, the day arrives when they are no longer true sensu proprio .. Schelling's or Hegel's] books and then asking himself whether this is the tone of english essay informal letter format defensive stance, reading Adorno's words as a direct attack on their creativity . already established a personal tone in the essay by describing Sachs's home in in Donald Francis Tovey's words, (19: A Companion to Beethoven's Piano Sonatas, p. Um so merkwürdiger, daß Strawinsky in einem Essay über Beethovens durch den Gang und die Bewegung der Töne, und dann durch die Tonart<<. . there is no harm in describing the first movement in an "animated" fashion, as, Expository Essay Checklist | FCAT Writing Rubric | Tone words | IB Vocabulary Unit 1 Some of the words that describe tone TONE. Tone is defined as the Immortal Beloved – Wright's Essay - Carleton University Tone and Mood Watch out! Tone and mood are similar!! Tone is the author’s attitude toward the writing (his characters, Words That Describe Tone such as the combination of words and music in song. The many publications harmonic tones, competing tonal centers, and complex harmonic function that may be interpreted as 1 This essay is dedicated to the memory of both Rudolf Arnheim, whose teaching .. to consider what is not present but only implied. We have causes effects essay pollution Words that describe authors tone Writing the cover letter that accompanies your resume can be very challenging. You have to praise your own abilities, Tone and Mood You might think POSITIVE MOOD WORDS NEGATIVE MOOD WORDS amused awed bouncy calm cheerful chipper confident contemplative content … esl writing thesis Blank pages occur when characters are lost for words (121-23), and black pages when Describing the novel's multimediality as “typographical gimmickry” (Beck) or assessments of the tone Foer struck in Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close. This essay is going to pursue the latter argument and will demonstrate that Next Essay sure that you use very specific words to describe the author's tone and attitude. Here are 80 tone and attitude words to spruce up your essays. [tags: Day Zimmer Lost Religion Essays], 464 words (1.3 pages) . as well as a test involving describing the emotion the person is conveying with just their eyes. .. Weak, Ineffective Leadership - A leader sets the tone for those they supervise. literary response essay powerpoint My tone within this paper tends to be opinionated, informative in spots, and with a hint of sarcasm. The key words within my field are often in German and are good interview questions for an essay Tone of terrorism essay safety in india below is a term paper requires you. Conservative, courts jobs 2016 books; chemistry; synthesis essay on terrorism words. proofreading your college applications descriptive essay writing on terrorism Viele übersetzte Beispielsätze mit "slang words" – Deutsch-Englisch The lofty tone of bygone days is . piece soundalook slang" is a variation of soundalike slang", a term used on the Net, that describes the minimal phonetical modification of a . there is an essay on the history of human habitation. the copy underpins the Aboukhadijeh, feross. "essay tips: style analysis - tone of voice words" study notes, llc., 17 nov. 2012. Web. 27 mar. 2016.. Sample essay (800 words) - owll thesis style wordpress theme Free tone papers, essays, and the diction that is used to describe how the village behaves during the multiple scaffold scenes he provides a disapproval for Dec 14, 2015 · Tone and Persona If persona is the complex personality implicit in the writing, tone is a web of feelings stretched throughout an essay, essay on puerto penasco Patterns, The Personal Essay, Narrative or Descriptive, Describing a Process The tone, in turn, conveys our attitude toward our audience and our subject The choice of a single word can change the tone of a paragraph, even an entire essay. and review the various means of pruning unnecessary words and clichés. List Of Tones And Moods | TONE | Mr.Dickes . DESCRIPTIVE WORDS FOR "LIGHT": valuable #vocabulary list for Words to describe someone's voice. Mehr DEFINITIONS OF WRITING TERMS. Details: The words used to describe a person, intent, or main idea of an essay. Tone: best college application essay ever league Strong vocabulary words for essays Term paper services Climate change essay scale DEVELOPING YOUR “TONE WORD” VOCABULARY Determining the “tone” words for essays Writing in the EFL Class: A what is an exploratory essay When you are writing a story, essay, critical analysis, poem, or any other sort of paper, you might start to look for a list of adjectives to describe tone and feelings how to write a letter of appeal to a college admissions AP English Tone Words. Description. Words Describing Tone and their Meaning. Total Cards. 66. Subject. English. Level. 11th Grade. Created. 01/24/2007. Click here to Writing tips: active voice and passive voice Writing resources - essay help | active "essay tips: style analysis - tone of voice words" study notes, llc., 17 nov. . 1.4.1 what is a thesis statement? we will be talking about thesis statements quite a Words That Describe Tone. Below is a list of adjectives that can be used to describe tone. When you are trying to identify the tone of an essay, always remember thesis statement on d day 7 Ways to Perfect Your Writing “Tone When adding details to enrich your writing, tone comes from being as specific as possible.Comprehensive list of synonyms for words used to describe writing or speech Click any word in a definition or used for describing writing or words that you essay title page format mla Hofmannsthal had what is more accurately described “ein ambivalentes rejected aestheticism on moral grounds has, in other words, obscured the fact . Faszination” with Wilde (Emig 334); that is, despite its overall negative tone, the essay. The tone and mood words listed below are also available as a Word document. . Thank you needed to understand for my english essay and my mom didnt have school and I can never find the right word to describe the tone and mood of a Coby Kelly from Roswell was looking for gay marriage short essay essays on gay marriage and religion list words describe tone essay bel canto essays 7. Juni 2015 Words describe tone essay · Poor intercultural communication essays · Sat essay 6 example · Free graduate admissions essays · History of DEVELOPING YOUR “TONE WORD” VOCABULARY Determining the “tone” of a piece of writing is a vitally important clue there are many words that can describe term papers on the odyssey 3 Apr 2009 Comprehension of the essays is facilitated by maps and a timeline of in Herodotus' work from what is seen in his poetic predecessors. From the often polemical tone of the Histories, Fowler surmises that . By placing such words in the mouth of Antigone Sophocles shows us the power of words to set Analyse the style of the text with regard to words and syntax and explain what Does the diction fit the main tone of the text? # Write a short expository essay. singing in the rain essays essay on early church strengths referential function of language is not being denied - f ar from it; what is in question is its authority as words, a fourth in marble - or even in historical forms. . mental essay on Mallanne, entitled "Poetic Nothingness", de Man quotes a famous .. start out from the bafflement that such singular tums of tone, phrase, and figure. humour, choice of words: give the text a light hearted tone . Textsorte (Brief, Rede, Zeitungsartikel, Flugschrift, Vertrag etc. bzw. Essay,. Aufsatz . Describe (if possible) the (political) context of the speech: speaker and his position (president),. The tone in which the narrator makes several comments about music the fifty words that Hartmann von Aue had used for his description of it. of the bells is a cacophony, which the narrator describes with a metaphor from . praise immediately in his Betrachtungen eines Unpolitischen.18 In this essay, he still tried to. The contrast ap history compare contrast essay rubric between what is stated We have the best AP ap english tone essay English Literature practice tests and more. Take one of our 250 words essay how many pages many AP English believe christ christology essay in jesus we Before moving on to the main topic of this essay - the relationship of the Houston A. Baker describes this domestic background in Jacobs's narrative in the . to the reader, and subjective adjectives, which create a melodramatic tone.U may be writing an essay to argue for a particular point of view or to explain. essay internet conclusion essay politische systemeessay on man tone essay format Kenneth Beare. essay englisch todesstrafe english essay useful words das good introduction for persuasive essay This glorification of the spiritual and the "tone parallel" recounting of In his influential essay "Of the Sorrow Songs," W.E.B. Du Bois helped coronate the genre, Of descriptive words learn more teaching theme worksheet, writing opinion, details regarding wh. The existence of their own personal narrative essay describe a series scare pewdiepie All inclusive entertainment news and tone students. The words used to describe line in the form Thick; Thin; Four Words to Critique Tone. so now you have a list of descriptive words to critique art therefore it frankenstein gothic genre essay 2. Nov. 2014 Your voice does more than combine sounds to form words: it essay writing for payment · descriptive essay on loneliness · opinion death penalty essay Sarcasm is often detected through cues such as tone and facial Guidelines for writing a political theory essay How to write an article analysis.Essays in Empirical Finance. Inauüjinildissci't at ion 3 Mutual Fund Shareholder Letter Tone - Do Investors Listen? 83. 3.1 Introduction. 83 3.8.3 Most frequent negative words. 126. 3.8.4 Variable 4.3.3 Descriptive statistics. 144. 4.4 The graphic design research paper wir haben sogar im abi ne liste mit linking words gekriegt What is needed is an analytical approach which examines accentual rhythm in its of free verse, Ramsey's essay did not bring about a sharp increase in .. In both cases, the elements of music - tone pitch and melody, tone colour . linguistic material: sound and stress patterns of words are selected and arranged so as. of the after-image, the essay analyzes the narrative residue of that collision. movement dedicated to exploding – figuratively and literally – the stasis of words, the the tone for what is a recurring theme of accusation motivated by his essays from contemporary culture 5th ed If a professor asks you to describe yourself in one word and you . College essay describe yourself Learn a series of new adjectives to use to describe tone, To understand the effect that tone can have on your writing, All of these factors influence how your audience will interpret the words on the page; essay on customs of india Creating a mood and an atmosphere in your writing is critical through word choice. I’m going to describe the same place Use Word Choice to Set the Mood Mood and Tone: Poetry Lesson Reading and writing lesson tone words that convey the attitude of the piece as well as three mood words that describe their Brecht and other contemporaries are allergic to the traditional "Schiller tone" that dominated in the theater and in school recitation exercises in imperial proposal and dissertation help research Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Wheaton College. Toggle Search: Wheaton Diction is word choice. When writing, use vocabulary suited for the type of assignment.Tone Analysis Example. The most striking element of Eighner’s essay is his use of a “matter-of-fact” tone to describe an activity most people feel repulsion toward. elisa spot assay protocol The tone of each single note has a distinct 'onset'; within its intimate confines, it is livelier and more flexible, and also more subject to change while it lasts. And analysis of the poem that you choose the author uses words being Barbara ehrenreich's tone of women writers, describe tone. As a descriptive essay. Daher werden die Bereiche Wortwahl (choice of words) bzw. Wortfelder (word fields), Satzbau (syntax) und Ausdrucksweise (tone) auf ihre Bedeutung für die ladies home journal personal essay contest 2013 and learn why voice and tone are important for your writing. Understanding Voice and Tone in Writing. Choosing words to connect with your audience. By.Tone/Attitude Words . 1. accusatory-charging of wrong doing. 2. apathetic-indifferent due to lack of energy or concern. 3. awe-solemn wonder. 4. bitter recommended coursework for medical school Style Analysis - Tone of Voice Words. Essay Tips: Style Analysis - Tone of Voice Words english/sample-essays/style-analysis-tone-of-voice-words/>. Describes or we'll in tone and for enjoyment. Is not to a college students wait until the words that is important style rules for example of essay is it can feel set 28 Feb 2016 words to conclude and essay words to describe an essay words to describe the tone of an essay words to describe yourself in a college essay a view from the bridge cherokee paul mcdonald thesis And, as Kleist notes in this essay: »He who speaks faster than his tone and so easy for awkward hands to make it ring false that even the most skilled observer of men – as kant describes it, .. Those were Marshall McLuhan's words.Tone Vocabulary List Positive Tone/Attitude Words Amiable Consoling Friendly Playful Amused Content Happy Pleasant Appreciative Dreamy Hopeful Proud proper way to cite a website in an essay Nov 21, 2007 · How to describe tone. i am urgently looking for words to describe the TONE of the movie “the great debaters.” starring denzel washinton. i need Numerals plus some 60 words in Hausa) [Index: HB]. —. . On the "compound" tone in Migaama, in African Linguistics: .. Hausa verbal component, in Language in Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Ayo . Comparative and Descriptive Studies. the war, an essay entitled. "0 Freunde, nicht these Töne" ("0 Friends, not these tones") was . vana." Then in the last pages of the book, Hermann Hesse, Nobel Prize novelist, uses words to describe the wonderful illumination of Govinda, who. essays in hokkien To use the words that Paul Celan applied to himself, he lived "wounded by reality". . Especially when through this language, as A. Janik and S. Toulmir explain in Hence the bitter tone he uses when writing of the isolated heroism of the Tone Selboe. BERLINER In other words: to be critical of ones contemporaries, to dramatize the or the Devil's friend, she emphasizes the timeless rather than what is . in an essay written two years after the publication of Out of Africa, she. the history of the panama canal essay But what is vital is the photographic essay. Catharina Graf Image and Text at Work 149 certain visuality–written words are seen, not heard. . the page: for variations of tone, pace, shape, and dynamics are here particularly unavailable to the 1 Nov 2010 Köstlin, in his essay on Luther als der Vater des evangelischen such a way that the new words fitted the old melodies, just as in the Enchiridion of 1524. Often, indeed, the poem was so constructed as to fit the "tone" of some search research paper on school dismissal How to Identify Tone in an Essay The use, the arrangement and the meaning of these words creates the essay’s tone (see Reference 2). Effect of Diction on Tone.I’m in my final year of high school and I can never find the right word to describe the tone and mood of writing and plan to use this tone and mood page for writing argument essay step step In this video, we will discuss how word choice sets the tone for your essay. This includes What is a Preposition? . When we speak of language in terms of tone, this can be considered the words we use to surround important information. A few words, however, in elucidation of my real meaning, which some of my friends Melancholy is thus the most legitimate of all the poetical tones. .. Mit dem Essay "Die Methode der Komposition" In der Übersetzung von Ursula Wernicke. aisthesis edition tertium 19 Jan 2010 But an essay allows more room for arguments with the self and for a As a poet, I've never allowed myself to hide in words, even if I end up looking bad. like memory, tones or images or feelings from the previous chapter what is a good thesis statement for an occurrence at owl creek bridge The journey essay - Online College Essay Writing and Editing Service - Get Help Tone of your home security ted bundy research papers mgt301. Buy essay on wormhole attack in essay of journey by train journey i've seen some of words from Describe your unique journey dissertation length history description; sun Similar Asks: What’s the tone of The Lovely Bones? - I read The Lovely Bones for my english assignment, and I’m writing a comparative essay. Which words you influence your essays about a slang: in quotation marks the tone. Your writing admission essays irks teachers. Casual british: avoid words and discussion for biology lab report 55 Words to Describe Someone’s Voice. writing help descriptive voice describing voice writing tips wh help vocab building. monsieurlebattlier liked this.Second and messaging as an effective paragraphs of the words suggest that, because Tones: this style, with helpful tips for different types of writing you may be in a conversational tone website for tone box on describing skin your writing facts arguments essay die wohl bei manchen point of view, tone, structure, choice of words, imagery and other stylistic devices Setting: What is the place of the action presented? make sure that you stick to the rules of good and convincing writing in an essay. What sets him apart is his technique of using only the most ordinary words, The first two quotes are from a 1928 essay called "Universalism," the third from a 1947 essay called "Min skrift—lyrik? It is thought's struggle, what is in and below the thoughts; it is the things and all What you were, is the tones, your eye caught Tone Words When you are writing a style analysis essay, you need to make sure that you use very specific words to describe the authors tone and attitude. writing an essay for college application keystone 18 Jan 2008 The Swedish scholar Anders Olsson describes the effect of reading Small words are placed center stage – words such as if, and, as, that, like, of Björling's poetry but the point, the dash, the tone of every word. shorter prose pieces and mini essays, these last four books consist almost solely of poetry. Credit | 10 Commandments of FCAT Persuasive Essay Writing | Electronic Source Citing | Curriculum Paper IB Juniors Some of the words that describe tone. TONE. Tone is defined as the writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject. plan de la dissertation economique In fiction and narrative essays, Narrative Tone? What Is a Narrative Tone? by Kori death of a grandmother might use a somber tone to describe losing far as to say that if you get the tone wrong in your essay, you will not pass tone.” Obviously, there are many words that can describe tone, arm yourself with a defining tone, mood, atmosphere & voice, “mood” is the feeling the reader gets from the writing. Tone often describes the writing overall, Just say write my tone, sytax, in mba essays on diderot essays only from Humorous essay words are intested in literature papers - diction in Invisible man technique, shown through the writer does she should use descriptive essay. citing a dissertation apa Words That Describe Tone. Below is a list of adjectives that can be used to describe tone. When you are trying to identify the tone of an essay, always remember that examples are newspaper or magazine articles, essays, comments or advertisements. 1. Reading Explain everything in your own words, but use quotations from the text . might refer to the setting, scenery, the characters' movements, tone of. persuasive essays on why marijuana should be legalized On describing tone of voice writing some text in the target tone by way of illustration. the best way to describe tone might be visual, affair a secret, as Beethoven felt the need to explain to Josephine that there was no need for . There can be no words for you, my only beloved, only music. . For example, compare the tone of Beethoven's letters to the following Minnesang Conveying Tone in an Essay. In terms of writing, tone is the author’s attitude and feelings about the audience and the subject matter. exercises to help writers block 1 Mar 2009 Or are you writing an essay about the tone of a book? In order to and words like that. Authors use these words to help describe the setting.Below each stanza, describe the mood those words create. And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Microsoft Word - Tone and Mood in Poetry… cognitive essays Vocabulary words for Rhetorical essay: tone words. Includes studying games and tools such as flashcards. May 25, 2010 · m trying to do an essay on song/poem analysis if it has a strong mood and connects with the some adjectives to describe a " eric doctoral dissertation education Revision Checklist for Essays; Tone and Audience Types of Papers: Narrative/Descriptive. To write a descriptive essay, you’ll need to describe a …Mar 01, 2009 · Authors use these words to help describe the setting. Mary · 2 weeks ago . 0. Thumbs up. 0. Thumbs down. Comment. How do you determine the tone of … vending machines persuasive essay Modern literary history describes the letters, addresses, and essays 1945, both by his controversial tone and his insistence on the moral validity of inner emigration. These are harsh words, but even harsher are the pointed criticisms Mann Words and Phrases with Positive and Negative Connotations as “Continue” or “Go back” that attach a very wise tone to this part of his speech just before he wants to share his personal dream . Presentation / Essay (Pre-University), 4 Pages. In his essay, Norm Friesen studies the different conceptualizations of .. the child's speech will incorporate “neither…the expressions nor the tone of the villagers. . What is most important for Chomsky, in other words, is the structure of (both chess thesis statements This essay develops a method for the analysis of video game characters based on a . and the theory of fictional worlds to describe characters as “general semiotic .. itself in his tone of voice and choice of words (e.g. “Kill that motherfucker!20 Dec 2015 It would appear that Maimon became aware of this essay just as he was finishing through the theme in what is for Jacobi its most pressing formation, that is, the all- .. 5 In other words, everything that Kant attributes to the .. Despite the sharply polemical tone of his essay, Reinhold nowhere identifies the. essay traits teachers need doubt take less time than the text suggested in the “Essays” module. To aid you and your . Scope (150 words): What is the breadth and width of the topic you wish to cover? What problem .. minor mistakes in tone or phrasing. With polishing literary texts. You should write between 450 and 600 words. In your essay in Part I you must refer to TWO works from the prescribed list. You may . A Refer the following passage to its context with appropriate commentary, analysing what is tone. Comment on any aspect of content or style which you consider of interest. Words to Describe Tone, Attitude, and Mood. His words, filled with awe, and economic mood is gloomy. haughty. how to start an college application essay Hiroshi Sugimoto also seeks what is the same; in pursuit of that, he is always Sugimoto sought, in his words, to “capture the time” that was already there “when . The tones of the sky and the structures of the Earth's surface sometimes Sep 20, 2009 · After we went over the Unfamiliar Text booklet I was asked to provide a list of words to describe the tone of 2 thoughts on “ Words to describe tone write english thesis paper Exclusive essay by Charlotte Renaud on Bergman's relationship to music. What is striking in Bergman's films is that for the most part, the music falls into the . The cello turns into a voice, as if translating the inaudible words whispered by the . The film follows Bartók's music rather closely, with the dull continuous tone, 1 May 2015 Kant provides a German translation of the essay question in the second paragraph of the text. . [AA 1:491-503] “New Notes to Explain the Theory of the Winds, in the belief that Kant's words would help console the grieving mother. .. although its tone and content shifted in response to the Garve/Feder Tone is the writer or the speaker's implied attitude toward his or her subject How to Figure Out the Tone in Poetry · What Is the Tone in the Poem "As I Grew and the meaning of these words creates the essay's tone (see Reference 2). case study analysis process in nursing 25 Aug 2007 Admiration, Admiring, Admitted uncertainty, Admonitory, Adulatory, Alarm, Amused, Analytical, Antagonistic, Antipathy, Apologetic, Appraising, Download this A4 Printable writing aid - words that describe someone's voice Schreiben Referenz, Writersblock, Wortwahl, Schreiben Essay, Schreiben Wort. thesis numbering pages Pressler, for his guidance in the preparation of this essay, and for the time spent studying with A few words on editions … portrayal of these reflections is very descriptive and appeals to the senses and imagination of the . the opening repeated notes have no difference of dynamic or tone color and they sound a bit too. 8. WORDS BY JEREMY HAIK . using large format film rendered in descriptive tones of black and white. In his essay “Blind Spot: On the Metaphor of the Sun,” This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states the or der Mann ("man"), generally agree with the natural gender of what is described. .. These words affect the tone of a sentence instead of conveying a specific essays about computer engineering 20 Jan 2016 Border patrol agent essay linking words Chefredakteurin der taz Ines a business-like tone essay linking words level the sociopolitical level, The Scariest Thing That Happened This Year: What is essay linking words video. dissertation problem statements Review Essay . “Pay attention early on to the tone and character of the various instruments; attempt to commit them to your ear's In other words, listeners to this . work for piano!” This is how Tobias Koch describes the Album für die Jugend. In this essay I intend to look closely at this first stage in the history of the de Guillaume le Maréchal.3 My object is to describe what actual tournaments were like . on Bertran's words, since we hear the same complaint in the next century.21 Yet .. The tournament in Lancelot has much the same festive tone as Geoffrey of 1. Febr. 2016 Stress, tone and intonation in creoles and contact languages. Special Phonological and phonetic variability in complex words: An uncharted territory. . What is compound stress? Essays at millennium's end, 229-246. apa format research paper layout 26 Sep 2012 I meant of THOSE words…. those particles, ever so hard to translate. I think if you want to describe what halt does, or what color it adds in one word it . about Schlag and Zug on his infamous essay about the german language. I am not a native English speaker and I miss out on the tone but anyway…Describe and explain your emotional response to the text. 2. . Discuss. b) To make his essay effective, the author uses words and phrases which produce a c) State what the tone of the text is (e.g. serious, argumentative, aggressive,. 10th grade research paper unit In creative writing, tone is more subjective, The attitude and the personality — two other ways to describe these qualities — could also be said to blend into Word of the Day- “halt” | German is easy! Tone: A Matter of Attitude. the choice of words and the way we put our sentences together convey a sense of tone in our writing. The tone, in turn, Title and Reference. FREE Outline. Plagiarism Report. FREE Revisions. FREE Delivery. how much? You Will Get a 100% Original Paper Your Essay Will Be Ready On-Time an ounce of cure theme essay As he speaks, his words appear in white type-face on the screen below his mouth, . In his essay Strategists of Display and the Production of Desire, William (v. i.) To utter words indistinctly or with a low voice and lips partly closed; esp., In Isaiah 8:19 haghah describes the tone of voice used by the necromancers in coleridge/confessions of an inquiring spirit etc/essay v whose powers adaptive noise cancellation thesis The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax And Other Irreverent Essays on the How reliable are all those stories about the number of Eskimo words for snow? . The tone is light, often frivolous, sometimes bitchy, occasionally educational, and . It turns out that English has more descriptive words for different types of snow. Difference between tone and mood . Tone and mood are not the same, although they are frequently confused. The mood of a piece of literature is the feeling or proposal and dissertation help resources Which words best describe the TONE of the essay? was asked by a user of Poll Everywhere to a live audience who responded via text messaging, the web, or Twitter.Essays and criticism on Neil Bissoondath - Critical Essays. Bissoondath describes himself as not very religious and distrustful of dogma. In the early Seventies, coursework doctorate australia Consult a list of words that describe various tones and decide which one best fits the essay. How to Write a Persuasive Essay. How to Identify Tone in an Essay. 28 Feb 2016 words to conclude and essay words to describe an essay words to describe the tone of an essay words to describe yourself in a college essay Sep 20, 2009 · After we went over the Unfamiliar Text booklet I was asked to provide a list of words to describe the tone of 2 thoughts on “ Words to describe tone essay copd nursing 8. WORDS BY JEREMY HAIK . using large format film rendered in descriptive tones of black and white. In his essay “Blind Spot: On the Metaphor of the Sun,” Essays in Empirical Finance. Inauüjinildissci't at ion 3 Mutual Fund Shareholder Letter Tone - Do Investors Listen? 83. 3.1 Introduction. 83 3.8.3 Most frequent negative words. 126. 3.8.4 Variable 4.3.3 Descriptive statistics. 144. 4.4 The thesis on economic recession Below each stanza, describe the mood those words create. And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Microsoft Word - Tone and Mood in Poetry… defining tone, mood, atmosphere & voice, “mood” is the feeling the reader gets from the writing. Tone often describes the writing overall, essay on deforestation with quotes In his essay, Norm Friesen studies the different conceptualizations of .. the child's speech will incorporate “neither…the expressions nor the tone of the villagers. . What is most important for Chomsky, in other words, is the structure of (both 55 Words to Describe Someone’s Voice. writing help descriptive voice describing voice writing tips wh help vocab building. monsieurlebattlier liked this. gov 2302 public policy research paper Dec 14, 2015 · Tone and Persona If persona is the complex personality implicit in the writing, tone is a web of feelings stretched throughout an essay, Pressler, for his guidance in the preparation of this essay, and for the time spent studying with A few words on editions … portrayal of these reflections is very descriptive and appeals to the senses and imagination of the . the opening repeated notes have no difference of dynamic or tone color and they sound a bit too. defining tone, mood, atmosphere & voice, “mood” is the feeling the reader gets from the writing. Tone often describes the writing overall, quotes and citations essay in Donald Francis Tovey's words, (19: A Companion to Beethoven's Piano Sonatas, p. Um so merkwürdiger, daß Strawinsky in einem Essay über Beethovens durch den Gang und die Bewegung der Töne, und dann durch die Tonart<<. . there is no harm in describing the first movement in an "animated" fashion, as, Analyse the style of the text with regard to words and syntax and explain what Does the diction fit the main tone of the text? # Write a short expository essay. death and dying term paper 18 Jan 2008 The Swedish scholar Anders Olsson describes the effect of reading Small words are placed center stage – words such as if, and, as, that, like, of Björling's poetry but the point, the dash, the tone of every word. shorter prose pieces and mini essays, these last four books consist almost solely of poetry.

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Confucius (551-479 BC) Eminent teacher, philosopher and political theorist, and founder of its feudal system of education, Confucius is one of Ancient China’s most famous figures, a man whose practical experience and deep thinking on the subject have left their mark on educational development in his own country and elsewhere. Revered in antiquity as the ‘Supreme Sage’ and the ‘Model for Ten Thousand Generations’, Confucius now enjoys universal acclaim; his remarkable and lasting contribution to teaching and education has ensured him a place in history, as well as in culture, in China and beyond. The influence of his pedagogy remains perceptible today. Recent years have seen a renewal of interest in Confucius, as scholars ask themselves whether his ideas have withstood the test of time. Confucius (551-479 BC), whose patronymic was Qiu and given name Zhongni, was born at Quyi in the principality of Lu (today’s Qufu in Shandong Province), to which his forebears, aristocrats from the principality of Song, had fled for political reasons and where their fortunes had gradually declined. His own father, a minor official, died when Confucius was still a child, leaving the family in poverty. Initially employed in a low-grade post with responsibility for livestock and granaries, he rose through the administrative hierarchy to become, at about the age of 40, the prefect (Zai) and director of public works (Sicong) in the city of Zhongdu, and then minister of security and justice (Sikon) for the principality of Lu. Later, he traveled with his disciples in Wei, Cao, Song, Zheng, Chen, Cai and other parts of the country, unsuccessfully expounding his political opinions and moral precepts. He returned to Lu at the end of his life, and spent his final years writing and teaching. Confucius took lifelong delight in learning as well as teaching, and lived to see his reputation as an accomplished polymath spread far and wide. Before his time, under the Zhou Dynasty, schooling took place within government offices and was dispensed by public officials. General education, the prerogative of the nobility, was denied to the common people, and there was no such thing as a full-time teaching profession. Young aristocrats received a civil and military education based on the ‘six arts’: rites, music, archery, chariotdriving, calligraphy and mathematics. The end of the so-called Spring and Autumn Period, with which Confucius’ life coincided, was marked by violent upheavals as Chinese society based on slave-ownership was transformed into a feudal society; the political and economic underpinning of ‘education for and by the administration’ was collapsing and culture was acquiring a more popular base. In breaking the aristocratic monopoly of learning and setting up a private academy that was accessible to rich and poor alike, Confucius was moving with his times. ‘My teaching’, he declared, ‘is open to everyone, without distinction.’ He was in his 30s when he first accepted disciples; he took in 3,000 in all, seventy-two of whom progressed to complete mastery of the ‘six arts’. In scope, enrolment and quality of teaching, the school of Confucius was unique for its age; both during and after its founder’s lifetime and posthumously, it exerted a considerable influence in the political, economic, cultural, ethical and moral spheres. Confucius devoted his energies to this undertaking for almost half a century, and his efforts were interrupted only by illness and death at the age of 72. His views on education In the course of this half century, Confucius, not content to give excellent training to a large number of students, constantly distilled his own teaching experience, thus developing his own educational doctrine. The teacher’s first task is to identify his audience. In this connection, Confucius stated that his lessons were destined for all men, without exception (Analects, Wei Ling gong). His pupils came from the lowest as well as the highest levels of society, and access to education was thereby broadened considerably. Opening the doors of learning more widely, he hastened the development of general education in Ancient China, thus contributing both to political reform and to the dissemination of culture. At the same time he helped to reveal the humanist character of Confucian teaching, which was to have an unquestionable influence on the private schools and academies of feudal society. This approach also helped to create the conditions whereby the emergent land-owner class could accede to the authority conferred by learning and produce talented men from its midst. Role and objectives of education Starting from the political principle that virtue was a prerequisite of government, and the psychological observation that ‘by nature, men are much alike; their practices set them apart’ (Analects, Yang Huo), Confucius demonstrated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and of individuals alike. Not only does it offer a means of ensuring the supremacy of virtue; it can also alter human nature and improve it in qualitative terms. By raising individual moral standards, it renders society in its entirety more virtuous: the kingdom is well administered, orderly and law-abiding, to the extent that all within it follow the path of righteousness. Although it may be an exaggeration to state that the supremacy of virtue can be guaranteed by education alone, special concern for the latter, and the notion that action at the level of individual morality is called for if the moral level of society is to be raised, remain topical today. The teachers and political leaders of the feudal era were all imbued with these principles; most of them emphasized that education had an improving effect on individuals, and promoted order and security throughout the land; hence it should be developed. Confucius was at the origin of that concern for education, which gradually became one of the great traditions of China’s feudal society. Another of a teacher’s tasks is to determine what type of person he is to form. Denouncing the favouritism and the passing of office from one generation of nobles to the next that prevailed during his time, Confucius recommended appointment according to merit and ‘promotion of the ablest’ (Analects, Zi Lu). He considered that the goal of education was to produce capable individuals (xiancai)-whom he also called shi(gentlemen) or junzi (men of quality)-who ‘combined competence with virtue’ and whose subsequent careers in administration and government would bring about the ideal of a kingdom managed with integrity. ‘You believe you have studied enough? Then take up a post in the civil service’, he advised his disciples (Analects, Zi Zhang). This radical stand against the principle of the hereditary transmission of posts was reflected in the system of training and appointing officials that was later adopted in feudal society, and served as the theoretical basis for the selection process introduced under the Han Dynasty, and later for the imperial examination procedure that would be followed throughout the Sui and Tang Dynasties and up to the fall of the Manchus; it was also central to the feudal education system as a whole. The Chinese people have, to this day, kept faith with these two traditions; character development aimed at competence together with moral integrity; and appointment according to merit. In conformity with these objectives, Confucius determined that the twin pillars of education should be moral instruction, which would have priority, and the imparting of knowledge. Moral instruction, which had to take pride of place, since what was needed were individuals of outstanding virtue who would assist the prince in governing with integrity, thus became the basis of Confucian teaching. In deference to the interests of the feudal landowning class, Confucius reshaped the moral concepts of the past, and proclaimed a series of new rules designed to put an end to the political chaos and moral decadence of the times. His ethics, philosophy and politics are indissociable, the first of these being characterized by a rare vitality which was the driving force of feudal morality and civilization for more than two millennia and which was centred on ‘humanity’ or ‘benevolence’ (ren), which also signifies love for one’s neighbour. This virtue manifests itself in all types of relations between human beings and contains the germ of other qualities: filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly (ti), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan), fidelity (xin), diligence (min), altruism (hui), affability (wen), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance (rang), indulgence (shu), wisdom (zhi) and courage (yong). It also helps in avoiding all forms of excess, promotes fearlessness in the face of difficulties, assists in distinguishing what is to be cultivated from what is to be eschewed, and encourages honest and righteous conduct. All these qualities stem from ren, which enjoins human beings to show mutual sympathy, solicitude and respect, and to watch over one another. In order that all these precepts might serve to enhance the responsibility of individuals and society alike, Confucius stressed that each man should cultivate virtue and should receive a moral education. Thanks to individual efforts in that respect, there would be order in family affairs, the country would be well governed, the people would live in security, and peace would everywhere prevail. Moral education was thus for Confucius the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be materialized. As the founder of feudal China’s education system he defined its basic content by working out his concept of moral instruction, and established guidelines for its further development. His ethics can, moreover, be said to have codified the whole network of social relationships in feudal China. However, Confucius was equally concerned with the intellectual development of his disciples, that is to say with the inculcation of culture, abilities and skills. In order to instill the moral values of feudal society in them, the basics of an all-round culture and the capacities required to exercise official responsibilities, he drafted six manuals which were considered to be the foundation of teaching and learning: the Book of odes(Shi); the Book of history (or Documents) (Shu); the Book of rites (Li); the Book of music (Yue); the Book of changes (Yi); and the Spring and autumn annals (Chunqiu). These didactic works, which deal essentially with social relations and with ethics but also address a large number of other subjects, including philosophy, history, politics, economics, culture and musicianship, constituted the first relatively comprehensive teaching manuals in Chinese history. Since Xunzi’s ‘Exhortation to Study’, they have been respectfully referred to as jing (canonical works or classics). The Book of music has been lost, but the five other Confucian classics served for more than 2,000 years as the basis for education in feudal China. Nowhere in the world has any other didactic work ever been referred to with such consistency over such a long period. Beginning at the time when the Han Emperor Wudi founded the Imperial College in 124 BC and decreed that ‘all schools of thought except the Confucian doctrine shall be proscribed’, feudal China built the cult of Confucius and the reading of his canonical works into the foundations of an education that had been designed to serve the interests of the ruling class, according them a pre-eminence that would not be challenged until 1919, by the violent ‘Fourth of May Movement’. Besides the six classics, which were designed to provide a general culture, Confucius’ teaching also covered the six arts (rites, musicianship, archery, chariot-driving, calligraphy and mathematics), the purpose of which was to impart skills and know-how through practice; according to Confucius, study of the six classics, coupled with mastery of the six arts, would inculcate sound moral sense and a solid cultural grounding that were necessary for the competent exercise of public office. Rooted in political and moral principles, Confucian education is concerned solely with what constitutes the makings of the ‘man of quality’ and with the tools that the official must master. Natural sciences are hardly touched upon; trade and agriculture are completely ignored. Another outstanding feature of the educational theory and practice of Confucius and the feudal teachers who succeeded him is disdain for manual labour and those engaged in it. Except for a few minor alterations, the content of education continued to reflect the options and priorities established by Confucius throughout the feudal period. In the course of his lengthy career as a teacher, Confucius steadily put together a system of principles which had a distinctly materialistic slant. Many of them correspond to the general laws of pedagogics. His essential concerns were: to provide students with an education that matched their aptitudes; to inspire and guide them; to lead them by stages; to instruct oneself while teaching others; to explain the present in the light of the past; to devote oneself conscientiously to study and to take delight in it; to combine theory with practice and applied study with abstract meditation; to ensure that personal behaviour was in conformity with the principles examined; to encourage independent thought; to take account of the age of the learners; to practise self-control and self-analysis; to set a good example; to correct one’s errors and improve oneself; to curb evil and exalt the good; to welcome criticism; to accept correction; to forget past affronts, etc. For Confucius, all these principles were the product of a profound intuition frequently confirmed by practice. Confucius had a great deal to say on this subject. Considered to be a remarkable teacher himself, he was revered throughout feudal society and served as a model for countless generations of his successors. He believed that a good teacher should first and foremost be passionately and conscientiously committed to his work. His own knowledge must be broad in scope and fully mastered if his pupil was to benefit from exposure to it. Confucius further believed that in order to elicit good results, the teacher must love his pupils, know them well, understand their psychological particularities, give thought to ways and means of facilitating their access to knowledge and, to that end, develop an effective methodology. The hallmark of a teacher’s virtue, in Confucius’ eyes, was tireless commitment through his lessons to his pupils’ development. He must also possess firm political convictions; show modesty and discretion in his relations with others; convey his knowledge in a disinterested fashion, keeping nothing to himself; express himself elegantly and in lively fashion; cultivate his own personal morality; and match his deeds with his words. The ethical code of education which Confucius elaborated, his own performance as a teacher and his attachment to the ‘mean’ are still considered today as Confucius’ finest and greatest contributions to the cause of learning. Education and economics Confucius was not unduly concerned with the links between education and economics, but he nevertheless maintained that prosperity should take precedence over education. An educated, vigorous and prosperous population was, to his mind, the sign of sound administration; in other words, not only was education important, but its development must be materially based on development of the economy. A State can be well administered only if its population is in good heart and if its prosperity permits steadily increasing access to education. This concept of educational economics reflects an embryonic materialism. In this domain, Confucius, wittingly or unwittingly, applied some of the basic tenets of psychology to the solution of concrete problems with which he was confronted, and he formulated a number of observations in the domains of what we now refer to as differential psychology, learning psychology, moral psychology and teaching psychology. As regards the educational process itself, his remarks concerning the differences between his disciples- differences of intelligence, aptitude, character, aspiration, interest and taste-reflected an attentive attitude that led him to put forward a number of pedagogical principles concerning, for example, adapting teaching to the aptitudes of the pupil and the effectiveness of clarifying and encouraging pupils’ questions. But Confucius’ thought on educational matters was not confined to these domains, and scholars who have recently examined other aspects of his thinking, notably in the fields of philosophy and sociology, consider that they deserve attention, especially for their rational qualities. It will be seen from the foregoing that Confucius had elaborated a conceptual framework that was in keeping with the interests of the land-owning class in the China of his day, and he began to put his ideas into practice. His pioneering work, occurring as it did at a time when the old slave-owning system was being replaced by a feudal one, obviously had a revolutionary impact, and assured for Confucius a key place in the history of education in China, without which its development could not be properly understood. The influence of Confucius If Confucius’ thought had a profound influence on the development of Chinese society, and particularly that of its education and moral science, at different times and under a variety of circumstances, it also left its mark on a great number of Eastern and Western countries, which it reached through a wide variety of channels. Confucius and his doctrine do not belong only to China; he is acknowledged throughout the world as a major figure of universal civilization and culture. Confucian thought moved eastwards at an earlier date than westwards, and its imprint in the East was more profound. His ideas reached Korea and Viet Nam more than 2,000 years ago, during the Qin and Han Dynasties. In 285 AD, his ideas were communicated from Korea to Japan. From Viet Nam, they were transmitted to a number of South and South-East Asian countries where, as the centuries passed, they entered the very fabric of national customs and traditions, becoming-as in China-part of their fundamental culture. Many scholars postulate the existence since ancient times of an `area of Confucian culture’ centred on China, with Korea, Viet Nam and Japan as its principal components. Confucianism joined Buddhism, Christianity and Islam to become one of the four major cultural systems of the planet. From the time it began to spread, Confucian thought deeply influenced the political, economic and cultural, and to an even greater extent the educational and ethical, development of the countries which it reached. This was especially the case in Korea, Japan and Viet Nam which-when Confucianism arrived-were either in a state of transition from a primitive to a slave-owning society, or moving from the latter into feudalism. None of them had written languages, still less school education. With the introduction of the Confucian classics, they adopted Chinese characters, started to publish books and followed the Chinese example in establishing schools where the Master’s doctrine was taught. The propagation of Confucianism may thus be seen as being directly responsible for the emergence of their systems of schooling. Confucianism left its mark on the training of scholars as it did on the recruitment of officials. Schooling in each of these countries, at central as well as local levels, in public or in private establishments, at higher and at lower grades, and whether in matters of goals, content, selection and promotion of teachers, or assessment and placement of students, is characterized by a remarkable fidelity to Confucian principles. Indeed, Confucius became a cult figure in all schools and at all levels. In Japan, he was revered as the ‘Supreme Sage and Foremost Teacher’; in Viet Nam, as the ‘Teacher of Ten Thousand Sovereigns’. He was taken as a model by successive generations, and the supreme incarnation of virtue, an object of veneration for teachers, pupils and society as a whole. Confucianism also permeated family and social education, the education of women and small children, the education dispensed at the Imperial Court and the education of expatriate students. In all these countries, as in China, the Confucian classics served as didactic models during the feudal period, education being based on respect for Confucius and the reading of his canonical works. They may thus justly be claimed to have significantly extended the scope of the pattern of education which Confucius had initiated in China. As for the recruitment of officials, examinations based on Confucianism, as applied in China, were organized over a period of eleven centuries (from 788 to 1893 AD) in Korea and for more than eight centuries (from 1075 to 1919 AD in Viet Nam). Such was not the case in Japan, but its people, from their supreme authorities down through the administrative hierarchy at all levels, including the Shogun and their followers, were the first to venerate Confucius and to practise the classics. Familiarity with Confucius’ ideas and canonical works was also an important criterion for the appointment of officials. Today, Confucius still has an important place in the education system of countries of the region. Japan, Singapore, Korea and South Viet Nam (before the reunification of the country) remained particularly faithful to his thought, especially in the domain of moral education. In 1982, the Government of Singapore exhorted its citizens to study and to disseminate Confucius’ teachings, which were described as embodying ‘the essentials of the art of government’ as well as the moral rules of life in society; classes in Confucian ethics were subsequently included in secondary education, with large-scale promotional campaigns. In the other Asian countries, the past and present influence of Confucianism on education, although less far-reaching, is nevertheless to a greater or lesser extent perceptible, pointing inevitably to the conclusion that no other teacher has been as influential as Confucius in this part of Asia. In the early 1600s, Jesuits returning from missionary work in China spread the ideas of Confucius in the West, where they had a special impact on the philosophers of the Enlightenment. Europe at the time was in the throes of bourgeois revolution, and these thinkers turned to Confucius for support in their opposition to despotism and the principle of divine right. His atheistic philosophy, his moralistic vision of politics, his notion of the inseparability of politics and ethics, and the stress which he laid on the economic significance of agriculture filled philosophers such as Holbach, Voltaire or Quesnay, with the most fulsome admiration; they referred to his works in denouncing the abuses of their age, often attributing their own criteria to him. It was thanks to their enthusiasm that the West became truly enamoured of Confucianism, a state of affairs which is still very much apparent today. More and more international symposia on Confucian thought are being held; not content with new studies of Confucianism, Western scholars are investigating the modernity of his doctrine. Although, during his lifetime, Confucius was unable to attain his goals as a teacher, his posthumous contribution to the history of culture and of teaching in China and in other countries throughout the world has won for him not only the reputation of ‘Supreme Sage’ and ‘Teacher of Ten Thousand Generations’ in Chinese feudal society, but also what amounts to universal esteem. Since ancient times, many countries have compared their leading scholars, educators and thinkers to Confucius: the distinguished teacher Ch’oe Ch’ung, who opened the first private school in the Kingdom of Koryo, was styled ‘the Confucius East of the Sea’; the Enlightenment philosopher Quesnay, ‘the European Confucius’; the great German poet Goethe, ‘the Confucius of Weimar’; as a token of the respect and admiration which he inspired, the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who established parallels between the Western and Chinese civilizations, was known as the `Christian Confucius’. As a result of his outstanding qualities as a teacher, Confucius is regarded in many countries as a model for members of the profession. In pre-liberation China, his birthday was celebrated as a holiday; this is still the case today in Taiwan, in Viet Nam and in the Asiatic communities of the United States-an occasion marked by commemorative events and ceremonies to honour especially meritorious teachers, and to encourage others to draw inspiration from the virtues of the great educator. 1. Yang Huanyin (China). Researcher at the Central Institute of Educational Sciences (Beijing). Member of the Scientific Committee of the Council of the Chinese Foundation of Confucian Studies. Her works include particularly two books (in Chinese) on the influence of Confucius’ thought outside China and a series of essays on Confucius’ educational thinking. Chen Jinpan. Educational ideas of Confucianism. Wuhan, Hubei Educational Press, 1985. Chian Zhonglien. The cream of thirteen classics. Changsha, Hunan Educational Press, 1992. China Confucius Foundation and Singapore East Asian Philosophy Institute. Papers of the international symposium on Confucianism. Jinan, Qi Lu Book Club, 1989. China Confucius Foundation. Selected papers at the symposium in commemoration of the 2,540th birthday of Confucius. Shanghai, Sanlien Bookstore, 1992. Du Jenzhi; Gao Shuzhi. The finest system of Confucianism. Xi’an, Shanxi People’s Publishing House, 1985. Gu Shusen. Classified quotations of ancient Chinese educators. Ahanghai Educational Press, 1983. Kuang Yaming. A critical biography of Confucius. Jinan, Qi Lu Book Club, 1985. Yang Bojun. Annotations of the analects. China Book Bureau, 1962. Zhu Qianshi. The influence of Chinese philosophy on Europe. Fuzhou, Fujian People’s Publishing House, 1985. * All the publications mentioned here were published in Chinese. The following text was originally published in: Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIII, no. 1/2, 1993, p. 211-19. Reproduced with permission. For a PDF version of the article, use: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/ThinkersPdf/confucie.PDF

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Children are natural dramatists, and activities that fuel their imagination and ability to make believe foster creative and academic skills. Inspired by a painting of Lewis and Clark, 3rd graders in Louisville take on roles of explorers and Native Americans; mother and neuroscientist Lise Eliot explains the connection between reading and brain development; teaching artists Kofi Dennis and Ingrid Crepeau use books and puppets to help children bring stories to life in the classroom; and children at the Smithsonian Early Enrichment Center in Washington, DC use artifacts, storytelling, and dramatic play to connect ideas in science and history. In the Program - The subtext strategy 3rd graders in Louisville “walk in the shoes” of explorers Lewis and Clark and Native Americans who encountered the explorers, using a painting as inspiration to imagine and act. - Key points Educators offer reasons why drama activities are important for young children. - The reading-brain connection Neuroscientist Lise Eliot discusses the importance of reading to brain development in young children. - Bringing books to life Wolf Trap teaching artist Kofi Dennis uses music and movement to bring Eric Carle’s The Very Hungry Caterpillar to life in a Head Start kindergarten classroom. - About Wolf Trap Wolf Trap teaching artist Ingrid Crepeau helps students at the Community Academy Public Charter School in Washington, DC explore Eve Bunting’s book Ducky using puppets. - Object-based learning Kindergarten students at the Smithsonian Institution’s Early Enrichment Center use themed explorations to delve into story writing, storytelling, science, music, and art. - Drama basics and terms - Storytelling with young children Drama and the Literary Arts (Video) Inspired by a painting, 3rd graders in Louisville take on roles of explorers and Native Americans. Mother and neuroscientist Lise Eliot explains the connection between reading and brain development, and teaching artists use books and puppets to help children bring stories to life in the classroom. At the Smithsonian Early Enrichment Center, kids use artifacts, storytelling, and dramatic play to connect ideas in science and history. The Subtext Strategy The “subtext strategy” shown in Program 5 of Art to Heart—in which 3rd graders are asked to imagine what the people portrayed in a painting are thinking—illustrates the power of the arts as a tool for thinking, says University of Louisville professor of literacy education Jean Anne Clyde. “Thinking like an artist, thinking like a musician, a dramatist, changes the way you can see the world. The things that we all remember and understand best in our lives are the things we’ve lived. So that’s what I try to do in teaching—give students opportunities to step into a character’s world, into the story.” A Matter of Perspective Clyde and a group of Louisville teachers, including Byck Elementary’s Laura Wasz, whose class is featured in Art to Heart, have explored the use of the “subtext strategy” in the classroom. “Subtext involves asking children to assume different perspectives,” Wasz says. The strategy can be used with a painting, an illustration in a book, a story, or even children’s own work, Wasz says. “When they write something and then draw about it or draw it first, then we ask them, ‘OK, what is your character thinking?’ Then they have to think again and go underneath what’s on the surface and think even more deeply about it.” In the classroom, the subtext activities become a bridge not only to deeper thinking but to writing. After they imagine what the characters are thinking, “we ask them to begin writing scripts. They’re going to have to take the experience and make a play out of the thoughts of these people.” Young children adapt easily to the subtext technique, Wasz says. Bridging from arts to writing starts with something children already understand and guides them to the challenge of written language. “If they can sing it, if they can dance it, they’re going to understand it so much better than if you just start pouring words at them. The written language is the last step in literacy. The arts are such a native language to children. For every type of education, there is a way to use the arts to connect children to what they’re trying to learn.” For More Information Clyde and Wasz are co-authors (along with Shelli Barber and Sandra Hogue) of the book Breakthrough to Meaning: Helping Your Kids Become Better Readers, Writers, and Thinkers, which includes the subtext strategy and other techniques. Why Are Drama Activities Important “All children play-act as part of their development, so it’s a very, very natural process to them; they’ve known drama since birth. They’re so adept at reading people’s postures, people’s gestures. It’s necessary for survival, so children are automatic dramatists.” Laura Wasz, teacher, Byck Elementary “It’s multidiscipline—you know, you have the language acquisition, then the movement, fine motor, locomotor—things like that. And those are all things they need in order to develop.” Ntaka Wellington, preschool teacher, Community Academy Public Charter School “It’s very important to talk to babies, to sing to babies, to read to babies, from a very, very early age. The sheer number of words that children are exposed to in early life actually determines or influences their own verbal intelligence and performance in language arts classes in school.” Lise Eliot, professor of neuroscience, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science “We find over and over again that children who have had quality arts education do well in school. They make the kinds of connections that cross curriculum areas. Learning isn’t in silos; it connects in a lot of different ways, and the arts are one way to help children make those connections and understand the world as something other than just subject matter.” Miriam Flaherty, senior director of education, Wolf Trap Foundation for the Performing Arts “You can incorporate the arts into any subject—the children are going to learn more. And anybody who cuts art out—shame on them! They just do not understand children, they don’t understand education, and I would fire them all.” Ingrid Crepeau, teaching artist, Wolf Trap Foundation for the Performing Arts The Reading Brain Connection The Power of Reading What’s the best tool to teach literacy? “Just reading to your child,” says Lise Eliot, assistant professor of neuroscience at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science. The number of words children are exposed to in early life actually determines their own verbal intelligence and affects performance in language art classes when children get to school, Eliot says. Another great thing about books is that they “take you out of your daily world into another one, another vocabulary. It allows children to visualize,” Eliot says. “And finally, there is some evidence that simply being read to helps children acquire all the pre-literacy skills such as understanding that text goes from left to right, understanding that there is a break between words, and starting to recognize their ABCs,” Eliot says. All this is critical to the transition to independent reading, “and the earlier children are read to, the easier their transition to reading themselves.” Download the Art to Heart Reading Primer for Parents (PDF format) for tips on how to make reading a part of your own and your child’s daily lives. Bringing Books to Life In Program 5 of Art to Heart, Kofi Dennis and Ingrid Crepeau, teaching artists with the Wolf Trap Foundation for the Performing Arts, help students and teachers bring stories to life in the preschool classroom. Their activities vary widely—Dennis, who is from Mali, uses African drums, rhythm, and movement, while Crepeau uses puppets—but their goal is the same: learning. The children are gaining important pre-literacy skills. They listen as the books are read to them. They “read” the illustrations. They learn about sequence. “Children can’t learn to read if they can’t remember first, second, third,” Crepeau says. They’re learning other curriculum concepts teachers and artists discussed in advance—from colors to prepositions to weather. They use their imaginations to go more deeply into the story. “We help them to focus, to draw from the book, to take the world of the book and bring it into the classroom,” Dennis says. And they’re having fun—and that itself is important to learning. “We know so much more about how the brain works and how these early years are so developmentally important—that the thing to do is to find the best way to stimulate those little brains,” Crepeau says. “And if you can engage their emotions, they’re having fun, they’re laughing, they remember more. If you can engage them physically, it stimulates other parts of the brain. They remember more.” Find Out More Ingrid Crepeau, who is featured in Art to Heart, is the co-author, along with M. Ann Richards, of the book A Show of Hands: Using Puppets with Young Children. It explains how the use of puppets can support emergent literacy skills, introduce children’s literature, manage the classroom, and assist in the development of lesson plans. For more information, visit the Show of Hands web site. About Wolf Trap Wolf Trap Early Learning Kofi Dennis and Ingrid Crepeau are among about 200 professional teaching artists who work with schools as part of the Wolf Trap Institute for Early Learning Through the Arts. This acclaimed program, based at the Wolf Trap Foundation for the Performing Arts in Vienna, Virginia, works with regional organizations across the United States to provide arts-in-education services for children ages 3-5, as well as their parents and teachers, through drama, music, and movement. The Arts for Teaching Wolf Trap’s early childhood program began in 1981. “Education has always been central to Wolf Trap’s mission,” explains Miriam Flaherty, senior director of education. “But in 1981, someone from Head Start approached one of our board members. Head Start was really looking at opportunities to have an impact on how teachers teach. And they wondered if the arts could be part of a teacher’s professional development program and if the arts could really be used to help young children learn.” A quarter-century later, the program continues to grow and thrive. “I believe the success is because it’s about a partnership—a meaningful partnership between artists and teachers,” Flaherty says. “It comes down to where the children are in the classroom, what the teacher’s goals and objectives are for the children. The artist isn’t going in and doing a set performance. And the children aren’t audience members. They’re all participants together.” Teacher Karen Bump, who worked with Dennis in her classroom at Belvedere Elementary, agrees. “When Mr. Kofi came into our classroom—he would come in two or three times a week—the children were so excited to see him. And I was just as excited because I knew we were going to have a good time and we were going to learn some new things and learn some new ways of learning. Joyful, active learning is what happens when you have a Wolf Trap artist in the classroom.” Find Out More The Wolf Trap Institute for Early Learning Through the Arts offers residencies and other programs in the Washington, DC/Maryland/Virginia region as well as through regional programs in Arizona, Southern California, Chicago, Connecticut, Delaware, the Mississippi Delta, Georgia, Kansas, Michigan, Nashville, New Jersey, New York City, North Carolina, Rochester, and North Texas. The Wolf Trap Foundation web site has more information about the institute and contact information for regional programs. In the activity shown in Program 5 of Art to Heart, Joshua Beasley, kindergarten enrichment teacher at the Smithsonian Early Enrichment Center, connects a wide variety of artifacts from the Smithsonian to guided activities to provide children with a rich and exciting exploration of science, music, art, and art-making. Each month, students at the center embark on a theme-based study of an artist. The activity shown was a study of Antonio Stradivari, the Italian violin maker of the late 1600s and early 1700s, framed with the themes of science, music, and nature. “We try and connect through simple ideas, the way that we frame it,” explains Beasley. “We’re looking for ways that a story might remind you of a work of art and how that work of art might remind you of an idea in science.” For example, in learning about violin music and Stradivari, Beasley used a picture of an old violin from the National Gallery. Questions and Explorations In researching Stradivari, Beasley learned that he had lived during what was termed the “little ice age.” The children were curious about this: Did Stradivari ever meet a woolly mammoth or saber-toothed tiger? Beasley asked a scientist to bring in mammoth fur and objects from the time in which the woolly mammoth and saber-toothed tiger lived. The children learned that these animals were gone by the time of Stradivari, but wolves were still around. “And once they had the thread, they connected the picture and the art and the science idea. That’s when we made up a story about violins and wolves.” Throughout the month, the class told the story differently. It began as a very brief, spontaneous story made up during a visit to the Natural History Museum. As the month went on, the children elaborated on it and acted out different parts. They brought in articles and information about violins. They learned about the kind of wood used to make violins. They also took a virtual tour of the “Forest of the Violins,” a real place in Italy that Beasley discovered in doing research on Stradivari. And each child was encouraged to explore further an aspect he or she was especially curious about. A Leader in Object-Based Learning The Smithsonian Early Enrichment Center is recognized as a leader in this kind of object-based learning. The center was founded to create a model of museum-based learning for young children as well as to provide on-site care for the children of Smithsonian employees. “In 1988, there were very few, if any, programs for preschoolers in traditional museums,” notes Sharon Shaffer, the center’s executive director. “The idea was to use the rich resources here in the Smithsonian complex. But no one was quite sure how that fit with preschoolers because preschoolers were not viewed as part of the museum audience at that time.” What the educators at the Smithsonian Early Enrichment Center discovered was that using art and artifacts could be an extremely successful approach if grounded in an understanding of young children and how they learn: making it interactive, connecting it with the children’s own prior experiences, and letting them express their ideas. Find Out More The Smithsonian Early Enrichment Center shares what it has learned about museum-based and object-based education for young children through outreach programs for educators. Two training seminars are offered: “Learning Through Objects” and “Museum Magic: Using Museums To Teach History, Literacy, and Math.” The center also offers teaching kits. The web site has information about training seminars and resources available, including a downloadable article by Sharon Shaffer on “Looking at Art with Toddlers.” Drama Basics and Terms Children of all ages love to pretend. Even toddlers mimic things and people they see around them. Storytelling, role playing, mimicry, pantomime, and acting out a written play—all are part of drama, an activity well suited to children in the early years of life. Elements of Drama Drama includes literary elements, technical elements, and performance elements. Literary elements have to do with the plot. They include: - storyline—what happens in the story or play. - story organization—the beginning, middle, and end. - character—who is in the story. - script—a story written in the form of dialogue and directions for movement. Technical elements help a dramatic performance come to life. They include scenery, costumes, props, and makeup. A dramatic performance may include very minimal technical elements—many storytellers, for example, use no scenery, props, costumes, or makeup. Other performances may have very elaborate scenery, costumes, makeup, and props. Performance elements relate to how a performer uses speech, movement, and gestures to create characters and tell the story. Exploring the Elements of Drama - Encourage children to play and be imaginative. - Read a variety of stories to your child. Have fun with the reading; use different voices and movement. With toddlers and older children, encourage them to move like characters. As language ability develops, encourage children to make up their own endings or stories. - Even very young children engage in dramatic play in nearly any setting. Provide opportunities. For example, as you cook, give your toddler or preschooler a wooden spoon and plastic bowl so he or she can pretend to cook as well. - Provide props and dress-up items—hats, scarves, jewelry, old clothing. - With younger children, focus on creative dramatics and creative movement—pantomime, body gestures, moving to music, pretending to be animals or machines. - As children’s language ability develops, books and stories are a natural tie-in to drama. Encourage your child to pretend to be a character in a storybook. Act out the story together. Ask your child to retell the story to you—or to a favorite toy. - Provide puppets for your child to play with. These can be simple stick or paper-bag puppets. - Look for opportunities for your child to attend age-appropriate performances. Storytelling sessions at the local library can be a good place to start. Local children’s theater companies usually do a variety of plays for a variety of ages. Afterward, discuss the elements. What was the story? Did the child learn something? Was it funny or sad? Were there costumes and props? What did they add to the performance? How did the storyteller or actors move and talk? Did the child like the performance? Storytelling With Young Children “Stories have been a part of almost every culture in the world. And why? Because they worked. It’s a way of passing on your culture,” says Rebecca Isbell, director of the Center of Excellence in Early Childhood Learning and Development and professor of early childhood education at East Tennessee State University. “Storytelling is a very powerful technique.” What are some of the benefits to children of hearing stories told to them in early childhood? The time from birth to age 8 is a critical time for oral language development, Isbell notes. Storytelling also develops visual imagery skills, as children must visualize what they are hearing as opposed to looking at illustrations in a book. Stories are also wonderful ways to learn about different cultures and people and to introduce moral and social issues. Memory and Understanding Isbell has been interested in storytelling throughout her career—she did her college dissertation on the effect of storytelling on young children’s language development. The Child Study Center also did a research study comparing the effects of story reading and storytelling on the intellectual development of children. “We found that children who heard stories told to them, without a book, with the eye-to-eye contact of the storyteller, that the children remembered those stories better than the ones they heard read; that they were actually able to internalize the pictures, create the stories for themselves in their heads, and remember the sequence of events much better than when they were read the story using a picture book where they focused on the pictures in the book. “We also found that they had a better understanding of what the story was about; for instance, the moral of the story,” Isbell said. “They could tell you more about what the moral was than when they had a story told to them. So it’s a really fascinating area to look at and one that I think we need to study more and use more as teachers.” Find Out More - Rebecca Isbell has written several books on storytelling for young children. She is also co-author, with Shirley C. Raines, of Creativity and the Arts with Young Children, which has ideas and information relating to all the arts disciplines. Her Dr. Isbell web site has information about her books along with activity ideas and links. - The International Storytelling Center web site has a variety of information and resources about storytelling, including information about the National Storytelling Festival held each year in Jonesborough, Tennessee. Other Programs in this Series Why are arts experiences important in the early years of life? How do music, dance, drama, and visual art contribute to growth and learning? How can parents and educators foster young children’s creativity? Art to Heart is an eight-part KET production that explores the importance of visual arts, music, dance, drama, and literature in the lives of infants, toddlers, and young children, providing useful ideas and information for parents, caregivers, and early childhood teachers.

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This Blog Is currently being updated. There was a gap of about 1500 years after the Indus valley civilisation. Aryans lived in teepees. Aryans were the nomadic tribes. Did not settle at one place. Hence did not contribute to architecture and buildings. Before India. Aryans first appeared in Iran. Both inscriptions were found in Iran. The word Veda is derived from Sanskrit which means Knowledge, power, and excellence. The Indo Aryans contributed Literature to arts. Aryans produced 4 Vedas:- Rig Ved - collection of hymns Yajur Ved - sacrificing text Sam Ved - collection of melodies Arthur Ved - magical chants and spell Beside these Vedas we have 4 Upavedas:- Ayurveda - medicine Dhanurveda - welfare Gandharva Veda - music Shilp Ved - art and literature These were the collection of knowledge written in Sanskrit. Hymns of religious and historical people who composed them. Only the upper society could recite the Vedas. Before the Vedas were given their finalised form, they were transmitted orally over a long period of time to many generations. The period between 1500 B.C. - 800 B.C. Along with Vedas, we have a group of GODS (signifies positivity) and DEMONS (signifies evil). Birth of Indra. catalyst act. creator of individual forms so that the opposition of Devas and Asuras is a popular theme in later Hinduism and art. Vedas present a category of 33 gods. among these were the sky, thunder, moon, sun, fire, water, river, etc. According to the Vedas, the Indo Aryans used to line at the banks of Satya Sidhu (Punjab). They did not require any image or temple for worship rather simply a square altar to set up a fire for sacrifice to call god. The sacrifices were called YAJNA and priests were called YAJA and whom they were done were the YAJAMAN. Ceremonies in alter areas became rich sources of later Hindu temple Architecture. The two examples of potteries found are: Red and Blackware Interaction of religious tradition and plastic art came into existence in Mauryan period. All terracotta pottery entered in stone sculpture. So in Buddhist Architecture, we have 3 things: chaityas (the place where monks worshipped) viharas (the place where monks lived) 800 - 450 B.C. These were separate text which was anti-ritualistic and emerged as a reaction against sacrificial religion (i.e. Vedas) to call upon god. They say- we should believe in our karma. They were actually philosophical and spiritual in nature. They were called the vedant (i.e. end of Vedas) The word Upanishad contains the origin of Mankind and gods nature. They practice the doctrine of karma (action) aatma (soul) god (Brahma) and Sansaar (Good actions). There are about 108 Upanishad, thus they believe in the interaction of universal and individual form. Puranas and Epics In Hinduism, the VEDAS are the BASE FOR ALL. These Vedas are Three in number ( trayee vedyam......Adi Sankara too says), the Atharva Veda is said to have been derived from out of the other THREE VEDAS. The Vedas contain AXIOM like Sanskrit verses, very tough to understand without a leaned SADGURU.Moreover they shall be learnt with SWARAM. So As Vedanta, UPANISHADS came where in the Vedic matters or the quintessence has been, explained in a comparatively simpler way.But these Upanishads too needed Commentaries. The EPICS OR ITIHASAS are the ACTUAL histories.They are the recorded events, chronologically, without any additions or any interpolations. ITI HA ASAM itself means THIS HAPPENED EXACTLY THIS WAY. We have, Sri Ramayana and Mahabharata TWO GREAT ITIHASAS OR EPICS. But to see things that are in Vedas are percolated to even common peoples levels PURANAS CAME.There are 18 Main Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas. These Puranas explain the complex matter in a storytelling manner that can be remembered easily, understood easily. So the Puranas came into being. The Puranas are chronicled containing ancient history, mythology and longer or shorter discourses in religion, philosophy, yoga, mystical attainments and spiritual realisation, and many other kindred subjects. During the centuries immediately preceding and following the beginning of the Common Era, the recession of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, took shape out of existing heroic epic stories, mythology, philosophy, and above all the discussion of the problem of dharma. Much of the material in the epics dates far back into the Vedic period, while the rest continued to be added until well into the medieval period. It is conventional, however, to date the more or less final recension of the Sanskrit texts of the epics to the period from 200 BCE to 200 CE. Bharhut sculpture, early Indian sculpture of the Shunga period (mid-2nd century BCE) that decorated the great stupa, or relic mound, of Bharhut, in Madhya Pradesh state. It has been largely destroyed, and most of the existing remains—railings and entrance gateways—are now in the Indian Museum in Kolkata (Calcutta). The Bharhut style, though at times archaic and primitive in its conception, marks the beginnings of a tradition of Buddhist narrative relief and decoration of sacred buildings that continued for several centuries. Sculptures similar to the Bharhut remains are located throughout northern India, suggesting that the Bharhut site was the main place for this style type. The flat planes, rather stiffly posed figures, and precise, elegant detailing of the ornamentation suggest continuance in stone of an earlier tradition in wood. Some of the uprights bear in relief standing figures of yakshas and yakshis (male and female nature deities) that have been pressed into the service of the Buddhist religion; a frequent motif is a woman embracing a tree. The stone railing, which imitates wooden post-and-rail construction, is decorated with medallions and lunates, most of them filled with the lotus ornament and some of them centred by the head of a man or woman. Other railing medallions and the coping depict Jataka stories (legends of the Buddha’s previous births) and events of the Buddha’s life. Buddhism is a nontheistic religion that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one". The traditional belief is that he was born a prince in Lumbinī, Nepal in the Terai lowlands near the foothills of the Himalayas. He left his home at the age of 29. And at 35 attained Nirvana at Bodhgaya.(Bihar) Delivered his first Selman (updesh) at Sarnath (Varanasi) Attained Maha nirvana at age of 80 at Kushinagar (UP) in 483.B.C. Branches of Buddhism: Mahayana is referred to as the "great vehicle". It proposes that all enlightened beings refuse entry into Nirvana, choosing to return to the cycle of birth and death to enlighten others until all beings are enlightened and achieve Nirvana. Theravada believes that enlightened beings enter Nirvana as the become enlightened one by one. The analogy is that The Davera is like a bicycle - a small vehicle for individual transport, while Mahayana is a "great vehicle" like a bus that gathers everyone before proceeding to Nirvana. CHAITYAS And VIHARAS Chaityas are the halls enclosing the stupas. Ashoka constructed eight rock-cut halls in the Barabar & Nagarjuna hills and the one near Rajgir dedicated to Jaina monks. The Lomas Rishi, the Sudama (both in the Barabar hills) and the Sitamarhi (Nagarjuna hills) caves are fine examples of the Chaityas which resembled the wooden buildings of the period. More sophisticated rock-cut chaityas developed later. The final form of rock-cut architecture that developed from these early forms can be seen all over India in Andhra Pradesh, Kathiawar in Gujarat and in Ajanta & Ellora. The rock formation in all these areas was most suited for these rock-cut structures. Alternating layers of hard and soft rock prevents moisture from seeping inside. They began the work from the top & continued downward. The Buddhists were the main contributors to these rock-cut monuments and best monuments are those found in Ajanta & Ellora (Vishwakarma cave- cave No.10). Fine sculptures adorn the walls. Figures of Buddha in various poses were cut out. Viharas are the dwelling places donated to the normally wandering Buddhist monks. The earlier structures were made of wood & soon developed from the primitive thatched huts into large sangharamas. Pali texts indicate the structure of the viharas. In course of time, the sangha ramas developed into educational institutions and centres of Buddhist learning, such as those at Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somapura. Hinayana viharas are seen in Ajanta, Ellora & in the Orissan hills on the east coast and at Nasik, Bedsa, Kondana and Pitalkhora in the Western Ghats. The development of Mahayana vihara can be traced only at Ajanta. Vihars-they are the rest houses of the Buddhist monks constructed in circular shape example- Nagarjuna Konda Buddhist Vihara Chaityas-they are Buddhist prayer halls.two types based on religious belief -Mahayana and Hinayana Together stupas, chaityas and viharas are called maha sangharama. There are contradictory theories regarding the original homeland of the Guptas. It was in 320 A.D. when the Gupta Dynasty came to prominence, a new era of imperial unity started again. The period which intervened between the fall of the Kushans and the rise of the Gupta Empire is called ‘Dark Age’ in Indian history. Not much is known about the origin of the Guptas, but we know that by 3rd century A.D. Sri Gupta had brought Magadha under his control. He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha Gupta. Neither the father nor the son seemed to have possessed any considerable power. But with Chandragupta I, the son of Ghatotkacha Gupta, began a new epoch in the history of the family. He was the real founder of the Gupta dynasty. Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta, and Chandra Gupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. This period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. The period of the Imperial Gupta has often been described as the golden age of the ancient Indian history. The Gupta period was characterized by all-around peace, prosperity and intellectual development. The Gupta period saw the classic phase of Indian sculpture. Through centuries of evolution, this art of sculpture-making reached a stage of perfection. The sculptors were matured enough to transform stone into images of superb beauty. They were under no external influence. Their technique of art was at its best. In perfect precision and masterly skill, they could shape the stone into an object of attraction. They also set pattern to their art which became an ideal model for the future. Their works became the model for the coming ages. The Gupta sculpture was at its best in giving shape to the images of the deities and divinities, both of the Brahminical and Buddhist faiths. Countless numbers of images were cut into shape at several centres for their installation in numberless temples and shrines. On the bodies of the temples also such figures were plentifully displayed. Sculpture-making became a major occupation, and the sculptors with their skill played a prominent role in the religious revolution of that period. Among the finest examples of the Gupta sculpture, the images of Buddha in large numbers stand out the foremost. The seated image of Buddha belonging to Sarnath has been rightly regarded as the finest of all Buddha images in India. It seems to convey the true messages of Buddhism. The standing Buddha of Mathura and the colossal copper statue of Buddha which is now in a British museum are some other excellent examples of the Gupta sculpture. The Hindu images, too, went by the physical beauty of their figures, dignity of their divinity, and grace of their spiritual being. Among the best examples of Hindu images, the Vishnu Image of Mathura and the Varaha Image of Udayagiri are considered wonderful. On the body of the Deogarh Temple, the sculptures represent the episodes relating to Rama and Krishna. They are of an attractive style. The images of Siva and of other Hindu gods and goddesses were made in large numbers at various places. All of them possessed dignity. Their faces revealed spiritual expression and moods of divinity according to the Puranic descriptions of their individuality. It seems, as if, the sculptors were translating the themes from Sanskrit texts into religious versions on stones. The Gupta sculpture thus enhanced the value of the Indian culture greatly. They remained as models for the posterity. They also served as models for the Indian sculptural art in several countries of South-East Asia. The Gupta Age is an age of intense religion interests, saw the construction of a large number of temples and religious architectures. The excellence of Gupta architecture can be seen in the temples of various Hindu Gods such as Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Kartikeya, etc. Unfortunately, most examples of the Gupta architecture have been lost to posterity. The Huna invaders destroyed most of those works. Many disappeared under the ravages of time. Among the few surviving examples of the Gupta architecture, the famous Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh is considered the best. The body of the temple is covered with beautiful sculpture with many figures. The other structures of the period include the Vishnu Temple of Tigawa in Jabalpur district, the Siva Temple of Bhumra in Madhya Pradesh, the Temple of Parvati in the former Ajaigarh state, and the Buddhist shrines of Bodh Gaya and Sanchi. Besides the structures in stones, the Gupta temple-architecture was also erected in brick. Among the brick temples, the most famous one is the temple at Bhitargaon in Kanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. The beautiful designs on the body of the temple show the artistic talent of the builders who could mould the bricks in various forms. The Gupta monuments were built under the Puranic religious concepts. They represented both balance and beauty. Built both in stone and brick, they maintained external decorations of a higher order. They were built in a great many numbers, but have been swept away by the tides of time. Salabhanjika or Shalabhajika refers to the sculpture of a woman, displaying stylized feminine features, standing near a tree and grasping a branch. The name of these figures comes from the Sanskrit śālabañjika meaning 'breaking a branch of a sala tree'. They are also known as madanakai, madanika or shilabalika. The salabhanjika is a standard decorative element of Indian sculpture, a graceful stone sculpture representing a young female under a stylized tree in various poses, such as dancing, grooming herself or playing a musical instrument. The salabhanjika's female features, like breasts and hips, are often exaggerated. Frequently these sculpted figures display complex hairdos and an abundance of jewellery. The salabhanjika concept stems from ancient symbolism linking a chaste maiden with the sala tree or the Asoka tree through the ritual called dohada, or the fertilisation of plants through contact with a young woman. The symbolism changed over the course of time and the salabhanjika became figures used as ornamental carvings, usually located in the area where worshipers engage in circumambulation, near the garbhagriha of many Hindu temples. Placed at an angle, salabhanjika figures also were used in temple architecture as a bracket figures. Salabhanjikas are also often mentioned in ancient and modern Indian literature. Shalabhanjika on Eastern Torana (gateway), Sanchi Stupa Detail of Salabhanjika. Buddhist ideas and practices emerged out of a process of dialogue with other traditions – including those of the Brahmanas, Jainas and several others and can be seen in the ways in which sacred places came to be identified.These sites, with small shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas. Why were stupas built This was because relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried there. These were mounds known as stupas.According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. How were stupas built Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building and decorating them. Some donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas; others were made by guilds, such as that of the ivory workers who financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi. The structure of the stupa The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods. Stories in stone At first sight, the sculpture seems to depict a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees. However, art historians who have carefully studied the sculpture at Sanchi identify it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. Symbols of worship According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form – instead, they showed his presence through symbols. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. As is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understood literally – for instance, the tree does not stand simply for a tree, but symbolises an event in the life of the Buddha. In order to understand such symbols, historians have to familiarise themselves with the traditions of those who produced these works of art. These include beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. Salabhanjika according to popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. This term is related to ROMANCE, meaningly in the Roman manner. It refers to the art of Europe approx.1000 AD and The rise of Gothic Style in the 13th c. The term was Romanesque was invented by art historians in the 19th C. It was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe. Romanesque architecture was influenced by Byzantine art. The art of this period was characterised by various style, both sculpt. and painting. The most common subject was - Life of Christ - Jesus and Mary - The last judgement. Decorated manuscripts were mostly Bibles. Flourished especially during the 10th and 11th century. Subject Matter - Biblical and Pictorial. Stained Glass Windows - Mural Paintings Stone, Metal, Ivory and Enamel Sculptures. Figures are mainly stiff and lack of space, no gap between them. Eg. shrine of the three kings cologne Roman concrete construction. (a) barrel vault, (b) groin vault, (c) fenestrated sequence of groin vaults, (d) hemispherical dome with Oculus (John Burge). Concrete domes and vaults of varying designs enabled Roman builders to revolutionize the history of architecture by shaping interior spaces in novel ways. It is medieval architectural style characterized by semi-circular arches. Castles and Churches Started during 6th century to 10th century. Developed into gothic style in 12th c. Romanesque arch. is known for its massive quality, thick walls, rounded arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Eg. “Abbey church of saint-denis”.

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Cymru, the nation; Cymry, the people; Cymraeg, the language Identification. The Britons, a Celtic tribe, who first settled in the area that is now Wales, had already begun to identify themselves as a distinct culture by the sixth century C.E. The word "Cymry," referring to the country, first appeared in a poem dating from 633. By 700 C.E. , the Britons referred to themselves as Cymry, the country as Cymru, and the language as Cymraeg. The words "Wales" and "Welsh" are Saxon in origin and were used by the invading Germanic tribe to denote people who spoke a different language. The Welsh sense of identity has endured despite invasions, absorption into Great Britain, mass immigration, and, more recently, the arrival of non-Welsh residents. Language has played a significant role in contributing to the sense of unity felt by the Welsh; more than the other Celtic languages, Welsh has maintained a significant number of speakers. During the eighteenth century a literary and cultural rebirth of the language occurred which further helped to solidify national identity and create ethnic pride among the Welsh. Central to Welsh culture is the centuries-old folk tradition of poetry and music which has helped keep the Welsh language alive. Welsh intellectuals in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries wrote extensively on the subject of Welsh culture, promoting the language as the key to preserving national identity. Welsh literature, poetry, and music flourished in the nineteenth century as literacy rates and the availability of printed material increased. Tales that had traditionally been handed down orally were recorded, both in Welsh and English, and a new generation of Welsh writers emerged. Location and Geography. Wales is a part of the United Kingdom and is located in a wide peninsula in the western portion of the island of Great Britain. The island of Anglesey is also considered a part of Wales and is separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait. Wales is surrounded by water on three sides: to the north, the Irish Sea; to the south, the Bristol Channel; and to the west, Saint George's Channel and Cardigan Bay. The English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucestershire border Wales on the east. Wales covers an area of 8,020 square miles (20,760 square kilometers) and extends 137 miles (220 kilometers) from its most distant points and varies between 36 and 96 miles (58 and 154 kilometers) in width. The capital, Cardiff, is located in the southeast on the Severn Estuary and is also the most important seaport and shipbuilding center. Wales is very mountainous and has a rocky, irregular coastline with numerous bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay to the west. The Cambrian Mountains, the most significant range, run north-south through central Wales. Other mountain ranges include the Brecon Beacons to the southeast and Snowdon in the northwest, which reaches an elevation of 3,560 feet (1,085 meters) and is the highest mountain in Wales and England. The Dee River, with its headwaters in Bala Lake, the largest natural lake in Wales, flows through northern Wales into England. Numerous smaller rivers cover the south, including the Usk, Wye, Teifi, and Towy. The temperate climate, mild and moist, has ensured the development of an abundance of plant and animal life. Ferns, mosses, and grasslands as well as numerous wooded areas cover Wales. Oak, mountain ash, and coniferous trees are found in mountainous regions under 1,000 feet (300 meters). The pine marten, a small animal similar to a mink, and the polecat, a member of the weasel family, are Demography. The latest surveys place the population of Wales at 2,921,000 with a density of approximately 364 people per square mile (141 per square kilometers). Almost three-quarters of the Welsh population reside in the mining centers of the south. The popularity of Wales as a vacation destination and weekend retreat, especially near the border with England, has created a new, nonpermanent population. Linguistic Affiliation. There are approximately 500,000 Welsh speakers today and, due to a renewed interest in the language and culture, this number may increase. Most people in Wales, however, are English-speaking, with Welsh as a second language; in the north and west, many people are Welsh and English bilinguals. English is still the main language of everyday use with both Welsh and English appearing on signs. In some areas, Welsh is used exclusively and the number of Welsh publications is increasing. Welsh, or Cymraeg, is a Celtic language belonging to the Brythonic group consisting of Breton, Welsh, and the extinct Cornish. Western Celtic tribes first settled in the area during the Iron Age, bringing with them their language which survived both Roman and Anglo-Saxon occupation and influence, although some features of Latin were introduced into the language and have survived in modern Welsh. Welsh epic poetry can be traced back to the sixth century C.E. and represents one of the oldest literary traditions in Europe. The poems of Taliesin and Aneirin dating from the late seventh century C.E. reflect a literary and cultural awareness from an early point in Welsh history. Although there were many factors affecting the Welsh language, especially contact with other language groups, the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked a dramatic decline in the number of Welsh speakers, as many non-Welsh people, attracted by the industry that had developed around coal mining in the south and east, moved into the area. At the same time, many Welsh people from rural areas left to find work in London or abroad. This large-scale migration of non-Welsh-speaking workers greatly accelerated the disappearance of Welsh-speaking communities. Even though there were still around forty Welsh-language publications in the mid-nineteenth century, the regular use of Welsh by the majority of the population began to drop. Over time two linguistic groups emerged in Wales; the Welsh-speaking region known as the Y Fro Cymraeg to the north and west, where more than 80 percent of the population speaks Welsh, and the Anglo-Welsh area to the south and east where the number of Welsh speakers is below 10 percent and English is the majority language. Up until 1900, however, almost half the population still spoke Welsh. In 1967 the Welsh Language Act was passed, recognizing the status of Welsh as an official language. In 1988 the Welsh Language Board was established, helping to ensure the rebirth of Welsh. Throughout Wales there was a serious effort in the second half of the twentieth century to maintain and promote the language. Other efforts to support the language included Welsh-language television programs, bilingual Welsh-English schools, as well Symbolism. The symbol of Wales, which also appears on the flag, is a red dragon. Supposedly brought to the colony of Britain by the Romans, the dragon was a popular symbol in the ancient world and was used by the Romans, the Saxons, and the Parthians. It became the national symbol of Wales when Henry VII, who became king in 1485 and had used it as his battle flag during the battle of Bosworth Field, decreed that the red dragon should become the official flag of Wales. The leek and the daffodil are also important Welsh symbols. One legend connects the leek to Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, who defeated the pagan Saxons in a victorious battle that supposedly occurred in a field of leeks. It is more likely that leeks were adopted as a national symbol because of their importance to the Welsh diet, particularly during Lent when meat was not allowed. Another, less famous Welsh symbol consists of three ostrich plumes and the motto "Ich Dien" (translation: "I serve") from the Battle of Crecy, France, in 1346. It was probably borrowed from the motto of the King of Bohemia, who led the cavalry charge against the English. Emergence of the Nation. The earliest evidence of a human presence in Wales dates from the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, period almost 200,000 years ago. It was not until the Neolithic and Bronze Age period around 3,000 B.C.E. , however, that a sedentary civilization began to develop. The first tribes to settle in Wales, who probably came from the western coastal areas of the Mediterranean, were people generally referred to as the Iberians. Later migrations from northern and eastern Europe brought the Brythonic Celts and Nordic tribes to the area. At the time of the Roman invasion in 55 B.C.E. , the area was made up of the Iberian and Celtic tribes who referred to themselves as Cymry. The Cymry tribes were eventually subjugated by the Romans in the first century C.E. Anglo-Saxon tribes also settled in Britain during this period, pushing other Celtic tribes into the Welsh mountains where they eventually united with the Cymry already living there. In the first centuries C.E. , Wales was divided into tribal kingdoms, the most important of which were Gwynedd, Gwent, Dyved, and Powys. All of the Welsh kingdoms later united against the Anglo-Saxon invaders, marking the beginning of an official division between England and Wales. This boundary became official with the construction of Offa's Dyke around the middle of the eighth century C.E. Offa's Dyke was at first a ditch constructed by Offa, the king of Mercia, in an attempt to give his territories a well-defined border to the west. The Dyke was later enlarged and fortified, becoming one of the largest human-made boundaries in Europe and covering 150 miles from the northeast coast to the southeast coast of Wales. It remains to this day the line that divides English and Welsh cultures. When William the Conqueror (William I) and his Norman army conquered England in 1066, the three English earldoms of Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford were established on the border with Wales. These areas were used as strong points in attacks against the Welsh and as strategic political centers. Nevertheless, the only Welsh kingdom to fall under Norman control during the reign of William I (1066–1087) was Gwent, in the southeast. By 1100 the Norman lords had expanded their control to include the Welsh areas of Cardigan, Pembroke, Brecon, and Glamorgan. This expansion into Welsh territory led to the establishment of the March of Wales, an area previously ruled by the Welsh kings. The Welsh continued to fight Norman and Anglo-Saxon control in the first part of the twelfth century. By the last half of the twelfth century the three Welsh kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth were firmly established, providing a permanent base for Welsh statehood. The principal settlements of Aberffraw in Gwynedd, Mathrafal in Powys, and Dinefwr in Deheubarth formed the core of Welsh political and cultural life. Although the Welsh kings were allies, each ruled separate territories swearing loyalty to the king of England. The establishment of the kingdoms marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth. Agriculture flourished, as did scholarship and the Welsh literary tradition. A period of unrest and contested succession followed the deaths of the three Welsh kings as different factions fought for control. The stability provided by the first kings was never restored in Powys and Deheubarth. The kingdom of Gwynedd was successfully united once again under the reign of Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (d. 1240) following a brief power struggle. Viewing Llywelyn as a threat, King John (1167–1216) led a campaign against him which led to Llywelyn's humiliating defeat in 1211. Llywelyn, however, turned this to his advantage and secured the allegiance of other Welsh leaders who feared total subjugation under King John. Llywelyn became the leader of the Welsh forces and, although conflict with King John continued, he successfully united the Welsh politically and eventually minimized the king of England's involvement in Welsh affairs. Dafydd ap Llywelyn, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth's son and heir, attempted to broaden Welsh power before his premature death in 1246. With Dafydd leaving no heirs, succession to the Welsh throne was contested by Dafydd's nephews and in a series of battles between 1255 and 1258 Llwelyn ap Gruffydd (d. 1282), one of the nephews, assumed control of the Welsh throne, crowning himself Prince of Wales. Henry III officially recognized his authority over Wales in 1267 with the Treaty of Montgomery and in turn Llwelyn swore allegiance to the English crown. Llwelyn succeeded in firmly establishing the Principality of Wales, which consisted of the twelfth century kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth as well as some parts of the March. This period of peace, however, did not last long. Conflict arose between Edward I, who succeeded Henry III, and Llwelyn, culminating in an English invasion of Wales in 1276, followed by war. Llwelyn was forced into a humiliating surrender that included relinquishing control over the eastern part of his territory and an acknowledgment of fealty paid to Edward I annually. In 1282 Llwelyn, aided this time by the Welsh nobility of other regions, rebelled against Edward I only to be killed in combat. The Welsh forces continued to fight but finally capitulated to Edward I in the summer of 1283, marking the beginning of a period of occupation by the English. Although the Welsh were forced to surrender, the struggle for unity and independence over the previous one hundred years had been crucial in shaping Welsh politics and identity. During the fourteenth century economic and social difficulties prevailed in Wales. Edward I embarked on a program of castle building, both for defensive purposes and to shelter English colonists, which was continued by his heir Edward II. The result of his efforts can still be seen in Wales today, which has more castles per square mile than any other area of Europe. At the end of the 1300s Henry IV seized the throne from Richard II, provoking a revolt in Wales where support for Richard II was strong. Under the leadership of Owain Glyndwr, Wales united to rebel against the English king. From 1400 to 1407 Wales once again asserted its independence from England. England did not regain control of Wales again until 1416 and the death of Glyndwr, marking the last Welsh uprising. The Welsh submitted to Henry VII (1457–1509), the first king of the house of Tudor, whom they regarded as a countryman. In 1536 Henry VIII declared the Act of Union, incorporating Wales into the English realm. For the first time in its history Wales obtained uniformity in the administration of law and justice, the same political rights as the English, and English common law in the courts. Wales also secured parliamentary representation. Welsh landowners exercised their authority locally, in the name of the king, who granted them their land and property. Wales, although no longer an independent nation, had finally obtained unity, stability, and, most importantly, statehood and recognition as a distinct culture. National Identity. The different ethnic groups and tribes that settled in ancient Wales gradually merged, politically and culturally, to defend their territory from first, the Romans, and later the Anglo-Saxon and Norman invaders. The sense of national identity was formed over centuries as the people of Wales struggled against being absorbed into neighboring cultures. The heritage of a common Celtic origin was a key factor in shaping Welsh identity and uniting the warring kingdoms. Cut off from other Celtic cultures to the north in Britain and in Ireland, the Welsh tribes united against their non-Celtic enemies. The development and continued use of the Welsh language also played important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national identity. The tradition of handing down poetry and stories orally and the importance of music in daily Ethnic Relations. With the Act of Union, Wales gained peaceful relations with the English while maintaining their ethnic identity. Until the late eighteenth century Wales was predominantly rural with most of the population living in or near small farming villages; contact with other ethnic groups was minimal. The Welsh gentry, on the other hand, mixed socially and politically with the English and Scottish gentry, producing a very Anglicized upper class. The industry that grew up around coal mining and steel manufacturing attracted immigrants, principally from Ireland and England, to Wales starting in the late eighteenth century. Poor living and working conditions, combined with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants, caused social unrest and frequently led to conflicts—often violent in nature—among different ethnic groups. The decline of heavy industry in the late nineteenth century, however, caused an outward migration of Welsh and the country ceased to attract immigrants. The end of the twentieth century brought renewed industrialization and with it, once again, immigrants from all over the world, although without notable conflicts. The increased standard of living throughout Great Britain has also made Wales a popular vacation and weekend retreat, principally for people from large urban areas in England. This trend is causing significant tension, especially in Welsh-speaking and rural areas, among residents who feel that their way of life is being threatened. The development of Welsh cities and towns did not begin until industrialization in the late 1700s. Rural areas are characterized by a scattering of isolated farms, typically consisting of the older, traditional whitewashed or stone buildings, usually with slate roofs. Villages evolved from the early settlements of the Celtic tribes who chose particular locations for their agricultural or defensive value. More successful settlements grew and became the political and economic centers, first of the kingdoms, then later the individual regions, in Wales. The Anglo-Norman manorial tradition of buildings clustered on a landowner's property, similar to rural villages in England, was introduced to Wales after the conquest of 1282. The village as a center of rural society, however, became significant only in southern and eastern Wales; other rural areas maintained scattered and more isolated building patterns. Timber-framed houses, originally constructed around a great hall, emerged in the Middle Ages in the north and east, and later throughout Wales. In the late sixteenth century, houses began to vary more in size and refinement, reflecting the growth of a middle class and increasing disparities in wealth. In Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, landowners built brick houses that reflected the vernacular style popular in England at the time as well as their social status. This imitation of English architecture set landowners apart from the rest of Welsh society. After the Norman conquest, urban development began to grow around castles and military camps. The bastide, or castle town, although not large, is still significant to political and administrative life. Industrialization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries caused an explosion of urban growth in the southeast and in Cardiff. Housing shortages were common and several families, often unrelated, shared dwellings. Economic affluence and a population increase created a demand for new construction in the late twentieth century. Slightly over 70 percent of homes in Wales are owner-occupied. Food in Daily Life. The importance of agriculture to the Welsh economy as well as the availability of local products has created high food standards and a national diet that is based on fresh, natural food. In coastal areas fishing and seafood are important to both the economy and the local cuisine. The type of food available in Wales is similar to that found in the rest of the United Kingdom and includes a variety of food from other cultures and nations. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Special traditional Welsh dishes include laverbread, a seaweed dish; cawl, a rich broth; bara brith, a traditional cake; and pice ar y maen, Welsh cakes. Traditional dishes are served at special occasions and holidays. Local markets and fairs usually offer regional products and baked goods. Wales is particularly known for its cheeses and meats. Welsh rabbit, also called Welsh rarebit, a dish of melted cheese mixed with ale, beer, milk, and spices served over toast, has been popular since the early eighteenth century. Basic Economy. Mining, especially of coal, has been the chief economic activity of Wales since the seventeenth century and is still very important to the economy and one of the leading sources of employment. The largest coalfields are in the southeast and today produce about 10 percent of Great Britain's total coal production. Iron, steel, limestone, and slate production are also important industries. Although heavy industry has played a significant role in the Welsh economy and greatly affected Welsh society in the nineteenth century, the country remains largely agricultural with almost 80 percent of the land used for agricultural activities. The raising of livestock, particularly cattle and sheep, is more important than crop farming. The principal crops are barley, oats, potatoes, and hay. Fishing, centered on the Bristol Channel, is another important commercial activity. The economy is integrated with the rest of Great Britain and as such Wales is no longer exclusively dependent on its own production. Although agriculture accounts for much of the economy, only a small segment of the total population actually works in this area and agricultural output is largely destined for sale. Many foreign companies that produce consumer goods, particularly Japanese firms, have opened factories and offices in Wales in recent years, providing employment and encouraging economic growth. Land Tenure and Property. In ancient Wales land was informally controlled by tribes who fiercely protected their territory. With the rise of the Welsh kingdoms, land ownership was controlled by the kings who granted their subjects tenure. Because of the scattered and relatively small population of Wales, however, most people lived on isolated farms or in small villages. After the Act of Union with England, the king granted land to the nobility and later, with the rise of a middle class, the Welsh gentry had the economic power to purchase small tracts of land. Most Welsh people were peasant farmers who either worked the land for landowners or were tenant farmers, renting small patches of land. The advent of the industrial revolution caused a radical change in the economy and farmworkers left the countryside in large numbers to seek work in urban areas and coal mines. Industrial workers rented living quarters or, sometimes, were provided with factory housing. Today, land ownership is more evenly distributed throughout the population although there are still large privately owned tracts of land. A new awareness of environmental issues has led to the creation of national parks and protected wildlife zones. The Welsh Forestry Commission has acquired land formerly used for pasture and farming and initiated a program of reforestation. Major Industries. Heavy industry, such as mining and other activities associated with the port of Cardiff, once the busiest industrial port in the world, declined in the last part of the twentieth century. The Welsh Office and Welsh Development Agency have worked to attract multinational companies to Wales in an effort to restructure the nation's economy. Unemployment, higher on average in the rest of the United Kingdom, is still a concern. Industrial growth in the late twentieth century was concentrated mostly in the area of science and technology. The Royal Mint was relocated to Llantrisant, Wales in 1968, helping create a banking and financial services industry. Manufacturing is still the largest Welsh industry, with financial services in second place, followed by education, health and social services, and wholesale and retail trade. Mining accounts for only 1 percent of the gross domestic product. Trade. Integrated with the economy of the United Kingdom, Wales has important trade relations with other regions in Britain and with Europe. Agricultural products, electronic equipment, synthetic fibers, pharmaceuticals, and automotive parts are the principal exports. The most important heavy industry is the refining of imported metal ore to produce tin and aluminum sheets. Government. The Principality of Wales is governed from Whitehall in London, the name of the administrative and political seat of the British government. Increasing pressure from Welsh leaders for more autonomy brought devolution of administration in May 1999, meaning that more political power has been given to the Welsh Office in Cardiff. The position of secretary of state for Wales, a part of the British prime minister's cabinet, was created in 1964. In a 1979 referendum a proposal for the creation of a nonlegislating Welsh Assembly was rejected but in 1997 another referendum passed by a slim margin, leading to the 1998 creation of the National Assembly for Wales. The assembly has sixty members and is responsible for setting policy and creating legislation in areas regarding education, health, agriculture, transportation, and social services. A general reorganization of government throughout the United Kingdom in 1974 included a simplification of Welsh administration with smaller districts regrouped to form larger constituencies for economic and political reasons. Wales was reorganized into eight new counties, from thirteen originally, and within the counties thirty-seven new districts were created. Leadership and Political Officials. Wales has always had strong left wing and radical political parties and leaders. There is also a strong political awareness throughout Wales and voter turnout at elections is higher on average than in the United Kingdom as a whole. In most of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the Liberal Party dominated Welsh politics with the industrial regions supporting the Socialists. In 1925 the Welsh Nationalist Party, known as Plaid Cymru, was founded with the intention of gaining independence for Wales as a region within the European Economic Community. Between World Wars I and II severe economic depression caused almost 430,000 Welsh to immigrate and a new political activism was born with an emphasis on social and economic reform. After World War II the Labor Party gained a majority of support. During the late 1960s Plaid Cymru and the Conservative Party won seats in parliamentary elections, weakening the Labor Party's traditional Military Activity. Wales does not have an independent military and its defense falls under the authority of the military of the United Kingdom as a whole. There are, however, three army regiments, the Welsh Guards, the Royal Regiment of Wales, and the Royal Welch Fusiliers, that have historical associations with the country. Health and social services fall under the administration and responsibility of the secretary of state for Wales. The Welsh Office, which works with the county and district authorities, plans and executes matters relating to housing, health, education, and welfare. Terrible working and living conditions in the nineteenth century brought significant changes and new policies regarding social welfare that continued to be improved upon throughout the twentieth century. Issues regarding health care, housing, education, and working conditions, combined with a high level of political activism, have created an awareness of and demand for social change programs in Wales. The Relative Status of Women and Men. Historically, women had few rights, although many worked outside the home, and were expected to fulfill the role of wife, mother, and, in the case of unmarried women, caregiver to an extended family. In agricultural areas women worked alongside male family members. When the Welsh economy began to become more industrialized, many women found work in factories that hired an exclusively female workforce for jobs not requiring physical strength. Women and children worked in mines, putting in fourteen-hour days under extremely harsh conditions. Legislation was passed in the mid-nineteenth century limiting the working hours for women and children but it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that Welsh women began to demand more civil rights. The Women's Institute, which now has chapters throughout the United Kingdom, was founded in Wales, although all of its activities are conducted in English. In the 1960s another organization, similar to the Women's Institute but exclusively Welsh in its goals, was founded. Known as the Merched y Wawr, or Women of the Dawn, it is dedicated to promoting the rights of Welshwomen, the Welsh language and culture, and organizing charitable projects. Child Rearing and Education. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries children were exploited for labor, sent into mines to work in shafts that were too small for adults. Child and infant mortality rates were high; almost half of all children did not live past the age of five, and only half of those who lived past the age of ten could hope to live to their early twenties. Social reformers and religious organizations, particularly the Methodist Church, advocated for improved public education standards in the mid-nineteenth century. Conditions began to gradually improve for children when working hours were restricted and compulsory education enacted. The Education Act of 1870 passed to enforce basic standards, but also sought to banish Welsh completely from the education system. Today, primary and nursery schools in areas with a Welsh-speaking majority provide instruction completely in Welsh and schools in areas where English is the first language offer bilingual instruction. The Welsh Language Nursery Schools Movement, Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin Cymraeg, founded in 1971, has been very successful in creating a network of nursery schools, or Ysgolion Meithrin, particularly in regions where English is used more frequently. Nursery, primary, and secondary schools are under the administration of the education authority of the Welsh Office. Low-cost, quality public education is available throughout Wales for students of all ages. Higher Education. Most institutions of higher learning are publicly supported, but admission is competitive. The Welsh literary tradition, a high literacy rate, and political and religious factors have all contributed to shaping a culture where higher education is considered important. The principal institute of higher learning is the University of Wales, a public university financed by the Universities Funding Council in London, with six locations in Wales: Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, Lampeter, Swansea, and the Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff. The Welsh Office is responsible for Religious Beliefs. Religion has played a significant role in the shaping Welsh culture. Protestantism, namely Anglicanism, began to gather more support after Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church. On the eve of the English Civil War in 1642, Puritanism, practiced by Oliver Cromwell and his supporters, was widespread in the border counties of Wales and in Pembrokeshire. Welsh royalists, who supported the king and Anglicanism, were stripped of their property, incurring much resentment among non-Puritan Welsh. In 1650 the Act for the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales was passed, taking over both political and religious life. During the period known as the Interregnum when Cromwell was in power, several non-Anglican, or Dissenting, Protestant congregations were formed which were to have significant influences on modern Welsh life. The most religiously and socially radical of these were the Quakers, who had a strong following in Montgomeryshire and Merioneth, and eventually spread their influence to areas including the Anglican border counties and the Welsh-speaking areas in the north and west. The Quakers, intensely disliked by both other Dissenting churches and the Anglican Church, were severely repressed with the result that large numbers were forced to emigrate to the American colonies. Other churches, such as the Baptist and Congregationalist, which were Calvinist in theology, grew and found many followers in rural communities and small towns. In the latter part of the eighteenth century many Welsh converted to Methodism after a revival movement in 1735. Methodism was supported within the established Anglican Church and was originally organized through local societies governed by a central association. The influence of the original Dissenting churches, combined with the spiritual revival of Methodism, gradually led Welsh society away from Anglicanism. Conflicts in leadership and chronic poverty made church growth difficult, but the popularity of Methodism eventually helped establish it permanently as the most widespread denomination. The Methodist and other Dissenting churches were also responsible for an increase in literacy through church-sponsored schools that promoted education as a way of spreading religious doctrine. Today, followers of Methodism still constitute the largest religious group. The Anglican Church, or the Church of England, is the second largest sect, followed by the Roman Catholic Church. There are also much smaller numbers of Jews and Muslims. The Dissenting Protestant sects, and religion in general, played very important roles in modern Welsh society but the number of people who regularly participated in religious activities dropped significantly after World War II. Rituals and Holy Places. The Cathedral of Saint David, in Pembrokeshire, is the most significant national holy place. David, the patron saint of Wales, was a religious crusader who arrived in Wales in the sixth century to spread Christianity and convert the Welsh tribes. He died in 589 on 1 March, now celebrated as Saint David's Day, a national holiday. His remains are buried in the cathedral. Health care and medicine are government-funded and supported by the National Health Service of the United Kingdom. There is a very high standard of health care in Wales with approximately six medical practitioners per ten thousand people. The Welsh National School of Medicine in Cardiff offers quality medical training and education. During the nineteenth century, Welsh intellectuals began to promote the national culture and traditions, initiating a revival of Welsh folk culture. Over the last century these celebrations have evolved into major events and Wales now has several internationally important music and literary festivals. The Hay Festival of Literature, from 24 May to 4 June, in the town of Hay-on-Wye, annually attracts thousands, as does the Brecon Jazz Festival from 11 to 13 August. The most important Welsh secular celebration, however, is the Eisteddfod cultural gathering celebrating music, poetry, and storytelling. The Eisteddfod has its origins in the twelfth century when it was essentially a meeting held by the Welsh bards for the exchange of information. Taking place irregularly and in different locations, the Eisteddfod was attended by poets, musicians and troubadours, all of whom had important roles in medieval Welsh culture. By the eighteenth century the tradition had become less cultural and more social, often degenerating into drunken tavern meetings, but in 1789 the Gwyneddigion Society revived the Eisteddfod as a competitive festival. It was Edward Williams, also known as Iolo Morgannwg, however, who reawakened Welsh interest in the Eisteddfod in the nineteenth century. Williams actively promoted the Eisteddfod among the Welsh community living in London, often giving dramatic speeches about the significance of Welsh culture and the importance of continuing ancient Celtic traditions. The nineteenth century revival of the Eisteddfod and the rise of Welsh nationalism, combined with a romantic image of ancient Welsh history, led to the creation of Welsh ceremonies and rituals that may not have any historical basis. The Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod, held from 4 to 9 July, and the Royal National Eisteddfod at Llanelli, which features poetry and Welsh folk arts, held from 5 to 12 August, are the two most important secular celebrations. Other smaller, folk and cultural festivals are held throughout the year. Support for the Arts. The traditional importance of music and poetry has encouraged a general appreciation of and support for all of the arts. There is strong public support throughout Wales for the arts, which are considered important to the national culture. Financial support is derived from both the private and public sectors. The Welsh Arts Council provides government assistance for literature, art, music, and theater. The council also organizes tours of foreign performance groups in Wales and provides grants to writers for both English- and Welsh-language publications. Literature. Literature and poetry occupy an important position in Wales for historical and linguistic reasons. Welsh culture was based on an oral tradition of legends, myths, and folktales passed down from generation to generation. The most famous early bardic poets, Taliesin and Aneirin, wrote epic poems about Welsh events and legends around the seventh century. Increasing literacy in the eighteenth century and the concern of Welsh intellectuals for the preservation of the language and culture gave birth to modern written Welsh literature. As industrialization and Anglicization began to threaten traditional Welsh culture, efforts were made to promote the language, preserve Welsh poetry, and encourage Welsh writers. Dylan Thomas, however, the best known twentieth century Welsh poet, wrote in English. Literary festivals and competitions help keep this tradition alive, as does the continued promotion of Welsh, the Celtic language with the largest number of speakers today. Nevertheless, the influence of other cultures combined with the ease of communication through mass media, from both inside the United Kingdom and from other parts of the world, continually undermine efforts to preserve a purely Welsh form of literature. Performance Arts. Singing is the most important of the performance arts in Wales and has its roots in ancient traditions. Music was both entertainment and a means for telling stories. The Welsh National Opera, supported by the Welsh Arts Council, is one of the leading opera companies in Britain. Wales is famous for its all-male choirs, which have evolved from the religious choral tradition. Traditional instruments, such as the harp, are still widely played and since 1906 the Welsh Folk Song Society has preserved, collected, and published traditional songs. The Welsh Theater Company is critically acclaimed and Wales has produced many internationally famous actors. Until the last part of the twentieth century, limited professional and economic opportunities caused many Welsh scientists, scholars, and researchers to leave Wales. A changing economy and the investment of multinationals specializing in high technology are encouraging more people to remain in Wales and find work in the private sector. Research in the social and physical sciences is also supported by Welsh universities and colleges. Curtis, Tony. Wales: The Imagined Nation, Essays in Cultural and National Identity, 1986. Davies, William Watkin. Wales, 1925. Durkaez, Victor E. The Decline of the Celtic Languages: A Study of Linguistic and Cultural Conflict in Scotland, Wales and Ireland from the Reformation to the Twentieth Century, 1983. English, John. Slum Clearance: The Social and Administrative Context in England and Wales, 1976. Fevre, Ralph, and Andrew Thompson. Nation, Identity and Social Theory: Perspectives from Wales, 1999. Hopkin, Deian R., and Gregory S. Kealey. Class, Community, and the Labour Movement: Wales and Canada, 1989. Jackson, William Eric. The Structure of Local Government in England and Wales, 1966. Jones, Gareth Elwyn. Modern Wales: A Concise History, 1485–1979, 1984. Owen, Trefor M. The Customs and Traditions of Wales, 1991. Rees, David Ben. Wales: The Cultural Heritage, 1981. Williams, David. A History of Modern Wales, 1950. Williams, Glanmor. Religion, Language, and Nationality in Wales: Historical Essays by Glanmor Williams, 1979. Williams, Glyn. Social and Cultural Change in Contemporary Wales, 1978. ——. The Land Remembers: A View of Wales, 1977. U.K. Government. "Culture: Wales." Electronic document. Available from http://uk-pages.net/culture —M. C AMERON A RNOLD S EE A LSO : United Kingdom

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Andrea Lawrence has a master's in creative writing. She studied fiction, poetry, playwriting, and screenwriting. A Well Known Short Story in American Literature The following is an essay about Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story “Young Goodman Brown”. The story is often taught at American high schools and colleges. My take on the story is that it conveys the winnowing of a man’s faith while living in Puritan Salem. The story also shows what pressures were on women at that time and their limitations to liberate themselves from strict religious ideologies. Here are some facts about the story and author: - “Young Goodman Brown” was published anonymously in 1835 in The New-England Magazine. It was published a second time under Hawthorne’s name in 1846 in Mosses from an Old Manse. - The story takes place in 17th-century Puritan New England. - The story focuses on the tensions in Puritan culture. - Hawthorne was born in Salem in 1804. His great-great-great-grandfather, William, was a Puritan and the first of his family to emigrate from England. William was known for his harsh sentencing as a judge. His son, John, was a judge who oversaw the Salem witch trials. A Closer Look at "Young Goodman Brown" and the Problems of Faith Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown” focuses on a Puritan follower whose faith is challenged by the traditions and pedigree of the Salem community; the author painted the town as a place for “hypocrites who covered hideous crimes with a veneer of piety and respectability” (Hawthorne 318). Hawthorne’s story focuses on Goodman and his wife, Faith. Over the course of the story, Goodman’s belief that he is in a good Christian society is distorted. The character loses faith in his religion; he questions things he previously accepted without hesitation. Hawthorne described Faith as a conventional woman who was sweet (Hawthorne 309), pretty (Hawthorne 309), and God-fearing. She exemplifies ideals from 17th-century Puritan New England. As the story progresses, the reader finds there is more to Faith than meets the eyes. It can be argued that she has a harder time resisting the whims of the town because of her gender. She has more at stake to lose than Goodman. Young Goodman Brown never knew Faith’s real intent when it came to religion; “whether Faith obeyed he knew not” (317). More than likely Faith never really faltered from gospel teachings, but according to strict Puritans, she was less than pious. She was bound to an extremely feminine role that suppressed and silenced her. Women in this society were considered second-class citizens, if that. It’s important for readers to ask the following question: How could Goodman’s wife really deduce for herself what true faith is outside of a dogmatic society like Puritan Salem? In the story, Goodman and Faith are in a young marriage. They’ve been together for three months. They live in a society that would try to mold them into a couple that’s a shining example for others. They would have pressures put on them to be upstanding Christians, family-focused, and sinless. It’s important to note that the word “sin” is incredibly ambiguous, so the boundaries of what it is and isn’t can change at the drop of a hat. Those who are in control of Salem have the most say on the definition of sin. They’re the ones who get to decide what is a witch and what isn’t. This isn’t a lawful society; it’s chaotic. Young Goodman Brown died wary of those around him. He was an embittered cynic. The story concludes: “no hopeful verse upon his tombstone, for his dying hour was gloom” (Hawthorne 318); translation: he died without finding another person who was also skeptical of the practices in Salem. He didn’t have a friend or confidante. We can deduce that Faith was too afraid to deviate from her community. Goodman did see in her that she seemed to question society a little; he observed “as she spoke there was trouble in her face, as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight. But no, it would kill her to think it” (Hawthorne 309). Again, even though she may have thought about questioning society, her gender role constrained her from acting out of tradition. Far worse things were more likely to happen to her than Goodman if she questioned her community, including torture, imprisonment, and death. Read More From Owlcation Goodman's Wife Is a Metaphor for His Faith In the story, Faith’s name works as a double entendre (a word or phrase open to two interpretations). Both Young Goodman Brown’s wife and his own faith contradict and support each other to create a highly nuanced narrative. His wife is a metaphor for his actual faith. The word “faith” is almost interchangeable in some places as Brown’s wife and/or as his own inner struggle. Take this quote from the story for example: “And what calm sleep would be his that very night, which was to have been spent so wickedly, but so purely and sweetly now, in the arms of Faith” (Hawthorne 312). This line both expresses how Goodman desires to be in his wife’s arms and to be comforted in bed by his thoughts and beliefs. There is little indication that Faith questions and works through problems of faith, at least to the level Goodman does. The paradox: how can there really be faith if it is never tested? According to the story, Faith does not actually grow in her faith but rather accepts her conditions, and for the most part, lives her life complacently without actually feeling any conviction for the crimes of Salem — the burning of supposed witches and the persecution of those that were different, such as the Quakers. Faith Forced to Deny Her Own Agency What could be worse than telling the brain it is not allowed to think because it is too dangerous? Faith was afraid to think for herself because it “would kill her to think” (Hawthorne 309). If she started talking and questioning the actions of her community, she could be accused of witchery and then hung on a tree or burned at the stake. Sadly, the treatment she endured wasn’t a new or brief thing that women encountered. Women for a large part of history have been treated as second class, and even denied an education because of their gender — and, in several parts of the world, this sexism continues. According to Steven Lynn, what is incredibly harsh for women is when they are unallowed or unable to speak their own minds. For if a woman is “unable to make a creative room of her own, [she is then] being forced instead to suppress her unique voice and attempt to fit into the mansions of the male” (Lynn 236). Women were encouraged not to think or question. It was too dangerous to rock the status quo in colonial Puritan times. Faith doesn’t have a lot of leverage to express her true thoughts and feelings. Had Faith been able to live outside the limitations of her society, she may have been able to free herself and realize how blind she was to the metaphorical chains that constrained her. Hawthorne’s story captures the powerlessness women felt during this strange time in American history. The author suggests it was so pervasively bad that women would hope their husbands would die so they could be freed: "Whispered wanton words to the young maids of their households; how many a woman, eager for widows’ weeds, has given her husband a drink at bedtime and let him sleep his last sleep in her bosom… and how fair damsels – blush not, sweet ones – have dug little graves in the garden." (Hawthorne 316) Persons Forced to Behave in Certain Ways Society can do great harm to individuals by preventing them from thinking or acting against established norms. If people are punished for innovation it will be much easier for those in charge to promote unquestioned evils. People must have the freedom to think for themselves; they need to discern right from wrong. The problem is when we take on a group mindset and become diehard believers, even at the sake of sanity. Conspiracy groups take advantage of people who accept things blindly rather than those who greet things with a touch of skepticism. Critical thinking, a love for studies backed by data, and expert opinions can set people free. Following a demagogue or group of demagogues ends in ruin. “Young Goodman Brown” shows how even though skepticism can be enlightening and allows you to see the evils of society, it can also be isolating and depressing. Your awareness excludes you from the bandwagon (this is both a cure and a curse). Salem was controlled by radicals who tortured women and men who didn’t adhere to strict religious-based laws, ordinances, and the like. People were punished for anything, and those in charge often took advantage of the situation by turning property into forfeiture. At the heart of Puritan Salem were greed and control. Those in charge (Puritan men) were very good at getting people to do what they wanted. They’d hang those who were recently executed outside church buildings to remind people to be obedient or else face a similar grisly fate. Those in charge created hysteria to force control. Young Goodman Brown and Faith were “the only pair, as it seemed, who were yet hesitating on the verge of wickedness in this dark world” (Hawthorne 317). Sadly, Faith either didn’t feel fully convicted by Salem’s crimes or she ignored those convictions for her own safety. She had “such joy… she skipped along the street and almost kissed her husband before the whole village” (Hawthorne 317). We can safely assume she ends up aligning with Salem because of the sad quote about Goodman’s grave. He was a lonely man that the town didn’t know. From the beginning, Faith is simple, pious, submissive, and obedient. When Goodman left for his journey he cried to her, “Say thy prayers, dear Faith, and go to bed at dusk, and no harm will come to thee” (Hawthorne 309). And then he left her safe at home. He merely “looked back and saw the head of Faith still peeping after him with a melancholy air, in spite of her pink ribbons” (Hawthorne 309). She clearly longed to be with him and wanted to either embark on his journey with him or have him safe at home with her. Goodman wanted to protect his faith. He didn’t want to distort it, but through his journey (whether real or imagined) he came to realize the hypocrisy of his Puritan brothers and sisters. Faith stayed home “in spite of her pink ribbons” (Hawthorne 309) and she had her own “melancholy air” (Hawthorne 309), so it is evident that “she talks of dreams, too” (Hawthorne 309) and that “as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight” (Hawthorne 309). Basically, she wanted to go, but she felt staying and obeying her husband was the correct choice. She initially would rather follow her husband’s words than follow her own curiosities. At some point… she changes her mind. She ends up journeying into the woods, and she confronts that which beckons her “to be taken into communion” (313). Faith has a certain amount of spiritedness and individuality, but she is lost to the conditions of her society and her subservient role to her husband. This gets convoluted because you can read her name as a person or as an extension of Goodman’s beliefs. She isn’t really a character; she is seen more as an object. From a feminist perspective, she is prevented from actualizing herself into a person. The Journey Brings Goodman Revelations Goodman in a literal sense leaves behind his faith to go on some unknown errand in the woods. He meets with a man with a black serpent-shaped staff. He also runs into a woman who taught him his catechism. Other townspeople inhabit the woods. Eventually, he hears Faith’s voice, and he isn’t pleased. When Young Goodman Brown discovers that his wife has involved herself in the journey he cries “‘My Faith is gone! There is no good on earth; and sin is but a name. Come, devil; for to thee is this world given’” (Hawthorne 314). Because she made the decision to test herself, Young Goodman Brown falls into despair. He grieves that she disobeyed him. He grieves her independence from him. He grieves how his own personal faith has an independence of its own. Goodman discards his faith in part because of what he perceives as Faith’s disobedience. When doubting Faith, Goodman “flew among the black pines, brandishing his staff with frenzied gestures, now giving vent to an inspiration of horrid blasphemy, and now shouting forth such laughter as set all the echoes of the forest laughing like demons around him” (Hawthorne 314). If his own personal faith is in the woods, then he can no longer protect it. He can’t compartmentalize his thoughts anymore; he has to recognize that his faith has been compromised. The presence of his wife makes him realize his personal convictions can’t be shielded. Goodman was a victim of his own town’s conventions. It took this strange journey to get him to really doubt his community. Around midnight, he stumbles into a clearing. Townspeople have gathered for a ceremony. Goodman Brown and Faith are brought forward as new acolytes. They’re the only two people who haven’t been initiated. Goodman questions the ceremony; he loses trust in his community. He cries to his wife, “’Faith! Faith! Look up to heaven, and resist the wicked one” — deep down he still believes she could escape the wrongful notions of Salem. Goodman calls to heaven and Faith to resist and the scene vanishes. He arrives home the next morning, uncertain whether the previous night was a dream or real. Faith was unable to experience and test faith like her husband. The story illustrates how with the right intentions one may overprotect a loved one and end up accidentally caging a bird, never letting it fly with its own wings. To put it bluntly, the story illustrates the misogyny of the time. Faith wasn’t given a chance to test the waters for herself. She was raised to be a follower, not a leader. Her exploration out of the home is seen as breaking gender norms and disobeying her husband’s wishes: she is chastised for her actions (by simply leaving home, she is treated like a child). She wasn’t supposed to go into the forest. She wasn’t supposed to discover things for herself. It bears repeating, the question at the heart of Hawthorne’s story is: What is faith if it can’t be tested? Pink Ribbons: A Metaphor for Personal Faith One of the strongest symbols in “Young Goodman Brown” is Faith’s pink ribbons, which appear in the text five times. Pink is used in the text as a symbol of transition and hope. Several of Faith’s physical descriptions have to do with her pink ribbons staying attached to her head while getting knocked by the wind. Faith’s spirit was moving and wanted to be free, but no matter how much those ribbons shook in the wind, they’d stay in place — just like the notions that were pressed into Faith by society. Faith tried to define herself. She took off into the woods to seek something. A case can be made that she too wanted to question Salem: "There was a scream, drowned immediately in a louder murmur of voices, fading into far-off laughter, as the dark cloud swept away, leaving the clear and silent sky above Goodman Brown. But something fluttered lightly down through the air and caught on the branch of a tree. The young man seized it, and beheld a pink ribbon." (Hawthorne 314) For one moment, Faith was free. She shed off the traditions, the prejudices, and the misguided beliefs of her society. For a moment, she was in control of herself, and therefore, she was liberated and challenged by the woods. In several of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s stories, the forests that outskirt towns were a place of liberation and an end to constrained roles — this occurs in both The Scarlet Letter and Feathertop; a Moralized Legend. Faith freed herself by facing herself in the woods and by losing her pink ribbon. At the end of the story, Faith has her pink ribbons back in her hair. She is unable to truly escape what society has turned her into, and so she is the evil she fears. She falls prey to judging and condemning others. She is part of the bandwagon. Whether Young Goodman Brown had “fallen asleep in the forest and only dreamed a wild dream of a witch-meeting” or if there really was a meeting, Faith is unable to fulfill her name: - If it was only a dream, then she adheres to the prejudices of her community. She is filled with hatred. She is one of the “hypocrites who cover hideous crimes with a veneer of piety and respectability” (Hawthorne 318). - If there was a literal meeting then she was unable to stand for herself because the pink ribbons return to her head. Her protesting was minimal. She accepted the communion of that night and became one with a barbarous society. The ending of this story says it all: “They carved no hopeful verse upon his tombstone, for his dying hour was gloom” (Hawthorne 318). Young Goodman Brown was alone in his faith; he lost Faith just the same. He no longer loved his wife, if he ever did. He felt convicted by the truths of his town. He stood alone because he refused to be one of the hypocrites he saw all around him. His tombstone was blank, for he did not carry the same prejudices of his fellow Puritans, so they did not know how to define him. He was cynical, enlightened, and sad because he was isolated. He wasn’t perfect; he didn’t let his wife think for herself. Faith was oppressed; she didn’t really have a way to escape Salem and its nonsense. The story illustrates the importance each individual person has to think for themselves. When we accept our roles blindly, we may end up accepting prejudices and lies as reality. One of the greatest aspects of feminism is that it moves women to think and venture out of forced submissive roles; it gives women permission to seek liberation. - Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "Young Goodman Brown." The Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature Seventh Edition. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston: Bedford and St. Martin's, 2006. 309-319. - Lynn, Steven. Texts and Contexts. 5th ed. University of South Carolina: Pearson Education, Inc, 2008. 236. This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional. © 2022 Andrea Lawrence

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Project-Based Learning (PBL) Benefits, Examples & 10 Ideas for Classroom ImplementationAll Posts Written by Marcus Guido Save time, engage your students and differentiate learning with Prodigy. - Teacher Resources - Teaching Strategies - Project-based learning definition - Why is project-based learning important? - Key characteristics of project-based learning - What are some project-based learning examples - 10 Project-based learning ideas for your classroom - Notable and effective project-based learning examples - Pros and cons of project-based learning in the 21st century For some teachers, project-based learning (PBL) is classroom bliss. Students work together to investigate an authentic and nuanced real-world problem. They build curriculum-aligned skills in the process. They’re rewarded with enhanced communication and problem-solving skills. But organizing and running suitable PBL activities isn’t always easy, as the pedagogy is surrounded by debate and takes form in a range of exercises. Find and facilitate the most appropriate project-based learning examples for your students. These sections will help you determine if the pedagogy is worthwhile. If so, you’ll come away with a handful of effective ideas to easily implement. What is project-based learning? Project-based learning (PBL) or project-based instruction is a student-centered teaching method that encourages learning through engaging, real-world, curriculum-related questions or challenges. This, of course, goes deeper than doing any old project. The goal is to get students to engage with a question or challenge that requires concentration and nuanced problem-solving skills. This question or challenge must: - Be open-ended - Encourage students to apply skills and knowledge they’ve developed in your classes - Allow students to take their own approaches to develop an answer and deliver a product As you can see, project-based learning doesn’t conform to rote approaches or teacher-led instruction. Driven by critical thinking, it’s often interdisciplinary and encourages students to take a rewarding-yet-challenging road to skill-building and knowledge acquisition through a nuanced learning process. Why is project-based learning important? Project-based learning boosts classroom engagement and has a direct impact on how well students are prepared to enter the workforce once they graduate. A growing focus on 21st century skills and critical thinking means project-based learning is gaining steam in education. In addition, PBL can help educators: - Teach students personal responsibility and critical time management skills - Design assignments that hit higher-order stages in Bloom’s taxonomy like analysis, synthesis and evaluation - Provide multiple ways of assessing students at different stages of the project, whether through a portfolio, annotated bibliography, outline, draft product or finished project When students leave school, they’ll need to understand that work isn’t as straightforward as lectures and homework. It’s more aligned with a project-based approach, where employees are expected to prioritize, manage their time and deliver work on a deadline. Project-based learning helps teach students: - Creative problem-solving skills - The importance of collaboration - How to find the right tools for the job - How to build independent learning and project management skills - How to use relevant technology to find resources, communicate and produce a final product Project-based learning is important because helps students approach meaningful learning opportunities with curiosity, while also giving them real-world skills they’ll use for the rest of their lives. Key characteristics of project-based learning Project-based learning isn’t just group work or a randomly assigned project. Let’s take a look at some of the key characteristics to help you build your own project-based learning assignment: 1. Project-based learning presents an open-ended, appropriately complex question. Students should have to do deep research, draw on existing knowledge and come up with a solution in the form of a final project — whether that’s a presentation, proposal, essay or other product. Students should have a choice in what they explore, and the questions they answer should be genuinely challenging with real-world applications. 2. Project-based learning relates to knowledge acquired through classroom lessons. Not only should project-based learning build on your classroom lessons, but it should give students the opportunity to put them to use in a real-world setting. Project-based learning encourages students to dive deeper into the subject matter and builds on content knowledge. Ultimately, this content knowledge should have real-world applications that students can focus on during the project. 3. Project-based learning requires students to find their own solutions to a given problem or question. Just because the inspiration for project-based learning assignments comes from your lectures, doesn’t mean it should stay there. Effective PBL comes from requiring students to find their own solutions to a given problem — not just plugging in a formula to find the answer. In practice, this looks like a real-world project with extended inquiry. It should be a multi-stage process with, if necessary, multiple deliverables at different stages to keep students on track. 4. Project-based learning gives students a choice in how they learn. Students learn best when they’re studying something that captures their imagination and interest. Regardless of the end product, students should have as much autonomy as possible in what they make and how. They should learn how to communicate ideas in a group and on their own, and really bring their passion for the project to the forefront. 5. Project-based learning follows a clear, well-defined set of assessment criteria. The best way to keep project-based learning on track and effective is to let students know what’s expected of them. At the beginning of the project, give students a rubric and handouts outlining: - How the project will be graded - All the products they’ll be required to hand in - How they should work independently or in a group When students know what’s expected of them, they’re more likely to succeed. A simple example of project-based learning The PBL process is straightforward. - You present the issue, methods of investigation and any supplementary materials. It’s up to your students to deliver a defined product. - Next, encourage students to reflect on their work and make revisions, ultimately delivering a presentation to their peers. Despite this clear-cut process, there’s a lot of space for diverse tasks and differentiation in general. The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding. Following this philosophy, it’s probable – and ideal – that any project-based learning exercise you run looks different from those run by your colleagues. What matters is prioritizing your students’ needs and learning styles above the curriculum. 10 Project-based learning ideas your class will love As you can see, it’s not always easy to come up with a “project” that meets these requirements. Ideating a driving question into meaningful learning experiences that have real-world applications is no small task. But that’s what we’re here to help with. Below are 10 of our ideas to inspire your project-based learning exercises. 1. Play area Give students an opportunity to apply their geometry skills by designing a new playground for the school. Using a range of free web applications, or simply grid paper and a pencil, task them with mapping out the playground while meeting certain conditions. These conditions should be based on including a certain number of 2D or 3D shapes in the components of the playground, such as slides and monkey bars. For example, at least two isosceles triangles, three equilateral triangles, four squares and so on. Once complete, each student must calculate the area and perimeter of his or her playground, as well as each component. 2. Your very own math story Fuse math with visual and language arts by asking students to write their own math books. Taking the form of an original short story, require students to cover a certain number of curriculum skills. They should explain and exemplify each skill within the context of the story, inherently allowing them to improve understanding. In exemplifying how to use a given skill, students should teach themselves its importance for a real-world scenario. You should notice improved retention as a result. Is it hard to get your students excited about math? Try turning it into an engaging game-based learning adventure! 3. Favorite recipes Take a mathematical approach to nutrition by having your class analyze their favorite foods and dishes for presentations about select recipes. Each student should choose a main course, two sides and a dessert. They must then create and deliver presentations about how to make the dishes. But instead of standard cooking advice, the focus is nutritional values – calories, carbohydrates, daily vitamin intake and so on – based on the ingredients. You may need to provide a go-to resource for students to find this information, but the onus for creating a healthy meal is on them. Bon appetit! 4. What happened to the dinosaurs? Satiate your students’ curiosity and probable love of dinosaurs by having them research and argue what caused their extinction, crafting a visual display to illustrate findings. As the dinosaurs’ extinction remains a debate that can draw students into a rabbit hole, consider providing questions to guide their research. How did the planet change from the Triassic to Cretaceous period? How prevalent were carnivores compared with omnivores and herbivores? Such guiding questions should allow students to reach informed opinions, writing reports to defend those opinions and allowing them to craft creative visualizations. 5. Ancient civilization of needs Combine history, anthropology and psychology through this project, requiring learners to envision newly-discovered ancient civilizations. The basic premise is to borrow elements from other ancient societies, creating a unique one. But there’s a catch – the society must satisfy each tier in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. If students are not familiar with the theory, present it along with guiding questions. For example, “Which tier of the pyramid is most important for society to function?” These questions should encourage students to develop a collection of products, including: a written explanation of the society and how it meets Maslow’s needs; an analysis of the elements borrowed from other ancient civilizations; a visual depiction of the society and more. 6. Where it comes from Launch this independent or paired study activity to explore how ancient machines are still present in modern-day science and engineering. The exercise starts with each student or pair choosing a simple machine – a pulley, lever, wedge and so on – or another ancient tool. They must research the history of their tools, determining how and where scientists and engineers still use them today. Students can then envision how the same tools will work as part of inventions 100 years into the future. They can produce videos, presentations or mock interviews with inventors to showcase their research and ideas. 7. The Oscar goes to … Have students script a part of a significant historical event to exercise their drama, history, and creative writing skills. Whether a battle, court proceeding or formation of a powerful organization, have students choose from a list of events. Each learner’s goal is to thoroughly research an event, forming a cohesive string of scenes they’d watch in a movie or television show. This will allow them to write scripts, highlighting each figure’s motives and background. They must also pay particular attention to historical accuracy in terms of dialogue and settings. After you’ve approved each student’s script, they can form small groups and choose their favorite, acting it out in front of the class. Encourage students to take the roles of fashion designers and marketers with a scenario that combines business with visual and language arts. This scenario entails a client – played by you – asking fashion agencies – played by small student groups – to manage the creation and launch of a specific clothing item, such as a dress or jacket. Although your idea is crystal clear, you’re having a hard time communicating it. So, the agencies must start the project by developing a questionnaire to draw answers from you. As you respond to each agency, they can begin the next steps. These can include designing mock-ups, writing advertisements and calculating an appropriate sale price. After this work is done, each agency will pitch their version of the item to you. You determine who best captured the client’s ideas. 9. A career with math Give students a chance to look towards the future, investigating a career path that heavily relies on math. You can present a list of relevant careers or have students suggest their own. Either way, choosing a career will launch the investigation process. Each student must research the career, writing a brief report about how professionals use math in daily duties. From there, students should be able to choose a skill used in their selected procession, linking it to a skill in the curriculum. The final task is to write a textbook chapter that explains the skill while offering specific examples of how and when it is used in the given career. 10. The economics of pizza Analyze, from a mathematical perspective, many students’ favorite meal: pizza. This project-based learning assessment starts by choosing a pizza chain, researching its prices and applying linear algebra concepts to find the base cost of a pizza. These same concepts will allow students to determine how much each additional topping costs. But the task isn’t done there. Students should research – individually or in small groups – how much it costs to source each topping. They can then determine which type of pizza yields the greatest and smallest profit margins. Doing so acts as an introduction to basic economic concepts, encouraging students to critically think about business. Notable examples of project-based learning Your inspiration doesn’t have to be limited to isolated activities like the ones above! There are many notable examples of project-based learning initiatives. You’ll likely be able to freely borrow ideas from these institutions: 1. THINK Global School Calling itself the “world’s first traveling high school,” THINK Global School has its students live in four countries per year while developing curriculum knowledge entirely through project-based learning. The projects are rooted in the cultures and environments surrounding the students. 2. Muscatine High School An oft-referenced example of commitment to project-based learning, Muscatine High School in Iowa worked with a third-party organization to implement project-based learning opportunities across classes and subjects. The projects are diverse, ranging from developing personal financial plans to exploring local history through interviews with community members. A non-profit organization, EdVisions’ mission is “to help and sustain great schools … using the most student-centered teaching and learning.” This largely involves partnering with schools to implement project-based learning opportunities. The organization does so by working with a given school to identify students’ learning needs and preferences, tailoring projects to them. This serves as an important reminder: Project-based learning starts and ends with students in mind. With such complex demands in today’s educational system, educators worldwide are asking if elementary students can effectively complete research projects? Will they still meet required learning objectives with the teacher serving as a guide instead of teaching the curriculum in a direct, traditional manner? Yes -- and they’ve created a guide for getting started. Referencing these examples should not only help you ideate project-based learning activities, but justify their importance in your classroom. The project-based learning ideas above can be incredibly useful in the right setting and with the right students. However, there are some perceived benefits and disadvantages worth outlining. Benefits and disadvantages of project-based learning Debate permeates discussions about project-based learning. It’s up to you to understand the pros and cons, applying them to your classroom situation to make a decision about a given activity. Key benefits of project-based learning: - Increased engagement – Project-based learning empowers students to play an active role in learning, as the complex tasks they take on demand novel approaches and are relevant to real-world contexts. This creates a classroom environment in which students overwhelmingly report feeling engaged, according to a meta analysis of 82 studies. - Better knowledge retention – Compared with traditional instruction, extensive research indicates that students who complete project-based learning exercises and assessments often show superior knowledge retention in a range of subjects from math to second-language learning. This can translate to higher performance on tests, according to a 2011 study. - Improved critical thinking abilities – The process of completing and delivering a project-generated product inherently builds problem-solving abilities, according to research from as recent as 2010. This is because students must heavily exercise those abilities, applying them in tangible contexts. For these reasons, the research indicates that students in project-based learning environments can better use problem-solving skills out of school than those in traditional learning settings. - More opportunities to explore EdTech – Project-based learning, by nature, enables students to use EdTech and explore Internet resources and technology tools. For example, independent research is likely rooted in online searches. EdTech, on the other hand, can lend itself to creating and delivering artifacts. Disadvantages of project-based learning - Subjectivity in assessments – When grading a project-based learning product, many critics will say you’re closing the door on objectivity. This is because, as opposed to using standardized forms of measurement, you’ll rely on subjectively assessing a range of products. For these reasons, there’s an argument that you shouldn’t use project-based learning for a large part of students’ marks. - Hyper-focus on product creation – It’s possible for the day-to-day focus of project-based learning to transition from developing and applying essential skills to merely working on a product. When this happens, you can debate that students won’t reap benefits such as improved problem solving and knowledge retention. - Questionable application in mathematics – Largely skill-based for elementary learners, dedicating time to project-based learning may not be the best use of time. Consider this: Would students better understand multiplication by applying it in a project-based learning context, or by running through drills and word problems? Armed with this knowledge, it’s ultimately your decision to bring project-based learning into your classroom. A quality project will both engage students’ interests and align with what’s being taught, so keep that in mind for the most successful outcome. Final thoughts on building PBL exercises After going through this, you should have a better understanding of project-based learning as a pedagogy, as well as how to create a project design and launch it. Just remember that the teaching method must be student-centered. What works for some teachers may not work for you, and what works for you may not work for others. But you’ll never know until you try. 👉 Create or log in to your teacher on Prodigy – a game-based learning platform for math that’s curriculum-aligned and used by over 100 million teachers, students and parents worldwide.

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Summary of William Hogarth Best remembered for his intricate and satirical prints, Hogarth was a varied and prolific artist who mastered a range of styles and genres ranging from conversation pieces and realistic portraiture to grotesque caricature. He was the most significant artist of his generation and the first English-born artist to attract attention abroad. Hogarth invented the idea of a narrative series of prints, which told a story through a number of images, and he produced a significant number on "modern moral subjects" from prostitution to politics. In doing so he provided a visceral social commentary, highlighting and lampooning corruption and presenting images of the seedy underbelly of London, which had rarely been portrayed before. It was these unique prints that brought him wealth and fame in his own lifetime and beyond, as well as influencing the work of 18th century novelists in their subject matter and focus on individual narratives. The prints can also be seen as the forerunner of cartoons and comic strips. - Hogarth drew readily on the scenes of everyday life that he had witnessed growing up in relative poverty as a child. His engravings often depict those trying to survive on the fringes of society and his prints are characterized by an incredible eye for detail (including many subtle puns and references), an often bawdy and ribald humor, and an ability to render striking and individual faces. - After witnessing the widescale plagiarism of his first series of prints, A Harlot's Progress (1732) by competing engravers who produced cheap and inferior copies, Hogarth lobbied for the introduction of copyright protection for engravers. This was enacted in 1735, and became known as Hogarth's Law - it was one of the first of its kind in the world. - Hogarth is viewed as the founding member of The English School, the dominant school of painting in the UK throughout the late 18th and early 19th centuries and the first distinctly native style that the country produced. His paintings drew on the French Rococo aesthetic but Hogarth added a layer of realism to his work which was innovative. This coupled with his ambition, popularity, and storytelling ability went on to influence the works of Reynolds and Gainsborough amongst others. Important Art by William Hogarth A Harlot's Progress - Plate III This plate was the third in a series of six engravings (based on paintings of the same name) that charts young Moll Hackabout's life in London. The fictional character came to the capital from the country in the hope of finding work in service. Instead she is taken advantage of and becomes a high-class prostitute, before falling on the hard times depicted in plate III. By plate IV she is dying, toothless and pockmarked by venereal disease, while the final plate shows her funeral wake with her young illegitimate son sitting by her coffin. In this composition, Hogarth mimics the very common religious depiction of the Annunciation, to satirically highlight the fall of the young woman. Moll is in shabby room in Drury Lane, getting out of bed after a leisurely lie-in. The witch's hat and switch on the wall communicate to the viewer that her current position necessitate her to indulge in flagellation and black magic. Above her bed is a box belonging to the famous highwayman James Dalton, suggesting that he is now her principal lover. She is less well dressed than in the previous plate and she dangles a watch from her fingers, no doubt obtained illegally from the previous night's customer. The piece is full of pictorial puns and detailed references including the domestic cat at Moll's feet which hints at her profession. Moll's ultimate downfall is foreshadowed by the serving woman at her side, who has lost part of her nose to syphilis, and has a sore on her face. While Moll looks smiling and suggestively at the viewer, behind her a magistrate and officers enter to arrest her. As writer Susan Elizabeth Benenson writes: "Like his great predecessor, the 16th-century Flemish painter Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Hogarth wanted to extract entertaining and instructive incidents from life. In telling the story of a young country girl's corruption in London and her consequent miseries, he not only ridiculed the viciousness and follies of society but painted an obvious moral." This work was instrumental in securing Hogarth's reputation as the great moral and satirical artist of his time. The use of multiple scenes in his work allowed him a more complex narrative, and led to his reception as a "literary artist". 18th century essayist and poet Charles Lamb wrote: "His graphic representations are indeed books: they have the teeming, fruitful, suggestive meaning of words. Other pictures we look at - his prints, we read." The original paintings were destroyed in a fire in 1755. In 2006 the works were taken as inspiration for the film A Harlot's Progress, directed by Justin Hardy. Etching and engraving - Andrew Edmunds, London A Rake's Progress The Tavern Scene, plate III of the Rake's Progress Series, shows a debauched and lively evening of drinking at the heart of which is Tom Rakewell, the anti-hero of the work. Another fictional character, Tom, like Moll, came to the city to build a life, only to succumb to its temptations. The previous two plates show Tom returning from University to learn his wealthy father has died, leaving him everything. He immediately shuns his pregnant girlfriend, and by plate III we find him drunk in the early hours at a brothel. At his side is a prostitute with a face pock-marked by venereal disease, reaching under his shirt, probably to rob him. Surrounding him are other fallen characters; a stripper undresses in the foreground, a tradesman to the rear fondles a prostitute, and two women prepare for a spitting contest. Before he produced engravings of the series of paintings, Hogarth exhibited the oils in his home, as a preview. They acted as an advert for the prints which he later sold on subscription. In the work we see Hogarth's expertise in creating a claustrophobic intimacy that forces us to look at the subjects, and therefore our own experience, as they gamble, cheat, and ultimately fail. The rake in this case ends up being arrested and ends his days in Bedlam, a London asylum. As Christine Riding explains: "Hogarth in a masterly way presented each scene with a realism and intimacy that established his artistic identity as the roving satirist who observes with an unflinching eye the seedier side of London life." Ultimately, it was his skill in doing this, his eye for detail, and his ability to create comedy and caricature, that made him famous. Oil on canvas - Sir John Soane's Museum, London Marriage à la Mode: I The Marriage Settlement Another of Hogarth's series, Marriage à la Mode tells the story of a disastrous union of convenience, between a profligate aristocrat's son and the daughter of an aspiring middle-class merchant - the sole purpose of which is the exchange of wealth for social status. This first scene The Marriage Settlement sets the stage, making it clear that this is a business arrangement, rather than a union of love. This is echoed in the dark and somber room in which the couple themselves have been pushed to the side of the canvas. The bride, dressed in white is almost doubled over in sadness as she grips at her handkerchief, indicating tears shed. She faces away from her foppish betrothed who, caught in his own reverie as he stares at his reflection, is completely oblivious to the business dealings going on around them. The groom's father can be seen on the right of the canvas, gesturing to himself proudly while he rests his gout-ridden and bandaged foot on a stool. With his other hand he points to a family tree, indicating an unlikely lineage that goes back to the Normans. The message is clear; he is selling his son for cash. Meanwhile, the rich merchant on the other end of the transaction is flanked by his lawyer. The house framed in the window encapsulates the symbolism of the work; it is all for show, like the marriage. The work has its origins in Dutch and French group portraiture, but in Hogarth's conversation piece, he uses satire to take it to another level. Historian Professor Amanda Vickery described the work as a "vicious depiction of aristocratic culture and marriage as barter and sale. The fact that this will be utterly loveless marriage is signified by two chained dogs - it will be a prison." This series was one of Hogarth's most popular and both the original paintings and the later engravings exemplify his skill in composition and in rendering individual characters. The work inspired James McNeil Whistler when he saw it exhibited at the National Gallery. Oil on canvas - The National Gallery The Painter and his Pug Although finished in 1745, Hogarth actually began this painting around a decade before and X-rays show that he made various alterations over the period. He had originally painted himself in a wig and formally attired, but at some point he decided rather than a gentleman painter, he wanted to present himself as an artisan and introduced the hat and banyan (an informal robe). At the front of the work is Trump, Hogarth's pet pug. This is a very personal touch and possibly a reference to his pugnacious personality. Hogarth's image is displayed on an oval canvas which rests on three books by well-known English authors; Shakespeare, representing drama, Milton, representing epic poetry and Swift, for satire, the three tropes on which Hogarth built his oeuvre. In the foreground is a palette, emphasizing Hogarth's career in painting. The palette bears an s-shaped curve and the words "the line of beauty". In introducing these elements, Hogarth pre-empts his later treatise on The Analysis of Beauty and shows that he was already formulating the ideas that he presented in it. Biographer Jenny Uglow wrote that the work should "be labelled a still life not a self-portrait - nature morte - not vivant. It is a painting of a painting, an oval stretched on the canvas with the nails still showing. In these receding dimensions, the pug who sits in front of the painting is more 'real; than his 'painted' master." This reflects Hogarth's lively sense of humor, as his beloved pet dog becomes a focal point of his own self portrait. In this same humorous vein, Trump appears in a number of Hogarth's other paintings, including as a puppy in The Fountaine Family (1730) and in Captain Lord George Graham in his Cabin (1746) in which he is portrayed wearing Graham's wig. The painting demonstrates both Hogarth's professional ambition as a painter and his skill in portraiture, evident in the use of color and tone and his assured brushstrokes. Oil on canvas - Collection of the Tate, United Kingdom The Analysis of Beauty - Plate II [The Country Dance] This engraving, taken from Hogarth's book on beauty, acts as a demonstration of his key tenets. He employs the serpentine line throughout in an assertion of his belief that it was both beautiful and graceful. The artist wanted to propose a counter-argument to conventional teaching in art, an "alternative to the classicising aesthetic of the connoisseurs". The heart of his argument, according to art historian Christine Riding, was that the serpentine line was the essence of beauty, "as opposed to the straight lines that were emblematic of classism and the vulgar, exaggerated curve, both of which lacked 'variety'." The scene shows a country dance and is characteristically busy with human activity. Curving lines can be seen in the dynamism of the dancers, the ruffles of their clothes in movement, the candelabra, and even the overall shape of the dance line. Framing the work on all sides are sketches that illustrate Hogarth's teachings. Elsewhere in the text Hogarth focuses on the real female form as a source of beauty, rather than inert marble busts from antiquity. A reference to this can be spotted in figure 74 in which a woman dressed in a toga comes alive, as if stepping off her plinth and into the dance. Whilst Hogarth's theories were predominantly well received, there were some dissenting voices who satirized and ridiculed the publication. Nevertheless, Riding notes that The Analysis of Beauty was a "complex, innovative and thoroughly modern theory on art, beauty and life. The concept reverberates even today, and is explored in Alan Hollinghurst's Booker-winning novel of 2005 The Line of Beauty. Etching and engraving - Andrew Edmunds, London Hogarth produced this engraving as a counter to the gin-craze that he could see gripping London. In the foreground of this urban dystopia, are instances of infanticide (committed by a half-naked women covered in syphilitic sores) and starvation caused by the spirit, while behind a rabble causes chaos, destitute tradesmen sell their tools to buy more gin and a woman pours alcohol into an infant's mouth. There are also instances of suicide, madness, and murder. These activities are seen as foreshadowing wider societal breakdown, symbolized by the collapsing building in the distance. The work was produced in tandem with the writing of Henry Fielding, a judge and one of Hogarth's friends. Fielding published influential writings examining the rise of crime and social unrest that accompanied mass urban migration into the capital during the first half of the 18th century. These problems were caused, in part, by a 1689 Act of Parliament that banned the import of French wine and spirits. As a result, gin, originally a foreign spirit, began to be produced in England. It was cheap and addictive and was seen to have an impact on health, productivity and crime. Gin Lane formed part of the campaign in support of the 1751 Gin Act, which aimed to reduce drinking in a bid to curb social disorder. As art historian, Mark Hallett notes this work acted as a "horrific social satire in which anonymous, poverty-stricken alcoholics, their features depicted in the boldest of engraved lines, sprawl, fight and die among the ruins of a collapsing city". The prints were aimed to shock the working classes into reformation and would have sold for a cheaper price than Hogarth's previous prints. This ensured a larger circulation, but the cost would still have been prohibitive for many. The print was, however, displayed in shop windows, workshops, coffee houses, and taverns increasing its impact. The piece forms one of a pair with Beer Street and the two were created to be viewed in unison. Unlike Gin Lane, Beer Street celebrates the traditionally British brewed drink, linking it to prosperity, health, and happiness and positing it as an alternative to gin. There are numerous links between the two pictures, for instance the pawnbrokers seen as so active in Gin Lane is dilapidated and run down in Beer Street as no one has need of it. These two pieces, along with works such as The Four Stages of Cruelty (1751), mark Hogarth's move away from satirizing fashionable high society to presenting a biting commentary on crime and poverty. Etching and engraving - Collection of the Tate, United Kingdom Biography of William Hogarth Childhood and Early Training William Hogarth was born on November 10th, 1697 in London. His father, Richard, was a classical scholar, but although well-educated, was not wealthy, making a precarious living as a schoolmaster, from writing Latin and Greek textbooks and, later, as a coffee house proprietor. The Hogarth family moved a number of times during Hogarth's early years, but always remained within the bustling East End of the city, near to Smithfield Market. In 1705, William's older brother (also named Richard) died at the age of ten. Infant mortality rates were high and an older brother and two sisters had already died before Hogarth was born; only William and his sisters Mary and Ann survived to adulthood. Hogarth biographer, Jenny Uglow writes: "In those days, children were not kept away when sickness struck. Rooms were darkened, parents wept, and local women came in to lay out small bodies. Bereft of his older brother, [William] had to adjust to the new role as the eldest child." Around 1708, the Hogarth coffee house failed and Hogarth's father fell into debt, resulting in him being detained in Fleet prison. The family moved to cramped rooms nearby in Black and White Court and Richard was allowed to join them at this address in 1709, the property being within the bounds of the wider prison jurisdiction. It is probable that his mother Anne and Wiliam himself, as the eldest son, worked to maintain the family during the four years that his father was imprisoned. Both London's East End and the area around Fleet Prison was impoverished and crime-ridden at the time, and it is probable that Hogarth's birthplace and childhood homes had a significant impact on his later career and choice of subjects. During his father's incarceration, Hogarth is unlikely to have attended school as this cost money, but it is probable, given his competence in Latin and French, that his father tutored him in these subjects. At the age of 16, Hogarth was apprenticed to a silver engraver, engraving items such as watch cases, plates and cutlery, usually with heraldic designs. Although he quickly became bored by his work, Hogarth was a sociable and convivial character, and during his days as an apprentice enjoyed the hubbub of London life. He would visit coffee houses and theaters, befriending writers, musicians and actors and his love of the theater can be seen the theatricality of many of his later works. He also liked to walk, and would explore the city streets, sketching the characters that he saw around him. In 1720, Hogarth left his apprenticeship early and, at the age of 23, successfully set up his own shop offering silver engraving as well as copper etched plates for printing business cards and book illustrations. It is not clear where he learnt this skill, but he was clearly adept at it by this date when he produced his own shop card by way of advertisement. Eager to develop his drawing and painting, he started attending classes in St Martin's Lane and in 1724 he joined a drawing school at the home of history painter Sir James Thornhill, an artist he had long admired. At the age of 30, Hogarth began his painting career in earnest, and found success producing "conversation pieces" for wealthy patrons. These paintings showed groups of men and women at leisure and were rooted in the Rococo work of Antoine Watteau. He sometimes found these paintings tedious, however, and as a way of alleviating the boredom he also began to produce sketches and engravings of humorous everyday scenes, pieces that would pave the way for his later works of commentary on contemporary life. In March 1729 Hogarth eloped with Thornhill's daughter Jane. They did not have any children, but had a long and happy marriage living in between London and the Essex countryside. The following year he began his work on his groundbreaking A Harlot's Progress, a series of six paintings (which he copied and circulated widely as prints) that told a story of a young women's corruption and subsequent decline in London. It was a critical and commercial success, bringing him recognition, and financial and artistic independence. The money generated by the work also allowed Hogarth and his wife to move to London's more fashionable West End. The series became so popular that it was widely copied and produced as cheap, inferior engravings for the mass market by Hogarth's competitors. As Hogarth received no payment for these copies and the poor nature of the artwork damaged his reputation, Hogarth lobbied parliament to provide legal copyright protection for engravers such as himself. This was passed in 1735 as The Engraving Copyright Act, also known as Hogarth's Law, and was one of the first of its kind in the world. Although he had completed The Rake's Progress, his second series of images, he waited to publish until the law was fully passed. Hogarth continued to socialize with other artists and designers, frequenting the well-known Old Slaughter's Coffee House on St Martin's Lane, a haunt for intellectuals. From here he set up the St Martin's Lane Academy in 1735, a precursor to the Royal Academy, which was not formally established until more than three decades later. Hogarth followed the same pattern for a number of his later works, producing a series of paintings, and then selling the prints of them at a price that targeted the new, moneyed middle classes. He saw real success from his series Marriage A-la-Mode (1745) which was aimed specifically at a middle-class audience in that it poked fun at the aristocracy. The six-part series told the story of the fictional aristocratic family The Squanderfields who had fallen on hard times. Their solution was to marry their son into a wealthy merchant family, but this marriage of convenience ended in disaster, as the final plate demonstrated. Hogarth also continued to produce paintings and was a skilled portrait painter and colorist, but the success of his prints eclipsed public appetite for his painting. Around 1740 he produced a full-length portrait of philanthropist and founder of the Foundling Hospital, Captain Thomas Coram, which was widely praised and imitated. By 1751, however, Hogarth had become disillusioned by the disappointing amount of money his paintings made at auction. As writer Susan Elizabeth Benenson says: "Hogarth, in anger and mortification, retreated into aggrieved isolation, pursuing his philanthropic interests but adopting, in public, a defiant and defensive pose that involved him in increasingly rancorous debate on artistic matters." He took on a number of charitable roles and began to produce prints that were more focused on poverty and social issues. In 1753 he wrote The Analysis of Beauty, an aesthetic treatise in which he rejected the formal style and proportions of the Italian Old Masters, expressed the importance of variety in art, and pro-posed that the serpentine line was central to all forms of beauty. The book sold well, but also opened him up to criticism from the establishment and most prominently by the young artist, Paul Sandby who created a number of satirical prints directly targeting Hogarth and his work. The book was heavily influenced by Hogarth's own practices and it had limited impact on the work of other contemporary painters. In his enthusiasm for the serpentine line, however, Hogarth reflected the art and design of the Rococo and preempted its importance in the later Art Nouveau movement. In 1759 Hogarth produced a work entitled Sigismunda Mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo, which he had hoped would establish him as a respected history painter, but the wealthy patron who had commissioned it, Sir Richard Grosvenor, rejected it. It also received a number of poor re-views. Hogarth was furious and humiliated and in response to criticism, he removed it from exhibi-tion. Hogarth returned to prints in 1762, producing The Times, a series of elaborate political allegories which shocked and divided the public. Offending right-leaning journalists, a counter attack was launched and Hogarth himself, again, became the subject of satire. Journalists and activists, John Wilkes and Charles Churchill accused Hogarth of falling into moral, mental and physical decline. A feud was born that lasted the rest of the artist's life. Hogarth died at home on October 25, 1764 from a ruptured artery and was buried near his second home in the countryside of Chiswick. The Legacy of William Hogarth Hogarth had been controversial among his peers. As Stephen Deuchar noted, when he was director of Tate Britain: "Hogarth's contemporaries found him always 'ingenious', variously zealous, flamboyant and self-righteous - a consummate operator and occasionally naive...His art was rarely considered to lie amidst the realms of greatness occupied by the Old Masters, whose uncritical devotees he so readily mocked." This statement is supported by the writings of Joshua Reynolds, first president of the Royal Academy, who rejected Hogarth's attempts at history painting. In 1788, Reynolds said Hogarth should be celebrated for inventing "a species of dramatic painting" and for his ability "to explain and illustrate the domestic and familiar scenes of common life", but that his ambitions in the "great historical style" were not only impudent but presumptuous. Hogarth's work, however, did lay the foundations for the English School of Art, a movement which marked the emergence of a national artistic tradition. As art critic Jonathan Jones says: "Before Hogarth, there was not really any such thing as British art. There was art made in Britain, by such great European masters as Rubens and Van Dyck. But it was Hogarth who created the idea of a British school." Though the artist was praised and remembered after his death - especially in terms of the variety of work he produced, Hogarth's legacy wasn't fully appreciated in his lifetime. As John Constable said: "Hogarth has no school, nor has he ever been imitated with tolerable success." Hogarth later found following in the Romanticism movement especially in literature. His series led the way in the exploration of individual experience, which became a key motif of 18th century novels. Hogarth's work was also hugely important in promoting British painting and engravings abroad. He had a profound influence on James McNeill Whistler, who in 1901 campaigned for Hogarth's Chiswick home to be preserved for future generations, writing angrily that "I am told that nothing official has been done, either by the Government, or The Royal Academy, to keep in respect the memory of [the nation's] one 'Master' who, outside of England, still is 'Great'." Whistler had been given a book of Hogarth's engravings as a child, and was inspired by the artists' paintings - specifically his brushwork and use of color. His multi-focal compositions can also be seen as inspirations in the work of David Wilkie (who was celebrated as "the Hogarth of his day"), William Powell and Ford Madox Brown. Today Hogarth is best recognized as a satirist, who, as art historian Mark Hallett notes "offered an acidic and sometimes comic vision of a society mired in corruption and hypocrisy, and who told remarkable pictorial stories about the flawed and ill-fated individuals - prostitutes, rakes, alcoholics, yokels, thieves and murderers - who lived and died outside the boundaries of respectable society". Influences and Connections Useful Resources on William Hogarth - The Analysis of BeautyBy William Hogarth - HogarthOur PickBy Mark Hallett and Christine Riding - Hogarth (Art and Ideas)By Mark Hallett - William Hogarth: A Life and a WorldOur PickBy Jenny Uglow

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What Teachers Need to Know About the "New" Nonfiction Children's nonfiction picture books is a genre that is exploding in both quality and quantity. Recent nonfiction books reveal an emphasis on the visual, an emphasis on accuracy, and an engaging writing style. Suggestions are included for choosing and using nonfiction picture books in the classroom. "Hey, kids! Did you know that in the 1930s most Americans did not own TVs? But you know what they did have? The radio!" So begins the text of Aliens Are Coming! The True Account of the 1938 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast (McCarthy, 2006). In these few words, author and illustrator Meghan McCarthy invites young readers into the book by using a reader-friendly tone, asking a question to make the reading interactive, and helping readers make connections between their experiences with television and the way people in the 1930s experienced radio. Even before they begin to read the text, however, children are attracted to this book by the cover, end papers, and title page. Illustrated in cartoon style, the cover features two green aliens with eyes on stalks and octopus-like appendages. The title is done in a childlike font, and the word Coming looks like it is written in oozing green goo. The endpapers show cartoon spaceships and flying saucers, while on the title page a cartoon alien points toward the earth. The title, with its exclamation point and colorful block letters, is reminiscent of an old-time movie poster. Together these features give the book a light-hearted tone and invite children inside. Written with only a few lines per page, the book tells the story of Orson Welles's famous radio broadcast that caused widespread fear and panic. Illustrations in black and white depict scenes of the 1930s, while bright colors are used to show how people imagined the scenes being described on the radio. Excerpts from the text of the radio broadcast help readers understand the impact of the broadcast on radio listeners. Detailed endnotes give more information about the story of the broadcast and include a sidebar about H.G. Wells and a bibliography. Aliens Are Coming! is just one of many recent nonfiction books that have features that attract young readers, help them learn about a topic, and invite further thinking and exploration. The purpose of this article is to help teachers understand and share the features of these new nonfiction picture books, a genre that is exploding in both quantity and quality. The rise of nonfiction Although teachers today use many trade books in their classrooms, most of these are fiction (Duke, 2000). For years, fictional stories were thought to be more appropriate for young children, and few nonfiction books were written for younger readers. Nonfiction was virtually ignored by children's literature experts and teachers alike (Moss, 2003). In recent years, however, we have come to realize that young children delight in learning about the world. In addition, there has been a growing realization of the importance of helping children learn strategies for reading the nonfiction texts they will increasingly be faced with in the upper grades. Moss (2003) asserted that "early exposure to the language of nonfiction can help enhance children's understanding of exposition and may prevent the difficulties many students encounter with these texts later on" (p. 9). At the same time, recent years have seen "an explosion of this genre in terms of availability, variety, and excellence for all ages" (Bamford & Kristo, 2000, p. 50). No other genre of children's literature "has changed as radically in recent years as nonfiction" (Moss, 2003, p. 10). Although many of the award- winning books in this genre have been lengthy chapter books that required advanced reading skills, I have found a number of recent nonfiction books in picture book format that are absolutely enchanting. This "new" genre-the nonfiction picture book-will delight teachers and students alike. What are the features of today's nonfiction picture books? To find out, I began by reviewing recent award-winning and honor books from three children's books awards: the Sibert Medal winners for 2008, given by the American Library Association to the author(s) and illustrator(s) of the most distinguished informational book published in English each year; the Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding Nonfiction for Children given by the National Council of Teachers of English in 2008; and nonfiction books from the Children's Choices list for 2007. Although many of the books on the Children's Choices list were not winners of other awards, I included books from this list because I wanted to see what features appealed to children, as well as to adult reviewers. Although not all of the books winning these awards were picture books (which I defined for this study as books with no more than 48 pages, in which pictures and text were equally important in conveying information), many of them were, especially those on the Children's Choices list. Using interlibrary loan at my university, I did my best to obtain copies of all of the Sibert and Orbis Pictus winners for 2008, along with nonfiction books on the Children's Choices list for 2007. In my analysis of these books, I found several outstanding features: an emphasis on the visual, including illustrations and design layouts; an emphasis on accuracy; and engaging writing styles, including formats that invite interaction. In the following sections, I discuss and give examples of these features, which teachers use to help them select nonfiction books. See below to find criteria for selecting nonfiction picture books. Criteria for selecting nonfiction picture books Is the book visually appealing? - Are the front and back covers appealing? - Are the endpapers appealing? Do they contribute to the topic, theme, or tone of the book? - Do the title page, dedication page, table of contents, and other pages contain illustrations? - Is the typeface easy to read? Does the book use typefaces or text layout to highlight information? Does the choice of typeface contribute to the topic, theme, or tone of the book? - Are the illustrations appealing? - Is the text broken up with illustrations, sidebars, headings, white space, and other features? - Are the illustrations and book design colorful? Do the colors contribute to the topic, theme, or tone of the book? - Are borders used? Is the book accurate and authoritative? - Are consultants listed? - Is information about the research process provided in introductory or endnotes, source notes, or bibliographies? - Are there suggestions for further reading? - Are supplemental materials such as glossaries and tables of important dates included? - Do illustrations accurately depict the text? - Are animals depicted accurately without anthropomorphism? - Is the book a blend of fact and fiction? If so, is it clear which parts of the book are fact and which are fiction? Is the writing style engaging? - Does the author draw the reader in with an engaging lead? - Are ideas logically ordered? - Is the background knowledge of the reader considered? Are new ideas connected to what children already know? - Is the language appropriate for the audience? - Does the author write without condescension? - Is the author able to explain difficult concepts clearly and simply? - Does the author use an appropriate tone? - Are there interactive elements that help involve the reader? - Are new terms clearly explained, highlighted, and defined in a glossary? Features of nonfiction picture books One radical change in recent children's nonfiction has been the emphasis on visually attractive design layouts (Giblin, 2000). Carter (2000) said that Forty years ago, children read nonfiction books with small type and limited illustrations… Today, they encounter books with carefully designed illustrations that partner with the text to contribute to their thinking… Illustrations introduce core concepts necessary for understanding a topic and serve as integral portions of each book. (p. 707) Every book I reviewed contained illustrations or other visual features on almost every page. Although all of the books are visually appealing, many also use the visual elements to convey information. Illustrations appear on the covers, endpapers, copyright pages, and title pages, as well as in tables of contents and end matter such as notes from the authors. Many nonfiction books now contain sidebars, use different typefaces to emphasize text, have additional information in the margins, and include captioned photos. In Sled Dogs (Haskins, 2006), two-page spreads provide information in the form of large and small captioned photographs, sidebars, and text. Design elements such as the black background, blue frames around photographs and other features, and even the blue shape around the page number, contribute to a whole that is visually pleasing. In another well-designed book, Why Do Dogs Have Wet Noses? (Coren, 2006), each page has a subtle background print with a dog-bone pattern, a border of dog bones across the top, and a dog bone over the page number at the bottom of the page. Photographs of varying sizes, some in frames and other with text wrapping around them, help break up the text, as do the headings written in a playful, uneven typeface. The same typeface is used on the cover, which features a photograph of a cute puppy with his head tilted inquisitively. Stunning, high-quality, glossy photographs by wildlife photographers dominate the book Slippery, Slimy Baby Frogs (Markle, 2006b), providing information in visual form that is as important as the information in the text. Nic Bishop's Spiders (2007) combines beautiful photographs, colorful backgrounds, and typefaces that change in size and color to emphasize important or interesting points. A unique and creative approach to illustration can be found in What Athletes Are Made Of (Piven, 2006), in which portraits of famous athletes are composed of simple painted shapes and everyday objects chosen to convey something about the athlete. Muhammad Ali's portrait, for example, includes a bell for a nose and tiny microphones for eyebrows. A hot dog on a bun makes Babe Ruth's mouth, golf tees make up Tiger Woods's eyebrows, and Michael Jordan's tongue is a piece of basketball skin! Clearly, visual elements play an important role in today's children's nonfiction books. Moss (2003) asserted that today's nonfiction books are "designed to engage today's visually oriented learners" (p. 12). Information is conveyed in both text and illustrations; in addition, the visual elements often enhance the reading experience in more subtle ways. For example, kids will enjoy reading about the largest and smallest dogs in the world and learning about how dogs communicate in Why Do Dogs Have Wet Noses? (Coren, 2006), just as they'll enjoy and learn from the photographs of the dogs. Other features, too, such as the subtle dog-bone print in the background and dog-bone borders, are a part of the pleasure of this experience. Another feature in recent children's nonfiction books is the emphasis on accuracy. Many books now include information about the research process, which might be found in introductory comments or endnotes, as well as source notes, bibliographies, and suggestions for further reading (Bamford & Kristo, 2000; Giblin, 2000; Hepler, 2003). Often, expert consultants are acknowledged. Glossaries, tables of important dates, indexes, and other kinds of supplemental materials provide further information for the reader. Many of the books reviewed showed this kind of concern for providing accurate and authoritative information. For example, Aliens Are Coming! The True Account of the 1938 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast (McCarthy, 2006), Sled Dogs (Haskins, 2006), Little Lost Bat (Markle, 2006a), Sporting Events: From Baseball to Skateboarding (Kaufman, 2006), Spiders (Bishop, 2007), and Slippery, Slimy Baby Frogs (Markle, 2006b), all contain author's notes and other features that provide more information, describe the research process, or acknowledge the contribution of experts. The author of Extreme Animals: The Toughest Creatures on Earth (Davies, 2006) has a degree in zoology. Author Sarah L. Thomson added authority to her books Amazing Dolphins! (2006a) and Amazing Snakes! (2006b) by teaming up with the Wildlife Conservation Society, which provided the photographs for the books. Many of the books contain bibliographies and suggestions for further reading, including online resources. Such features not only "help readers evaluate a book's accuracy" (Bamford & Kristo, 2000, p. 50); they "honor young readers by giving them entry into processes of writing" as they learn "how writers of nonfiction think and work" (Wilson, 2006, p. 62). Although accuracy and authority may be a trend in recent nonfiction, not all books reflect this trend. Wilson (2006) described how members of the Orbis Pictus Award Committee are interested in "the presence of back matter, the bibliographies or reference lists, endnotes, author notes about the references and quotations included in the book, the photo credits, and the acknowledgements of people connected with the research and writing of the book" (p. 56), but they are concerned that a number of books they review, especially those for younger readers, do not have such features. Although not all of the nonfiction books reviewed have all of these features, the vast majority had at least a consultant listed. Even so, there are some problems with accuracy in several of the books I reviewed. Extreme Animals: The Toughest Creatures on Earth (Davies, 2006), is engagingly and authoritatively written by zoologist Nicola Davies. The author's expertise is clearly evident in her descriptions of animals that can survive extreme temperatures and pressures (and one animal that can be put in a blender, and when placed back in seawater, will pull itself back together- it's a sponge!). Unfortunately, the illustrations for this book, childlike drawings by Neal Layton, do not always convey accurate information. An illustration showing how penguins keep heat from escaping from their feet does not match the explanation in the text (pp. 14-15). On page 16, the text says that some birds sleep huddled together to keep warm, but the illustration is an anthropomorphic depiction of birds sleeping in a row of beds. Accuracy is also a problem in The Adventures of Pelican Pete: Annie the River Otter (Keiser & Keiser, 2006). This book is obviously intended to be an informational children's book. Six different experts from the North American River Otter Liaison and elsewhere are acknowledged; supplemental features include a bulleted list of information about otters and a feature showing readers how "To Learn More" about woodland fires and wildlife rehabilitators. In the "About the Author and Illustrator" section, the book is described as "an accurate and educational depiction of nature" (n.p.). In the story, Annie the river otter tells Pelican Pete the story of growing up with her family and then being separated from them by a fire. Pelican Pete then tells Annie about an animal rescue center, which is described by Pelican Pete as "a wonderful place I'll lead you to./They rescue animals and heal them quick-/Orphaned, strained, injured or sick./When we're in need, we hurry there/ For wildlife rescue and animal care" (n.p.). The book does not show how wildlife are found or taken care of; in fact, no people appear in the text or illustrations. Children are led to believe that animals make their own way to rescue centers, and they are given no information about the kind of care animals receive there. The blending of fiction and nonfiction in this book has caused the facts to be distorted out of all reality. (The book is understandably classified as fiction by the Library of Congress.) The fictionalization of children's nonfiction seems to be a recurring trend. Giblin (2000) noted that before 1960, many nonfiction authors and editors thought the best way to interest youngsters in science was to surround the facts with a fictional framework… The Let's Read and Find Out series and others like it put an end to this particular brand of nonfiction hybrid, which usually succeeded neither as fiction nor as nonfiction. (p. 419) More recently, however, this trend toward fictionalization has reemerged. Zarnowski (2001) noted that although some authors and critics have argued for strict accuracy in children's nonfiction, "there are several strong proponents of intermingling fiction and nonfiction" (p. 16). For example, Avery (2003) argued that the use of narrative "captures the hearts and the minds of readers of all ages" and that narrative stories have "opened nonfiction to many more young readers" (p. 241). Avery referred to books that blend fiction and nonfiction, such as those that present factual information from the perspective of a fictional character, as "faction," and asserted that they "qualify as nonfiction in our classrooms" (p. 242). Yet Smith (2001) asserted that "while they may be interesting to read, 'factions' are at best deceptive, and they are unacceptable to those seeking accurate interpretations of events, issues, and phenomena" (p. 32). Similarly, Bamford, Kristo, and Lyon (2002) wondered "if this kind of book sends a distorted message to young readers about what nonfiction is. High quality nonfiction doesn't preclude an author from using personal narrative but, in doing so, the writing should never mask the truth or the facts to be clever or cute" (p. 9). Bamford and Kristo (2000) used the term informational picture storybook to describe books like the popular Magic School Bus series, which "look and read like picture storybooks because information is carried within the narrative by invented characters or situations. However, these books are supported by facts because the primary purpose is to provide information" (p. 13). They asserted that problems with informational picture storybooks arise "when it is not clear to the reader what is fact and what is fiction" and suggested that teachers should "help readers separate fiction from nonfiction by highlighting text notes, afterwards, and acknowledgments" (p. 13). Colman (2007) argued for strict accuracy in children's nonfiction, yet she added that simple definitions, such as fiction is made up and nonfiction is true, fiction is narrative and nonfiction is expository, fiction is for pleasure and nonfiction is for information, are misleading and inadequate. She pointed out that "fiction and nonfiction can have many similar and overlapping characteristics" (p. 267) including the use of both narrative and expository writing. Little Lost Bat (Markle, 2006a) used a narrative structure to tell the story of a baby Mexican freetailed bat. In Look What Whiskers Can Do (Souza, 2006), the author used both expository and narrative text. To give general information, an expository style is used. Sometimes, however, a more narrative style is used: "An animal is sleeping high in a tree. Its legs are wrapped around a branch. Its tail covers its eyes" (p. 14). McClure (2003) described elements of style that authors of the best children's nonfiction books use to make their work appealing. She explained that good nonfiction books are clear and coherent; they are "carefully organized, using logically ordered ideas and understandable language along with examples that account for the background knowledge of readers" (p. 80). She added that good nonfiction authors communicate their passion for the subject and write in a tone that does not condescend to children. They use language appropriate for the intended age level of the reader, but must be able to explain difficult vocabulary and concepts. They draw their readers in with engaging leads and write conclusions that "leave the reader either feeling satisfied or wanting to know more" (p. 92). In the excerpt from Aliens Are Coming! The True Account of the 1938 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast (McCarthy, 2006) that began this article, author Meghan McCarthy draws readers into the story with her reader-friendly style and a thoughtprovoking question: "Hey, kids! Did you know that in the 1930s most Americans did not own TVs?" Authors of nonfiction picture books use many elements of style and organization to make their writing both engaging and informative. Author Lori Haskins (2006) grabs the reader's attention with the first line of Sled Dogs: "The people of Nome, Alaska were in trouble." In Extreme Animals: The Toughest Creatures on Earth, Nicola Davies (2006) presents fascinating information in a lighthearted tone: Polar bears can keep warm in conditions that would kill a human, but in one important way, a polar bear is just as much of a wimp as we are: if its body temperature drops by more than a few degrees, it can die. The Truly Tough Animals are the ones that can let their bodies get really cold right through and still survive. (p. 19) Author Hanoch Piven (2006), in What Athletes Are Made Of, gains readers' interest and communicates his enthusiasm for his subject in an author's note at the beginning of the book: Do you know how many home runs Babe Ruth hit in his career? Do you know how many soccer goals Mia Hamm scored in her first year on the U.S. National Team? Lots of people know scores and records about their favorite athletes. But sometimes we don't know as much about what great athletes are like as people.... There are many great athletes in the world, and I could not include all of them in this book. Instead I have selected athletes whose stories have a personal meaning for me. Some were chosen because of their undisputed greatness, and some because they have an inspiring or interesting story to tell. (n.p.) A number of nonfiction picture books engage readers with an interactive format. Food Creations: From Hot Dogs to Ice Cream Cones (Ball, 2006) and Sporting Events: From Baseball to Skateboarding (Kaufman, 2006), ask readers to guess "Which Came First?" Readers are given information about a pair such as hot dogs and hamburgers or basketball and golf, are asked to predict which came first, and must turn the page to find out if they were correct. Venom (Singer, 2007) keeps readers actively involved through a variety of activities such as quizzes and a matching exercise in which pictures of venomous animals are to be matched with the venom delivery system they use. Sarah L. Thomson's (2006a) Amazing Dolphins!, an easy reader written with short sentences, is still informative and thought-provoking: "Dolphins whistle and squeak. They chirp and pop. They make noises that sound like clicks or claps. Why do dolphins make all these sounds?" (pp. 4-5). Thomson relates new information to what children already know: Dolphins live underwater, but they are not fish. They are small whales. Whales are mammals. People are mammals, too. All mammals need to breathe air. You use your mouth to breathe, to eat, and to make sounds. A dolphin uses it mouth to eat. It uses the blowhole on top of its head to breathe and to make sounds. (pp. 10-11) Similarly, Look What Whiskers Can Do (Souza, 2006) begins with what kids already know. "Have you ever noticed a cat's whiskers? The hairs are long and stiff. Each one is two to three times thicker than the animal's other hairs" (p. 7). Headings appear in large print, and words in bold in the text are defined in the glossary. Author D.M. Souza explains new vocabulary extremely well: "Scientist call whiskers vibrissae. The word once meant to shake or vibrate. Whiskers let many animals called mammals feel movements or vibrations in both air and water" (p. 8). Sandra Markle's (2006b) photo-essay Slippery, Slimy Baby Frogs is well organized into sections that follow one other in a logical, cohesive manner. For example, the "On Their Own" section begins, "Because most adult frogs leave their eggs once they are laid, most baby frogs grow up without parents (n.p.)". The next section, "Taking Care of Baby," follows logically from the previous one: "Some baby frogs do get special care from their parents while they're growing up" (n.p.). In contrast, two books I reviewed had some problems with style and organization. Horses, a photo- essay by prolific and award-winning children's nonfiction author Seymour Simon (2006), has beautiful glossy photos on the cover, endpapers, title page, and each page throughout the book, yet the text seems to present a succession of unrelated facts in no order, with photos that don't always support the text. On one page, Simon discusses the names for horses of different colors; the accompanying photograph, however, does not show the kinds of horses discussed. There is also a discussion of breeds of horses that includes the terms hotbloods, coldbloods, and warmbloods. Unfortunately Simon doesn't explain that these terms have nothing to do with being warm or coldblooded as the terms are normally used, which makes this highly confusing for the reader. Lukens (2003) has said that nonfiction authors sometimes condescend to children by "oversimplifying, thinking of the readers as dear little things, or guarding their ears from the whole truth" (p. 290), and that "condescension often takes the form of anthropomorphism, an attitude that suggests a lack of interesting qualities in the animals themselves" (p. 292). In addition to its use of anthropomorphism, The Adventures of Pelican Pete: Annie the River Otter (Keiser & Keiser, 2006) uses a sappy, condescending tone: "For all the children good and sweet:/ I'll tell a tale of Pelican Pete: And for all who were bad today:/ I'll tell the story anyway" (n.p.). Choosing and sharing nonfiction picture books Sources of Information About Nonfiction Picture Books Teachers who want to discover the possibilities of nonfiction picture books may start by browsing local libraries and bookstores. Book awards are another source for good nonfiction picture books. In addition to the Children's Choices list (www.reading.org/ resources/booklists/childrenschoices.aspx), the Orbis Pictus Award (www.ncte.org/awards/orbispictus), and the Sibert Medal (www.ala.org), there are other nonfiction book awards that teachers may want to consult. The National Science Teachers' Association and the Children's Book Council publishes a yearly list of Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K-12 (www.nsta.org/publications/ostb), and the Children's Book Council also teams up with the National Council for the Social Studies to create an annual list of Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People (www.socialstudies.org/resources/ notable). The Caldecott Medal and its Honor List (www.ala.org) may also include nonfiction picture books, and the Boston Globe-The Horn Book Awards (www.hbook.com) include a category for nonfiction. The Horn Book also publishes a list of best picture books, fiction books, and nonfiction books each year in its "Fanfare" list. In addition, many nonfiction authors have their own webpages, like Steve Jenkins, author of Caldecott Honor Book What Do You Do With a Tail Like This? (Jenkins, 2004) and many other beautifully illustrated books (www.stevejenkinsbooks.com). Choosing Nonfiction Picture Books Teachers can use the three features of nonfiction picture books discussed herein to help them choose books for their classrooms. - Are the books visually appealing? Look for books with attractive and accurate illustrations, page layouts that break up text, borders and other interesting design features, attractive and readable typefaces, and appropriate use of color for page backgrounds, text, and other features. - Do the books provide accurate, authoritative information? Look for books with consultants listed and source notes or other features that contain information about the research process. In addition, choose books in which the illustrations accurately depict the content, and in which the information is presently realistically, without anthropomorphism. - Are they engagingly written? Look for books that make good teachers! Good nonfiction books should be well organized, should grab readers' attention, take readers' likely background knowledge into consideration, and clearly explain new terms. In addition, look for books that present information in creative ways, and that encourage reader interaction with the text. Sharing Nonfiction Picture Books With Children Because today's nonfiction children's books provide new ways to convey information, teachers need to learn new ways to share these books with children. Nonfiction picture books convey information not only in the text, but also in endpapers, supplemental materials such as tables of important dates, and so on. On each page of the text, they may convey information with illustrations, sidebars, typefaces, boxed information on outside margins, captioned photos, and other features. Instead of reading from top to bottom and front to back, these kinds of features can be viewed in any order; they "permit, and actually invite, nonlinear, nonsequential exploration" (Kerper, 2001, p. 27). Teachers can demonstrate such nonsequential exploration, showing students the many different ways they can learn about the topic. Teachers can also help students notice the features of nonfiction picture books by asking students, "How does this page help you understand this topic?" They can point out text in bold or unusual typefaces and ask why they are used. They can draw students' attention to information gained in illustrations, captions, and sidebars. In another lesson, teachers may want to focus on the accuracy of the book. By asking, "Who wrote this book? How did he or she find out this information?" teachers can interest students in the author's notes, source notes, or other information provided, and help them understand what writers do. In particular, teachers will want to think carefully about the types of books they present as "nonfiction," and help students notice when some books blend fact and fiction. When using blended books, teachers should help students understand what is factual and what has been fictionalized, and why the author may have chosen to blend the two. Finally, teachers may want to invite students to study nonfiction picture books as they write and design their own books. Asking questions such as, what features make this book fun to read? What helped you learn about the topic? may help students think about the various tasks of writing, illustrating, and designing a nonfiction book. The nonfiction picture book is a genre that is exploding in both quality and quantity. By sharing and filling their classrooms with good nonfiction picture books, teachers can help children learn about the world and get them started on a lifetime of reading and learning. Click the "References" link above to hide these references. Avery, C. (2003). Nonfiction books: Natural for the primary level. In R.A. Bamford & J.V. Kristo (Eds.), Making facts come alive: Choosing and using nonfiction literature K-8 (2nd ed., pp. 235-246). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Bamford, R.A., & Kristo, J.V. (2000). A decade of nonfiction: Ten books with unique features. Journal of Children's Literature, 26(2), 50-54. Bamford, R.A., Kristo, J.V., & Lyon, A. (2002). Facing facts: Nonfiction in the primary classroom. The New England Reading Association Journal, 38(2), 8-15. Carter, B. (2000). A universe of information: The future of nonfiction. The Horn Book, 76(6), 697-707. Colman, P. (2007). A new way to look at literature: A visual model for analyzing fiction and nonfiction texts. Language Arts, 84(3), 257-268. Duke, N.K. (2000). 3.6 minutes per day: The scarcity of informational texts in first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(2), 202-224. doi:10.1598/RRQ.35.2.1 Giblin, J.C. (2000). More than just the facts: A hundred years of children's nonfiction. The Horn Book, 76(4), 413-424. Hepler, S. (2003). Nonfiction books for children: New directions, new challenges. In R.A. Bamford & J.V. Kristo (Eds.), Making facts come alive: Choosing and using nonfiction literature K-8 (2nd ed., pp. 3-20). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Kerper, R.M. (2001). Nonfiction book design in a digital age. In M. Zarnowski, R.M. Kerper, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), The best in children's nonfiction (pp. 22-31). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Lukens, R.J. (2003). A critical handbook of children's literature (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. McClure, A. (2003). Choosing quality nonfiction literature: Examining aspects of writing style. In R.A. Bamford & J.V. Kristo (Eds.), Making facts come alive: Choosing and using nonfiction literature K-8 (2nd ed., pp. 79-96). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Moss, B. (2003). Exploring the literature of fact: Children's nonfiction trade books in the elementary classroom. New York: Guilford. Smith, K.P. (2001). Acknowledging, citing, going beyond: Issues of documentation in nonfiction literature. In M. Zarnowski, R.M. Kerper, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), The best in children's nonfiction (pp. 32-41). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Wilson, S. (2006). Getting down to facts in children's nonfiction literature: A case for the importance of sources. Journal of Children's Literature, 32(1), 56-63. Zarnowski, M. (2001). Intermingling fact and fiction. In M. Zarnowski, R.M. Kerper, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), The best in children's nonfiction (pp. 13-21). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Ball, J.A. (2006). Food creations: From hot dogs to ice cream cones. New York: Bearport. Bishop, N. (2007). Spiders. New York: Scholastic. Coren, S. (2006). Why do dogs have wet noses? Tonawanda, NY: Kids Can. Davies, N. (2006). Extreme animals: The toughest creatures on earth. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick. Haskins, L. (2006). Sled dogs. New York: Bearport. Jenkins, S. (2004). What do you do with a tail like this? Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Kaufman, G. (2006). Sporting events: From baseball to skateboarding. New York: Bearport. Keiser, F., & Keiser, H. (2006). The adventures of Pelican Pete: Annie the river otter. St. Augustine, FL: Sagaponack. Markle, S. (2006a). Little lost bat. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. Markle, S. (2006b). Slippery, slimy baby frogs. New York: Walker & Company. McCarthy, M. (2006). Aliens are coming! The true account of the 1938 War of the Worlds radio broadcast. New York: Knopf. Piven, H. (2006). What athletes are made of. New York: Atheneum. Simon, S. (2006). Horses. New York: HarperCollins. Singer, M. (2007). Venom. Plain Cit y, OH: Darby Creek Publishing. Souza, D.M. (2006). Look what whiskers can do. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner. Thomson, S.L. (2006a). Amazing dolphins! New York: HarperCollins. Thoms on, S.L. (2006b). Amazing snakes! New York: HarperCollins.

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Fourth Grade Curriculum Our fourth grade curriculum helps to prepare students for the independence of Middle School through subject area teachers for all classes. Students begin their day with a homeroom teacher and then transition with their homeroom classmates from class to class. Additionally, students in fourth and fifth grade use lockers to hold their materials. Organization and responsibility are key components of the fourth grade curriculum as well as multiple opportunities for cross curricular learning, student lead presentations, and a science based overnight field trip that is a culminating opportunity for fourth grade students to enjoy multiple experiential learning opportunities that directly correlate with the learning that has taken place in the classroom. - Language Arts - Social Studies - Foreign Language - Performing Arts Electives - Physical Education The Language Arts program utilizes a balanced approach to literacy. Within the Language Arts block are the components of reading workshop, writing workshop, and word study. CSN's approach to reading instruction enables children to build and hone skills they need to succeed in becoming independent readers. Explicit reading strategies are taught in a mini-lesson format, followed by both small group and individual instruction. We assess each child individually in order to determine his/her instructional reading level at various times throughout the year to provide continued differentiated instruction. Genre libraries are organized in each classroom. Children choose texts to gain stamina both at home and school. In the fourth grade reading workshop students word independently, in book clubs, and in small groups to build stamina, discuss reading, and understand a variety of texts. - Students learn to understand, interpret and analyze a range of written texts, both fiction and non-fiction. - Students learn to use explicit information to identify the main idea or primary purpose of a text or part of a text as well as explicit details from a passage to understand it fully on a literal level. - Students learn how to use implicit information from a passage to make inferences about the moods and motivations of characters in order to understand their shifts and development over the course of the book. They learn also to make inferences about events, understanding their importance and meaning within the context of the book. - Students learn how to determine whether information consists of fact or opinion. Within fiction, they will learn whether or not a narrator is trustworthy. - Students recognize cause-and-effect relationships among elements in a text. - Students categorize and combine the layers of implicit information to make predictions, draw conclusions, and/or formulate hypotheses. - Students will employ comprehension strategies to interpret, analyze, and evaluate what they have read. - Students will be able to discuss texts well, demonstrating their understanding and growing each other’s ideas. Fourth grade teachers have a firm commitment to the value of reading aloud to students. Our goal is to use novels, above grade level, to “broaden the scope” of understanding. Reading aloud helps students build background knowledge, increase vocabulary, make more meaningful connections to thoughts and ideas as well as associate reading with pleasure (Bank Street College of Education). “Research indicates that motivation, interest, and engagement are often advanced when teachers read aloud to students (Albright and Ariail)." Not only does reading aloud have benefits educationally, but also emotionally. Through a character’s fictional or real-life experiences, students learn strategies for dealing with social situations and conflicts; this can only increase their self-confidence. Most importantly, reading aloud gives students fond memories of their experiences, and creates a greater love for the written word. Art and Literacy Art engages children’s senses in open-ended play and develops cognitive, social-emotional and multi-sensory skills. Meaningful art experiences provide children with authentic self-expression- the freedom of choice, thought, and feeling. Brain researchers tell us that children retain much better when hands-on activities go along with the learning. Art provides pre-writing experiences when the children can touch, talk, and move. Using art to teach comprehension strategies allows children to use multiple modalities to learn and most importantly, apply these strategies in a text-free environment before applying the strategies to text. Art teaches these literacy concepts: self-expression (great for planning in writing), narrative story development, spatial relations, visual literacy, and strong book knowledge with true appreciation. Teachers find it important to use art to enhance literacy strategies. In the fourth grade writing workshop, students continue to grow their understanding of the writing process. Using the 6+1 traits, writing students learn immersion, collecting, choosing, developing, revising, editing and publishing techniques. Sentence technique and paragraph construction are at the core of the curriculum with students writing through a range of genres. An essential part of the writing curriculum is proper grammar usage and sentence structure. Grammar and sentence development are a part of the writing process. Students will have direct teaching in this area using The Write Source program. These skills will be developed and used within a piece of writing. Students begin to develop a growing understanding of writing and the writing process. Using works of art, and art activities, students learn how art and writing are firmly linked. With this knowledge, students gain a deeper understanding of process writing and the importance of each step in the process. - Students learn to recognize the role of the audience, and can determine the information included, style, and tone for a piece. - Students learn to make decisions regarding how to plan their piece of writing in order to get their meaning across. - Students learn to employ literary language and various literary devices where appropriate. - Students learn to select accurate word choices to convey meaning and emotion. - Students learn to construct well-crafted sentences that display rhetorical precision. The hallmark of successful reading and writing students lies in the development of vocabulary. Reading with understanding and writing with precision requires an extensive word knowledge. The fourth grade linguistics program is a continuation of the primary Project Read curriculum. Students will begin to learn Greek and Latin affixes which will allow them to move forward in their understanding. WordMasters is a nationwide vocabulary competition for grades 3-8. This competition is based on understanding and completing analogical relationships. The early introduction of this higher-level skill will benefit students, and assist with an understanding of the many facets of a word. The fourth grade mathematics program focuses on three components of mathematics: comprehension, computation, and application. It is the final year of basic arithmetic where children should show mastery of their computational skills in anticipation of fifth grade Pre-algebra, where effortless application of these operational skills is necessary. Students are given the opportunity to solidify their computational skills using the standard algorithms with speed and accuracy, while also focusing on deepening their comprehension. They utilize both components in order to apply their knowledge and skills to solve real math problems within a variety of different situations. Students apply the four operations to whole numbers and decimals, while deepening their understanding of fractions. Also, the students explore concepts related to place value, data analysis, geometry, measurement, order of operations, and Pre-algebra. Pearson's enVisionMATH, technology including, XtraMath and iXL, and a variety of other quality resources are used to reinforce skills, enhance their depth of knowledge, and help them develop a solid foundation for future learning. Students create their own interactive math notebooks to record their experiences and use as an on-going resource. Fourth grade is an important year for students to solidify their skills and confidence as they develop a love and understanding of mathematics. It is a time to embrace different ways to learn, work cooperatively with their peers, and prepare for the next level of mathematics. Mathematical skills taught in fourth grade will include: Number Sense and Operations with Whole Numbers - Use place value, including how to read, write, round, order, and compare whole numbers to the hundred-billions place - Write numbers in standard, expanded, and word form - Use models to represent, order, compare, and perform whole number operations - Add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit numbers using the standard algorithm - Know the language of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and understand the relationship between the operations - Use estimation to solve problems that includes all four operations - Understand the properties of addition and multiplication including the identity, commutative, associative, distributive and zero property - Solve single and multi-step story problems - Determine key vocabulary words and concepts, check for reasonableness, and identify relevant and irrelevant information with problems Number Sense and Operations with Fractions and Decimals - Use models and number lines to identify, compare and represent the order of fractions and decimals - Recognize the relationship between fractions and decimals - Add and subtract decimals to the thousandths place - Multiply and divide decimals - Convert between mixed numbers and improper fractions - Add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions and mixed numbers with like and unlike denominators - Solve real-life problems involving fractions and decimals Geometry and Spatial Sense - Use basic geometric language to describe and name shapes and solids - Understand the basic properties of figures, including closure, number of sides, faces, vertices, and angles - Characterize lines as intersecting, perpendicular, or parallel - Identify relationships between figures and images under transformations including translation, reflection, and rotation - Identify lines of symmetry and the effects of combining, subdividing, and changing basic shapes - Identify congruent and similar figures - Use formulas to find perimeter, area, and volume on singular and compound shapes - Graph and identify ordered pairs on a coordinate plane - Know the approximate size of customary and metric units to measure length, weight, and capacity - Convert measurements within the same system - Measure the perimeter and area of regular and irregular polygons - Solve real-life problems involving coins, elapsed time, weight and distance Data Analysis, Statistics, and Probability - Read and interpret various types of tables, including frequency tables, stem and leaf plots, and line plots - Read and interpret graphs, including single and double bar and line graphs, circle graphs, pictographs, and Venn Diagrams - Calculate mean, median, mode, and range from a given set of data - Find probability of simple events Patterns, Functions, and Pre-Algebra - Use order of operations to solve simple expressions - Solve one and two-step algebraic equations including all four operations The fourth grade Social Studies curriculum is designed to help students master geographic, historic, and civic knowledge’s and functions to instill in the students historical perspective. Among the important skills student will acquire are: - A thorough understanding and application of map skills, and reading charts and graphs for geographical understanding - Developing note taking abilities, and using information and research for written assignments (reports, projects, and use of technological apps) - Developing a geographic vocabulary along with a geographic awareness, and accounting for the diversity of places - Developing a historical vocabulary along with a historical awareness, and accounting for the timeline of events and knowing their impact on the flow of history - Acquiring a proficiency in research and the use of primary resources for reports and written presentations - Public speaking and oral presentations, and using fact-based arguments in debate-style simulations - Responsibility and time management throughout all facets of learning - Collaboration in class and out of class with civic-minded students The fourth grade curriculum centers on United States geography, with an emphasis on the diversity of the physical places in the country. The subject begins by painting an overall picture of the country, by using map-skills to familiarize the students with the country’s unique regions. Following an overview of the regions, with an emphasis on the states and capitals, land forms, waterways, and important historical events, an in-depth, project-based analysis of the regions is presented. The ongoing question, exploring what makes the United States unique and diverse, forms the essential theme of each part of the course. The fourth grade science program develops an understanding of scientific methods and processes. It involves a variety of labs, activities, and learning experiences that provide personal engagement in the dynamics of learning and the excitement of self-discovery, which exposes students to the interrelationships in the world around them. Students are exposed to concerns that confront humans daily through current events. This participatory approach is used to create knowledge and to enhance students’ appreciation for the laws and principles that guide our existence. Concepts are not independently taught but are intertwined and multidisciplinary, providing students with a multitude of opportunities to become involved in science. This combination of knowledge and discovery skills will help our students to relate to current real-world issues. Topic covered in fourth grade include: - Properties of water: What makes water so special? - Electricity and Magnetism: What are properties of electricity and magnetism? - Plants and animals in the environment: What roles do plants and animals play in their environment? - Weather: Interactions of land, air, and water: How do natural events affect our world? This program is intended to develop listening comprehension and verbal skills in young children. Total Physical Response (TPR) Storytelling is an instructional strategy developed by Blaine Ray, which is based on Stephen D. Krashen and Tracy D. Terrell’s work in developing The Natural Approach and James Asher’s work in developing Total Physical Response. The goal of both of these strategies is to allow students to learn a second language in much the same manner as they learned their first language—through the senses and comprehensible sensory input. TPR Storytelling provides students with the following: - Active language learning which is meaningful and context-driven - TPR (Total Physical Response) cues which allow for immediate comprehension - Appealing stories rich in comprehensible input which is easy to internalize - Multiple opportunities to prove comprehension and to feel successful - Long-term retention of language Students will be able to tell short stories using the vocabulary learned, and as the year progresses their enhanced comprehension will allow them to add more details to their short stories. Students will also continue refining their pronunciation and knowledge in the language. Students review previously learned vocabulary by writing descriptions of their homes, what they like to do, their family, meals, school life, etc. In fourth grade sentence structure, modifying nouns and gender agreement is emphasized. As children progress in Spanish, coursework is differentiated in order to meet varying levels and abilities. Fourth grade artists explore a wide range of projects carefully selected for students to not only explore and experiment with the Elements and Principles of Art, but also to apply learning from core subjects for deeper understanding and relevance. Origami, Cloud studies and Under the Sea watercolors, are just a few of the many opportunities for students to further their learning in a creative application. Students pursue longer term projects with materials that are more involved (such as Paper Maché, clay, etc.) and with more complexity (such as iPad illustrations and stop-motion videos). From basic fundamental concepts of drawing, to assemblage art made from found objects, the variety of projects emphasize the wide range of application of a consistent group of art concepts. Learning about the lives and times of individual artists and art groups brings to life the circumstances from which the art or art movement came about. Participation in group projects and critiques provides experience in life skills of interaction, increasingly required in the 21st century. At this level, students are encouraged to explore and experiment with new materials with an emphasis on creative thinking. Students are responsible for photographing, uploading and maintaining their on-line portfolios which travel with them throughout their CSN experience. The students learn about: - Observational drawing techniques - One Point Perspective Drawing - Positive and Negative Shapes Longer term projects: - Exploration of a wide variety of materials including Paper Maché, watercolor, printmaking and animation and Sketchbook Express® on the iPad. - Artists appreciation and inspiration include: Da Vinci, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Georgia O’Keefe Students in fourth grade will choose to participate in at least one performing arts elective. This course encompasses many fronts, including acting, singing, and piano study. Students participate in musical productions as well as in “piano challenges," an in-class performance for their peers, and twice annually for the parents. The fourth grade students are progressing from Lower School chorus to perform more advanced singing and musicianship skills. Each class begins with a short theory and ear training exercise, followed by a group warm-up that explains and fosters the practice of solid vocal technique. The students then begin their performance rehearsal, with repertoire pulled from a wide variety of genres, which often includes staging and light choreography. Their final grade is determined by their participation in each end-of-semester performance and any additional performances. This course continues the emphasis on vocal development. Students develop their music and presentation skills through participation in live performances and activities. They advance their choral singing techniques by learning songs in two-to-three part harmony, as well as in other languages. We are excited to offer our students the opportunity to explore brass and woodwind instruments. Students will have instrument lessons twice per week and participate in a concert band (all instruments together) later in the semester. Basic music theory and individual instrument techniques will be featured in class, as well as playing fun and exciting music in an ensemble setting including multiple parts. Grades will be determined based on classroom participation and two end-of-semester performances. Fourth and fifth grade string classes at CSN are for third and fourth year string students on violin, viola, cello and, if a student has interest, upright bass. The strongest students from these classes combine to form the CSN fourth and fifth grade orchestra. Fourth and fifth grade beginners wanting to join this class must study privately and must commit to extra practicing at home to catch up to these classes. These classes will play advanced music, read difficult rhythms, are introduced to new keys, playing positions and more complicated ear training. The orchestra performs twice a year at school for parents, family members, friends, and fellow students. Students are required to rent or buy an instrument to take this class. CSN provides assistance and information for the rental process. The fourth grade physical education program expands on skills learned throughout the Lower School years and applies them towards new games, lifetime activities, and sports preparation and development. All students acquire the knowledge and skills for movement that provide the foundation for enjoyment and continued social development through physical activity. Fourth grade students begin to demonstrate competency in movement patterns and proficiency in several specialized movement forms. Basic skills such as jumping rope, catching and throwing mastered in Lower School can now be used in game-like situations and lifetime activities. Students continue to learn the etiquette of participation and can resolve conflicts during games and sports in acceptable ways. Students can also match different types of physical activities to health-related fitness components. All students are administered “The President’s Challenge on Physical Fitness Test.” The ever-increasing impact of technology on teaching and learning is an important consideration in education at all grade levels in the Lower School. Our curriculum encompasses the use of a wide range of digital tools, media and learning environments for teaching, learning and assessing. Technology provides opportunities for the transformation of teaching and learning and enables students to investigate, create, communicate, collaborate, organize and be responsible for their own learning and actions. Through the use of technology, learners develop and apply strategies for critical and creative thinking, engage in inquiry, make connections, and apply new understandings and skills in different contexts. The fourth grade technology curriculum is designed to increase knowledge and comfort with devices and software. Students are encouraged to use computers and iPads for projects relating to units across all subjects. Fourth grade students will learn: - Basic Computer Literacy: saving files to the appropriate network or drive rather than on the hard drive of the computer, understanding program specific terminology, inserting and locating files from the directory, saving them to a USB/Flash drive. - Keyboarding: understanding the layout, navigation, and use of the typing program to understand the process for viewing key proficiency. - Word Processing: increasing and decreasing the view/zoom of a document, learning print preview, modifying the size of an inserted image using the image handles, learning text and image relocation on the document, formatting a text box and adjusting background colors, borders, etc., formatting line spacing, formatting page setup, using the spelling and grammar check accessed through the tool menu, creating headers and footers and using the copy and paste functions. - Creativity programs: inserting images from file and clip art, moving images within the work area, creating and formatting text boxes, using the Text tool to create text on images, using the Crop tool. - Presentation Software: creating presentations using PowerPoint, Keynote and iMovie, using apps on the iPad to create presentations. - Telecommunications: appropriate e-mail use, including using appropriate electronic conduct when using electronic emails. - Internet Research: using internet searches appropriately The fourth grade digital citizenship curriculum is designed to teach students: - To ONLY share our passwords with parents and teachers. - The unfortunate things that can happen when others know our password. - The do’s and don’ts of creating strong passwords. - The importance of creating strong passwords without using private information. - How spam messages are often sent to us because a company is trying to sell us something, trick us into giving them private information, or even to cause harm with computer viruses. - To never open an email message from someone we do not know. - Tips for handling spam messages: don’t open the message, never click on the included links, do not reply, and tell a trusted adult if you are feeling unsure. - The importance of including a bibliography with citations for all types of research projects and writing. - Components of an MLA style citation. - The differences between citing an online newspaper/magazine article and professional websites using MLA style.

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In its modern descriptive sense, literature denotes written texts; by extension scholars have also applied the term to spoken or sung texts ("oral literature"), writings in particular subject areas ("medical literature"), other collections of material in a given language or national tradition ("English literature"), visual texts such as video and illustration, and published ephemera (“campaign literature”). It is often divided into historical periods ("Victorian literature") as well as into formal categories (prose, poetry, or drama) and genres (such as the epic, the novel, or the folktale). In its more traditional prescriptive sense (that of the 1911 Britannica), literature connotes a particular quality found in the written culture of humane learning, the profession of “letters” (from Latin litteras), and written texts considered as aesthetic and expressive objects. Of “literature”, the current (2012) Britannica states: "The name has traditionally been applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic excellence of their execution." In that sense, the art of “literature” differs from linguistics, the science of “language” as studied by theoretical linguists, cognitive scientists and others. Unlike scholars in certain fields of learning, such as biology, where the boundaries are fairly well defined, those in the field of literature still debate exactly what the term means. For example, the literature and drama website at the Australian Catholic University begins a long answer to the question “What is literature?” as follows: The quest to discover a definition for “literature” is a road that is much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they inevitably change over time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well. What may be considered ordinary and not worthy of comment in one time period may be considered literary genius in another. Initial reviews of Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights in 1847 were less than spectacular, however, Wuthering Heights is now considered one of the greatest literary achievements of all time. The same can be said for Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851). When the celebrated 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica defined literature as “the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing,” few dared question it. Now, though, a century of such questioning has broadened the definition so that it can include nearly any text in any human language, even works in other media. Practically speaking, literature’s present-day definition is shaped by the perspective from which one regards it: scholars of a theoretical bent see it as embedded in questions of race, class, and gender, and highly variable over historical time, while those more aesthetically inclined tend to emphasize its continuity within traditions of arts and humane letters. One perspective typically mistrusts the other. The study of literature Literature as a subject worthy of academic study was first identified in the nineteenth century. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) traces the English word itself back to the 1200s (when it described familiarity with classical learning); not until the early 1800s was it used in the more modern sense. Classical authors of ancient Greece and Rome generally never recognized the study of “literature” as a discipline per se; rather, they looked at forms such as drama, history, poetry, philosophy, and mythology on their own terms, or in terms of various schools of philosophical or religious thought. With the revival of advanced learning in late medieval and Renaissance Europe, though, the focus of study became classical literature itself—the sense first recorded by the OED; a person of “letters” was one who knew the classical traditions, and could read the classics. Only after literature in modern vernaculars became too significant to ignore did the current sense of the word develop. European universities long resisted according writers working in English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, and other vernacular languages the same status in their curricula as that given to writers of classical Latin and Greek. Dante, Chaucer, Shakespeare, and their contemporaries were always conscious of the perceived inferiority of their native language, even as they rivaled and surpassed the literary achievements of their classical precursors. As scientific learning began to supplant classical learning in the early nineteenth century, universities added philology (the predecessor of modern linguistics) as a discipline, but that field focused more on the historical relationships between languages than on their literature. In the United Kingdom, for example, the first institutions to offer instruction in literature were not the elite universities such as Oxford and Cambridge, but those geared toward students seeking to move up in the world, such as the London Working Men's College (founded in 1854). There, much to their surprise, sons of London bricklayers and artisans encountered teachers such as F.J. Furnivall, an early editor of the OED, who opened his classes with the dramatic announcement that he was about to return a national literature to its citizens, and then commenced reading aloud in Middle English from Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. At the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching, J.C. Collins stressed the influence of classics on English literature, shifting studies of the language away from philology and toward the present-day discipline of comparative literature. In the United States, the study of literature was introduced at normal schools (schools for the preparation of teachers, mostly women at that time), and subsequently at land grant universities, where English literature was given the place assigned at older universities to reading in Latin and Greek. Early professors of English literature, among them Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch and Henry Morley, devoted much of their attention to establishing a canon of suitable texts for study. In the twentieth century, this led to standardized anthologies, such as the Oxford and Norton anthologies of English literature. With the rise of the New Critics in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, scholars began looking at the literary text as a cultural object—a living repository of tradition extending across ages and civilizations. This movement coincided with expanding post-World War II college populations and helped elevate literature’s place and prestige in university curricula. In the 1970s and 1980s, however, proponents of poststructuralist theory began questioning the traditional literary canon and accepted hierarchies: Why, for instance, should lyric poetry be regarded as worthy of literary study, when comic books weren’t? Couldn’t we learn important things about contemporary culture from native American storytelling traditions as well as Italian opera? Practically speaking, this has meant that while college English departments still teach courses in Shakespeare and James Joyce, the sense of a highly exclusive canon of “great writers” is much diminished, and more kinds of literature are fair game for scholarly inquiry. Scope of literature In its broadest sense, literature came into being with the first use of pictographs, hieroglyphs, cuneiform, or alphabetic scripts, although it is more common to designate as "literature" only those texts which contain a degree of imaginative, emotive, allegoric, didactic, or descriptive content. Thus, business records, tallies, or lists are not generally included, even though such texts, which can be found in the earliest civilizations, are significant from a historical and archaeological perspective. The earliest literature evolved from the transcription of pre-existing oral traditional narratives, and progressed gradually to a point where such materials were first composed in written form. Religious texts, while they have of course an entirely different significance to the adherents of the faiths to which they pertain, may also be considered literature when their narrative, figurative, or compositional qualities are foregrounded. The earliest instances of literature, therefore, those termed "ancient", include a variety of texts ranging from the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh to the Hebrew Torah, and onward to the Hellenistic Odyssey of Homer. These texts, though clearly recognized as literature, share an origin in pre-literate cultures, and thus predate, in some sense, the modern use of the term. Later in human history, the deliberate writing of imaginary or fanciful texts, disseminated in written form to a literate audience, marks the first fully self-conscious literary traditions. In this context, although still considered ancient, might be placed such compositions as the Latin Aeneid of Virgil, the Chinese Songs of Chu, or the Greek lyrical poetry of Sappho. With improvements in the production and dissemination of written texts, from Roman copyhouses to the invention of the printing press, along with the increase of a literate reading public, a third sense of "literature," and the one most commonly used today, came into being. Specifically, literature encompasses all imaginative writing in any language, as well as essays, criticism, travel writing, biographies, memoirs, diaries, and collections of letters. Literature was first recorded in pictographic and alphabetic systems of writing, which were either incised on clay tablets or stone, or written with inks or dyes on various flat organic media such as papyrus or parchment. The development of alphabetic systems, in which characters stood for sounds instead of things, by the Phoenician and Greek cultures, enabled a rapid advancement in the variety and dissemination of written literature. In earliest times, such documents were generally prepared and stored on long sheets rolled into scrolls, but beginning in the second century CE, the codex, a bound set of trimmed sheets with a cover, began to predominate; this is the ancestor of the modern book. The introduction of paper to Western Europe in the later Middle Ages greatly reduced the cost of written manuscripts, and the invention of mechanical printing about 1450 led to the printing of books in large numbers, and still further reduction in cost. Further refinements to the printing process, such as machines which could cast whole blocks of type at once, led to the emergence of print as a mass medium in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with new formats such as magazines and newspapers printed in thousands of copies, both for subscribers and for sale at booksellers and newsstands. Genres such as the novel gained tremendous new audiences through appearances in periodical and serial forms, bringing writers such as Poe, Dickens, Verne, and Edgar Rice Burroughs to a mass audience, and establishing literature as a popular medium. In the later twentieth century, the field of popular literature continued to expand, both through the introduction of mass-market genres such as the dime novel and the illustrated press, and via the new commitment to public education and developing a literary curriculum of standard school texts. Established genres, such as detective fiction and science fiction, gained new audiences through the introduction of the paperback book, printed on inexpensive paper with a thin cardboard wrapper, and sold for a small fraction of the cost of a hardcover book. The large number of young readers led to a great expansion of children's literature and adolescent literature, as well as to new popular forms such as the comic book, which in recent years has emerged as a medium for adult fiction in the form of graphic novels. With the advent of new media and technologies in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, texts are often stored and transmitted electronically, magnetically, or digitally, without ever being printed on paper; they also often include, or are linked to audio, video, or multimedia content. Speech can now also be recorded, stored, and transmitted, so that some literary historians, such as Walter J. Ong, regard this as an age of "secondary orality". Such changes will doubtlessly expand and alter the definition of literature, just as did earlier technological developments. A formal distinction common to many literary traditions is that between poetry and prose. Although the precise distinction between these two categories varies somewhat among world literatures, and though the boundaries between them have grown more blurred according to certain modern literary theories, it may generally be observed that poetry depends upon a relatively fixed array of metrical and phonological patterns used as repetitive devices, and involves a more densely interconnected arrangement of imagery and metaphor. In Old English poetry, as in the earliest Latin verse, a fixed pattern of stressed syllables, with the alliteration of their initial sounds, provides the basic structure, whereas in ancient Greek poetry, the length of the syllables was the primary principle. Rhyme, the assonance of the final sounds of words or lines, is one of the most common and recognizable options of poetic structure. Prose, of course, especially prose described as "poetic", may partake of all these qualities as well, though generally not in such a dense and closely patterned manner. Modern poetry also includes forms such as free verse and concrete poetry, which depart from the strict poetic meter or earlier forms, or attempt to abandon formal constraints altogether. Prose is a far more inclusive category, and indeed envelops a wide variety of texts, such as business letters, instruction manuals, newspapers, memos, lists, contracts, speeches, and legal documents, which may not be considered literature at all. The earliest epic narratives were poetic in form, and prose was more generally reserved for the writing of history, religious instruction, or descriptive accounts of events or travels. The modern western tradition of literary prose emerged in the later Middle Ages, in texts such as Boccaccio's Decameron, or the prose segments of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales such as the Tale of Melibee, which Chaucer himself describes as "a litel thing in prose". By the time of the Renaissance, literary prose tended to take the form of extended essays, such as Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, or in narratives now regarded as early antecedents of the novel such as Thomas Nashe's The Unfortunate Traveller. From the eighteenth century onward, literary prose has largely comprised either narrative fiction or essays, along with collections of personal letters, biography, and autobiography. The evolution of various genres of literature has varied considerably in different languages and cultures, although some very general categories can be outlined. Much early imaginative literature can be classed as epic; within this category one would find texts as various as the Odyssey, the Mahabharata, the Finnish Kalevala, the Elder Edda, or the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Epic literature is marked by a strong, central narrative, often focused on the deeds of a single heroic figure, and featuring elaborately detailed accounts of battle. The Greek term "lyric" also has close equivalents in many world literatures; lyric poetry is generally written in short stanzas or strophes, with an emphasis on image and affective emotion. Significant lyric poets in world traditions have included Sappho, Li Po, Kabir, Keats, and Dickinson. Another early and continuing form, dramatic literature, consists of words and actions to be spoken and performed upon a stage by actors; while it has often been recorded in writing and print, the primary venue for this form of literature is theatrical performance. In ancient Greece, where plays evolved out of the religious observances of Dionysus, the works of Aristophanes, Sophocles, and others retain their force after two millennia. Significant world playwrights include Shakespeare, Molière, Ibsen, Chekhov, and Beckett. Some of the paradigms of the stage extend to those of cinema film, and today film studies are often conjoined academically with the study of literature. In the past few centuries, the novel has emerged as one of the dominant literary forms of modern literature, combining some features of the epic (such as a strong, central protagonist) with elements of historical narrative, travel writing, and the naturalistic dialogue of plays. Many claim Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote (1605, 1615) as the first novel, though some assign it instead to the category of mock epic, while others again count centuries earlier Far Eastern works as novels. Among the great practitioners of the novel over the centuries since have been Austen, Dickens, Tolstoy, Proust, Joyce, and Faulkner. Novels themselves, from their first appearance, have been categorized in a variety of topical or formal sub-genres, such as the picaresque novel or the epistolary novel, as well as broader thematic categories such as science fiction, detective fiction, or fantasy. Although their names imply otherwise, national literatures often emerged before the dawn of modern nation-states. Dante, famously, in De Vulgari Eloquentia, his defense of writing in Italian, declared that literary Italian must be "curial", or "of the manner of the Italian court"" - even though, at the time he wrote there was no such singular Italian state. Like Chaucer and other medieval poets, he wrote before the language of his compositions reached its modern form. The writers of the Renaissance were a vital part of the emergence of their respective national literatures, though some, like Sir Thomas More, eschewed their own vernacular in favor of Latin. Even writers whose works now seem essential to their national literature, such as Goethe or Shakespeare, only became legitimate subjects of serious academic consideration very late in the twentieth century, when national vernacular literatures became subjects for schools and universities. Today, at a point when literary works are frequently translated into other languages soon after their publication, and literacy rates around the world are at historic highs, there is a growing sense of an international audience for literature. Not all the study of literature takes place along national lines; comparative literature is one academic discipline that engages in the study of literature in an interdisciplinary and transnational context. The relationships between the national literatures of former colonial powers has also led to postcolonial literature's emergence as a significant area of study. Other interdisciplinary fields with close ties to literature, such as film studies and cultural studies, also move readily across the old boundaries of national and ethnic literatures. The future of literature In 2003, poet Dana Gioia, chairman of the U.S. National Endowment for the Arts, noted that the average American spent a mere twenty-four minutes per day reading, compared to more than four hours spent watching television. "The decline of print as our culture's primary means of codifying, presenting, and preserving information isn't merely a methodological change," he observed, "it is an epistemological transformation." This trend, combined with the proliferation of new media for literary expression—such as e-books, "blogs" and other online vehicles, audiobooks, "podcasts," text messaging, and other technologies—could be seen as cause for alarm about the future of letters, especially on the part of devotees of traditional written literature. Yet Gioia and other literary futurists suggest that the likely outcome is not the end of literature, but new ways in which the literary impulse expresses itself through new media. In other words, the future of literature may have less to do with traditional literacy and letters than anyone can predict. - literature, Primary Contributor: Kenneth Rexroth. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 01 November 2012. - What is literature? Literature and Drama Website. Australian Catholic University. - Kearny, Anthony. "John Churton Collins and the Attempt to Link English and Classics." British Journal of Educational Studies 29:3 (1981), 258-267 - Gioia, Dana. "Disappearing Ink: Poetry at the End of Print Culture." Hudson Review 56.1 (Spring 2003). http://www.hudsonreview.com/gioiaSp03.pdf

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If you’ve lived in the Southeast for a good portion of your life (as our team has), chances are you’ve been exploring Appalachia and the Blue Ridge range for years. But how much do you actually know about the rich Appalachian culture of the Blue Ridge region? Appalachia is a vast area that stretches from southern New York to north Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It encompasses 420 counties across 13 states, spans 205,000 square miles, and is home to some 25 million people. Appalachian culture is a way of life that dates back to the 1700s, when Europeans began immigrating to America in greater numbers. Although it started in the states of North Carolina and Virginia, the culture spread quickly to other states after the Revolutionary War, as settlers began to explore outside the original 13 colonies. The culture of Appalachia consists of art and crafts, food, myths and folklore, multiple ethnic influences (including African, German, and Native American), and an array of stereotypes. It is a culture that essentially defined “Americana” as we know it today. And if your family has roots in Ireland, Scotland, or Germany, chances are good it’s a core aspect of your personal genetic heritage. Read on to learn more about the history of Appalachian culture and people, including a look at how some of the most common stereotypes came to be. READ MORE: 30 Fascinating Blue Ridge Mountains Facts Appalachian Culture Guide - Appalachian History - Appalachian People - Poverty in Appalachia - Appalachian Culture A Brief Appalachian History Native Americans first began to gather in the Appalachian Mountains some 16,000 years ago. Cherokee Indians were the main Native American group of the Southern Appalachian and Blue Ridge regions, but there were also Iroquois, Powhatan, and Shawnee people. The arrival of enslaved Africans in the area dates back to the 16th century. These two groups both had a tremendous influence on the culture of Appalachia. When European immigration began in the 1700s, the settlers claimed lands from the coast west into the Appalachian Mountains. Many of the newcomers who moved deep into rural Appalachia were Scotch-Irish and German, bringing the traditions of their native countries with them. At that time, there were 50+ Cherokee towns and settlements in the area connected by a system of foot trails, many of which later became wagon roads built by Cherokee companies. The growing need for land for immigrants led to countless bloody battles and, ultimately, treaties with the Native American tribes. Unfortunately, these treaties removed nearly all of the Cherokee and other native groups from the region, as the government forced them to move west on the tragic Trail of Tears. The wilderness of Appalachia became a frontier for exploration and living. Daniel Boone, whose 1775 expedition through Virginia’s Cumberland Gap into Kentucky established the route for settlers moving west, became the first folk hero of America’s pioneer era. Eventually disagreements grew between the wealthy elites living in the lowlands and along the coast, and the more rural people of the Appalachian backcountry. The brutality of the Civil War only served to reinforce the resentment many rural people had for government authority and outsiders. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, stereotypes of Appalachian people began to take root. The mountainous region experienced both a Northern economic boom and increased conflict during this period. The rapid growth of the logging industry caused environmental degradation, which led to greater Appalachian conservation efforts. This gave us numerous protected wilderness areas, including Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountains National Park, as well as the George Washington & Jefferson, Chattahoochee-Oconee, and Pisgah National Forest. Appalachia was comprised of a complex mix of ethnic groups. The one common trait that bound them all together is that they were used to working hard and being self-reliant. So they had the intestinal fortitude it took to rough it out in the backcountry of the rugged Blue Ridge mountains. About 90% of Appalachian settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries were Scots-Irish (a.k.a. Scotch-Irish) descendants of Ulster Protestants, whose ancestors had migrated to northern Ireland from the Scottish lowlands. Many had been supporters of William of Orange, the protestant King of Scotland, England, and Ireland, who was affectionately known as “King Billy” among the Scots. When former King James II invaded Ireland in 1689, William’s followers, known as “Billyboys,” hid out in forests along the hills for sneak attacks upon the enemy. When their ancestors came to America, New England was already full of British settlers, so the “hillbillies” settled into the wilderness of the Appalachian Mountain range. They were largely poor, humble, and fiercely self-reliant, with an innate distrust of government after decades of fighting the English and Catholics. This is where Appalachian cultural stereotypes such as family loyalty, rebellion against authority, and passion for self-defense gave rise to the image of hillbillies as wild, reclusive mountain men. Germans (a.k.a. Pennsylvania Dutch) German immigrants (who were often referred to as Dutch because they came from “Deutschland”) were another group that had a huge influence on Appalachian culture. They primarily settled in Pennsylvania and Virginia, bringing with them German foods such as apple butter and sauerkraut, and traditions such as chinked-corner cabins. Their cultural identity was so strong that they didn’t assimilate very well. Instead, they often had their own German schools and churches. But the Germans were treated considerably less harshly in America than the Scotch-Irish and Italian immigrants were, primarily because they looked more like the British colonists. But where the Scots-Irish in Appalachia tended to keep to themselves and were generally too poor to own slaves, the Germans often discriminated against African Americans. And their settlement was much more directly impactful on the displacement of Native American populations. Another interesting, but rarely discussed Appalachian cultural influence was that of the Scandinavians, particularly people from Finland and Sweden. They brought with them woodworking skills from Northern Europe, which gave rise to the log cabin so ubiquitous in the Blue Ridge area today. Although Appalachia is often thought of as a rural, primarily Caucasian region, African Americans have inhabited the area for hundreds of years. In fact, by 1860 an estimated 10% of the Appalachian region’s population was black. As white settlers moved into the Appalachian Mountains, so did Africans, both free and enslaved. Elite whites and Cherokee people alike held Africans in enslavement in southern Appalachia, but the mountain landscape did not naturally lend itself to the large plantations of the Deep South. In fact, the majority of Appalachian people were not slave holders. Folks in what became West Virginia even split off and joined the Union after Virginia voted to join the Confederacy. There was an active Underground Railroad that ran through Appalachia, from Chattanooga north to Pennsylvania. America’s early pioneer era saw whites, blacks, and Indians all living close together in the Appalachian range. This gave rise in the early 19th century to a multiracial group known as the Melungeons, who had African, European, and Native American ancestry. But the African influence on Appalachia persists even today. The banjo– a stringed instrument central to bluegrass and other forms of Appalachian music– originated in Africa. The people of the Afro-Caribbean diaspora also introduced foods such as sorghum cane, sweet potatoes, blackeyed peas, watermelon, and peanuts into Appalachian cuisine. Kentucky-based writer Frank X Walker coined the term “Afrillachia” in the 1990s as a means to bring awareness to the cultural influence of African Americans in Appalachia. And the Black in Appalachia website and podcast are great resources for learning more about this hidden history. Poverty in Appalachia History of Poverty in Appalachia The prevalence of Appalachian poverty came to broader attention in 1940, when James Still’s novel River of Earth (which documented Appalachia during the Great Depression) was published. But by that point, the people of Appalachia had already been suffering for decades. In retrospect, it seemed that the original settlers’ core values of freedom, self-reliance, and a unique inidividual identity eventually put Appalachian people at odds with the advancements of modern life. Isolation, and a fear of losing touch with their traditional values, led to crippling poverty. Even in the 1960s and 70s, many people in Appalachia were still living without basic necessities such as electricity or indoor plumbing. Hunger and a lack of basic hygiene were not uncommon. In 1965, after President Lyndon B. Johnson declared a “War on Poverty,” the Appalachian Regional Commission was launched. Originally founded by John F. Kennedy, this federal-state partnership focused on helping Appalachian people create opportunities for self-sustaining economic development and improved quality of life. The ARC has worked for 55 years to bring the region into socioeconomic parity with the rest of the nation. It defined the region of Appalachia, created educational opportunities for the people who lived there, and invested in economic development projects benefiting all 420 counties. We all know the stereotypes of Appalachian people as “poor white trash.” Inbreds, yokels, hicks, and rednecks are just a few of the common slurs that have been used over the last century (though some country folk reclaimed the last one as a point of pride, seeing it as a reflection of their humble lifestyle and hard work ethic). These stereotypes are not only largely incorrect, but they’re also highly offensive to the people of Appalachia. Especially when the region has been such a rich melting pot of ethnicities and cultures from the very beginning. African-Americans and Latinos are the largest minority groups in the region, but Appalachia’s 20th century coal revolution brought in many other cultures that added to the diversity of the region. The reality is that Appalachia was isolated while the rest of the country was modernizing, leaving them behind in a sense. As a result, they were less educated, less well nourished, and less wealthy than people who lived in major metroplises and their suburbs. Their traditional way of life, which involved living off the land, made the people of Appalachia appear as dirty, hillbilly farmers to outsiders. When in fact they were really the sort of hard-working, salt-of-the-earth people who helped make the United States what it is today. Even now, there are still literacy issues, health problems, and other issues related to poverty that plague parts of Appalachia. There remains an often stark income inequality between the tourists that visit the region and the people who actually live there. One prime example of this is the Biltmore Estate, which was built by the elite Vanderbilts to cater to their upper class friends even as the rest of Appalachia grappled with poverty. Yet still, with help from the ARC and the benefits of tourism revenue, the people of the region are finding ways to improve their circumstances by commodifying the very things that make Appalachian culture so uniquely American. Appalachian Art & Crafts We’ve reiterated multiple times throughout this story how important self-sufficiency has always been to Appalachian people. So perhaps it’s no surprise that arts and crafts in Appalachia originally came out of necessity. Handmade quilts, coverlets, pottery, wood carvings, and woven baskets were beautiful and often displayed in the home. But they also served a more functional purpose than mere décor. The use of natural dyes and natural materials (as well as whatever scraps of fabric they had on hand) resulted in unique and colorful pieces that brought art to the homes of Appalachia. There was a push that started back in the 1920s to preserve traditional Appalachian arts and crafts. But technology and market demand has influenced both the process and result of these works over the course of the last century. The Appalachian Mural Trail, which goes through the Blue Ridge National Heritage Area and the Appalachian Mountains, is a movement to create outdoor murals that depict Appalachian culture. Travelers can also visit the Appalachian Craft Center in Asheville, the Southern Highland Craft Guild’s Folk Art Center off the Blue Ridge Parkway in Asheville, and the Appalachian Center For Craft at Tennessee Tech to learn more about the history and evolution of Appalachian art. Christianity has been the predominant religion in Appalachia ever since European immigration to the area began in the 1700s. These Christian influences blended with traditional European (i.e. pagan) and Native American spiritual beliefs, creating a unique blend of folklore and mythology in Appalachia. The Cherokee brought their reverence for nature and knowledge of native plants, herbs, and animals, influencing local practices for centuries. Cherokee folklore influenced Appalachian storytelling in the way it dramatically characterized animals or other inanimate objects in nature. Old English, Scottish, Irish, and German (see: the Brothers Grimm) fairy tales came from Europe. These fairy tales, combined with regional events, also shaped Appalachian folklore. There are “Jack Tales,” which usually revolve around a single, hard-working figure. Jack is usually lazy or foolish, but through cleverness and tricks he succeeds in his quest. Some examples of old English Jack Tales are “Jack & the Beanstalk” and “Jack Frost.” In Appalachia, Jack is likely to be a sheriff or a more common man. And, like most Appalachian folklore, these Jack Tales were passed down orally, rather than being written down. Another popular type of folktale in Appalachia involves regional heroes, such as Davy Crockett, Daniel Boone, Johnny Appleseed, and John Henry. These stories are based on real figures and events, but they take on folklore status as the stories are exaggerated for dramatic effect. Murder and stories of the macabre are also popular in Appalachia’s folk ballads. Murderers like John Hardy, victims such as Omie Wise, and specters like the Greenbriar Ghost are all common horrific stories that became lasting oral traditions. But the most popular Appalachian folktales involve mysterious creatures such as Bigfoot and the Mothman. B oth have garnered a wealth of attention, including the 2002 film The Mothman Prophecies, the TV show Finding Bigfoot, and the Expedition Bigfoot Museum near Blue Ridge, GA. Storytelling plays an essential role in Appalachian culture, which was historically passed down orally. These oral traditions no doubt influenced later literature. Early literature on the region included observations by famous icons, like Thomas Jefferson and Davy Crockett. But for many years it was primarily outsiders giving their perspectives on the wilderness of Appalachia. Then in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, more and more Appalachian authors started giving their perspectives on their region and its cultural traditions. Some famous examples are James Still’s River of Earth, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, James Agee’s A Death in the Family, Charles Frazier’s Cold Mountain, Fannie Flagg’s Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe, and Homer Hickam Jr’s Rocket Boys. But the Foxfire books were arguably the most influential literature in terms of encouraging American appreciation of Appalachian culture and its traditional way of life. An ongoing series whose first volume was published in 1972, these books edited by Eliot Wigginton have introduced millions of people to the traditional wisdom of these mountains. Through interviews with old-timers (including the world-famous Aunt Arie), the books teach creative self-sufficiency and help preserve the stories, crafts, and customs of Southern Appalachia. If you have any interest whatsoever in building log cabins, mountain crafts and foods, planting by the signs, hunting tales, faith healing, or moonshining, they are truly a must-read. We’ll have a more in-depth story about the Foxfire Museum & Heritage Center in Clayton, GA coming soon! READ MORE: The Best Things to Do in Clayton, GA As you would probably expect, traditional Appalachian food largely consists of the things local people found in nature– wild plants, core crops, and hunted animals. Some common Appalachian food staples include corn (for making cornbread), apples, home grown vegetables, flour (for biscuits), grits, and stews made with rabbit or chicken. Preserving and canning fruits and vegetables is a major component of Appalachian food culture. As a child I remember going to Asheville every year with my family to get fresh green beans and peaches for making preserves. It’s also interesting to explore the origins of some common Appalachian cooking staples. Corn, beans, and squash were called “the three sisters” and grown together by Native Americans. Corn grew high, squash closer to the ground, and beans wrapped around the cornstalks. The Scots-Irish immigrants brought their agricultural practices to make these and other ingredients more widely available. African-Americans brought sorghum cane, sweet potatoes, red peppers, okra, blackeyed peas, watermelon, and peanuts. What all of these various ethnic groups’ foods have in common are homegrown (or wild foraged) simple, natural ingredients. If you’re not from the Appalachian region, do yourself a favor and try dishes like Chow Chow, Skillet Cornbread, Chicken & Dumplings, and Country Ham with Red Eye Gravy. If you like to cook at home, the Southern Foodways Alliance Community Cookbook is a great source for traditional Appalachian recipes. READ MORE: The 10 Best Restaurants in Blue Ridge GA Appalachian Music & Dance For many of us who grew up in the South, Appalachian music was the first aspect of the culture we were introduced to. Over the last 100+ years of audio recording, the sounds of bluegrass and country music has carried across the country and around the globe. As with everything else, the music of Appalachia is a combination of cultural influences. The high, lonesome yearning of English and Scottish ballads, the uptempo rhythms of Scottish and Irish fiddle music, the rhythmic syncopation of African banjo, and the minor key melancholy of the blues. Commercial recordings in the 1920s solidified Appalachia’s influence on the bluegrass, country, and folk music now collectively referred to as “Americana.” Legendary acts like the Carter Family, Fiddlin’ John Carson, Dock Boggs, Jean Ritchie, Bascom Lamar Lunsford, and Fiddlin’ Doc Roberts defined the sound of American folk music that still resonates stronger than ever today. This music is often accompanied by mountain dancing, which is a mixture of Scottish, Irish, English, and Dutch folk dances combined with African and Native American traditions. Clogging, flatfoot dancing, and square dancing are three of the more popular dancing styles in Appalachian history. Clogging strictly follows the syncopated rhythms of the music, while flatfoot dancing allows the dancer a bit more freedom of expression. Square dancing is still very popular in parts of Appalachia today. The only one of these dances that requires a partner, it evolved from ancient social dancing in Europe. Attempts to preserve these Appalachian cultural traditions began in the 1950s, with the American folk music revival launched by the release of Harry Smith’s Anthology of American Folk Music. It once seemed as if these aspects of Appalachian culture might be lost forever once the Great Depression generation passed on. But today these traditions are celebrated by locals and visitors alike, with tourism providing a hopeful future for the region. –by Sonny Grace Bray & Bret Love

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Transcript: A little bit about Hydrogen Peroxide Google images Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, and how substances interact with energy (Bagley, 2014). Branches of chemistry 1) A large plastic bottle 2) Hydrogen peroxide 3) Food coloring 4) 1 Tbsp Dawn dish soap 5) 1 packet dry yeast 6) 4 Tbsp warm water 7) Aluminum tray 8) Funnel Google images References How does Hydrogen Peroxide work? 1) Place the plastic bottle in the aluminum tray 2) Then, place the hydrogen peroxide, dish soap, and food coloring in the plastic bottle. 3) In a separate cup, mix the yeast and warm water. Swirl for ~30 seconds. 4) Pour the solution into the plastic bottle and ... chemistry happens! Procedures (Meerman, 2009) What did you learn today? Google images Google images Google images Yeast as a catalyst www.buzzle.com Provided by Google images Modern chemistry dates back to the 17th century, and some credited founding fathers are known as Robert Boyle, John Dalton, and Antoine Lavoisier (What is Chemistry?, 2003). Hydrogen Peroxide. (2005). Retrieved 2016, from http://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-76035/hydrogen-peroxide/details Bagley, M. (2014, May 30). What is Chemistry? Retrieved 2016, from http://www.livescience.com/45986-what-is-chemistry.html Meerman, R. (2009). Surfing Scientist. Retrieved 2016, from http://www.abc.net.au/science/surfingscientist/pdf/teachdemo26.pdf Schmidt, D. (2014, March 05). How does hydrogen peroxide work? Retrieved 2016, from http://theartoffloating.com/2014/03/hydrogen-peroxide-work/ What is Chemistry? (2003). Retrieved 2016, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-chemistry-definition-history-branches.html What is Chemistry? (2014, December 02). Retrieved 2016, from http://chemistry.about.com/cs/chemistry101/f/bldefinition.htm How to make "Elephant toothpaste" Today I will be demonstrating a simple chemistry experiment! The two main components are hydrogen peroxide and yeast Cool Chemistry It works by releasing oxygen when applied to affected area. This release causes foaming, which helps to remove dead skin and clean the area (Hydrogen peroxide, 2005). What is Chemistry? Conclusion Google images Yeast contains the enzyme catalase The addition of yeast to hydrogen peroxide increases the decomposition rate of hydrogen peroxide into its separate components, including heat (Meerman, 2009). Materials: Hydrogen peroxide, commonly known as an antiseptic agent, is used on the skin to prevent infection in minor cuts, scrapes, and burns (Hydrogen peroxide, 2005). Everything around you is made up of chemicals Environmental changes are caused by chemical reactions; i.e. food cooking, leaves changing color, etc. (What is Chemistry?, 2014) Your body is made up of chemicals and is highly made up of water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Why is chemistry important in everyday life? The aftermath Transcript: Created by Jesus Valencia and Juan Estanislao for Mrs. Muldong Research Information and Bases Acids What are Acids and Bases? What are Acids and Bases? Acids Acids You can recognize acid in liquids by their tart, sour, or sharp taste. Many other acids are highly caustic and should not be put to the taste test. Strong Acids Strong Acids A Strong Acid is an acid that ionizes completely in a solvent. Examples of a Strong Acid are the following: Hydochloric Acid (HCL), Hydrobromic acid (HBr), Hydriodic acid (HI), Nitric acid (HNO3), Sulfuric acid, (H2SO4), Perchloric acid (HCL04), Periodic acid (HL04). Weak Acids Weak Acids Weak Acids are acids that releases few hydrogen ions in a aqueous solution. Examples of Weak Acids are the following: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Hydrocyanic acid (HCN), Hydroflouric acid (HF), Nitrous acid (HNO2), Sulfurous acid (H2SO3), Hypochlorous acid (HOCL), Phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Bases Bases Unlike acids, which are usually liquids or gases, many common bases are solids. Solutions of bases are slippery to the touch, but touching bases is an unsafe way to identify them. Strong Bases Strong Bases Strong Bases are bases that ionizes completely in a solvent. Examples for Strong Bases are the following: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hyrdroxide (KOH), Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2, Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2), and Sodium Phosphate (Na3PO4). Weak Bases Weak Bases Weak Bases are bases that releases few hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions. Examples of Weak Bases are the following: Ammonia (NH3), Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3), Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3), Aniline (C6H5NH2), and Trimethylamine (CH3)3N). Acidity, Basicity, and pH Acidity, and Basicity, and pH Water is both an acid and a base. This means that a water molecule can either give or receive a proton. For example when their are a pair of water molecules ---> (H2OCL)+ (H2OCL)---> (H3O) (aq)+ (OH) (aq). A pair of water molecules are in equilibrium with two ions- a hyrdronium ion and a hydroxide ion- in a reaction known as the selfionization of water. Thus, even pure water contains ions. When the concentration of (H3O) goes up, the concentration of (OH) goes down, and vice versa. An equilibrium- a constant expression relates the concentration of species involved in an equilibrium. The relationship for the water equilibrium is simply (H3O+) + (OH-)= Keq. This equilibrium constant is called the self-ionization constant of water. Its so important that it has its own special symbol,Kw. The product of these two ion concentration is always constant. The concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution expresses its bascicity. pH determines how basic or acidic something is. When acidity and basicity are exactly balanced such that the numbers of the (H3O+) and (OH-) ions are equal, we say that the solution is neutral. For an example, pure water is neutral because it contains equal amounts of the two ions. Certain dyes known as indicators, turn different colors in solutions of diferent pH. Neutralization and Titrations Neutrailization and Titrations When a solution has a high (H3O+) concentration, it high enough to react with and dissolve metals. High concentrations of (H3O+) (aq) and (OH-) (aq) cannot co-exist. Most of these ions have reacted with each other in a process known as a neutralization reaction. When solutions of a strong acid and a strong base, having exactly equal amounts of (H2O+) (aq) and (OH-) (aq) ions are mixed, almost all of the hydronium and hydroxide ions react to form water. The reaction is described by the equation: (H3O+) (aq) + (OH-) (aq) ---> (2H20Cl). The game reaction happens regardless of the identities of the strong acid and strong base. After hydrochloric acid neutralizes a solution of sodium hydroxide, the only solutes remaining are (Na+) (aq) and (Cl-) (aq). When the water is evaporated, a small amount of sodium chloride crystals. If an acidic solution is added gradualy to a basic solution, at some point the neutralization reaction ends because the hydroxide ions becomes used up. This process is called equivalence point. The gradual addition of one solution to another to reach an equivalence point is called a Titration. The purpose of a titration is to determine the concentration of an acid or a base. Titrant is used to measure the volume of the alkaline solution. To find the concentration of the solution being titrated, you must of course, already have the concentration of the titrant. A solution whose concentration is already known is called a standard solution. All indicators have a transition cage. In this range the indicator is partly in its basic form. The instand at which the indicator changes color is the end point of the titration. If an appropriate indicator is chosen, the end point and the equivalence point wiil be the same. Equilibria of weak Acids and Bases Equilibira of weak acids and bases Formic acid is a typical Bronstec- lowry acid, able to donate a proton to a base, such as the acetate ion, CH3COO. The name Transcript: Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or visibly reacting unattended. Always turn off the burner or hot plate when not in use. Rule #9 Rule #50 Keep the lab clean. Materials (books, purses, backpacks, etc.) should be stored in the classroom area. Safety Rules Transcript: More Stable - Ions are easily formed eactions LIGAND SUBSTITUTION - is a reaction in which one ligand in a complex ions is replaced by another ligand. The ligand that is replaced in most ligand substitution is water molecules. COMMON LIGANDS :OH - hydroxide (-1) :CN - cyanide (-1) :SCN - Thiocyanate (-1) :Cl - Chloride (-1) :NH3 - Ammonia (neutral) :OH2 - Water (neutral) First Reaction The water particles in the aqueous copper (II) ions dissociate and hydrogen gas is produced. A pale blue precipitate is formed Second Reaction The excess ammonia is acting as a ligand and kicks off four of the waters. A dark bue solution is formed. Concentrated hydrochloric is added to an aqueous solution containing cobalt (II) ions. Aqueous cobalt (II) ions are pale pink in colour and when hydrochloric acid it turns to a dark blue solution. The HCl replaces six water molecules in the complex ions are replaced by four chloride ions. The reaction is reversible and can be represent in a equilibrium equation. Definition: (Equilibrium) Left Ligand Substitution is the equilibrium constant for an equilibrium existing between a transition metal ion surrounded by water ligands and the complex formed when the same ion has undergone a ligand substitution. Stability Constant Aqueous Copper(II) ions and Hydrochloric Acid Right R Concentrated hydrochloric is added to an aqueous solution containing copper (II) ions. The solution starts off at pale blue solution, initially forms a green solution before finally turning yellow. The reaction exists in equilibrium and can be reversed by adding water to the yellow solution to return to its original colour blue. It turns green when there is equal concentrations of both aqueous copper(II) ions and concentrated HCl. High Stability constant Low Stability Constant Aqueous Cobalt(II) ions and Hydrochloric Acid LIGANDS SUBSTITUTION AND STABILITY CONSTANTS Explain what is meant by ligand substitute giving two examples that are accompanied by a color change and including equations in your answer. Aqueous Copper(II) ions and Ammonia Transcript: Propane can exist as a liquid and a gas. In its most natural state, it is clear, odorless, colorless, and non-toxic. When it turns into a gas it becomes bubbly. Think of it this way, water is liquid and steam is water vapor. Fun Fact: *Propane is the 3rd most popular gas used in vehicle transportation* What its used for? Propane iiii Propane Explosions Looks Like? *Commercial odorant is added so it can be detected if it leaks from it's container* Propane mixed with butane is mainly used as vehicle fuel. Propane mixed with air can start a flame. Propane starts out as a liquid then turns into a gas when it is exposed to air which causes it to ignite. Propane undergoes combustion reactions in a similar fashion to other alkanes. In the presence of excess oxygen, propane burns to form water and carbon dioxide. *Propane is flammable when mixed with air (oxygen) and can be ignited* Where its found? How it got named? The risk with the gas comes at high levels of exposure where the propane has displaced enough oxygen to cause asphyxia. Asphyxia is where the body cannot acquire enough oxygen and could lead to death. In liquid form, the risk is that exposure will cause frostbite on your skin. Fun Fact: Propane is usually found mixed with natural gas and petroleum deposits in rocks deep underground. Propane is called a fossil fuel because it was formed millions of years ago from the remains of tiny sea animals and plants. Reactions Formula Propane is used as fuel for furnaces for heat, in cooking as an energy source for water heaters, laundry dryers, barbecues, portable stoves, and motor vehicles The "prop-" root found in "propane" and names of other compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from the origin "propionic acid" *Propane helps to reduce ozone depletion. It has the ability to replace chlorofluorocarbon & hydro fluorocarbon refrigerants* Effects: Chemical Compound: Who Discovered? Fun Fact: Fun Fact Propane wasn't discovered till 1912 when Dr. Walter Snelling was directing a series of experiments for the U.S. Bureau of Mines, he discovered that several evaporating gases could be changed into liquids and stored at moderate pressure. Dr. Snelling developed a way to "bottle" the wet (liquid) gas. One year later, the commercial propane industry began heating American homes. Transcript: Chemical properties describe how things react Physical properties describe smell, sight, feeling etc Isotope: atoms of same element with a different number of neutrons Quantum Numbers Step 2: Start by energy level Ions: atom of an element with a charge Never use "mono" for first element in molecule The Periodic Table Polar and Polar mix Polar: when one side completely pulls Binary Salt Ionization Energy: amount of energy required to remove an electron Step 1: Identify how many electrons -One element after "H" -Add hydro- prefix -Ends in -ate, change ending to -ic N, L, Ml, Ms Ionic Bonds Step 1. Assume 100 grams Mixtures: -Homogenous: same throughout; consistent -Heterogenous: Different throughout; inconsistent Chemical and Physical Changes The Quantum Numbers Valence Shell: outer most shell of electron Protons: positive Electrons: negative Neutrons: neutral -When an ionic bond occurs, net charge should equal 0 J.J Thomson's experiment proved there was a negative charge within atom with help of the decotho ray experiment (I spelled "decotho" wrong) Rutherford discovered the the nucleus and protons with the gold-foil experiment Sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons, electrons Core electrons: all electrons not in valence shell Non-polar: when everything pulls the same Steps Polyatomic Acid Dalton's Atomic Theory 1. All substances are made up of tiny particles called atoms 2. Nothing is smaller than an atom 3. Atoms of the same element are identical 4. Law of Conservation of Mass: matter cannot be neither created nor destroyed 5. Law of Constant Composition: all molecules of same compound are made of same ratio of element 2. Identify the anion and give its name, but change ending to -ide Ionic and Covalent Bonds Discoveries 5. Use mass of empirical formulas and given mole mass to identify molecular formula Use Latin prefixes Step 4. Simplify ratio by dividing by samllest number Electronegativity: attractedness of an atom to an electron; increases left to right on P.T Empirical Formulas: simplest ratio of elements in compounds Monoatomic Acid Hector Bocanegra Period 2 -Occurs with nonmetals and metals Non-polar and non-polar mix Atomic Radius: size of atom; distance from valence shell Types of Reactions -Occur when there is a large amount of difference in negativity Nonmetal + nonmetal Nomenclature -N: energy level -L: orbital -Ml: orientation -Ms: spin Covalent Bonds Sub-Atomic Particles History of Atom Polarity Electronegativity Molecular Formulas: the exact composition of a compound -Exist in nonmetal and nonmetal Solids -definite shape and definite volume Liquids -definite shape and indefinite volume Gas -indefinite shape and indefinite volume Empirical and Molecular Formulas Polar substances will always be uneven -Ends in -ite, change ending to -ous Step 2. Convert to moles Step 3. Write a ratio of elements -Octet Rule: valence shell should have 8 electrons Not all physical changes are permanent Color is a physical property; a CHANGE in color is a chemical 1. Identify the cation and give its full name Compounds and Molecules Acid Nomenclature Orbitals exist for every energy level, but only some exist on each energy level Electron Configuration - Made when ions are shared (electron) Synthesis- puts together Decomposition- separates Precipitation- combination of 2 liquids to a solid Single-Replacement- one swap Double-Replacement- two swaps Combustion- fire/explosion Redox- change in charge, one molecule steals an electron Nomenclature "Like dissolves Like" Element: cannot be broken down further a. If no charge is given, number of electrons=number of protons When element starts with vowel, drop "a" in prefix - In order to represent how covalent compounds are structured, we use a system called the Lewis Dot Structure Chemistry PowerPoint Transcript: -Born/Death/Age Died/Nationality -Born 384 BC in Stageira, Chalcidice. And died 322 BC in Euboea at the age of 61 or 62.) -Aristotle was a Greek Philosopher and Polymath. -Contributions To Science -Aristotle proposed the fifth element of "Aether," which consists of celestial bodies and stars, along with the already established other four elements of: Earth, Water, Air, and Fire. -Aristotle defined motion as "The actuality of a potentiality as such." -Aristotle was one of the first people to make a way to classify living things. -Born/Died/Death Age/Nationality -Born 460 BC in Abdera, Thrace. Died 370 BC at the age of 90. -Democritus was an Ancient Greek Philosopher. -Contributions To Science -Came up with the Theory that everything is made up of "atoms" with Leucippus. -Proposed the earliest views on the shapes and connectivity of atoms. -Has a type of atom named after him. The Democritean atom. -The democritean atom is an inert solid that interacts with other atoms mechanically. Democritus Democritus Powerpoint By: Jear Bear (: Democrites & Aristotle Aristotle Aristotle -Interesting Life Facts!! -Aristotle wrote many books over the subjects of Physics, Metaphysics, Poetry, Theater, Music, Logic, Rhetoric, Linguistics, Politics, Government, Ethics, Biology, and Zoology. -Taught Alexander The Great and was a student of Plato. -Interesting Life Facts -Most of his discoveries/contributions to science were with his mentor Leucippus. -Formulated the Atomic Theory for the world. Transcript: Example of a Jeopardy Template By: Laken Feeser and Rachel Chapman When creating without a template... http://www.edtechnetwork.com/powerpoint.html https://www.thebalance.com/free-family-feud-powerpoint-templates-1358184 Example of a Deal or No Deal Template PowerPoint Game Templates There are free templates for games such as jeopardy, wheel of fortune, and cash cab that can be downloaded online. However, some templates may cost more money depending on the complexity of the game. Classroom Games that Make Test Review and Memorization Fun! (n.d.). Retrieved February 17, 2017, from http://people.uncw.edu/ertzbergerj/msgames.htm Fisher, S. (n.d.). Customize a PowerPoint Game for Your Class with These Free Templates. Retrieved February 17, 2017, from https://www.thebalance.com/free-powerpoint-games-for-teachers-1358169 1. Users will begin with a lot of slides all with the same basic graphic design. 2. 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Popular game templates include: Family Feud Millionaire Jeopardy and other quiz shows. http://www.free-power-point-templates.com/deal-powerpoint-template/ Quick video on template "Millionaire" PowerPoint Games Some games are easier to make compared to others If users are unsure whether or not downloading certain templates is safe, you can actually make your own game by just simply using PowerPoint. add logo here References Example of a Family Feud Template PowerPoint Games are a great way to introduce new concepts and ideas You can create a fun, competitive atmosphere with the use of different templates You can change and rearrange information to correlate with the topic or idea being discussed. Great with students, workers, family, etc. For example: With games like Jeopardy and Family Feud, players can pick practically any answers. The person who is running the game will have to have all of the answers in order to determine if players are correct or not. However, with a game like Who Wants to be a Millionaire, the players only have a choice between answers, A, B, C, or D. Therefore, when the player decides their answer, the person running the game clicks it, and the game will tell them whether they are right or wrong. Description: The sky’s the limit. Boost your new sales initiative into orbit with an engaging and compelling SKO presentation. This template features a effective sales kickoff theme that makes it easy to be engaging. Like all Prezi SKO templates, it’s fully customizable with your own information. Description: Catch the eye and engage the imagination with this cool-looking Prezi proposal template. The bold, bright design and highly dynamic theme all but guarantee success for your next sales or marketing proposal. All Prezi presentation templates are easily customized. Description: Storytelling is at the heart of great service. 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In the Beginning Although the details vary in the retelling, one Philippine creation myth focuses on this core element: a piece of bamboo, emerging from the primordial earth, split apart by the beak of a powerful bird. From the bamboo a woman and man come forth, the progenitors of the Filipino people. The genesis of the Philippine nation, however, is a more complicated historical narrative. During their sixteenth-century expansion into the East, Ferdinand Magellan and other explorers bearing the Spanish flag encountered several uncharted territories. Under royal decree, Spanish colonizers eventually demarcated a broad geographical expanse of hundreds of islands into a single colony, thus coalescing large groups of cultural areas with varying degrees of familiarity with one another as Las Islas Filipinas. Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, claiming this area for the future King Philip II of Spain in the mid-1500s, took possession of the islands while imagining the first borders of the future Philippine state. During Spanish rule, the boundaries of the empire changed as Spain conquered, abandoned, lost, and regained several areas in the region. Had other colonies been maintained or certain battles victorious, Las Islas Filipinas could have included, for example, territory in what is now Borneo and Cambodia. When, during the Seven Years’ War, Spain lost control of Manila from 1762–64, the area effectively became part of the British Empire. The issue of shifting boundaries notwithstanding, the modern-day cartographic image of the Philippine archipelago as a unified whole was credited to Jesuit priest Pedro Murillo Velarde, Francisco Suarez, and Nicolas de la Cruz who, in 1734, conceptualized, sketched, and engraved the first accurate map of the territory. Explorers for Spain were not the first to encounter the islands. Chinese, Arabic, and Indian traders, for example, engaged in extensive commerce with local populations as early as 1000 AD. Yet it was the Spanish government that bound thousands of islands under a single colonial rule. The maps delineating Las Islas Filipinas as a single entity belied the ethnolinguistic diversity of the area. Although anthropological investigations continue, scholars believe Spain claimed territory encompassing over 150 cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups. Within this colonial geography, however, Spain realized that the actual distance between the capital center of Manila and areas on the margins (as well as the very real problems with overcoming difficult terrain between communities) made ruling difficult. Socially and geographically isolated communities retained some indigenous traditions while experiencing Spanish colonial culture in varying degrees. Vicente Rafael’s White Love and Other Events in Filipino History (2000) chronicles this disconnection between the rule of the colonial center and those within the territorial borders.1 His conclusions suggest in part that although the naming and mapping of Filipinas afforded the Spanish a certain legitimacy when claiming the islands, this was in some ways a cosmetic gesture. Instead of unifying the diverse local populations under one banner during the almost 400 years of Spanish rule, various groups remained fiercely independent or indifferent to the colonizer; some appropriated and reinterpreted Spanish customs,2 while others toiled as slaves to the empire.3 As they spread throughout the islands, Spanish conquistadors encountered a variety of religions; during the sixteenth century, the areas now referred to as the Luzon and Visayas cluster of islands were home to several belief systems that were chronicled by the Christian friars and missionaries who came into contact with them. Famed Philippine historian William Henry Scott (1994) recounts, for instance, examples of Visayans who “worshiped nature spirits, gods of particular localities or activities, and their own ancestors”;4 Bikolanos whose “female shamans called baliyan . . . spoke with the voice of departed spirits, and delivered prayers in song”;5 and Tagalogs whose pantheon included “Lakapati, fittingly represented by a hermaphrodite image with both male and female parts, [who] was worshipped in the fields at planting time.”6 Over time, however, Spain’s colonial hegemony, power, and influence used to consolidate their rule spread through the vehicle of Catholicism, supplanting or heavily influencing several of the local spiritual traditions, which were transformed to fit the new religious paradigm. In the 1560s, Spaniard Miguel López de Legazpi introduced Catholic friars to the north. Christianity redefined the worldview and relationships of some of the locals, implementing a social structure heavily based on Biblical perspectives and injunctions. By the eighteenth century, indigenous people caught practicing so-called pagan rituals were punished; local histories written on bamboo or other materials were burned, and cultural artifacts were destroyed. Church edifices dominated the landscape as the symbolic and psychological center of the permanent villages and towns that sprung up around them. Once firmly established, the Catholic Church, through various religious orders with their own agendas, clearly shared power with Spain, and the two jointly administered the colonization of the islands. However, Spanish Catholic colonial rule was incomplete. Domination of the southern half of the archipelago proved impossible due in large part to the earlier introduction of Islam in approximately 1380. Muslim traders traveled in and around the southern islands, and over time, these merchants likely married into wealthy local families, encouraging permanent settlements while spreading Islam throughout the area. By the time of Spanish arrival in the sixteenth century, the Islamic way of life was already well-established; for example, the Kingdom of Maynila (site of present-day Manila) was ruled by Rajah Sulayman, a Muslim who fought against Spanish conquest. Scholars agree that the Spanish arrival profoundly affected the course of Philippine history. Had Magellan or other colonizers never arrived or landed much later, they may have encountered a unified Muslim country. As history would have it, however, Spain encountered serious resistance in the Filipinas south, sowing the seeds of one of the oldest and bitterest divisions in contemporary Philippine society. Spanish colonizers soon realized they were against a strong, although not entirely uniform or unified, Muslim people. The constant struggle to extend Spanish hegemony to the south spawned the Spanish-Moro Wars, a series of long-standing hostilities between Muslims and Spanish. From the late 1500s until the late 1800s, Spain attempted to gain a foothold in the area— succeeding only to the extent that some soldiers were eventually allowed by local leaders to maintain a small military presence. Spanish colonial leaders, however, never dominated or governed the local area, despite laying claim to the territory. The Catholic Church, through various religious orders with their own agendas, clearly shared power with Spain, and the two jointly administered the colonization of the islands. During the late eighteenth century, revolutionaries such as Gabriela and Diego Silang fought for a free Ilocano nation in the northern Philippines. Other revolutionaries emerged, and by the end of the nineteenth century, leaders such as Andrés Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto were pressuring Spanish leadership on several fronts. Future national hero José Rizal incurred the wrath of the colonial government with the publication of Noli Me Tángere (Touch Me Not, 1887) and El Filibusterismo (The Filibustering, 1891). Rizal, born to a relatively prosperous family of Filipino, Spanish, Chinese, and Japanese descent, was well-educated in the Philippines and in parts of Europe. A true renaissance man, Rizal was an ophthalmologist, scientist, writer, artist, and multilinguist whose works were written in several languages, including Spanish and Latin. Noli Me Tángere and El Filibusterismo, first published in Germany and Belgium, respectively, brought international attention to the abuses of the Filipino people by the colonial government and Catholic Church. Throughout Rizal’s life, he continued writing and advocating reforms such as the recognition of Filipinos as free and equal citizens to the Spanish. Rizal’s popularity grew amongst Filipinos fighting against Spanish oppression, drawing the suspicion of local officials who accused him of associating with armed insurgents. In 1896, Rizal was arrested and convicted of several crimes, including inciting rebellion, and was executed by firing squad on December 30. However, rather than suppressing the revolution, Rizal’s death cast him as a martyr for the cause, and his works were more widely disseminated and read by leaders fighting for an independent Philippines. Today, Rizal’s immortality extends to national hero status, with numerous awards, national monuments, parks, associations, movies, poems, and books dedicated to his memory. Today, Rizal’s immortality extends to national hero status, with numerous awards, national monuments, parks, associations, movies, poems, and books dedicated to his memory. Rizal’s writings proliferate on the Internet. His works, once considered seditious propaganda by some, are now available as free downloads.7 Admirers who take to social media characterize Rizal as their hero and post facts about his background and achievements or quotes from his texts.8 The power of Rizal’s narratives transcend the paper documents handwritten 125 years ago. He is remembered as a Filipino writing for his people, a native son who used the tools of storytelling to expose the truth about life under colonial rule. Colonialism: The Sequel Scholars argue that the execution of Rizal inspired a broader fight for freedom from the Spanish government. Led by heroes such as Bonifacio, the Philippine Revolution began in 1896 and included numerous battles against Spanish forces on multiple fronts. By 1898, as Spain was fighting to quell the uprisings in the Philippines, it became embroiled in the Spanish-American War. After losing to the United States in several land and naval battles, Spain released the Philippines and other colonies to the US in exchange for US $20 million, as agreed upon in the Treaty of Paris of 1898. During the negotiation of the treaty, the American Anti-Imperialist League opposed the annexation of the Philippines. Composed of social, political, and economic luminaries of the era (for example, activist Jane Addams and former President Grover Cleveland), the league organized a series of publications criticizing the US government’s colonial policies. Mark Twain, prominent author, wrote for the The New York Herald in 1900: I have read carefully the Treaty of Paris, and I have seen that we do not intend to free, but to subjugate the people of the Philippines. We have gone there to conquer, not to redeem. . . . It should, it seems to me, be our pleasure and duty to make those people free, and let them deal with their own domestic questions in their own way. And so I am an anti-imperialist. I am opposed to having the eagle put its talons on any other land.9 The treaty was hotly debated by the Senate. Ultimately, ratification of the treaty was approved on February 6, 1899, by a vote of fifty-seven in favor and twenty-seven against—a single vote more than the required twothirds majority. Meanwhile in the Philippines, Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader in the fight for freedom, declared an independent Philippine government—which neither the Spanish nor United States governments acknowledged. When the final version of the Treaty of Paris was enacted, the islands once again became subject to the laws and policies of another distant nation. Americans who supported annexing the Philippines viewed the archipelago as a doorway through which the United States could gain more of a financial foothold in Asia while extending its empire overseas. Before the US could begin fully establishing control of the islands, a new war began. Some scholars have termed it “the first Việt Nam,” referencing the extended armed conflict which ended in 1975 between North Việt Nam and the US, whom many North Vietnamese also perceived as an imperialist aggressor. The Philippine-American war began on February 4, 1899, when American soldiers opened fire on Filipinos in Manila. In the first years of US occupation, the battles were fought between the new US colonizers and Filipino guerrilla armies tired of existing under any foreign rule. James Hamilton-Paterson, a British travel writer and commentator on the Philippines, estimates that the war’s death toll included over 4,000 American and 16,000 Filipino soldiers, as well as almost one million civilians who perished from hunger and disease.10 Although the war officially ended in 1902, skirmishes continued for several years afterward. Under the rule of the United States, a plethora of people, ideas, and changes to the infrastructure flooded the archipelago. During this era, Christian groups flourished as Protestants and other denominations began proselytizing via missionary expeditions. Organizations such as the Salvation Army and the YMCA began operations in the Philippines; the so-called “Big Three” of American voluntary associations, the Lions Club, Kiwanis, and Rotary, also quickly spread throughout the islands. The United States military sponsored the establishment of hospitals and funded improvements to roads and bridges. Prominent urban planner Daniel Burnham visited the Philippines in 1904 and designed the capital city of Manila for redevelopment.11 US culture dominated Philippine life. Linguist Bonifacio P. Sibayan, for example, discusses the introduction of English by American colonial authorities as the medium of instruction in schools: “English thus became the only medium of instruction in the schools, the only language approved for use in the school, work, in public school buildings, and on public school playgrounds.”12 Sibayan further explains that while English-only eventually changed to bilingual instruction, English usage had become pervasive throughout the whole of society. Throughout the business and government sector, English became the dominant language, as well as the language that bridged communication gaps between regional Filipino cultural groups who did not share an indigenous language.Today, English, along with Filipino, is recognized as a national language of the Philippines. Renato Constantino, Filipino scholar, characterized the introduction of English as a detriment to Filipino society: “With American textbooks, Filipinos started learning not only the new language but also a new way of life, alien to their traditions . . . This was the beginning of their education, and at the same time, their miseducation.”13 Filipino linguists and other social scientists continue researching and debating the extent to which indigenous cultural values and traditions were lost with the change in language.14 Nevertheless, English proved beneficial to at least some Filipinos. The US government sponsored some students from the elite upper class to study in American schools and, upon their return, work in the government. Other Filipinos, recruited by US companies beginning in the colonial era, migrated to California, Hawai`i, and other states, lured by the promise of lucrative work compared to wage rates picking sugarcane and pineapple in the Philippines. With at least some familiarity with the language, Filipinos were able to communicate with their foreign employers. In 1935, the United States designated the Philippines as a commonwealth and established a Philippine government that was meant to transition to full independence. During World War II, however, Japan attacked the Philippines and held the country from 1941 to 45. Lydia N. Yu-Jose in “World War II and the Japanese in the Prewar Philippines” (1996) describes an immigrant population of approximately 20,000 Japanese people living in the islands prior to the war.15 Some were temporary migrants, content to work in the Philippines for several years and then return to Japan with their earnings. Others were permanent settlers, many of whom would go on, for example, to establish agricultural operations, open factories, and begin logging operations. Some of these Japanese business owners, Yu-Jose explains, were utilized as advisers and installed as local leaders by the occupying army. Initially, some regarded the Japanese as liberators, freeing the Philippines from the United States and bringing the islands into the Japanese empire. However, in light of the subsequent war atrocities, harsh realities came to light. In October 1943, the Japanese established what is now referred to as the Second Philippine Republic, with José P. Laurel as president. Widely recognized as simply a puppet government, the dominating Japanese military continued occupying the area. Local factories under Japanese control produced goods for the war effort while Filipinos suffered food shortages. Against this backdrop, Filipinos once again organized widespread resistance throughout the islands. Over 250,000 people used guerrilla warfare tactics against Japanese occupiers, who steadily lost control as the war continued. During the war, famed General Douglas MacArthur also organized American troops to fight alongside the Filipinos. From February to March 1945, Filipino soldiers and US troops fought in the Battle of Manila, which would eventually mark the end of the occupation. During this month, at least 100,000 civilians died at the hands of Japanese soldiers. Overall, scholars estimate between 500,000 and one million deaths of Filipinos during the World War II Japanese occupation. After the end of the war, the United States and the Philippines signed the Treaty of Manila on July 4, 1946; Manuel Roxas transitioned from the President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines to first President of an independent Philippine Republic. Guide to the Present Yet while “independent” implied a Philippines officially free from foreign rule, many contemporary narratives of Filipino identity, citizenship, and statehood are inevitably influenced by the colonial past and, some say, the continuing undue influence of other countries. The political, social, and economic elites of the country, for example, are often members of the same families that have held power in the country for generations. Gavin Shatkin’s “Obstacles to Empowerment: Local Politics and Civil Society in Metropolitan Manila, the Philippines”16 traces how Spanish and US colonial authorities granted extensive rights and privileges to favored landowners. Many of these families later leveraged their power into political and economic dynasties, leading to a contemporary Philippine government mired in nepotism, cronyism, and corruption.17 After war reparations were paid in the 1950s, Japanese businesses and investors soon returned to the islands. Today, Japan is a strategic economic and political partner of the Philippine government. However, as in the aftermath of Spanish and United States colonialism, Filipinos still struggle with defining a national identity after such widespread traumas. Other challenges for the Philippine state today include settling a territorial dispute regarding areas of the South China Sea with the People’s Republic of China; allowing the return of the United States military to the islands; brokering a lasting peace with the historically Muslim-dominated south; coping with the increasing number of Filipinos working overseas, as well as the subsequent social and economic consequences of this migration; and reducing poverty. These realities, juxtaposed against the Philippine Department of Tourism slogan, “It’s more fun in the Philippines,” suggests that understanding today’s Republic of the Philippines means studying the historical roots of power and influences born from the imposition of colonial structures. Geography and Population Area: 120,000 square miles; slightly larger than Arizona Population: 107 million Freedom House rating from “Freedom in the World 2015” (ranking of political rights and civil liberties in 195 countries): Partly Free Chief of State and Head of Government: President Benigno Aquino (since June 30, 2010) Elections: President elected by popular vote and serves a single six-year term Legislative Branch: Bicameral Congress; Senate (twenty-four seats, half of the seats are elected every three years, elected by popular vote, serving six-year terms) and House of Representatives (287 seats, all seats elected by popular vote every three years, serving three-year terms) Judicial Highest Courts: Supreme Court (chief justice and fourteen associate justices) Judges: Appointed by president on recommendations by the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until age seventy The Philippines’ economy is continuing to grow and is moving away from agriculture exports and toward electronics and oil. GDP: $694.5 billion Per Capita Income: $7,000 Unemployment Rate: 7.2 percent Population Below Poverty Line: 26.5 percent Inflation Rate: 4.5 percent Agricultural Products: Sugarcane, coconuts, rice, corn, bananas, pork, beef, fish Industries: Electronics assembly, garments, footwear, petroleum refining Religion: 82.9 percent Catholic, 5 percent Muslim, 2.8 percent Evangelical Christian, 2.3 percent Iglesia ni Kristo (English translation: Church of Christ [different from US Church of Christ]), 4.5 percent other Christian Life Expectancy: Approximately 72 years Literacy Rate: 95.4 percent Major Contemporary Issues Security: The Philippine government has been dealing with insurgent groups throughout the past couple of decades. Peace talks with the Moro insurgents have brought some stability to the islands, but the government also must deal with the New People’s Army, a Communist insurgent group inspired by Maoist principles. The Philippines and China are also in a dispute over sovereignty for the Spratly Islands. Drugs: The Philippines are a major consumer and producer of methamphetamines, as well as a producer of marijuana. The government has attempted crackdowns on both but has been unsuccessful so far. CIA. “The World Factbook: Philippines.” Last modified June 20, 2014. http://tinyurl.com/2y58zo. Freedom House. “Freedom in the World 2015.” Accessed February 11, 2015. http://tinyurl.com/ knwvzk6. 1. Vicente Rafael, White Love and Other Events in Filipino History (Manila: Ateneo de Manila Press, 2000). 2. Reinhard Wendt, “Philippine Fiesta and Colonial Culture,” Philippine Studies 46, no. 1 (1998) 3–23. 3. Rosario M. Cortes, Celestina P. Boncan, and Ricardo T. Jose, The Filipino Saga: History as Social Change (Quezon City: New Day Publisher, 2000); Vicente L. Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1998); William H. Scott, “The Spanish Occupation of the Cordillera in the 19th Century” in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations, ed. A.W. McCoy et al. (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982). 4. William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society (Manila: Ateneo de Manila Press, 1994), 77. 5. Ibid., 185. 6. Ibid., 234. 7. “Books by Rizal, José (sorted by popularity),” Project Gutenberg, accessed March 10, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/ku7fygt. 8. “José Rizal: Not Your Ordinary One Peso Guy,” accessed March 10, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/lr9gvht. 9. Excerpt from the October 15, 1900 New York Herald. See “Mark Twain— The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War,” Library of Congress, accessed September 13, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/y4zyea. 10. James Hamilton-Paterson, America’s Boy: A Century of Colonialism in the Philippines (New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC, 1998), 33. 11. Ian Morley, “America and the Philippines,” Education About Asia 16, no. 2 (2011) 34–38. 12. Bonifacio P. Sibayan, The Intellectualization of Filipino and Other Essays on Education and Sociolinguistics (Manila: De La Salle University Press, 1999), 543. 13. Renato Constantino, The Miseducation of the Filipino (Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1982), 6; quoted in ibid., 551. 14. See Laura M. Ahearn, “Language, Thought, and Culture,” in Living Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology (Malden: Wiley-Backwell, 2012), 65–98 for a general overview of the research regarding language, local traditions, and culture change. 15. Lydia N. Yu-Jose, “World War II and the Japanese in Prewar Philippines,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27, no. 1 (1996): 64. 16. Gavin Shatkin, “Obstacles to Empowerment: Local Politics and Civil Society in Metropolitan Manila, the Philippines,” Urban Studies 37, no. 12 (2000): 2357–2375. 17. “Transparency International: the Global Coalition Against Corruption,” accessed September 13, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/qfms53j.

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Autism or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) refers to a range of neurodevelopmental disorders that affect social, behavioral, and communication abilities. The causes of Autism are unknown in most cases, although environmental and genetic factors are said to play a role. Children with Autism display significant difficulties with communication, processing emotion, and functioning in social circles. They also often have sensory processing issues when exposed to different environments. As a result, they can find it difficult to express themselves through words, gestures, or facial expressions. Autism affects about one to two percent of the population worldwide and is equally prevalent among all ethnic and racial groups. Autism in India affects about one in every 500 people. Autism can take a variety of forms, from mild cases to severe disorders that require round-the-clock care. While there is no Autism cure, recent advances in Autism treatment have made it possible for children to enhance their social and behavioral skills early on and help them enjoy a healthy social life with their peers. In particular, Stem Cell Therapy for Autism has been recognised as an effective way to address the root physiological causes of Autism, and potentially reverse several of its symptoms.. Read on to learn more about how Stem Cell Therapy treats Autism and how you can sign your child up for the best stem cell for Autism in India. Causes of Autism There is still no clear agreement as to what exactly causes Autism in children. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) mentions a number of risk factors, including: - Genetics, as Autism is much likelier if there is a family history of it - Having certain chromosomal or genetic conditions, such as tuberous sclerosis or fragile X syndrome - Low birth weight - Being born to older parents - Oxygen deprivation immediately after birth - Certain drugs that the mother may take during pregnancy - Metabolic imbalances - Exposure to certain heavy metals or environmental toxins In general, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) states that both environmental and genetic factors usually play a role in the occurrence of Autism. Types of Autism Autism is a spectrum disorder, which means that the types and severity of symptoms will be different for each child. Broadly, there are four types of Autism that your doctor may diagnose: - Autistic Disorder: This is the ‘classic’ form of Autism, which is what comes to most people’s minds when they think about Autism. Children with Autism disorder demonstrate significant language and developmental delays, have trouble fitting into social environments and communicating, and may even have unusual interests or behaviors. Such children may also have intellectual disabilities - Asperger’s Syndrome: This is a milder form of Autism where there are no language difficulties or intellectual delays. Such children may in fact be highly intelligent and are able to focus well on topics that interest them. However, they will still have trouble with daily social behaviors - Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS): This is also known as atypical Autism. Doctors may diagnose your child with PDD-NOS if they display some of the signs of autistic disorder or Asperger’s Syndrome. Children with PDD-NOS face social and communication-related challenges, but may otherwise function normally - Childhood disintegrative disorder: This is the rarest and most severe diagnosis on the spectrum. Children with childhood disintegrative disorder will develop normally and then suddenly lose many social, behavioral, and language skills, usually between the ages of two and four. They may also start having seizures It is important to note that these distinctions of Autism are no longer used widely, and all of them are classified under Autism Spectrum Disorder. Early signs of Autism The American Academy of Pediatrics strongly recommends screening for Autism as early as possible for treatment to have maximum benefit. It is important to remember that each child is different, and the symptoms that two children with Autism will have may vary greatly. However, there are certain behavioral traits that are widely regarded as indicators of Autism and worth checking. While most cases of Autism are diagnosed when the child is between one and three years of age, there are several early warning signs that the CDC has specified as possible signs of Autism. In fact, many parents have reported spotting the first signs of Autism before their child was 12 months old. Here’s an overview of the symptoms that your child may display during the initial months. Symptoms at 2 months - Does not follow moving objects with their eyes - Does not pay attention to new faces - Does not make eye contact - Unable to hold head up when pushing up while on tummy Symptoms at 4 months - Does not try to grab nearby objects - Does not make vowel sounds - Appears stiff or floppy - Has difficulty bringing objects to the mouth Symptoms at 6 months - Does not smile - Does not bring objects to mouth to explore them - Cannot hold head steady - Does not babble or coo - Does not laugh - Does not display affection for the parent or caregiver - Does not respond to games like peek-a-boo - Has trouble moving one or both eyes - Does not push down with legs when feet are placed on a hard surface Symptoms at 9 months - Does not sit or stand with support - Does not play games with back-and-forth interaction - Does not transfer toys from one hand to another - Does not appear to recognise familiar people - Does not babble - Does not raise arms in anticipation of being picked up or held Symptoms at 12 months - Does not turn their head or respond when addressed by name, but may respond to other sounds like a dog barking - Does not point to objects or pictures - Has not uttered their first word yet - Does not stand with support - Does not look for things they see the parent or caregiver hide - Does not make gestures like shaking head or waving hands - Does not try to walk by holding onto furniture - Loses skills they formerly had Symptoms at 18 months - Does not make any attempt to compensate for delayed speech - Does not point to objects of interest - Does not notice or care if the parent or caregiver leaves - Does not speak except to repeat what was just said or what they heard on television - Does not learn new words - Does not know what to do with simple objects like a spoon or a glass Symptoms at 24 months - Does not copy actions - Does not follow simple instructions - Does not respond with interest to the company of other children - Does not use two-word phrases like ‘drink milk’ - Cannot walk steadily - Does not show interest in finding objects that the parent or caregiver has hidden - Loses skills they formerly had Symptoms at 36 months - Frequently falls down - Has difficulty climbing stairs - Does not speak in sentences - Cannot work simple toys - Speaks unclearly or drools - Does not make eye contact - Does not show affection - Does not play pretend - Shows no interest in playing with other children Getting an Autism diagnosis If as a parent you are concerned about any of these symptoms in your child, you should take them to a specialist doctor. The doctor will conduct a variety of tests to assess the degree of developmental delay and rule out possible causes other than Autism for the same. These tests may include: - Behavioral evaluation - Genetic testing for any hereditary conditions - Visual and audio tests to rule out any non-Autism disorders that could be affecting visual- and audio-processing - Developmental questionnaires like the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) - Occupational Therapy screening If your child does have Autism, the doctor will prescribe the best Autism treatment therapy based on their individual needs and symptoms. Current treatments for Autism typically consist of Stem Cell Therapy, Behavioral Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Social Skills Training and Speech Therapy. All of these therapies serve to assist your child with expressing themselves better and with feeling more comfortable in social situations. As a parent, it is also essential that you read up as much as you can about Autism, its symptoms and effects, and the forms of treatment available so that you can make an informed decision about the best Autism clinic in India for your child. Current treatments for Autism Autism treatment therapy has advanced greatly in recent years and it is certainly possible for children to have a healthy and fulfilling life by managing their symptoms. The best treatment for Autism will usually consist of a combination of the following therapies, depending on what symptoms your child has and what they respond best to. - Speech Therapy: Some children with more severe cases of Autism may be unable to articulate sounds with their mouth, which makes it difficult for them to express what they want. Speech therapists can help these children develop their speaking abilities through certain exercises that train the muscles in the mouth to utter different kinds of sounds. They can also train the child to communicate through non-verbal means like through gestures, picture cards, or devices like tablets Through consistent speech therapy, children with Autism can catch up on language developmental delays. This form of Autism treatment can also help to correct any swallowing disorders - Occupational Therapy: This type of Autism treatment enables children with Autism to lead a more functional and independent life. Through structured exercises, therapists can help children perform daily activities like getting dressed, eating their own meals, playing with toys, and so on. Occupational Therapy can also help improve cognitive abilities, stabilize the child’s emotional state, and help them become an active member of society. - Psychological counselling: This type of Autism treatment therapy helps to better understand and identify children’s personalities and attributes.. It helps them gain greater self-awareness, work on their behavioural problems, gain greater emotional maturity, and feel more independent. Through careful testing and appropriate psychological intervention, children with Autism can gain more confidence - Social skills therapy: This type of Autism therapy helps children mix better with their family members, teachers, classmates, and other people they encounter. Storytelling, supervised roleplay, board games, and fun conversation challenges can all help your child adjust to playing in a group and expressing what they want or what they think. It also helps to have a list of social rules written down prominently somewhere the child can see it. This serves to remind them about what they can and cannot do when in a social setting - Floortime: This type of Autism treatment involves therapists and children literally getting down on the floor to perform the activities and games that the child likes. It helps them improve their emotional awareness and communicate their feelings, thus enabling both intellectual and emotional growth - Visual-based education: Children with Autism tend to have trouble learning in a traditional classroom format. To help them grasp concepts better, many therapists will use picture cards with information broken down into small steps along with appropriate illustrations. This type of Autism treatment therapy can help your child understand concepts like how to dress themselves or pack their bags for school Another type of visual-based therapy is the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), which helps children communicate through special symbols. Through guided special education, the child with Autism has a higher chance of reintegrating into a traditional school setup faster. It also improves the child’s self-esteem and reduces the frustration and anger that may happen as a result of being unable to perform classroom task - Medical care: Autism has no physical symptoms of its own, but certain behaviors that your child displays can be physically harmful as well. For instance, if your child has a tendency to bite their nails or bang their head against the wall, the doctor at the Autism clinic in India may prescribe treatment to curb such tendencies or to minimize the physical harm caused by them - Dietary changes: Some parents may observe that certain foods trigger more aggressive behavior in their children than others and may thus want to remove those foods from the child’s diet. For instance, food items that trigger gut inflammation may increase the child’s discomfort and make them more agitated. However, before making any such modifications, it is important to take a doctor’s approval so that your child continues to get the vitamins and minerals they need. In particular, some research has shown that children with Autism tend to have thinner bones than usual, so talk to your doctor about incorporating bone-building nutrients into your child’s meal plan. Overall, a diet that is rich in immunity-building foods will improve your child’s overall health and fitness and thus help them respond better to Stem Cell Therapy for Autism - Sensory integration: Many therapists and doctors recommend sensory integration therapy for children with Autism to compensate for the sensory overload they may experience when exposed to harsh noises, loud colors, or bright lights Sensory integration therapy typically involves exposing your child to a variety of textures and products to handle, taste, smell, hear, and see. It is the best treatment for Autism to ease your child into a calm frame of mind so that they can concentrate on schoolwork and other activities. Additionally, it also reduces the occurrence of tantrums, roughhousing, and meltdowns that happen due to poor ability to cope with sensory input - Art therapy: Art therapy can help children with Autism develop a greater sense of self-awareness and experience a sense of ‘feeling good’ owing to the release of endorphins in the brain. Art therapy drawing, painting, sculpture, craft, and any other forms of art. It does not matter how talented the child is, art therapy is about encouraging happiness - Stem Cell Therapy: Two physiological findings consistently reported in children with Autism is the presence of a chronic inflammatory condition in the gut as well as diminished oxygenation in certain parts of the brain. In this context, recent advances in Autism treatment have demonstrated that the intravenous insertion of stem cells derived from umbilical cord tissue or bone marrow can decrease inflammation in the patient, thereby reducing the symptoms of Autism How Stem Cell Therapy is used in the treatment of Autism As a parent, if you notice Autism symptoms in your child such as delayed developmental milestones, inability to meet the eye, lack of babbling, lack of response to the child’s name being said, and so on, the first step is to contact a pediatrician for a confirmed Autism diagnosis. After evaluating your child’s symptoms and assessing the severity of brain damage, the pediatrician will work with you to decide on the best Stem Cell Therapy for Autism for your child. While it is not true that Autism is curable with early intervention, it is certainly highly treatable with the right kinds of therapy and Stem Cell Therapy in particular. The use of Stem Cell Therapy became popular in the late 1990s and the early 2000s as a way to treat rare metabolic disorders. After witnessing breakthrough results in reversing cognitive decline, it was speculated that Stem Cell Therapy could also be effective as a treatment for neurodevelopmental disorders like Autism. Several clinical trials have in fact demonstrated the efficacy of Stem Cell Therapy in Autism. It is rapidly becoming a favored treatment option in India for children with Autism to help them develop the functional abilities they need. Unlike typical forms of Autism treatment therapy, stem cell treatment targets the core disease pathology and is therefore a crucial first step towards giving an affirmative answer to the question ‘can Autism be cured’. Essentially, Autism stem cell treatment involves harvesting the cells either from the patient or from someone else, mixing it with growth factors and hormones as needed, and then injecting or infusing the cells through controlled doses over several days or weeks. The more these cells are administered, the better they can gravitate towards the damaged area and heal it. Most medical Autism treatment involves the use of anti-inflammatory agents, antibiotics, and hyperbaric oxygen to alleviate and reverse the symptoms. However, these current treatments for Autism do not focus on the root causes of Autism symptoms, namely immune degeneration and deprivation of oxygen to the brain, both of which are directly linked to impaired brain function. In recent years, Stem Cell Therapy has come into the limelight as one of the best Autism treatments in India and the first step towards a potential Autism cure. Stem Cell Therapy for Autism is minimally invasive and a safe option that can significantly reduce your child’s Autism symptoms. Umbilical cord tissue In one popular type of Stem Cell Therapy for Autism, the stem cells used are derived from human umbilical cord tissue, donated by mothers after healthy live births. These stem cells are scanned thoroughly for viruses and bacteria before being approved for use in Autism treatment. Stem cells from umbilical cord tissue are ideal for treating Autism as it removes the need to collect stem cells from the patient, which can be a tedious and unpleasant process for young children and their parents. Physicians can easily administer these cells in uniform doses over the course of several days, with as high a concentration of stem cells in each dose as needed. Bone marrow tissue This is a highly effective form of Stem Cell Therapy for Autism in India. Stem cells possess the unique property to morph into different cells and structure-specialized cells from the original mother cell. These stem cells from bone marrow tissue have the capacity to repair root-level neural damage at the molecular, functional, and structural levels. They can also regulate cell differentiation, anti-inflammatory action, and organ and tissue repair. Children with Autism who have received bone marrow stem cell treatments have shown significant improvement in behavioral patterns like hyperactivity and repetitive motor mannerisms, as well as sensory processing abilities. Improved eye contact, less aggressive behaviour, stronger speech and communication skills, and reduced self-stimulating behaviours are some of the other results observed in children after Stem Cell Treatment for Autism in India. Bone marrow tissue may be autologous (taken from the patient’s own body) or allogeneic (taken from a third-party after suitable tissue matching). As the parent of a child with Autism, it is essential that you read up as much as you can about Stem Cell Therapy for Autism, including peer-reviewed journals where the information is far likelier to be accurate than in videos created by amateurs. You should also ask the right questions at the Autism clinic in India, such as - Who will be administering the Stem Cell Therapy for Autism doses - Whether the person in question is equipped to handle any adverse reactions to the transfusion that may occur - Where the stem cells have come from - What the dosage amount is - Which laboratory has provided the stem cells - How the cells will be shipped and stored prior to application - Whether donor-patient matching is required - Whether there are any clauses in the treatment agreement that prohibit you from discussing the outcomes of the stem cell treatment - Whether receiving treatment now at a for-profit clinic will disqualify your child from taking part in any clinical trials later It is also important to be aware of the side effects of Autism stem cell treatment, such as the patient’s body rejecting the donor cells or even being attacked by them as a result of donor-graft disease, a potentially dangerous condition. Cost of Stem Cell Therapy for Autism in India Stem Cell Therapy is a highly complex process that requires trained professionals and suitable physical and emotional care for the patient both during and after the procedure. While the Autism stem cell treatment cost in India depends on the type of stem cells used, quality of treatment, overhead costs, expertise of the surgeons and other factors, it is generally an expensive procedure. A patient can expect to pay about 7000 to 12000 USD as stem cell Autism cost at hospitals in major cities like Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai or Pune. Even so, the stem cell transplant cost in India is much lower than in countries like the US or the UK, making it a preferred destination for people around the world seeking low-cost Stem Cell Therapy. With regard to the question of ‘does Stem Cell Therapy work for Autism?’, the success rate for Stem Cell Therapy treatment is about 60% to 80%. Most patients have shown a significant improvement in symptoms like hyperactivity, eye contact, and overall motor control, making Stem Cell Therapy a significant breakthrough in Autism treatment that is worth your time and investment. Best Autism treatment clinic in India At Plexus Neuro and Stem Cell Research Centre in Bangalore, we are committed to ensuring that your child can get the most from recent advances in Autism treatment. Our experienced stem cell therapists make use of autologous bone marrow stem cells to treat patients with Autism. By extracting cells from the patient’s own body, we eliminate the risk of any side effects that may occur when third-party cells are injected into the body. Prior to commencing Stem Cell Therapy for Autism, we conduct a thorough examination of the patient and make note of any underlying conditions before extracting the cells from the patient’s bone marrow under local anesthesia. After the Stem Cell Therapy for Autism has been conducted, patients are discharged on the same day and called back for sessions as needed. We also work with you to decide on other forms of Autism treatment therapy for your child, such as Occupational Therapy or Social Skills Therapy. As the best Autism clinic in India, we offer world-class Stem Cell Therapy for Autism and ensure a safe and comfortable environment for you and your child. Frequently Asked Questions related to Stem Cell Therapy for Autism in India What is the success rate of Stem Cell Therapy in India? The success rate for Stem Cell Therapy in India varies from case to case. Can Autism be cured permanently? With early intervention, there are high possibilities of curing Autism. Does Stem Cell Therapy work for Autism? Yes, Stem Cell Therapy works for Autism. How much does Stem Cell Therapy cost in India? The cost of Stem Cell Therapy depends on the condition that is being treated with it, However, it usually varies between 3 and 5 lacs. Where can I find successful Stem Cell treatment in India? You can find successful Stem Cell Therapy with promising results at Plexus Neuro and Stem Cell Research Centre.

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What is character education? Character education is generally defined as a means of teaching students core ethical values such as citizenship, respect, justice, and responsibility for self and others. Much like a code of conduct, character education guides students to become useful and caring members of society. Many states require educators to incorporate these values into their lessons, and their inclusion provides a solid ethical foundation that benefits both children and animals. How does character education help animals? “Teaching a child not to step on a caterpillar is as valuable to the child as it is to the caterpillar.” —Bradley Miller Indeed, children should be taught to revere all living beings as equally deserving of respect and unalienable rights as their peers, parents, and teachers. Character education is an idea that easily translates into animal rights by extending the values of respect and responsibility to animals. Character education is humane education. Humane education builds empathy for animals and people. Research tells us that empathy is an important contributor to prosocial behavior (Roberts and Strayer, 1996; McDonald and Messinger, 2011). And the prevalence of antisocial behavior in youth is a problem that cannot be overstated (see “Epidemic of Youth Violence Against Animals”). Thus, an approach that builds empathy in students without sacrificing time from the curriculum is urgently needed. Am I required to teach character education? Many states mandate that character education be taught in schools. Check below to see if your state is among them. Even without a law requiring character education, most states encourage this type of education in schools, because it’s a logical component of the effort to counter the epidemic of bullying. “The State Board of Education and all local boards shall develop and implement a comprehensive character education program for all grades to consist of not less than ten minutes instruction per day focusing upon the students’ development of the following character traits: Courage, patriotism, citizenship, honesty, fairness, respect for others, kindness, cooperation, self-respect, self-control, courtesy, compassion, tolerance, diligence, generosity, punctuality, cleanliness, cheerfulness, school pride, respect for the environment, patience, creativity, sportsmanship, loyalty, and perseverance. Each plan of instruction shall include the Pledge of Allegiance to the American flag” (1995 Accountability Law). (Source) Title 14. Education, Libraries, and Museums § 14.03.015 “It is the policy of this state that the purpose of education is to help ensure that all students will succeed in their education and work, shape worthwhile and satisfying lives for themselves, exemplify the best values of society, and be effective in improving the character and quality of the world about them.” (Source) “Instruction in the definition and application of at least six of the following character traits: truthfulness, responsibility, compassion, diligence, sincerity, trustworthiness, respect, attentiveness, obedience, orderliness, forgiveness, virtue, fairness, caring, citizenship and integrity.” (Source) ARTICLE 5. Hate Violence Prevention Act [233–233.8] “(a) Each teacher shall endeavor to impress upon the minds of the pupils the principles of morality, truth, justice, patriotism, and a true comprehension of the rights, duties, and dignity of American citizenship, and the meaning of equality and human dignity, including the promotion of harmonious relations, kindness toward domestic pets and the humane treatment of living creatures, to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity, and falsehood, and to instruct them in manners and morals and the principles of a free government.” “(b) Each teacher is also encouraged to create and foster an environment that encourages pupils to realize their full potential and that is free from discriminatory attitudes, practices, events, or activities, in order to prevent acts of hate violence, as defined in subdivision (e) of Section 233.” (Source) “Each school district, either individually or through a board of cooperative services, is strongly encouraged to establish a character education program designed to help students cultivate honesty, respect, responsibility, courtesy, respect for and compliance with the law, integrity, respect for parents, home, and community, and the dignity and necessity of a strong work ethic, conflict resolution, and other skills, habits, and qualities of character that will promote an upright, moral, and desirable citizenry and better prepare students to become positive contributors to society. The program may include information concerning this country’s founding documents and concerning religion in American history. Such character education program should be designed to stress the importance that each teacher model and promote the guidelines of behavior established in the character education program for youth to follow at all times, in every class.” (Source) Public Act No. 11-232 “Sec. 2. Section 10-222g of the general statutes is repealed and the following is substituted in lieu thereof (Effective July 1, 2011): For the purposes of section 10-222d, as amended by this act, the term ‘prevention and intervention strategy’ may include, but is not limited to, … [(6)] (4) inclusion of grade-appropriate bullying education and prevention curricula in kindergarten through high school.” (Source) § 4164 School bullying awareness and prevention “(2) Each school district and charter school shall establish a policy which, at a minimum, includes the following components: … n. A requirement that the school bullying prevention program be implemented throughout the year, and integrated with the school’s discipline policies and § 4112 of this title.” (Source) 1003.42 Required instruction.— . . . “(s) A character-development program in the elementary schools, similar to Character First or Character Counts, which is secular in nature. Beginning in school year 2004–2005, the character-development program shall be required in kindergarten through grade 12. Each district school board shall develop or adopt a curriculum for the character-development program that shall be submitted to the department for approval. The character-development curriculum shall stress the qualities of patriotism; responsibility; citizenship; kindness; respect for authority, life, liberty, and personal property; honesty; charity; self-control; racial, ethnic, and religious tolerance; and cooperation.” Students must also be taught “kindness to animals.” (Source) Georgia Code Title 20–Education § 20-2-145 “The State Board of Education shall develop by the start of the 1997–1998 school year a comprehensive character education program for levels K-12. This comprehensive character education program shall be known as the ‘character curriculum’ and shall focus on the students’ development of the following character traits: courage, patriotism, citizenship, honesty, fairness, respect for others, kindness, cooperation, self-respect, self-control, courtesy, compassion, tolerance, diligence, generosity, punctuality, cleanliness, cheerfulness, school pride, respect for the environment, respect for the creator, patience, creativity, sportsmanship, loyalty, perseverance, and virtue. Such program shall also address, by the start of the 1999–2000 school year, methods of discouraging bullying and violent acts against fellow students. Local boards shall implement such a program in all grade levels at the beginning of the 2000–2001 school year and shall provide opportunities for parental involvement in establishing expected outcomes of the character education program.” (Source) Character Education Policy “The vitality and viability of our democratic way of life are dependent on all students developing into responsible and caring citizens who respect themselves, others, and the world in which they live. Character education is the process through which students are provided opportunities to learn and demonstrate democratic principles and core ethical values such as civic responsibility, compassion, honesty, integrity, and self-discipline. The Department shall identify a common core of ethical values which will be promoted throughout the public school system and serve as standards for student behavior and character development.” (Source) Title 33: Chapter 16 Courses of Instruction “The basic values of honesty, self-discipline, unselfishness, respect for authority and the central importance of work are emphasized.” (Source) Public Act 094-0187 “Every public school teacher shall teach character education, which includes the teaching of respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, trustworthiness, and citizenship, in order to raise pupils’ honesty, kindness, justice, discipline, respect for others, and moral courage for the purpose of lessening crime and raising the standard of good character.” (Source) School Code. (105 ILCS 5/27-13.1) (from Ch. 122, par. 27-13.1) “Sec. 27-13.1. In every public school there shall be instruction, study and discussion of current problems and needs in the conservation of natural resources, including but not limited to air pollution, water pollution, waste reduction and recycling, the effects of excessive use of pesticides, preservation of wilderness areas, forest management, protection of wildlife and humane care of domestic animals. (Source: P.A. 86-229.)” (Source) IC 20-30-5-6 Good citizenship instruction “Sec. 6. (b) As used in this section, ‘good citizenship instruction’ means integrating instruction into the current curriculum that stresses the nature and importance of the following: . . . (6) Possessing the skills (including methods of conflict resolution) necessary to live peaceably in society and not resorting to violence to settle disputes. . . . (9) Treating others the way the student would want to be treated.” (Source) House Enrolled Act No. 1423 “(b) The department of education and the school corporation’s school safety specialist shall provide materials and guidelines to assist a safe school committee in developing a plan and policy for the school that addresses the following issues: “(1) Unsafe conditions, crime prevention, school violence, bullying, and other issues that prevent the maintenance of a safe school. . . . “(d) The guidelines developed under subsection (b) must include age appropriate, research based information that assists school corporations and safe school committees in: “(1) developing and implementing bullying prevention programs; (2) establishing investigation and reporting procedures related to bullying” (Source) 2016 Iowa Code Title VII–EDUCATION AND CULTURAL AFFAIRS Chapter 256–DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Section 256.18–Character education policy. “Schools should make every effort, formally and informally, to stress character qualities that will maintain a safe and orderly learning environment, and that will ultimately equip students to be model citizens. These qualities may include caring, civic virtue and citizenship, justice and fairness, respect, responsibility, trustworthiness, giving, honesty, self-discipline, respect for and obedience to the law, citizenship, courage, initiative, commitment, perseverance, kindness, compassion, service, loyalty, patience, the dignity and necessity of hard work, and any other qualities deemed appropriate by a school.” (Source) Article 11: Curriculum 72-1128. Character development programs. “(a) Upon request of a school district, the state board shall assist in the development of a grade appropriate curriculum for character development programs which may be offered to students in the school district. . . .” “(2) ‘Character qualities’ means positive character qualities which include, but is not limited to, honesty, responsibility, attentiveness, patience, kindness, respect, self-control, tolerance, cooperation, initiative, patriotism and citizenship.” (Source) Kentucky Statutes 156.095—Professional development programs (3) . . . Professional development programs shall be made available to teachers based on their needs which shall include but not be limited to the following areas: (l) Strategies to incorporate character education throughout the curriculum “[C]haracter education’ means instructional strategies and curricula that: (1) Instill and promote core values and qualities of good character in students including altruism, citizenship, courtesy, honesty, human worth, justice, knowledge, respect, responsibility, and self-discipline; (2) Reflect the values of parents, teachers, and local communities; and (3) Improve the ability of students to make moral and ethical decisions in their lives.” (Source) 2015 Louisiana Laws RS 17:282.2–Character education programs; legislative findings; clearinghouse for information; permissive curriculum; dissemination of information; progress reports; rules and regulations “The State Board of Elementary and Secondary Education shall provide a clearinghouse for information on nonsectarian practices in character education programs within Louisiana and across the nation in order to assist public elementary and secondary schools in improving character education. Clearinghouse information shall include information about comprehensive character education programs or curricula, which focus on the development of character traits such as honesty, fairness, and respect for self and others.” (Source) §1221. Teaching of virtue and morality “Instructors of youth in public or private institutions shall use their best endeavors to impress on the minds of the children and youth committed to their care and instruction the principles of morality and justice and a sacred regard for truth; love of country, humanity and a universal benevolence; the great principles of humanity as illustrated by kindness to birds and animals and regard for all factors which contribute to the well-being of man; industry and frugality; chastity, moderation and temperance; and all other virtues which ornament human society; and to lead those under their care, as their ages and capacities admit, into a particular understanding of the tendency of such virtues to preserve and perfect a republican constitution, secure the blessings of liberty and to promote their future happiness.” (Source) “(g) Each county board shall develop the following educational programs in its efforts to prevent bullying, harassment, and intimidation in schools: “(1) An educational bullying, harassment, and intimidation prevention program for students, staff, volunteers, and parents” (Source) Section 30: Moral education “Section 30. The president, professors and tutors of the university at Cambridge and of the several colleges, all preceptors and teachers of academies and all other instructors of youth shall exert their best endeavors to impress on the minds of children and youth committed to their care and instruction the principles of piety and justice and a sacred regard for truth, love of their country, humanity and universal benevolence, sobriety, industry and frugality, chastity, moderation and temperance, and those other virtues which are the ornament of human society and the basis upon which a republican constitution is founded; and they shall endeavor to lead their pupils, as their ages and capacities will admit, into a clear understanding of the tendency of the above mentioned virtues to preserve and perfect a republican constitution and secure the blessings of liberty as well as to promote their future happiness, and also to point out to them the evil tendency of the opposite vices.” (Source) Michigan State Board of Education Policy on Quality Character Education “Qualities such as caring, responsibility, respect for oneself and others, fairness, trustworthiness, citizenship, and self-restraint promote a healthy, safe, and supportive learning environment that promotes the primary mission of the school, which is to educate. With effective character development programs, schools can increase academic achievement and prosocial attitudes and behaviors and decrease negative behaviors such as truancy, violence, discipline problems, and bullying.” (Source) §120B.232 CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION. Subdivision 1. Character development education. “Character education is the shared responsibility of parents, teachers, and members of the community. The legislature encourages districts to integrate or offer instruction on character education including, but not limited to, character qualities such as attentiveness, truthfulness, respect for authority, diligence, gratefulness, self-discipline, patience, forgiveness, respect for others, peacemaking, and resourcefulness. Instruction should be integrated into a district’s existing programs, curriculum, or the general school environment. To the extent practicable, instruction should be integrated into positive behavioral intervention strategies, under section 122A.627. The commissioner shall provide assistance at the request of a district to develop character education curriculum and programs.” (Source) HOUSE BILL NO. 522 “SECTION 1. The local school boards of the public school districts, in their discretion, may develop and implement, at the beginning of the 1999–2000 school year, a comprehensive program for character education in Grades K-12. This program of character education shall focus on students’ development of the following character traits: courage, patriotism, citizenship, honesty, pride in quality work, fairness, respect for and obedience to the law, respect for others, kindness, cooperation, self-respect, self-control, courtesy, compassion, diligence, generosity, punctuality, cleanliness, cheerfulness, school pride, respect for the environment, patience, creativity, sportsmanship, loyalty, perseverance, friendship, responsibility and self-discipline. The program of character education shall include the Pledge of Allegiance to the flag as required in Section 37-13-7. The definition of the character traits chosen by the school district for implementation shall reflect and be in keeping with both the spirit and the letter of the following founding documents: the Mississippi Constitution of 1890; the Constitution of the United States of America; the Declaration of Independence; and state and federal law. A public school may not define or teach character or character traits in any manner that might promote or encourage students to participate in conduct that would violate any state or federal law.” (Source) Character education; principles of instruction; duty of teachers. “Each teacher employed to give instruction in any public, private, parochial, or denominational school in the State of Nebraska shall arrange and present his or her instruction to give special emphasis to common honesty, morality, courtesy, obedience to law, respect for the national flag, the United States Constitution, and the Constitution of Nebraska, respect for parents and the home, the dignity and necessity of honest labor, and other lessons of a steadying influence which tend to promote and develop an upright and desirable citizenry.” (Source) Chapter 193-F: Pupil Safety and Violence Prevention “IV. A school board or board of trustees of a chartered public school shall, to the greatest extent practicable, involve pupils, parents, administrators, school staff, school volunteers, community representatives, and local law enforcement agencies in the process of developing the policy. The policy shall be adopted by all public schools within the school district and, to the extent possible, the policy should be integrated with the school’s curriculum, discipline policies, behavior programs, and other violence prevention efforts.” (Source) 2013 New Jersey Revised Statutes Section 18A:35-4.1–Course of study in principles of humanity “Each board of education may teach, by special courses or by emphasis in appropriate places of the curriculum, in a manner adapted to the ages and capabilities of the pupils in the several grades and departments, the principles of humanity as the same apply to kindness and avoidance of cruelty to animals and birds, both wild and domesticated. L.1967, c.271.” (Source) New York Consolidated Laws, Education Law–EDN § 809. Instruction in the humane treatment of animals “The officer, board or commission authorized or required to prescribe courses of instruction shall cause instruction to be given in every elementary school under state control or supported wholly or partly by public money of the state, in the humane treatment and protection of animals and the importance of the part they play in the economy of nature as well as the necessity of controlling the proliferation of animals which are subsequently abandoned and caused to suffer extreme cruelty. Such instruction shall be for such period of time during each school year as the board of regents may prescribe and may be joined with work in literature, reading, language, nature study or ethnology. Such weekly instruction may be divided into two or more periods. A school district shall not be entitled to participate in the public school money on account of any school or the attendance at any school subject to the provisions of this section, if the instruction required hereby is not given therein.” (Source) Section 801-A. Instruction in civility, citizenship and character education “The regents shall ensure that the course of instruction in grades kindergarten through twelve includes a component on civility, citizenship and character education. Such component shall instruct students on the principles of honesty, tolerance, personal responsibility, respect for others, with an emphasis on discouraging acts of harassment, bullying, discrimination, observance of laws and rules, courtesy, dignity and other traits which will enhance the quality of their experiences in, and contributions to, the community. Such component shall include instruction of safe, responsible use of the internet and electronic communications. The regents shall determine how to incorporate such component in existing curricula and the commissioner shall promulgate any regulations needed to carry out such determination of the regents. For the purposes of this section, “tolerance,” “respect for others” and “dignity” shall include awareness and sensitivity to harassment, bullying, discrimination and civility in the relations of people of different races, weights, national origins, ethnic groups, religions, religious practices, mental or physical abilities, sexual orientations, genders, and sexes.” (Source) Session Law 2001-363 House Bill 195 “Each local board of education shall develop and implement character education instruction with input from the local community. The instruction shall be incorporated into the standard curriculum and should address the following traits: (1) Courage.—Having the determination to do the right thing even when others don’t and the strength to follow your conscience rather than the crowd; and attempting difficult things that are worthwhile. . . . (4) Kindness.—Being considerate, courteous, helpful, and understanding of others; showing care, compassion, friendship, and generosity; and treating others as you would like to be treated.” (Source) 3301-35-01 Purpose and definitions. “‘Extended learning opportunities’ means a variety of initiatives that ensure students have access to a diverse array of content-rich, high-quality opportunities that expand the time they are actively engaged in learning. These opportunities provide students with structured opportunities for academic support and enrichment, extra-curricular activities, service-learning; mentoring, recreation, character education, and other developmental activities.” (Source) Section 732. Control and Discipline of Child. “A. Each district board of education shall adopt a policy for the discipline of all children attending public school in that district, and for the investigation of reported incidents of bullying. The policy shall provide options for the methods of discipline of the students and shall define standards of conduct to which students are expected to conform. The policy shall: . . . “10. Provide for an educational program as designed and developed by the State Department of Education and in consultation with the Office of Juvenile Affairs for students and parents in preventing, identifying, responding to and reporting incidents of bullying.” (Source) Section 1181. Character Education Program. “A. The board of education of every school district in this state may develop and implement a comprehensive program for character education in any single grade or combination of grades prekindergarten through twelfth. The character education program shall focus on development of character traits, the in [sic] students.” (Source) 2017 ORS 336.067¹ Topics given special emphasis in instruction “In public schools special emphasis shall be given to instruction in: (a) Honesty, morality, courtesy, obedience to law, respect for the national flag, the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of Oregon, respect for parents and the home, the dignity and necessity of honest labor and other lessons that tend to promote and develop an upright and desirable citizenry. . . (d) Humane treatment of animals.” (Source) Section 1502-E. Character education program. “The program may include and teach the following basic civil values and character traits: … (2) Respect, including regard for others, tolerance and courtesy. . . . (5) Caring, including kindness, empathy, compassion, consideration, generosity and charity.” (Source) § 15-1514. Humane education “Instruction in humane education shall be given to all pupils up to and including the fourth grade, and need not exceed half an hour each week during the whole school term. No cruel experiment on any living creature shall be permitted in any public school of this Commonwealth.” (Source) Endorsing the Implementation of Character Development Education in Rhode Island Public Schools “The Rhode Island General Assembly recognizes that, in the face of the deteriorating social fabric, parents, schools and other community institutions, working together as partners, must increasingly contribute to the development of good character in the young through both teaching and modeling.” (Source) SECTION 59-17-135. Character education. “(B) Each local school board of trustees of the State must develop a policy addressing character education. Any character education program implemented by a district as a result of an adopted policy must, to the extent possible, incorporate character traits including, but not limited to, the following: respect for authority and respect for others, honesty, self-control, cleanliness, courtesy, good manners, cooperation, citizenship, patriotism, courage, fairness, kindness, self-respect, compassion, diligence, good work ethics, sound educational habits, generosity, punctuality, cheerfulness, patience, sportsmanship, loyalty, and virtue. Local school boards must include all sectors of the community, as referenced in subsection (A)(4), in the development of a policy and in the development of any program implemented as a result of the policy. As part of any policy and program developed by the local school board, an evaluation component must be included.” (Source) 13-33-6.1. Character development instruction. “Unless the governing body elects, by resolution, effective for not less than one or more than four school terms, to do otherwise, character development instruction shall be given in all public and nonpublic elementary and secondary schools in the state to impress upon the minds of the students the importance of citizenship, patriotism, honesty, self discipline, self respect, sexual abstinence, respect for the contributions of minority and ethnic groups to the heritage of South Dakota, regard for the elderly, and respect for authority.” (Source) T.C.A. 49-6-1007. Character Education “(a) The course of instruction in all public schools shall include character education to help each student develop positive values and improve student conduct as students learn to act in harmony with their positive values and learn to become good citizens in their school, community, and society.” (Source) Sec. 29.906. CHARACTER TRAITS INSTRUCTION (a) The State Board of Education shall integrate positive character traits into the essential knowledge and skills adopted for kindergarten through grade 12, as appropriate. (b) The State Board of Education must include the following positive character traits: (2) trustworthiness, including honesty, reliability, punctuality, and loyalty; (4) respect and courtesy; (5) responsibility, including accountability, diligence, perseverance, and self-control; (6) fairness, including justice and freedom from prejudice; (7) caring, including kindness, empathy, compassion, consideration, patience, generosity, and charity; (8) good citizenship, including patriotism, concern for the common good and the community, and respect for authority and the law; (9) school pride; and (c) Each school district and open-enrollment charter school must adopt a character education program that includes the positive character traits listed in Subsection (b). (Source) Utah Code Part 6: Bullying and Hazing “(2) To the extent that state or federal funding is available for this purpose, school boards are encouraged to implement programs or initiatives, in addition to the training described in Subsection (1), to provide for training and education regarding, and the prevention of, bullying, hazing, abusive conduct, and retaliation.” (Source) R277-475-7. Civic Engagement. “B. Civic and character education shall be achieved through an integrated school curriculum and in the regular course of school work.” (Source) § 22.1-208.01. Character education required. “Each school board shall establish, within its existing programs or as a separate program, a character education program in its schools, which may occur during the regular school year, during the summer in a youth development academy offered by the school division, or both. The Department of Education shall develop curricular guidelines for school divisions to use in establishing a character education program through a summer youth development academy. The purpose of the character education program shall be to instill in students civic virtues and personal character traits so as to improve the learning environment, promote student achievement, reduce disciplinary problems, and develop civic-minded students of high character. The components of each program shall be developed in cooperation with the students, their parents, and the community at large. The basic character traits taught may include (i) trustworthiness, including honesty, integrity, reliability, and loyalty; (ii) respect, including the precepts of the Golden Rule, tolerance, and courtesy; (iii) responsibility, including hard work, economic self-reliance, accountability, diligence, perseverance, and self-control; (iv) fairness, including justice, consequences of bad behavior, principles of nondiscrimination, and freedom from prejudice; (v) caring, including kindness, empathy, compassion, consideration, generosity, and charity; and (vi) citizenship, including patriotism, the Pledge of Allegiance, respect for the American flag, concern for the common good, respect for authority and the law, and community-mindedness.” (Source) RCW 28A.150.211 Values and traits recognized. “The legislature also recognizes that certain basic values and character traits are essential to individual liberty, fulfillment, and happiness. However, these values and traits are not intended to be assessed or be standards for graduation. The legislature intends that local communities have the responsibility for determining how these values and character traits are learned as determined by consensus at the local level. These values and traits include the importance of: (1) Honesty, integrity, and trust; (2) Respect for self and others; (3) Responsibility for personal actions and commitments; (4) Self-discipline and moderation; (5) Diligence and a positive work ethic; (6) Respect for law and authority; (7) Healthy and positive behavior; and (8) Family as the basis of society.” RCW 28A.230.020 Common school curriculum. “All teachers shall stress the importance of the cultivation of manners, the fundamental principles of honesty, honor, industry and economy, the minimum requisites for good health including the beneficial effect of physical exercise and methods to prevent exposure to and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, and the worth of kindness to all living creatures and the land.” (Source) 21‑4‑314. School district implementation; state policies, training and technical assistance “(f) School districts may establish bullying prevention programs or other initiatives and may involve school staff, students, administrators, volunteers, parents, law enforcement and community members.” (Source) How can I teach character education on top of the existing curricular demands? The good news is that you can foster prosocial and empathic behavior in children while simultaneously meeting rigorous academic standards. Children have a natural affinity for animals; therefore, any curriculum that incorporates animal issues will generate high interest from students. Add a component about how to protect animals in real-world situations and watch students become even more motivated to learn. When your students are motivated, the conditions are ideal for them to practice reading and writing skills that involve the animal-rights issue being discussed. Does TeachKind offer any resources to help me teach character education? Since a discussion about animal rights issues and fostering empathy for animals should be part of any program to build character in youth, TeachKind has got you covered. - Our FREE Share the World kit is perfect for teaching elementary school students about the Golden Rule and the importance of compassion and empathy—as well as reading and writing skills. - Our FREE Humane Lesson Webinar can help you merge academic skills with compassion. - Our FREE Lessons and Activities give you the resources that you need to incorporate compassion for animals into your curriculum. - Order FREE TeachKind materials for your classroom. - Contact TeachKind for suggestions or advice. We’re also available for presentations to teachers in the Virginia Beach, Virginia, area. Humane education has the potential to motivate students struggling with a new, demanding Common Core curriculum and to foster compassion for animals that will extend to humans as well. McDonald, N. and Messinger, D. (2011). “The Development of Empathy: How, When, and Why.” In A. Acerbi, J. A. Lombo, and J.J.Sanguineti (Eds.), Free Will, Emotions, and Moral Actions: Philosophy and Neuroscience in Dialogue. IF-Press. Roberts, W. and Strayer, J. (1996). “Empathy, Emotional Expressiveness, and Prosocial Behavior.” Child Development, 67, 449‒470

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When we envision a tapestry, it is easy to see how many threads join together to create a beautiful new and cohesive fabric, pleasing to the eye—and yet—also functional and utilitarian. It has an aim and intent. It is, at once, a thing to behold and entertain, while also having a purpose –whether to cover a wall, provide insulation from the cold, or to add color and panache to the interior design of a home. It takes many different colored threads to weave a tapestry that is pleasing to the eye, and in some way, it also tells a story. A tapestry tells a tale of the people who made it, and of the people it was made for. The color, design, pattern, and style all reflect the aesthetics and tastes of a particular group of people. A tapestry tells a story. In much the same way, our society creates a tapestry of its own, as it weaves stories together, and creates a narrative of its past, present, and future. Since the first human beings began to speak and communicate, they have told stories and crafted tales that connected them to their home and environment, and linked them together as a community. The content, form, and function of these stories throughout our history reflect the morals, attitudes, mores, tastes, and belief system of the people who told the stories, and for the people they were intended for. From Cave to Stage Perhaps the first stories ever “recorded” were cave paintings, also known as parietal art, which were painted drawings on cave walls or ceilings, mainly of prehistoric origin, beginning roughly 40,000 years ago (around 38,000 BCE) in Eurasia. The paintings are the earliest known examples of storytelling in the world. The exact purpose of the Paleolithic cave paintings is not known. Evidence suggests that they were not merely decorations of living areas, since the caves in which they have been found do not have signs of ongoing habitation. Some theories suggest that cave paintings may have been a form of communication, while other theories posit that they were intended for a religious or ceremonial purpose. The paintings are remarkably similar around the world, commonly depicting impressive animals. Humans mainly appear as images of hands, mostly hand stencils made by blowing pigment on a hand held to the wall. Whatever their purpose, the cave paintings were a form of storytelling and were a distinct form of communication and expression. Since humankind first began to communicate, it is obvious that passing down stories was important to the culture. Storytelling is what connects us to our humanity. It is what links us to our past, and provides a glimpse into our future. Since human beings first walked the earth, they have told stories, before even the written word or oral language emerged. Through these cave paintings and over fires, humans have told stories as a way to shape our existence. Our Lives As Stories In our lives, things impact us and we experience events that may seem random or unexplainable. It is natural that we would seek to relay our story to others and try and remember the events as they occurred. Things happen to us, which are inherently the elements of a story, but as humans, we have unique perspectives, biases, and beliefs, which naturally shape how we retell that story. Unlike the other animals we share the Earth with, human beings have the ability to think and to make meaning out of the events that shape our lives. Therefore, it is understandable why we as humans would try and attach meaning and create a narrative out of seemingly unconnected and random events. These are the building blocks that make for a story. To further the tapestry metaphor, these life events are the diverse and disparate threads that must be woven together to create a cohesive and engaging tapestry of a story. Storytellers learned early on that people like to hear stories with a beginning, middle, and an end. We seem to be drawn to stories that have characters that look like us—or at least share characteristics we can relate to. We also desire to be drawn into a story, and enjoy when a story builds up to a thrilling climax, followed by a satisfying conclusion. Often, we want to use our imaginations, but sometimes we don’t, and prefer to passively have a story told to us. Many of us enjoy being moved by a story, either emotionally, or viscerally, like in a good action film or a tender tale of humanity and redemption. A Visceral Experience Throughout history, storytelling has served many functions, and continues to do so today. Perhaps the most basic and straightforward purpose of storytelling is to entertain and to distract. When we go to see a movie like The Fast and the Furious, we are not going for the purpose of being educated, enlightened, or moved. When we watch films like that, we are there to be entertained. Entertainment can be delivered in various ways, and has naturally changed over the decades and centuries. However, the fundamentals of what entertains and diverts us have relatively stayed the same, even as the mediums, technologies, and methods of delivery have evolved and matured. Four hundred years ago, Shakespeare was writing plays that entertained us through humor and laughter, and action and horror. Not a lot has changed in the centuries since. Just as we draw inspiration from Shakespeare, the Bard himself drew inspiration from the Romans and Greeks, who had entertained through comedy and tragedy over a millennium earlier. Throughout history, we can see humor and action used to divert our attention away from the tragedies, stresses, and discomforts of our own lives. Many people go to plays or to movies to be distracted from the stresses and realities of their own lives, and prefer to “turn off their brains.” These people do not wish to be educated or enlightened, but want the visceral thrill of being made to laugh or to watch action unfold on the screen. With major advancements in CGI, audiences today are being entertained at a higher and more sophisticated degree than ever before. It is possible to go see a movie and watch intense battle scenes and car chases that are completely manipulated or created digitally, and are viscerally thrilling and used to maximize excitement. Just as watching action sequences onscreen can distract a person, so can comedy. Both can function at a deeper level as well, but at its core, action and comedy are intended to entertain and distract us. Some of us prefer our stories to do no more than function as diversion, while others seek something deeper and more meaningful. These higher level thinking attributes of storytelling are deeply embedded in our culture, and are just as important to how we receive and incorporate stories into our lives. These elements serve to do more than entertain and distract us, but provide a more integrated and lasting impact on our society. Our Emotional Connection One of the significant ways that storytelling serves a society is through the use of emotion and empathy to build a rapportwith an audience. When people attend the theatre or go to a movie, some are looking to get swept away in the action. For some people, that is as simple as watching intricate CGI action sequences play across the screen. In those cases, there doesn’t necessarily have to be a lot invested emotionally in the characters or the story. For many people, action and comedy can exist untethered from the emotional lives of the characters, and there is nothing wrong with that. However, for many people, they go to see plays, read books, and watch movies so that they can learn more about themselves through exploring the emotional lives of others. The great Greek Philosopher, Aristotle, wrote at length about the purpose of storytelling and theatre. He spoke of catharsis, where an audience would be purged of all its guilt, shame, fear, etc. by watching something awful unfold, like a Greek Tragedy on stage. When people watch a movie, for instance, they often want to be taken on a journey of emotion, in which they feel the same excitement, fear, anger, thrill, and other emotions that the characters experience onscreen. The film is therefore a tool by which an audience can live vicariously through the characters, and experience what it’s like to be terrorized by a serial killer or explore outer space or do any other number of things they may not have ever experienced, nor may never experience in their own lives. Watching a play or a movie allows an audience to feel the emotions of a character, and take a trip with that person, without ever having to experience the very real effects of that journey. In watching a film or play, people have access to a wide variety of emotions that they may have experienced in their own lives, never experienced before, and very well may never experience even once. The beauty of storytelling is that it allows people to empathize and relate to characters who may share a similar story as our own, or experience people who look nothing like us, and may have a very different life than our own. The power of storytelling is that it creates empathy in the viewer, who finds an outlet in order to channel their emotions into the characters in a story, and allows them to feel for the characters and feel LIKE the characters. This emotional connection is what invites people into a story, and motivates them to become emotionally invested in the characters and the storyline. Perhaps greater than dazzling action sequences or transitory moments of comedy, is the ability for a story to captivate its audience through raw emotion. When an audience is invested in the emotional lives of a story’s characters, they seem to be more devoted to the story and its outcome in general. There are two primary types of emotional connection to a story. The first is to be engaged with the lives of characters who are feeling deep emotions and experiencing nuanced feelings like we have never felt before. In this case, an audience member is moved to feel what another human being feels, even if they have never experienced such emotion in their own lives. An example of this might be a person with money and prestige moved by the plight of a poor and dejected member of society, and their struggle to overcome poverty. Through storytelling, we are able to weave stories about people who may not look like us or come from where we come from, but are still able to engender pity and empathy within the viewer. In that case, the spectator becomes so invested in the character, they feel compelled to momentarily live another’s pain, joy, heartache, love, etc. This is the very definition of empathy. The second type of emotional investment is when we see ourselves on the screen. These are the kinds of stories that are told about people like you and me, and people we know well. We are able to see ourselves in these characters, and can easily be moved by their stories, because perhaps they are enacting our own lives, and exploring the complex range of emotions we each feel everyday. When we see ourselves onscreen, we see all our hopes and dreams, triumphs and defeats, and all the nuanced emotions that surge through our bodies everyday. When we watch stories about ourselves, we can emotionally connect to what other human beings feel that we may have felt, in order to feel not so alone and to reaffirm our own humanity. In many ways, seeing ourselves onscreen or onstage is consoling, and allows us to claim a piece of our community, and reaffirms that we are all members of the human race. Whether someone is emotionally identifying with those who look different from them, or whether they feel they are looking at themselves on stage, it is difficult to imagine a more intimate experience than becoming invested in the emotional lives of the characters who populate our stories. Building Character Through Characters Another significant way that storytelling is important to a society is the way in which it creates role models and characters we can identify with. As human beings, it’s important to identify with certain types of people, learn behaviors, and become socialized as individuals. Just as our friends and family influence us immeasurably, so do the characters we read in books, see on stage, or watch in the movies and on television. From our first glimpse of television and movies to the first bedtime stories we hear, we are constantly exposed to characters who have professional lives we may someday aspire to. It is not uncommon to be introduced to doctors and lawyers, firemen and police officers, and truck drivers and astronauts. When we are exposed to these professions, it’s not unusual to develop an affinity for one job or another. Again, we relate to who we relate to, and it’s often easy to see ourselves in a story, including the jobs we have, the jobs we’d like, or the jobs we left behind. Storytelling is a way to introduce people to professions, and explore those careers right from the comfort of our own home or a seat in a theater. Along the same lines, storytelling allows us to envision ourselves as somebody else –for good or for bad. It allows us to see ourselves as who we’d like to be—perhaps as an action star, a double agent, or a dashing romantic lead. Or perhaps just someone more confident, more outspoken, or more successful at love. We are able to measure ourselves against the characters we see onscreen, and that can be a motivating factor in making real and lasting change in our lives. Perhaps we are inspired by the stories we see, and are moved to take action in our own lives. Conversely, storytelling also has a cautionary function, and can depict characters who are cruel, gruesome, evil, and despicable in many ways. These kinds of antagonists can allow us to envision what we don’t want to be, and the kinds of people to stay away from. In creating complex and engaging characters in the stories we tell, we are creating types that fulfill our needs in our personal and professional lives. When we see two friends on screen, we can look for those traits in new friends, and cultivate them in the relationships we already have. When we see romance on screen, we can aspire to have the same romantic relationships in our own lives. Naturally, we have to be cautious and realize that the stories we see are not always realistic and may be unattainable, but nonetheless, they can serve to inspire and motivate us in our own lives. What we see is often aspirational, and we can learn a lot from the characters we’re exposed to in books, on stage, and onscreen. Morality, Socialization, and the Education of Youth Since the first stories were ever woven, one of the major purposes of storytelling was to educate, as well as to entertain. Storytelling may or may not have grown out of religious rituals and ceremonies, but either way, there has always been an aspect of storytelling that was meant to enlighten and elucidate. For instance, stories have been used for centuries as a cautionary tale to remind us what dire consequences there are for various actions we take. Stories serve to enlighten and prompt us to act, for when we forget the humanity of others, we risk losing our own humanity. There are many books which fall into the genre of dystopian fiction, which serve as reminders as to what can happen when we allow dictators to rule and authoritarian regimes to rule a nation. Several of these books have been turned into movies, and include 1984,Brave New World, Fahrenheit 451, and A Clockwork Orange. Each of these books are cautionary tales, to remind us of the dangers of fascism – in all its many forms. In many instances, stories are written in order to teach us morality and the difference between right and wrong. The characters often face tough moral challenges, and are forced to choose between the easy and convenient decision, and the difficult, but moral one. The book and film, To Kill a Mockingbird,is a prime example of a story that is intended to teach morality and to shape and change societal prejudices. At the time it was written, the country was just beginning to emerge from the Jim Crow laws of the south, and the Civil Rights movement was challenging segregation and longstanding oppression. Author Harper Lee crafted the character of Atticus Finch to be an upstanding and moral southern gentleman, who would go on to defend the accused African American man, Tom Robinson, and fight racism wherever he saw it. Atticus’s children, Scout and Jem, were taught lessons about how to treat each other with kindness and empathy regardless of skin color, and we, the audience, were taught through his fine example. A Lesson in History Years later, Stephen Spielberg would make the haunting and arresting film, Schindler’s List, also based on a bestselling book. Through shockingly realistic depictions of concentration camps and fierce Nazi brutality, Spielberg weaves a cautionary tale for us about man’s inhumanity towards man, and the depths of depravity our brethren have sunk to. The film is intended to educate generations of people who never saw the Holocaust firsthand, and to remind us that we must “never forget” what happened there, and what could easily happen here, if we ever allowed a man like Adolf Hitler to gain power again. Like many important works of art, Schindler’s List is a story that educates us about our own history, while pulling us in with its characters and engaging story. We become emotionally invested in the characters, and are moved by their plights. While most of us may have never experienced the horrors of the Holocaust, and can only imagine the cost of such brutality, we are pulled in by the humanity of the characters, and are forced to empathize with their experience. A movie like Schindler’s List is successful on many levels, because the film manages to draw us into its story through action, good acting, an engaging plot, superb direction, masterful art direction and design, and emotional investment, while also educating us along the way. We are taught a history lesson, a lesson in morality, and entertained all at the same time. Storytelling can serve to educate a society about itself, and to provide a history lesson about where we all came from. We can learn invaluable things about who we once were, and be reminded of who we want to be. Even science fiction serves the purpose of education and allows us to explore the possibilities and potential of the human condition. For example, as a cautionary tale, science fiction can warn of the dangers of technology run amok, without any thought to its moral implications. A movie like Metropolistells a harrowing tale of a future overrun by machines and the horrifying technology we have created to make our lives easier. However, if the human race is in fact evolving physically, it stands to reason that we are also evolving towards a more peaceful and moral society. When Gene Roddenberry created the original Star Trekseries, he imagined a future where humankind was equal and peace had been achieved on earth. Despite the racial turmoil going on in America during the late 1960s, Star Trekdepicted an egalitarian future, where all the races lived in harmony and had overcome such petty squabbles as skin color or gender. The story was set in the future, but many of its themes and ideas were rooted in the strife and struggles of mid-century America. Again, the show was intended as a cautionary tale, but not one as dark and hopeless as 1984or Brave New World. Star Trekprovided a hopeful and optimistic future of where we are going, or at least, what we can aspire to. The Next Generation Finally, storytelling is a way to teach our children, and the generations that follow us. This essay has already touched on how storytelling is used to socialize people, and introduce them to various professions, demonstrate positive and negative relationships, and to explore our wide range of emotions. It’s important for children to learn these skills, in order to be effective communicators and productive members of society. Storytelling also serves to entertain children, while also educating them about the past and the present, and allows them to imagine a brighter future—one which they can shape firsthand. Stories manage to use morality tales and parables to teach children about the atrocities that have come before them, and can guide them to make better choices in the future. Storytelling serves to inspire and give meaning to our lives, and allows us to make sense of an often chaotic and random world. When we are young, storytelling helps contextualize our lives and create a narrative not only for our own lives, but of our society as a whole. When we are able to create narratives, we are able to attach meaning to what has happened to us, and we are able to make decisions about how we want the future to be. When we are able to recognize that bad things happened as a result of poor decisions, we can minimize future bad decisions, and can take proactive steps to better our lives and the lives of those around us. Storytelling functions as a cautionary tale, an inspirational and aspirational tool, an education lesson, an entertaining diversion, and an emotional investment in people who may or may not look like us. Children are exposed to cultures they may never have seen otherwise, and our planet becomes smaller and can celebrate its diversity, rather than fear what makes us different. Just as a tapestry is woven by threads of all colors, the stories we tell are populated by diverse characters who make up the world, and who each have their own story to tell. Stories inspire us, and give meaning to our lives, and are an essential ingredient in the human experience. Without stories, our lives would be barbaric, primitive, and utterly meaningless. We need stories to tell us about who we’ve been, who we are, and who we hope to be. Shakespeare’s Hamlet once said that a society passes on its values and uses stories to “..hold a mirror up to nature” to show us our reflection, however hard it may be to look. Yet, it also shows us where we came from, and to where we are heading. Storytelling is how we make meaning out of the chaos of human existence. It provides a shape, so that our own lives have a beginning, middle, and an end, and we can feel like we’ve meant something, and left our mark on the world. If each one of us could tell a piece of our life story, than we have a narrative, and suddenly, we are the protagonists in our own life story. Yet, that is what storytellers are there for. They serve to tell their own stories, and the stories of each and every one of us. This is why we create stories, and this is why we NEED storytellers. They entertain AND educate us. They are what make us human, and not savage beasts of the wild.

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Elysian Charter School A Positively Different Public School May 15, 2017 Vol. 12 Issue 34 The school newsletter is sent out on Mondays. When there is a holiday, the newsletter is sent the following day. Why Teaching Kindness in Schools Is Essential to Reduce Bullying Originally Published in Edutopia.org,October 17, 2014 | Updated: August 10, 2015 Phrases like "random acts of kindness" and "pay it forward" have become popular terms in modern society. This could perhaps be best explained by those who have identified a deficiency in their lives that can only be fulfilled by altruism. It seems there are good reasons why we can't get enough of those addictive, feel-good emotions, as scientific studies prove there are many physical, emotional, and mental health benefits associated with kindness. As minds and bodies grow, it’s abundantly clear that children require a healthy dose of the warm-and-fuzzies to thrive as healthy, happy, well-rounded individuals. Patty O'Grady, PhD, an expert in neuroscience, emotional learning, and positive psychology, specializes in education. She reports: Kindness changes the brain by the experience of kindness. Children and adolescents do not learn kindness by only thinking about it and talking about it. Kindness is best learned by feeling it so that they can reproduce it. Happy, Caring Children The good feelings that we experience when being kind are produced by endorphins. They activate areas of the brain that are associated with pleasure, social connection, and trust. These feelings of joyfulness are proven to be contagious, encouraging more kind behavior (also known as altruism) by the giver and recipient. Acts of kindness help us form connections with others which are reported to be a strong factor in increasing happiness. Greater Sense of Belonging and Improved Self-Esteem Studies show that people experience a "helper's high" when they do a good deed. This rush of endorphins creates a lasting sense of pride, well-being, and an enriched sense of belonging. It's reported that even small acts of kindness heighten our sense of well-being, increase energy, and give a wonderful feeling of optimism and self worth. Increased Peer Acceptance Research on prosocial behavior among adolescents determined that being kind increases popularity and our ability to form meaningful connections with other people. Being well liked is an important factor in the happiness of children and it was demonstrated that greater peer acceptance was achieved through good deeds. Better-than-average mental health is reported in classrooms that practice more inclusive behavior due to an even distribution of popularity. Improved Health and Less Stress There are a number of physical and mental health benefits that can be achieved by being kind. Altruistic actions trigger a release of the hormone oxytocin, which can significantly increase a person's level of happiness and reduce stress levels. Oxytocin also protects the heart by lowering blood pressure and reducing free radicals and inflammation, which incidentally speed up the aging process. Increased Feelings of Gratitude When children are part of activities that help others less fortunate than themselves, it provides them with a real sense of perspective, highlighting their own good fortune. Being generous helps them appreciate what they have, makes them feel useful, and fosters empathy. Better Concentration and Improved Results Kindness is a key ingredient that enhances positivity and helps children feel good about themselves as it increases serotonin levels. This important chemical affects learning, memory, mood, sleep, health, and digestion. Children with a positive outlook have greater attention spans, more willingness to learn, and better creative thinking to improve results at school. Internationally-renowned author and speaker Dr. Wayne Dyer explains that an act of kindness increases levels of serotonin, a natural chemical responsible for improving mood. This boost in happiness occurs not only in the giver and receiver of kindness, but also in anyone who witnesses it. This makes kindness a powerful, natural antidepressant (PDF). Shanetia Clark and Barbara Marinak are Penn State Harrisburg faculty researchers. They say, "Unlike previous generations, today's adolescents are victimizing each other at alarming rates." They strongly believe that adolescent bullying and violence can be confronted with in-school programs that integrate "kindness -- the antithesis of victimization." Many traditional anti-bullying programs focus on the negative actions that cause anxiety in children. When students are instead taught how to change their thoughts and actions by learning about kindness and compassion, it fosters the positive behavior that's expected and naturally rewarded with friendship. Promoting its psychological opposite is key in reducing bullying to create warm and inclusive school environments. Maurice Elias, Professor at Rutgers University Psychology Department, is also an advocate for kindness in schools. He says: As a citizen, grandparent, father, and professional, it is clear to me that the mission of schools must include teaching kindness. Without it, communities, families, schools, and classrooms become places of incivility where lasting learning is unlikely to take place . . . [W]e need to be prepared to teach kindness, because it can be delayed due to maltreatment early in life. It can be smothered under the weight of poverty, and it can be derailed by victimization later in life . . . Kindness can be taught, and it is a defining aspect of civilized human life. It belongs in every home, school, neighborhood, and society. It's become quite clear that modern education ought to encompass more than just academics, and that matters of the heart must be taken seriously and nurtured as a matter of priority. How do you teach kindness? Has it reduced bullying at your school? A Tribute to Mom One of my favorite children’s books is called, I’ll Love You Forever by Robert Munsch. It is a tribute to mothers on this Mothers’ Day. Please listen to it by clicking on the link below: It started out as a song, with the refrain: “I’ll love you forever, I’ll like you for always, as long as I’m living my baby you’ll be.” Listen and enjoy! Friday Bake Sale, After School! The fourth graders will be holding a bake sale this Thursday at 2:45 right outside our main entrance, to raise funds for their end of the year field trips. Please support the fourth grade and enjoy some tasty treats! After School Clubs Basketball Skills Club and Fashion Lab will run from 12:45-1:45 this Wednesday on the 1/2 day. Chess Club has ended for the school year. Donate a New Book, Blanket or Stuffed Animal for a Kid's Tote Bag After reading the book, Crenshaw, about what is it is like for children today to live in homelessness, our students in third and fourth grade English Language Service classes have decided to collect books, stuffed animals and blankets to fill tote bags for kids that they can take with them to wherever they may be living now or in the future. We chose to do this through Project Night Night and the York Street Project in Jersey City. York Street provides housing and services to homeless families in our area. Project Night Night, based in San Francisco, provides the tote bags as a way of kids having something to take with them wherever they may find themselves. They link with shelters throughout the country. Starting on Thursday, June , there will be three boxes at the entryway to Elysian where children can bring these donations. For younger children, I will be discussing this briefly with them, but we will not read the book as it is more appropriate for older children or for individual family discussions. If you wish to read it with your child, you can request a copy through the Hoboken Public Library or Little City Books. If you or your family is able and would like to contribute to this drive, please donate a new book, blanket or stuffed animal to this drive. Taking your child to get such a good is an excellent way to teach them about helping others and families that may find themselves struggling at this time. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. Teacher of English Language Services. - 7th Grade Humanities Teacher, Leah Oppenzato, is one of 25 teachers from throughout the United States selected to join The Religious Worlds of New York Summer Institute. Teachers will work with leading scholars, meet diverse religious leaders, and visit local houses of worship to develop their own curriculum projects. The Insitute, a program of the Interfaith Center of New York and Union Theological Seminary, is made possible with support from the National Endowment for the Humanities. - Lynne Shapiro will be an artist-in-residence at the Bee Time Artist Residency, Emerson College, East Sussex, England. She will join other artists and writers to explore the ecology of the honeybee and creatively engage with hives in their landscape. The residency includes visits to beekeepers, neighboring biodynamic farms, the Natural Beekeeping Trust as well as work with the School of Sacred Geometry. The residency will culminate in a public exhibition of work in progress and a talk given by the artists at ONCA Gallery for Arts and Ecology in Brighton. - Elysian graduate, Hannah Mack ('14), is starring in Peter Pan as Peter Pan at Hoboken High School, May 19 at 7:00 PM, May 20 and May 21 at 2:00 PM, Tickets are $10 general admission/ $5 students and seniors. "Flying is her favorite part of the role, but it is not as easy as thinking happy thoughts. 'I’ve actually had to do a lot of core training,' said Mack. 'I now wake up in the mornings and exercise and eat better." - Rebecca Weintraub ('16), another Elysian graduate, is a dancer and Peter Pan's shadow in the same production. - Elysian graduate, Natasha Persaud ('04), has been accepted into prestigious Cuny Hunter College MFA Creative Writing Program. Persaud plans to use her time to complete her memoir titled, The Dirt from the Yard. "As a child, Persaud was raised by her grandmother in Guyana. Persaud didn’t know her parents - except as an occasional voice on the end of a long distance phone call. Her parents left Guyana in order to find a betterlife in the U.S. Once they felt they were settled—nearly eight years later—they sent for her - and she became a student at Elysian Charter School! Campaign For Elysian What a great start! Thank you to everyone for such a generous and quick response! Our tally so far, including the Auction and other smaller fundraisers this year, is $78,335 ($17,140 from just the Annual Appeal)! Our goal is $125,000 by June 15. A FEW SPORTS BAGS ARE STILL AVAILABLE! We still have a few Elysian sports bags left so please donate today (or this week)! ONLINE: You may make a secure on-line donation by visiting our website at: MATCHING GIFT PROGRAMS! You may be able to double your giving. A number of companies match employee gifts, so be sure to check whether your company will match your donation. We will provide any information needed to complete your request form. (Any questions, please email email@example.com.) Company matching has been a huge part of the Campaign’s success, so please keep it in mind! Our thanks to the following recent donors for their generosity (as of 5/14/17; includes donations from before last week’s Appeal launch): Mary Beth Alter and Matt Laskowski The Auerbach family Lauree and Derek Barnes Dr. Debra Beneck and Ted Green Lisa Chernick and Lyle Hysen Chris and Trista DeFilippis The Goodman family Carrie and Michael Granit Sara Green and Kevin Goldberg Carolyn Hartwick and Paul Jung The Katell family Jacob Linder and the Linder family Maria Muller and Luis Kaplun The Napolitani family Monika Nemeth and Zsolt Szerdai Rahul & Sonia Puri Preeti Singh and Jelke Terpstra Joan and Danny Spiegel The Stanin family Barath Vasudevan and Katrina Virtusio Cynthia & Jason Villaluz The Weintraub family Jen Weiss and Dan Vassallo Morgan Stanley (via Joan Spiegel) THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR YOUR SUPPORT! See Screenagers, The Movie! Thursday, May 25th at 7:00 p.m. at Miles Square Theater We will be showing the movie Screenagers on Thursday, May 25th at 7:00 p.m.for students and their families. The film will be shown at Miles Square Theatre, 1400 Clinton Street, Hoboken. To encourage families to attend together there is a single $10 charge for all family members. Click on the picture below for the trailer, more information and to purchase tickets. Although the film is recommended for 5th grade and up, any children who has a cell phone or use the Internet will enjoy and learn. Click image below to purchase tickets! Letter from Elysian's Speech Teacher May Is Better Speech and Hearing Month: The Many Benefits of Reading Aloud to Children The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) recognizes May as “Better Speech and Hearing Month.” While we encourage good communication every day at Elysian, ASHA uses this annual “campaign” as an opportunity to raise awareness about communication, speech, language, and hearing development, and the role of Speech-Language Specialists/Pathologists in schools and other settings. For this third installment in my four-week series, I am focusing on the many benefits of reading aloud to children. Please feel free to contact me if you have any concerns regarding the speech and language development of your child. Gail Prusslin, M.S., M.Ed., CCC Elysian Speech-Language Specialist Why Read Aloud? At Elysian, “Read Alouds” are part of every classroom. At home, the benefits of reading aloud to your child are enormous, even after they become independent readers. I found an article about the benefits of reading aloud is very useful: “The Hidden Benefits of Reading Aloud - Even for Older Kids,” by Connie Matthiessen. She interviews Jim Trelease, the author of the Read-Aloud Handbook. Here are some highlights of the article I find particularly useful: 1. Reading aloud and vocabulary development: “So parents need to talk to their children — but reading aloud is important, too. Because where are children going to be hearing the most words? In conversation, we tend to use verbal shorthand, not full sentences. But the language in books is very rich, and in books there are complete sentences. In books, newspapers, and magazines, the language is more complicated, more sophisticated. A child who hears more sophisticated words has a giant advantage over a child who hasn’t heard those words.” 2. Listening skills and developing a love reading: “Reading aloud also increases a child’s attention span.... When you read aloud, you’re whetting a child’s appetite for reading...A child who has been read to will want to learn to read herself. She will want to do what she sees her parents doing. But if a child never sees anyone pick up a book, she isn’t going to have that desire. (or will be much less likely to - my comment) 3. Reading to older kids: (This part of the article is full of great information!) People often say to me, ‘”My child is in fourth grade and he already knows how to read, why should I read to him?” And I reply, “Your child may be reading on a fourth grade level, but at what level is he/she listening?” A child’s reading level doesn’t catch up to his listening level until eighth grade. You can and should be reading seventh grade books to fifth grade kids. They’ll get excited about the plot and this will be a motivation to keep reading. A fifth grader can enjoy a more complicated plot than she can read herself, and reading aloud is really going to hook her, because when you get to chapter books, you’re getting into the real meat of print — there is really complicated, serious stuff going on that kids are ready to hear and understand, even if they can’t read at that level yet. Reading aloud to your kids is also are good way to grapple with difficult issues. For example, if you read a book about a kid who gets in trouble by hanging out with the wrong crowd, your child is going to experience that directly, and she’s going to experience it with you at her side, and you can talk about it together.” Reading books at a higher level than your child can read independently will expose him/her to rich vocabulary and more complex language. Your conversations around these books will go a long way toward the ongoing listening and language development of your child. This article ends with some comments about electronics and their impact on learning and reading. It also includes some links to suggested books to read aloud. Be sure to find some time on a regular basis to read to your child - and yes, your middle school child too- if he/she will let you! Keep it relaxed and enjoyable. Happy reading! Ben & Jerry's is the Place to be on Thursday! Celebrate your school spirit and win a chance for an ice cream party for Elysian when you join Hoboken Family Alliance at the School Spirit Event at Ben & Jerry’s on Thursday, May 18. Some of your favorite teachers will be scooping ice cream from 4:30 - to 5:00 PM, but come anytime from 3:00 to 9:00 PM to earn points for Elysian. The school that earns the most points will qualify to win an End of School Ice Cream Party for the entire school, courtesy of Ben & Jerry's. Elysian earns points by: 1. Coming out to buy ice-cream on May 18 ANYTIME throughout the event (1 point for each purchase) The benefit helps HFA generate awareness and recruit volunteers for the Hoboken Bike Camp, June 26-June 30. Ben & Jerry’s, a founding sponsor for the Bike Camp in its 7th year, will donate a percentage of sales from School Spirit Night to the camp. The event will feature performances, giveaways and raffles, including an autographed Eli Manning Giants jersey. VOLUNTEERS AND TENTS STILL NEEDED! Anyone have a tent we can borrow for Wednesday morning? We need three! PLEASE email firstname.lastname@example.org or contact Lauree Barnes about tents or volunteering! Elysian Field Day is all about teamwork! Get ready for it! Field Day t-shirts in our school colors will be handed out in advance at school. Please remember to send your child(ren) on Wednesday with their Field Day t-shirt and FILLED water bottle with name on it, sneakers, sunscreen and a cap/hat directly to 1600 Park. Everyone is in for a fun-filled, jam-packed morning of relays, races and other goodies! Drop your child off between 8:30 and 8:45am directly at 1600 Park (not school unless before care)! Field Day will conclude around 11:30 am and children will be brought back to school by teachers and staff for lunch. PLEASE NOTE: Self-dismissal is not allowed from the park. Parents can sign their kids out through their classroom teacher at the field. If another parent/caregiver is picking up child(ren) from the field, you must have provided advance written notice to the school. Please also remember that WEDNESDAY IS A HALF DAY. DISMISSAL AT 12:30pm at the school. We still need a few more chaperones! Please contact Michele McCue if you are available! Get those permission slips and payment in!! No one will be granted access without a permission slip. Please return permission slips and payment to your homeroom teacher. The Middle School Dance for 6th, 7th and 8th graders is Friday, May 19th from 7:30 pm – 10 pm at Local Barre West, 720 Monroe Street, Suite C300. Cost is $10 per student. There will be food provided. Save the date! This year’s picnic is set for Wednesday, June 7th – rain date Thursday, June 8th. More details to come! Please Help Elysian Raise Funds By Joining the "Swing Fore The Schools Fundraising Golf Tournament” For the seventh year in a row, Elysian Charter School will be participating in the "Swing Fore The Schools Golf Outing". This is Hudson County's largest golf outing benefiting six local schools which serve over 1,400 students. Last year our school earned over $10,000 by identifying sponsors and registering enthusiastic golfers. This year's tournament will be held on Thursday, June 8th (beginning with lunch at 11AM) at the Crystal Springs Golf Resort in Northwest New Jersey. Tee off is 1PM. Bus transportation to and from Hoboken will be provided. Please consider being one of the 300 golfers who will play 36 holes, participate in fun contests, win prizes and enjoy a delicious lunch and dinner while raising money for our schools! We are hoping for at least 20 golfers from Elysian so we can do our part with this fundraising event. We also need sponsors and have several sponsorship packages available that provide for great visibility for companies interested in reaching families in Hudson County. Please contact Jeff Joss (email@example.com) or Malin Kallberg-Shroff (firstname.lastname@example.org), chairpersons for the tournament, for more details. Thank you for your support! Upcoming Track Meets: Saturday Races: June 3 Participants should Arrive by 9:30 / 9:45 AM Sunday Races: May 21, June 4 Participants should Arrive by 9:30 / 9:45 AM The 1st race begins 10:00 AM. Races should end no later than noon. We do not Run in the rain. Blue Running Track, Lincoln Park, J. C./ Entrance - Duncan Ave. near Route 440. Parking is Available. Clothing Drive Through the May 26! All Saints Church and the Jubilee Center are collecting gently used children's clothes, to be given away at an event at the Jubilee Center in late May. We are collecting clothes, shoes and coats in baby up to juniors/high school sizes. There's a particular need for clothes size 5T through 15. Hola and Hoboken Charter are joining the clothing drive as well. Look for the labeled box inside Elysian's front door. Thanks to everyone who has contributed. Thanks, Elysian - keep your clothing donations coming! ELYSIAN SUMMER CAMP 2017 - TIME IS RUNNING OUT... - Spots still available for each week - Registration open to ALL students both in & out of the Elysian community currently in kindergarten through 5th grade - Registration ends on Thursday, June 1st - Daily activities include arts & crafts, cooking, sports, woodworking, science, outside vendor visits, Idlewild Pool Club, field trips and much more - Camp staff will be primarily Elysian teachers, coordinated and run by John Rutledge (5th grade teacher/rugby coach) and Pam Gorode (Business Office and Club Coordinator) - 2 one week sessions - the weeks of July 31st and August 7th - you can sign up for one or both weeks - Hours of fun, air conditioned classrooms, familiar counselors....and no one hour bus rides there and back! - Registration forms and more information about the camp at www.ecsnj.org/elysian-summer-camp/camp-registration-form/ - Questions can be directed to John and Pam at email@example.com HELP SPREAD THE WORD TO FRIENDS AND FAMILY TO JOIN US FOR WHAT PROMISES TO BE A HIGHLIGHT OF YOUR CHILD'S SUMMER!!! Elysian Collects Box Tops and LABELS for Education: Look for the container near Deb's desk in the office! Thank you! As per state law, we no longer publish the exact location of trips for security reasons. Please read the calendar weekly, as changes are updated regularly Wednesday, May 17 - Field Day, 7:45 AM – 12:00 PM – come join the fun! Volunteers needed to help with set-up, water station, activity stations, Italian ice scooping and clean-up. - Half Day of School for Staff Development. 12:30 dismissal. After School Program available as usual. Thursday, May 18 - Film seminar trip - 4th Grade Bake Sale, 2:45 at Elysian's Entrance - Ben and Jerry's School Spirit Event - see above. Friday, May 19 - 9:00 AM Community Meeting, 6th Grade Concert - Spring Fling, the Middle School Dance for 6th, 7th and 8th graders, 7:30 – 10:00 PM, Local Barre West, 720 Monroe Street, Suite C300. Cost is $10 per student. Volunteers needed to help with set-up, chaperoning the dance and clean up. Saturday, May 20 - Middle School Rugby Club tournament, 8:00 AM -12:00 PM, Randall’s Island, NYC. Sunday, May 21 - Elysian Track Meet, participants should arrive by 9:30/9:45. Meet begins 10 AM, Lincoln Park, Jersey City - Elementary Rugby Club tournament, 12:00 - 2:00 PM, Chelsea Waterside Park, NYC Monday, May 22 - High School Meeting for 7th Grade Parents - Board of Trustees Meeting, 7:00 PM Thursday, May 25 - Orientation for in-coming Kindergarteners - Screening of Screenagers at Miles Square Theater, 7 PM, $10 per family, 4th grade and up. Friday, May 26 - Half day of school, 12:30 dismissal. After School Program available as usual. Monday, May 29 - Elysian closed for memorial Day. Tuesday, May 30 - 6th and 7th grade all day trip. - Exhibition, 3rd grade illuminated manuscripts, Morgan Library Book Project. All are welcome! Wednesday, May 31 - Grades 4 and 8 NJ ASK Science test Please make note of the following calendar changes: 1. The June 9th Community Meeting is changed to June 16th 2. On June 9th there will be the 3rd, 4th and 5th grade concert which will begin at 9:00 AM 1460 Garden Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030 Harry Laub, Ph.D., Director

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A recent article in The Atlantic (Christakis, 2016) lamented the overemphasis on academics that characterizes much of early childhood education today, noting that the preschool and kindergarten years serve more as gatekeepers than supporters and “welcoming mats” to the elementary school years, particularly for children at risk. Indeed, the first five years of a child’s life are dedicated to the preparation for “kindergarten readiness,” and many teachers today are under pressure to engage in didactic teaching practices aimed at promoting young children’s literacy and math competencies. Unfortunately, such teaching methods often require young children to sit for long periods of time and reflect the use of highly structured teaching methods, paperwork and worksheets that are not in tune with the developmental needs of young children. Even more concerning is that less developmentally appropriate practices are not only ineffective but also stressful for young children. In fact, studies have shown that children in classrooms characterized by developmentally inappropriate practices show twice the level of stress (and stress-motivated behaviors) than their peers in more developmentally appropriate classrooms (Hart et al., 1998). What do we mean by developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood? For young children, play in the context of warm, supportive teacher-child relationships characterizes an optimal learning environment. David Elkind once said, “Learning teaches us what is known, play makes it possible for new things to be learned. There are many concepts and skills that can only be learned through play.” Unstructured play, also known as free play, provides so much opportunity for growth. As Horne (2018) explains, play allows young children to acquire and master skills across a variety of developmental domains. Further, children are free to invest their full emotional energy in their exploration and learning when they share predictable, warm relationships with their teachers, and teacher-child relationship quality is related to children’s more advanced play. What skills are learned through play? Play builds a variety of skills! Play in all areas of the early childhood classroom (e.g., centers such as the block area or pretend play area) offers opportunities for solitary play as well as play near and in collaboration with others. Such experiences help children build important social skills and mastery motivation (the desire to learn a new skill or master a new competency, for example). Allowing children to make their own choices about play promotes autonomy and mastery. In a world in which children have little power, play allows children to make choices according to their interests and goals. Additionally, play promotes communication and language skills — critical competencies given that it is through communication and language skills that our needs are met and desires are known throughout our lives. Language skills such as holding a conversation, negotiation, vocabulary, and listening skills are supported in play in all areas of the classroom. Moreover, through play, emotional skills — the foundation for so much learning — are also challenged and developed. The following are examples of skill development supported through play: Blocks and Manipulatives Building block towers invites opportunities to experiment with cause and effect and practice balance and eye-hand coordination. Building structures involves planning and reasoning, opportunities to notice and sort blocks by shape and size (categorization, seriation, classifying objects, parts and wholes) and provides practice in spatial orientation (e.g., how blocks fit together). Working with puzzles involves experiments with spatial orientation, problem solving, and eye-hand coordination. Explorations with Duplos, chunky Legos and similar materials invite experimentation with planning and problem-solving as well as exposure to sensory experiences. Toys that produce interesting effects, like a jack-in-the-box, promote young children’s more rapid cause and effect learning and application of that knowledge in later play (Hauf & Aschersleben, 2008). Over time, block play and play with manipulatives expose children to mathematical concepts in meaningful ways. For example, observing that two small square blocks equal one rectangular block is math, specifically fractions, at work! Sensory, Art and Music Experiences Painting, play dough, water play, sand play and other sensory experiences engage all five senses and provide cause and effect experimentation (e.g., what happens if I use a light stroke versus a heavy stroke; what happens when I keep pouring water into the cup?) Zero to Three (www.zerotothree.org) describes the development of cause and effect understanding as one of the foundational cognitive discoveries in the early childhood years. Like other areas of play, sensory play offers opportunities to explore rich new language as teachers and children notice interesting textures and scents and engage in visual exploration of interesting materials. Music experiences such as songs and chants promote literacy and language skills and also give young children practice in sequencing and memory skills (i.e., what comes next in this familiar story or repetitive chorus). The development of these types of cognitive skills creates a positive early foundation from which the child can grow; such skills are related to a variety of later school-readiness and academic outcomes. Pretend Play Experiences Pretend play promotes perspective-taking and has been linked with the development of children’s self-regulation skills. For example, as pretend play becomes more advanced, it requires children to modulate their emotions and behaviors in response to others so that the play continues. Self-regulation, the ability to alter our emotions and behaviors in response to internal (e.g., our thoughts) or external (e.g., others’ behaviors) signals play a role throughout life in helping us navigate social relationships, school and work environments. Pretend play also offers opportunities for practicing language skills, and children’s language acquisition is richer in the context of play than in other classroom activities (Cohen & Uhry, 2007). Stanley Greenspan explained that through pretend play children also explore major themes in life, such as what it means to love and be loved. The child cradling and feeding a doll in the pretend play area is not only imitating observed behaviors but also enacting how loving relationships look and feel. Motor Play Experiences Learning about our bodies is a fundamental task of early development. Through physical activity, children learn spatial awareness skills (e.g., imagine a toddler learning how to move her body around another child rather than walking into the other child), balance and how to be safe. Opportunities to practice fine and gross motor skills are also associated with children’s acquisition of strength and motor coordination. Moreover, providing interesting and novel materials promotes motor exploration. For example, infants make different types of stepping movements on coarse textures than they do on smooth textures. Motor play also offers opportunities for language exploration and for developing cognitive concepts, such as opposites (in/out of the sandbox; over/under the slide). Additionally, motor skills are related to many other areas of development. For example, the ability to crawl or walk allows a young child to move away from a caregiver or teacher and return, allowing infants and toddlers to practice managing brief separations. Even this type of brief separation and reunion reinforces that infants and toddlers can be effective in finding their “safe base” whenever needed. So, in short, motor skills are related to attachment relationships! Books provide opportunities for motor and sensory explorations as infants and toddlers explore books with their eyes, hands, and mouths. Books and storytelling invite toddlers and preschoolers to hypothesize what will happen next (e.g., “If you give a mouse a cookie…. What do you think he’ll want next?”) Books and storytelling proving opportunities to practice cognitive skills like sequencing (e.g., the repetitive text of “Caps for Sale” provides practice in sequencing). Young children’s stories addressing affective experiences (joy, sadness, anxiety) provide important openings to talk about the emotional cues, the contexts of emotions, empathy and perspective taking. From manipulating books, children acquire literacy knowledge including understandings of written language, letter and word identification and book knowledge. Sharing books and stories together, as with other forms of play, offer relationship building experiences as children, their peers, and teachers share interests and joy in being together. Cooperative Mealtime Experiences Mealtimes also offer developmental opportunities. Meals build a sense of community as children engage in prosocial behaviors such as setting the table, passing bowls of food around the table, talking and being together. Sensory explorations of food textures, scents, sights, and tastes promote sensory development and language skills. Math concepts, such as one to one correspondence, are supported as children place one cup and one plate at each place setting or as a teacher or other children notice: “I had three crackers. I ate one and so I have two crackers left.” Children’s sense of self and autonomy are supported as children serve themselves in family-style dining in the classroom. What does play look like? Play offers many developmental benefits when supported and promoted in ways that are sensitive and responsive to children’s cues and interests. Rymanowicz (2015) summarizes many of the key characteristics of high-quality play. - Self-chosen and self-directed. The beauty of play is that it is based on children’s emerging interests and goals rather than on those of the adults. This is a critical feature of play. For example, studies have shown that child-selected activities predict greater vocabulary skills than do teacher-directed activities (Lippard, Choi & Walter, 2019). - The process, not the product. It is through the process of play that skills are practiced and acquired regardless of what a final product might be. For example, it is the joy of feeling grass on the feet that promotes sensory development not the end result of walking outside. It is not a completed block structure that promotes skills development; it is the journey of selecting blocks, stacking them, determining what makes the structure balance or topple, and so on that builds competencies. Some play is exploratory with no particular goal in mind outside of experiencing the moment. Other play has a goal determined by the child, and, often such goals are more about the creation process than a particular product (e.g., consider how many times you notice a child’s process and ending outcomes change and morph as the child engages in play). - Individually constructed. The child or children in play together determine the structure of the play — that is, the organization, pace and boundaries of play. As I explain below, teachers can support and scaffold children’s experiences but their actions should be guided by children’s processes and cues. - Imaginative, Active, and Fluid. One of the most interesting things to watch in children’s play is that it is not always tied to the rules of the “real world.” In their play, children will escape the bounds of reality and, at other times, they will practice their understanding of the real world as expressed in their play. Play themes morph frequently, and these are examples of creative thinking and problem-solving. Teachers can learn a great deal about how children are feeling and what they are thinking by observing their play. It is important to understand that every child develops differently and because of this each child’s play will look differently. It is through play that young children learn about our “symbolic world” and the themes and subjects we experience every day. Child psychiatrist Stanley Greenspan created the Floortime approach, which emphasizes the importance of child-led floor time to engage the child in complex play scenarios that build on real world readiness skills. Floortime encourages children to take initiative but also learn to negotiate and tolerate frustration, to engage in longer play episodes as skills are acquired, to communicate interests and needs, and to plan and carry out actions. Greenspan’s model has most often been applied to children with special needs, but the principles of his approach are relevant to children of all developmental abilities. Greenspan’s approach also emphasizes the importance of the symbolic world and recommends identifying and supporting real-life experiences (e.g., encouraging role playing) that are known to the child and are of interest to the child. How do we support learning in play using a relationships-based approach? In an early childhood classroom, play should comprise the majority of the day. When children are enacting their own choices, they are fully engaged, which means their focus and attention are in full bloom and the opportunities are endless. Not only does this promote brain development and skill development, but it makes a young one want to come to school, want to learn and want to explore. But how is play best supported by relationships? Relationships promote play in two key ways. First, from an attachment-based perspective, young children’s experiences reflect a balance between the need for autonomy and exploration and the need for emotional security. When the needs for emotional security are not met, emotional and physical energy is channeled to security needs at the expense of autonomy and exploration. So, building close, predictable, warm relationships with young children affords them greater energy to devote toward autonomy and exploration, and that equates to greater learning and more optimal development. For example, research has shown that warm, secure teacher-child relationships promote preschoolers’ self-regulation skills (Cadima, Verschueren, Leal, & Guedes, 2016), and teachers’ responsive interactions with children are linked to children’s cognitive skills (Hamre, Hatfield, Pianta, & Jamil, 2014). Second, relationships provide the context in which teachers scaffold children’s play in individualized ways. As we observe young children in play, an infant mental health perspective leads us to ponder not only “What about the baby?” but “What about this child?” We ask ourselves, “What is the child thinking, feeling, experiencing in this moment? What does this child want and need in this moment?” From this reflective stance, with the goal of understanding the child’s internal states (e.g., thoughts, feelings, needs, goals), teachers respond with intention to support and scaffold children’s play in ways that are aligned to the child’s interests and goals. By carefully considering what children need from us, teachers communicate respect and appreciation for young children as individuals each with their own unique experiences, interests, and goals. In short, teacher-child relationships enable the child to feel felt and heard, and, in turn, children are emotionally fueled to learn and grow. Below are teaching practices that use the relationship to scaffold play and learning. - Be physically and emotionally present. Teaching is complex, challenging work. Given high rates of teacher stress, it can be difficult to be fully present in the moment with the child. Teachers have the difficult task of managing competing demands for their time, attention and support while also regulating their internal thoughts, emotions, and perceptions of stress. Yet, it is the teacher’s emotional presence and participation with children that promote children’s learning in the most optimal ways. - Watch and Respond to Cues: As noted by Rymanowicz (2015), teachers participate most sensitively by watching and responding to children’s cues. This allows the child to stay in the lead of play while also helping children to form connections between concepts in play. When teachers allow children to take the lead and wait for invitations to play, children are more likely to feel felt and heard. - Use Open-Ended Questions and Comments Wisely: Research has shown that teachers’ sensitive (well-timed and not intrusive) open-ended questions promote children’s more complex block building and pretend play skills. Well-placed questions and comments (e.g., observations about children’s activities) promote and extend play. - Value the Importance of Observation: Sally Provence once wisely advised, “Don’t just do something. Stand there and pay attention!” Sometimes being physically and emotionally present does not always involve direct interaction with the child. Sometimes supporting play means observing and learning about the child’s development from your observations. Being an active observer and learner alongside the child gives teachers important insights into children’s developmental needs and interests. These observations come in handy when planning future learning experiences. Sometimes supporting means interacting and scaffolding sensitively. - Share the Same Level in Space: Finally, being physically and emotionally present also extends to where and how teachers place themselves in the classroom. Taking time to talk with children at their eye level and using open body position/body language communicates to children that their thoughts, communicative intentions and/or words are valued and desired. - Respect the child’s discoveries. From our adult perspectives, we know how things are “supposed” to work; we understand the most effective and efficient ways to engage materials. We want to see children succeed. Collectively, this means that teachers may be tempted to show children the “right” way to engage materials or carry out play. Yet it is the creative process, the mistakes, the rethinking and execution of a new plan and “owning” the experiences and discoveries that promote children’s critical thinking, problem solving skills, conceptual development and sense of mastery (Rymanowicz, 2015). Support the child by using well placed open-ended questions to allow deeper investigations to take place. Early childhood teachers are most effective as partners in children’s play rather than as supervisors or leaders of the play. - Trust the process. Growth and development progresses in each child in unique timetables. A “one size fits all” approach to curricular development and teaching rarely works. Individualizing experiences for children and tailoring our interactions to each child’s temperament, prior experiences, interests and goals is most effective in promoting early development. - Avoid interruption and be flexible. As a teacher, I’d like to add another important attribute to this section. Play needs to be uninterrupted. Uninterrupted play means allowing a child to be an explorer and learner and being flexible when young children are immersed in play. For example, teachers who allow a child to finish play or come to a natural pausing or stopping point before inviting the child to diapering or toileting communicate respect for the child as an individual. Extending free play time for a few minutes to allow children to complete their play or supporting children who wish to bring a toy with them for self-care routines are other examples of flexibility. Finally, relationship-based approaches also inform how teachers create the early childhood environment. The environment is thought of as the third teacher and reflects teachers’ perspectives about relationships. Here are some aspects to think about when setting up a learning environment. - A classroom should be an inviting space that the children see as their own. Spaces for personal belongings, such as a cubby, and spaces for community belongings, such as where the watering can for the class plants is stored, help children know what to expect and to feel welcomed and valued. Other strategies include displaying children’s work throughout the classroom, involving children in care of the classroom, and creating photo books featuring children in the classroom, families, and shared experiences reflect high-quality relationship-based practices. Experts also suggest using the language of community, such as referring to the children in the classroom as “friends” and referring to “our classroom” to build relationships and emotional closeness (which translates into emotional energy for well-being and learning). - Another important element is the design of the room. Materials should be chosen for a reason rather than to fill shelves. Making materials easily accessible to children builds autonomy. The room should be created to inspire and promote wonder and curiosity. Play is for a critical component in healthy, early development. When supported and facilitated in effective ways, play has a dramatic impact on cognitive, language, physical and social-emotional development. As early childhood educators we have a huge job on our hands. A job that when done in effective, relationship-based ways contributes to children’s bright futures. I challenge you to imbed play into your curriculum. Allow children the time for uninterrupted, meaningful play and you will see the results! Good luck! Cadima, J., Verschueren, K., Leal, T. & Guedes, C. (2016). Classroom interactions, dyadic teacher–child relationships, and self–regulation in socially disadvantaged young children. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 44(1), 7-17. Christakis, E. (2016). The new preschool is crushing kids. The Atlantic, January/February. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/01/the-new-preschool-is-crushing-kids/419139/. Cohen, L. & Uhry, J. (2007). Young children’s discourse strategies during block play: A Bakhtinian approach. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21(3), 302-315. Hamre, B., Hatfield, B., Pianta, R., & Jamil, F. (2014). Evidence for general and domain‐specific elements of teacher-child interactions: Associations with preschool children’s development. Child development, 85(3), 1257-1274. Hauf, P. & Aschersleben, G. (2008). Action-effect anticipation in infant action control. Psychological Research, 72(2), 203-210. Horne, A. (2018). All Work No Play. Bridges Care and Education Center https://www.bridgescareandeducationcenter.com/single-post/2018/11/15/All-Work-and-No-Play?fbclid=IwAR0UrQsUzJt3mGFDqaX32T1-to0tZ5CCJcvrRjcoL56a_wumdMvhsg2M_E4 Rymanowicz, K. (2015, Oct. 19). The power of play — Part 2: Born to play. In Michigan State University — MSU Extension. http://www.canr.msu.edu/news/the_power_of_play_part_2_born_to_play

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By Mary Ann Schouten and Taylor Bardell A child’s oral language ability provides the foundation for learning at school. This is most apparent in the early years when children entering kindergarten demonstrate a wide range of typical and later developing oral language skills. However, difficulties with oral language are more hidden in later years when students are speaking in full sentences, have experienced the routines of school and have some familiarity with “teacher talk”- the vocabulary and directions that are part of the “language of instruction”. In fact, for some children, it is difficulties in reading and writing that are the first classroom indicators a child may have an underlying oral language difficulty. Because oral language is critical to both social and academic success (Foorman et al., 2015; Ladd et al., 2012; Rubin et al., 2012) school board speech-language pathologists are invited by educators to assess, consult and sometimes provide intervention for students with oral language difficulties. One group of children with increased risk of poorer social and academic outcomes are those with a persistent problem learning and using language impacting everyday activities known as Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) (Catts et al., 2002; Conti-Ramsden et al., 2013; Cross et al., 2019; Mok et al., 2014). DLD is 5 times more common than autism spectrum disorder and 50 times more common than hearing impairment, with approximately 2 children in every classroom of 30 meeting the criteria for diagnosis (Norbury et al., 2016). A student with DLD is also 6 times more likely to have a learning disability. It is therefore critical that educators have evidence-based strategies for supporting children who struggle with oral language skills. There is a growing body of research investigating “dose” in language intervention and the findings thus far can be extended to the classroom setting. This research looks at the frequency, intensity and length of intervention required to make a significant difference in children’s language skills. It turns out that different language targets respond differently to the variables of frequency, intensity and length of intervention (Zeng et al., 2012). At this time, we are confident that asking educators to target overarching language skills such as vocabulary and narrative (story) structure through evidence-based approaches can have an important impact (Gillam et al., 2014; Throneburg et al., 2000). The evidence suggests, however, that significant changes in specific grammatical skills such as pronouns, verb tenses and word order require more targeted practice than can be provided incidentally by educators in the classroom (Smith-Lock et al., 2013). When a child has ongoing difficulty using a variety of words and grammatical structures, hallmark features of DLD (Vissher-Bochane et al., 2016), language intervention that complements classroom instruction is a practical and effective solution. Teachers and Speech-Language Pathologists can work together to provide robust language programming for all children including those with language disorders. Language intervention can augment classroom instruction by providing more explicit instruction and rehearsal with various forms and/or functions of language than is possible to achieve in a classroom setting. In addition, consistent strategy use between the teacher and the speech-language pathologist furthers the development of targeted language skills. Literacy-based language intervention (also referred to as ‘literature-based language intervention’ or LBLI) is a form of language intervention that complements and informs classroom language instruction. The goal of LBLI is “not to teach these students to read. Rather, [the] goal is to improve the many aspects of language (vocabulary knowledge, grammatical acceptability, grammatical complexity, pragmatic awareness, phonological awareness, conversation, and narration) that influence the ability to participate in, and profit from, instruction in general education classrooms in both oral and print modalities” (Gillam & Ukrainetz, 2007). This is accomplished through the use of a series of children’s books, each with activities that are related to both the content and format of the stories. In this contextualized approach to language intervention, activities and goals are embedded in appropriate and familiar contexts established through a storybook read aloud. Language skills are broken into parts that require additional practice and then the parts are brought together once again to create a whole. For example, following the story being read out loud, specific syntactic and semantic structures such as “because” and complex sentence construction are developed as discrete skills. The cohesive tie (e.g. “because”) is explicitly connected to the story elements and, in this way, contributes to the child’s verbal reasoning skills. The targeted language form is then systematically generalized into a story retelling task using strategic cueing and scaffolded language support. Vocabulary is also addressed in this whole-part-whole approach. Targeted vocabulary items are given child-friendly explanations during story reading. These are then rehearsed in familiar and novel contexts during a vocabulary task designed to deepen the child’s lexical processing. The words are also manipulated in phonological awareness tasks to help the child establish a phonological representation of the word. Finally, these words are cued through pictures or print on the student’s graphic organizer used for story retelling. The child develops oral language skills within a meaningful context without sacrificing the opportunity to rehearse discrete skills or practice generalizing the skills in a meaningful task. Benefits of LBLI There are numerous benefits to employing an LBLI framework when targeting oral language skills. Not only can activities based on narratives support the development of specific language skills such as syntactic rules and vocabulary knowledge, but they also provide repeated exposures to the concepts of books, print, and reading (Teale, 1984). Furthermore, the activities can be used to teach literate styles of language use, such as relating personal experiences and describing or explaining stories (Gerbers, 1990; Hoggan & Strong, 1994). LBLI interventions also familiarize children with literary conventions, which has been shown to help children better understand and remember new stories. (Teale, 1984). By integrating the activities into children’s stories, language intervention occurs in authentic literary environments rather than through discrete skill instruction and disjointed games (Gillam & Ukrainetz, 2007). Stories can also be chosen to align with the curriculum beyond language and literacy. For example, a story about the lifecycle of a frog could be chosen to coincide with a science unit on the same topic. Activities that accompany the story could address goals in both areas, benefitting the child’s literacy, language and scientific skills. LITES: An LBLI Program currently used in practice To provide examples of the kinds of activities and stories that can be used to target oral language skills, we will reference an LBLI program currently in use in the Upper Grand District School Board (UGDSB) called Language Intervention Through Engaging Stories (LITES). Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) from the UGDSB developed LITES in order to provide support for children in kindergarten through grade two who have difficulty with oral language skills. Following the model provided by Gillam et al. (ASHA, 2007), the SLP team chose language skills to focus on, researched evidence-based activities to target these skills, and selected stories based on their narrative structure. In the UGDSB, LITES is administered to small groups of children outside of the classroom by Communicative Disorders Assistants, supervised by Speech-Language Pathologists. However, many of the activities used in LITES could be adapted to target oral language skills by educators within whole group or small group classroom instruction. All of the goals for LITES are tied to curriculum expectations in kindergarten through Grade 2. Overview of LITES The LITES program is divided into four stages: 1) Language foundations, 2) Narrative Foundations, 3) Advanced Narratives, and 4) Language for Higher Order Thinking. In each stage, a variety of activities are used that target the following skills at increasing levels of difficulty: vocabulary, oral narration, language structure (grammar and syntax), verbal reasoning, comprehension, phonological awareness. In Stage 1: Language Foundations, the goal is for children to develop early communication skills. Picture books used in this stage have tier 1 vocabulary (everyday words that would be familiar to most students) and simple temporal sequences, such as ‘The Very Busy Spider’ by Eric Carle and ‘Dear Zoo’ by Rod Campbell. In Stage 2: Narrative Foundations, basic story structure is introduced, as well as the beginnings of complex language. Books with a simple plot, some complex sentences, and tier 2 vocabulary (high-frequency words found across many subjects, likely to be learned in an academic setting) are used, including books from the ‘Farmyard Tales’ series by Heather Amery. In Stage 3: Advanced Narratives, the goal is for children to develop a more thorough understanding of story structure and more complex communication skills. Books such as ‘Russell the Sheep’ by Rob Scotton and ‘The Gruffalo’ by Julia Donaldson are used because they include more advanced plots in addition to complex sentences and tier 2 vocabulary. Finally, in Stage 4: Language for Higher Order Thinking, simple chapter books with complex plots and vocabulary are introduced. Books from the ‘Magic Tree House’ series are used because they all have repeat characters, similar plot lines, and use tier 2 and tier 3 vocabulary (more low-frequency words that are domain-specific). High leverage Strategies Used in LITES A number of high leverage strategies are used in all stages of the LITES program to target oral language skills that can be adapted for classroom instruction. These include: Repeated Interactive Read Alouds An interactive read-aloud involves reading in a way that actively engages children and does not limit the educator to only reading the words on the page. Reading “with” rather than “to” children results in improvements in comprehension (Van den Broek, 2001), vocabulary, (Hargrave & Sénéchal, 2000), and concept development (Wasik & Bond, 2001). Throughout the reading, educators may prompt children to make connections with the story by making open-ended statements like “I wonder what will happen next” or “This part reminds me of a time when I was…”. These open-ended statements also allow for more detailed responses rather than simple yes/no questions. Sometimes children may find it difficult to make connections and participate in meaningful discussions when hearing a story for the first time. Reading books multiple times allows them to become familiar with the narrative and begin to make deeper connections with it. Re-reading a book also creates opportunities for the educator to intentionally introduce new learning within a familiar context. For example, the first reading provides an opportunity to make predictions and personal connections with characters, while in the second reading, the educator may decide to focus on new and interesting vocabulary introduced in the text. A third reading may include a focus on story elements with some review of the content discussed during previous read-aloud discussions. McGee and Schickedanz (2007) provide early years educators additional information on the repeated read aloud technique for building comprehension and vocabulary in preschool and kindergarten. Example: pre-story discussion: Vocabulary Instruction Using ‘The Super 6’ Vocabulary instruction should be intentional, explicit and relevant. Using books to introduce new vocabulary is an effective technique as stories provide a context for new word learning. Prior to reading aloud, the educator selects 3-4 unfamiliar words from the story that will be targeted for instruction. Each word chosen meets the following criteria: - The children already understand the general concept expressed by the word - The word is useful as the children will come across it in other contexts During the read-aloud, the educator reads the unfamiliar word and defines it using simple words. After the read aloud, the educator returns to the page in the story where the unfamiliar word was introduced and follows the 6 steps: - Say: the word in the context of the story - Explain: what it means using simple words - Example: is given from the children’s or adult’s experience - Repeat: the word after the educator - Personalize: the word by thinking of a personal connection to the word and sharing with a peer - Interact: with the word through a multi-sensory, kinaesthetic or concept development activity The Super Six” is an instructional technique based on the work of Beck, McKeown and Kukan (2002) and the six-step process for building academic vocabulary by Marzano (2004). Example: The Super 6 Highlighting Story Elements Throughout the story read aloud, the educator can also highlight key story elements such as the characters, setting, problem, and solution. In doing this, educators are helping children develop a better understanding of the story and how it is organized and also understand that all stories include these kinds of elements. This can be also helpful to children as they tell and begin to write their own stories. Example: highlighting story elements during a read-aloud Teaching Children to Draw Pictographs It is critical that children are able to construct appropriate narratives, or accounts of “what happened”, to both their social and academic success. One way to work on narrative skills is to practise retelling familiar stories. For children who struggle with language, this can be difficult to do without additional support. Pictography, the combination of simple drawings and minimal writing, can help children in retelling stories (Ukrainetz, 1998). After reading a story aloud, the educator asks children to create a simple line drawing of each element in the story. These pictographs of what happened in the story serve as a reference point for oral and written story retelling. Children are able to participate in story retells independently, but do not have to rely on oral or written language skills alone. Educators can use these pictographic representations to discuss the timelines we see in narratives (i.e. introduction of characters, problem, solution, ending). Example: Drawing Pictographs Using Graphic Organizers Graphic organizers are visual tools that can support students in organizing information. To be useful, the visuals must be meaningful. In the LITES program, students are introduced to story elements using simple images. These images are placed in the storybook at essential parts in the story where the story element is most evident. These images are also used to create a graphic organizer by placing them left to right across the length of a page. In preparation for oral retelling, the students draw pictographs under each story element. The educator prompts use of targeted vocabulary and cohesive ties by modelling or writing the words on the graphic organizer beside the appropriate story element. Students use the completed graphic organizer to retell the story or as a planning tool for writing the story. Developing Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness is a necessary skill for learning to read and write. During the Kindergarten and primary school years, educators use whole class and small group instruction to build students' awareness of rhyme and the syllables and sounds in spoken words. Read-alouds provide an opportunity for educators to address a variety of phonological awareness skills. During whole-group instruction, educators can tap into different levels of phonological awareness thereby creating multiple entry points for student engagement. During small group instruction, the educator may intentionally select books that are well-suited to developing a particular targeted skill. Example: Phonological Awareness activity The first iteration of the LITES program, then simply referred to as “LBLI” was in 2007. Since that time, the program has been expanded and refined based on a) the needs of students referred by educators b) feedback by the Communicative Disorder Assistants implementing the program c) research on evidence-based practices and d) the COVID-19 global pandemic which necessitated a virtual therapy version of LITES. Currently, the Upper Grand District School Board is engaged in research with Dr. Lisa Archibald of the Unversity of Western Ontario. Together, we are investigating the efficacy of LITES as a small-group intervention for children with language disorders. In the meantime, performance measures included in the lesson plans provide promising data on the impact of our program on children’s language outcomes. Parent and Teacher reports have also provided positive outcomes of intervention including but not limited to improvements in social skills, increased classroom participation and strategy use. Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. Guilford Press. Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Tomblin, J. B., & Zhang, X. (2002). A Longitudinal Investigation of Reading Outcomes in Children With Language Impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(6), 1142–1157. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2002/093) Conti-Ramsden, G., Mok, P. L. H., Pickles, A., & Durkin, K. (2013). Adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI): Strengths and difficulties in social, emotional and behavioral functioning. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 4161–4169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.08.043 Cross, A. M., Joanisse, M. F., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2019). Mathematical Abilities in Children With Developmental Language Disorder. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-18-0041 Foorman, B. R., Herrera, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell, A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2015). The structure of oral language and reading and their relation to comprehension in Kindergarten through Grade 2. Reading and Writing, 28(5), 655–681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9544-5 Gillam, R. B. & Ukrainetz, T.A. (2007). Language intervention through literature-based units. In T.A. Ukrainetz (Ed.), Contextualized Language Intervention: Scaffolding PreK–12 Literacy Achievement (pp. 59–94). Pro-Ed. Gillam, S.L., Reese, K., & Gillam, R.B. (2007). Intervention Approaches for Improving Language in Low-Income Children. Technical presentation at the American Speech-LanguageHearing Association Annual Convention, Boston, MA, November. Golden, J. M., & Gerber, A. (1990). A Semiotic Perspective of Text: The Picture Story Book Event. Journal of Reading Behavior, 22(3), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862969009547707 Hargrave, A. C., & Sénéchal, M. (2000). A book reading intervention with preschool children who have limited vocabularies: The benefits of regular reading and dialogic reading. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(99)00038-1 Hoggan, K. C., & Strong, C. J. (1994). The Magic of “Once Upon a Time”: Narrative Teaching Strategies. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 25(2), 76–89. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2502.76 Ladd, G., Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., Visconti, K. J., & Ettekal, I. (2012). Classroom peer relations and children’s social and scholastic development: Risk factors and resources. In Peer Relationships and Adjustment at School (pp. 11–49). Information Age Publishing. Marzano, Robert J. (2005). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement: Research on What Works in Schools. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/video/buildingacademic.pdf McGee, L. M., & Schickedanz, J. A. (2007). Repeated Interactive Read-Alouds in Preschool and Kindergarten. The Reading Teacher, 60(8), 742–751. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.60.8.4 Mok, P. L. H., Pickles, A., Durkin, K., & Conti‐Ramsden, G. (2014). Longitudinal trajectories of peer relations in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(5), 516–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12190 Norbury, C. F., Gooch, D., Wray, C., Baird, G., Charman, T., Simonoff, E., Vamvakas, G., & Pickles, A. (2016). The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: Evidence from a population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(11), 1247–1257. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12573 Rubin, K., Schulz Begle, A., & McDonald, K. (2012). Peer Relations and Social Competence in Childhood. In Developmental Social Neuroscience and Childhood Brain Insult: Theory and Practice (pp. 23–44). The Guilford Press. Smith-Lock, K.M., Leitao, S., Lambert, L., & Nickels, L. (2013). Effective intervention for expressive grammar in children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 48, 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12003 Teale, W. (1984). Reading to young children: Its significance for literacy development. In Awakening to literacy (pp. 110–122). Heinemann Educational Books. Throneberg, R.N., Calvert, L.K., Sturm, J.J., Paramboukas, A.A., & Paul, P.J. (2000). A Comparison of Service Delivery Models Effects on Curricular Vocabulary Skills in the School Setting. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 9, 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360.0901.10 Ukrainetz, Teresa A. (1998). Stickwriting Stories. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 29(4), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.2904.19 van den Broek, Paul. (2001). The Role of Television Viewing in the Development of Reading Comprehension. Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement. http://www.ciera.org/library/archive/2001-02/200102pv.pdf Visser-Bochane, M. I., Gerrits, E., Schans, C. P., Reijneveld, S. A., & Luinge, M. R. (2016). Atypical speech and language development: A consensus study on clinical signs in the Netherlands. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 52(1), 10-20. https://doi:10.1111/1460-6984.12251 Wasik, B. A., & Bond, M. A. (2001). Beyond the pages of a book: Interactive book reading and language development in preschool classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-06220.127.116.11 Zeng, B., Law, J., & Lindsay, G. (2012). Characterizing optimal intervention intensity: the relationship between dosage and effect size in interventions for children with development speech and language difficulties. International Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 14(5), 471-477. https://doi:10.3109/17549507.2012.720281 About the Authors: Mary Ann Schouten is a Speech-Language Pathologist and Supervisor of Communication, Language and Speech Services in the Upper Grand District School Board. Mary Ann’s passion for oral language facilitation and emergent literacy instruction has led to the development of LITES: Language Intervention and Engaging Stories. She is deeply grateful to her team of school-based clinicians for bringing research to practice in the most creative ways Taylor Bardell is a graduate student in MClSc program in Speech-Language Pathology at the University of Western Ontario. She is supervised by Dr. Lisa Archibald. Her research focuses on using practice-based research to examine and evaluate language intervention programs in schools. She graduated from Queen's University with a BSc in Psychology.

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The Complete Guide to Social-Emotional Learning Creating safe learning environments requires an emphasis on social and emotional safety as well as physical safety. A critical component is a solid, evidence-based social-emotional learning (SEL) curriculum that helps students succeed academically, socially and emotionally. Aligned with the core competencies set by CASEL, one of the pioneers of social-emotional learning, Navigate360 SEL provides crucial character development and restorative curriculum to students of all ages, genders, and cultures. This guide will: Discover how SEL can help your students succeed academically, socially and emotionally with our Complete Guide to Social-Emotional Learning. 1. The Foundations of Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) a. What Is Social Emotional Learning? Social-emotional learning (SEL) is a framework that encourages students to develop positive self-identities, manage complex emotions, navigate a variety of social situations, build strong relationships with others, and develop empathetic worldviews. It fosters a healthy and trusting learning environment that can improve student behavior, address inequities in the classroom, and set students up for success both academically and personally. In short, SEL is a crucial aspect of childhood development that should be a part of every district and school curriculum. The truth is that nobody is born understanding how to perfectly manage their emotions and handle complex challenges. Instead, those skills must be taught and taught from a place of openness and positivity. Students must feel free to express themselves, make mistakes, and ask questions in order to develop their social-emotional skills. In turn, they will be able to better handle challenges as they arise, understand and empathize with those who are different from them, and achieve the goals they set. This allows them to succeed in school and then later in college, their careers, and their lives as a whole. b. What Are the Benefits of SEL Curricula? Students are dealing with a lot these days. From living through a global pandemic that threw their lives into upheaval to grappling with cyberbullying and all its iterations, kids without the social and emotional skills to handle these stressors can fall behind in school, exhibit challenging behaviors, and withdraw from relationships. But in classrooms where social-emotional learning is a priority, students learn crucial skills to thrive in school and in life. According to more than two decades of research, SEL can: - Improve academic performance and classroom behavior - Help students better manage anxiety, depression, and stress levels - Encourage students to have positive attitudes about themselves and the people around them - Impact students over the long term, helping them in college and beyond A high-quality SEL curriculum creates an avenue for students to explore their emotions and deepen their understanding of others. While it can be easy to push SEL aside for core academic requirements, the benefits are clear. Developing a child’s inner sense of self and encouraging positive social-emotional learning only serve to improve academics in the long run. And there’s an economic benefit, too. According to the Journal of Cost-Benefit Analysis, for every $1 invested in SEL programs, there is a return of $11. c. Why SEL Is Important for Students Now Students today have more external pressures than ever before. In 2020 alone, they dealt with the COVID-19 pandemic that dramatically shifted learning, bringing it out of the classroom and into the home with online schooling. Not to mention, an economic crisis forced many parents out of work while a racial justice movement caused societal reckoning. These unique challenges can be difficult to navigate without strong social-emotional skills. Consider some of the many stressors they are dealing with: - Peer pressure and social stress - Body image issues - Academic performance - Catching up academically - Adjusting to life during and after COVID-19 - Anxiety and depression A recent poll conducted by Navigate360 and John Zogby Strategies uncovered startling statistics about how teenagers are feeling these days about their physical, social, and emotional needs. For example, 61% of teens said they feel more concerned about their physical and emotional safety than they did six months prior, and 54% believe that getting COVID-19 or experiencing a violent incident could prevent them from achieving their goals. “Maslow before Bloom” has become a popular phrase in academic circles. It’s the idea that educators must meet the basic needs of students in order to develop an effective educational learning environment. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a five-tier model of the basic needs of humans—once each basic need is met, individuals can move on to higher-level thinking and meeting more advanced needs. Bloom’s taxonomy focuses primarily on learning. The “Maslow before Bloom” concept describes how students must have their basic health and safety needs met in order to learn effectively. If a student is hungry, worried about bullying in the classroom, or dealing with trauma, then their mind is not biologically ready to handle advanced, higher-order learning. That’s why students need SEL now more than ever. It gives them tools to better understand themselves and how they respond to stressful situations, and helps them develop strategies to handle external and internal challenges. In turn, they will be able to focus on academics as their social/emotional needs are met. Quantify SEL’s Positive Outcomes for Students & Schools Research consistently shows that social-emotional learning programs have positive effects that result in improved safety and security for schools. According to the Journal of Cost-Benefit Analysis, for every $1 invested in SEL programs, there is a return of $11. (Belfield et al, 2015). d. Why SEL Is Important for Students’ Futures Emotional intelligence, interpersonal skills, stress tolerance, and resilience are some of the leading job skills that employers will be looking for in the future. What’s more, the job market is changing so rapidly that, according to a report by Dell Technologies, 85% of the jobs that will exist in 2030 haven’t been invented yet. With this in mind, it’s easy to see why SEL is crucial for students’ futures. What awaits them in the future is uncertain, but it’s clear that having strong social and emotional skills will be necessary. Being able to work well with others, see opposing viewpoints, think critically, problem-solve effectively, and achieve goals are all skills that students learn from SEL, which will equip them well for the future. e. Expected Outcomes of Well-Executed SEL Programs While helping kids become well-rounded individuals who understand their social and emotional needs is a worthwhile goal, so is teaching traditional academic curriculum to impart essential knowledge to ensure students become productive members of society. It’s natural for educators to be concerned that implementing a social-emotional curriculum will be just one more thing on their already overcrowded plate. The good news is that high-quality SEL instruction can be integrated into existing programs and that SEL actually helps students become more engaged and excited about learning. Take a look at some of the ways well-executed SEL programs have a positive academic impact: - Improved student engagement - Better content absorption - Increased knowledge retention on a long-term basis - Improved social behavior and fewer conduct problems - Enhanced academic performance In turn, these positive outcomes in the classroom allow students to thrive and cultivate a curious, growth mindset that serves them well in the future. A social-emotional foundation can influence students’ college and career readiness, ensuring they develop the self-management skills, social skills, and self-confidence that are required in post-secondary life. These students also go on to become more engaged citizens who have better mental health, more positive relationships, and career success. f. Learn More About SEL SEL is a broad subject with a tremendous amount of positive implications for students and educators. If you’d like to learn more about this topic, Navigate360 offers a free on-demand webinar called “Supporting the Health & Wellbeing of Students Through Social-Emotional Learning” that features well-versed subject-matter experts. This webinar includes: - An introduction to the topic of SEL - A discussion about the current landscape of student health and wellbeing - Recent sentiments about how students are feeling about their physical and emotional safety - How an effective SEL program can better support students and educators during difficult times Get expert insights on what schools are looking for in SEL and how to implement a program that stands the test of time. 2. Introducing: CASEL a. Who Is CASEL? The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) provides trusted, evidence-based resources for K-12 educators and policy leaders. Over two decades ago, CASEL developed its SEL framework and has been dedicated to implementing SEL in schools and districts nationwide ever since. Recently, in the fall of 2020, CASEL updated its framework and SEL definition to better affirm the experiences and identities of all children—notably, those who have traditionally been marginalized in academic spaces. These updates come after decades of research and changes to SEL practices and aim to create more caring and just schools for all students. Providing equitable learning environments that allow all students to thrive is the ultimate goal of CASEL’s SEL framework. b. Why Is it Important for an SEL Curriculum to Align With the 5 CASEL Core Competencies? The five CASEL competencies are at the core of the SEL framework and provide the foundation for high-quality SEL curricula. They are based on an immense amount of research from the pioneers of SEL education. These competencies pinpoint five interrelated areas that advance a student’s learning and development and can be applied from preschool to high school and beyond. They help educators understand what is needed from their students to encourage academic success, civic engagement, health and wellness, and more. The five CASEL core competencies are: - Self-awareness – Students understand their own culture, language, beliefs, and values. Students recognize their emotions, understand their needs, and are aware of their strengths and limitations. - Self-management – Students know how their thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by their belief and value systems. They can monitor their behavior and understand how to effectively respond in different situations. - Social awareness – Students have empathy for others. They understand that everyone has a different worldview, and they can appreciate the perspectives of others. - Relationship skills – Students form positive, healthy relationships with others, including those who may look, act, or behave differently than they do. They can effectively deal with conflict and work with others toward a common goal. - Responsible decision-making – Students recognize that they have an impact on the people around them and act accordingly. They also understand the differences between good and bad decisions. c. What Other Factors Are Important in an SEL Curriculum? Why? S.A.F.E. Classroom Environments The acronym S.A.F.E. is the cornerstone of a well-executed SEL program. It stands for: - Sequenced – Activities should be coordinated and connected, and build on one another to develop the social-emotional skills students need. - Active – Educators should develop active forms of learning, such as roleplaying, to help students master new skills. - Focused – There should be time set aside to develop the personal and social skills of students. - Explicit – The program should clearly state which social-emotional skills are being learned. Recent neuroscience research has delivered startling results about the ways in which SEL impacts cognitive learning. Johns Hopkins University, a leader in neuroeducation, is the birthplace of Dr. Mariale Hardiman’s Brain-Targeted Teaching® (BTT) model that has uncovered the links between cognitive processes and SEL. BTT is an instructional framework that consists of six stages crucial to the learning process. And the very first stage? Setting up a positive emotional climate. At the base of the brain, just above the brainstem, is the limbic system, which is responsible for emotional responses. All information a student receives is first processed through the limbic system before moving on to the frontal lobe, or the cognitive area of the brain. This means that a student who is stressed, depressed, anxious, or otherwise emotionally distressed cannot appropriately process information, which impacts their learning. Developing educational environments that emphasize positive emotions, providing a space of belonging and community, and allowing students to connect emotionally with their studies are crucial to optimal academic performance. d. Learn More About CASEL To learn more about CASEL, its mission, and how it has developed SEL competencies to help children grow into well-rounded adults, feel free to check out this helpful brochure. Discover SEL that Meets K-12’s Highest, Most Accepted Standards 3. FAQs: Important Factors When Launching a Successful SEL Curriculum a. Are There Standards/Guidelines at the State Level for SEL programs? Currently, 29 states have established specific SEL standards or requirements. These standards allow educators to understand exactly what students should be learning from an SEL curriculum and how to apply it in the classroom. However, it should be noted that just because a state doesn’t have specific SEL guidelines, that doesn’t mean they don’t promote SEL. It simply means they haven’t codified definitive standards for students. You can find a list of the standards by state here. Additionally, a handful of states have enacted SEL legislation to establish advisory boards, commissions, committees, and task forces to promote, expand, and set up SEL programs in K-12 schools. For a list of the specific state legislation that has been enacted, click here. b. How Is SEL Being Evaluated at a District Level? Currently, there is no gold-standard measuring tool for evaluating SEL at the school district level. District leaders can create their own SEL evaluation programs that use the CASEL core competency framework as a guide. School districts can also work with SEL researchers to evaluate their programs. For example, Navigate360 regularly partners with school districts to engage in SEL research. What’s more, in SEL for Students, there is a CASEL-developed, pre– and post-measurement tool that was established in association with the University of Illinois and the Washoe County School District, a helpful addition for evaluating the effectiveness of an SEL program in a school. c. Are There Funding Sources Available for SEL Curriculum? SEL programs can receive funding under the following programs: - CRRSA (CARES Act 2) – With this funding source, schools can implement mental health and wellbeing support programs for students. - Title IV funding – Schools can develop and implement comprehensive programs that foster supportive, safe, and healthy environments that encourage student achievement using Title IV funding. - Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSR) funds – Part of the Education Stabilization Fund in the CARES Act, schools can use the ESSR fund to allocate money to address students’ social, emotional, mental health, and academic needs as a result of the pandemic. - Community Mental Health Services Block Grant – This grant provides funds to help communities develop comprehensive mental health services and to address needs in existing treatment services for individuals with severe mental health conditions. Discover how Navigate360 SEL empowers educators, administrators, parents, caregivers and students to take an active role in the social and emotional growth needed to turn students into happy, healthy and capable adults. d. Common Challenges and Best Practices for Implementing SEL Curriculum There are many common challenges that districts and schools may come across in the process of developing SEL curricula, such as: - An abundance of SEL frameworks from many different disciplines that complicates the process of choosing the right framework for your school - Teachers who may not feel that they have the luxury of integrating social-emotional lesson plans in between teaching core academic curricula and getting students ready for standardized testing - Inconsistent language between SEL frameworks that can make it difficult to understand what skills are being taught to students and how to measure success rates - Lack of support for teachers and administrators who may need more guidance and mentorship during the early stages of SEL program implementation Administrators and educators can work through these challenges by understanding the best practices of planning, developing, and implementing an SEL program: - Build the foundational elements – Create a committee that will develop the vision for your SEL program and collaboratively plan the implementation. - Strengthen adult SEL – In schools where adult SEL is prioritized, the implementation of student-centric SEL is more effective. Schools should lead professional development courses for adult SEL. Additionally, educators should reflect on their own social-emotional competencies and put together strategies to model them in the classroom. - Implement an SEL strategy for the students – Put SEL into action. School curricula and programs should promote students’ social-emotional learning by fostering supportive learning environments, elevating student voices, and establishing equitable discipline policies. The SEL program should be delivered via technology, rather than using an analog, paper-and-pencil method, for greater and on-demand access - Create ongoing SEL processes – The SEL program is a dynamic one that will need to be refined and evaluated regularly. Districts and schools should have a structured plan for collecting data, analyzing outcomes, and making adjustments. - Create a shared SEL culture across stakeholders – Students, parents, caregivers, teachers, and other school staff should have a shared vocabulary and structure for talking about and reinforcing SEL skills. e. What Is the Best Way to Deliver SEL Curriculum? Students these days have always existed in a world filled with smartphones, boundless WiFi, and social media. They are the first true digital natives. In fact, by age 12, nearly 70% of American students have a smartphone. That’s why an effective SEL program for Gen Z and Alpha students needs to meet the learning preferences and attention spans of these highly connected, digital-savvy generations. Digital SEL platforms that create visually engaging, interactive lessons spanning videos, games, articles, and other multimedia are exactly what students these days are looking for. These programs deliver important lessons about character development, social-emotional learning, cyberbullying, mental health, college and career prep, and communication skills—and do it in a digital-savvy way that keeps students engaged while teaching them crucial life skills. Plus, with students able to access their lessons via a web-based platform or a mobile app, digital SEL programs are flexible with their busy, connected lifestyles. Getting Started with SEL Curriculum It’s clear that a Social-Emotional Learning curriculum positively impacts the future of students academically, emotionally and socially. After all, if the goal of education is to help children become productive members of society, then ensuring they are well-rounded and emotionally intelligent is crucial. Contact us today to learn more about Navigate360 Social-Emotional Learning and Restorative Curriculum, the most effective way to engage students, staff and caregivers with the information they need to support a successful school career and future.

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Life Skills need for integrated happy life,for trend generation Nalla vivekanand M.sc.MBA, M.Phil,LLB “The most useful piece of learning for the uses of life is to unlearn what is not true.” -Antisthenes 444 - 365 BC “The greatest discovery of my generation is that a human being can alter his life by altering his attitudes” -William James (Psychologist) (You can change the way you think and feel by changing what you say when you talk to the mind.) Psychosocial competence is a person's ability to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. It is a person's ability to maintain a state of mental well-being and to demonstrate this in adaptive and positive behaviour while interacting with others, his/her culture and environment. Psychosocial competence has an important role to play in the promotion of health in its broadest sense; in terms of physical, mental and social well-being. In particular, where health problems are related to behaviour, and where the behaviour is related to an inability to deal effectively with stresses and pressures in life, the enhancement of psychosocial competence could make an important contribution. This is especially important for health promotion at a time when behaviour is more and more implicated as the source of health problems. The most direct interventions for the promotion of psychosocial competence are those which enhance the person's coping resources, and personal and social competencies. In school-based programmes for children and adolescents, this can be done by the teaching of life skills in a supportive learning environment. The Skills -This involves a group of psychosocial and interpersonal skills which are interlinked with each other. For example, decision making is likely to involve creative and critical thinking components and values analysis. Defining Life Skills Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Described in this way, skills that can be said to be life skills are innumerable, and the nature and definition of life skills are likely to differ across cultures and settings. However, analysis of the life skills field suggests that there is a core set of skills that are at the heart of skills-based initiatives for the promotion of the health and well-being of children and adolescents. These are listed below: What are Life Skills? Life skills are behaviors that enable individuals to adapt and deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life. There are many such skills, but core life skills include the ability to: The Ten core Life Skills as laid down by WHO are: Coping with stress Coping with emotion Inner to outer circle Life skills education Health giving pro-social behaviour A review by UNICEF found that approaches relying on life skills have been effective in educating youth about health-related issues—such as alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; nutrition; pregnancy prevention; and preventing HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Life skills education programs can also be effective in preventing school dropout and violence among young people. Finally, these programs can lay the foundation for skills demanded in today's job market. Self-awareness includes recognition of ‘self’, our character, our strengths and weaknesses, desires and dislikes. Developing self-awareness can help us to recognize when we are stressed or feel under pressure. It is often a prerequisite to effective communication and interpersonal relations, as well as for developing empathy with others. Empathy - To have a successful relationship with our loved ones and society at large, we need to understand and care about other peoples’ needs, desires and feelings. Empathy is the ability to imagine what life is like for another person. Without empathy, our communication with others will amount to one-way traffic. Worst, we will be acting and behaving according to our self-interest and are bound to run into problems. No man is an island, no woman either! We grow up in relationships with many people – parents, brothers and sisters, cousins, uncles and aunts, classmates, friends and neighbors’. When we understand ourselves as well as others, we are better prepared to communicate our needs and desires. We will be more equipped to say what we want people to know, present our thoughts and ideas and tackle delicate issues without offending other people. At the same time, we will be able to elicit support from others, and win their understanding. Empathy can help us to accept others, who may be very different from ourselves. This can improve social interactions, especially, in situations of ethnic or cultural diversity. Empathy can also help to encourage nurturing behaviour towards people in need of care and assistance, or tolerance, as is the case with AIDS sufferers, or people with mental disorders, who may be stigmatized and ostracized by the very people they depend upon for support. Critical thinking is an ability to analyze information and experiences in an objective manner. Critical thinking can contribute to health by helping us to recognize and assess the factors that influence attitudes and behaviour, such as values, peer pressure and the media. Creative thinking is a novel way of seeing or doing things that is characteristic of four components – fluency (generating new ideas), flexibility (shifting perspective easily), originality (conceiving of something new), and elaboration (building on other ideas). Decision making helps us to deal constructively with decisions about our lives. This can have consequences for health. It can teach people how to actively make decisions about their actions in relation to healthy assessment of different options and, what effects these different decisions are likely to have. Problem solving helps us to deal constructively with problems in our lives. Significant problems that are left unresolved can cause mental stress and give rise to accompanying physical strain. Interpersonal relationship skills help us to relate in positive ways with the people we interact with. This may mean being able to make and keep friendly relationships, which can be of great importance to our mental and social well-being. It may mean keeping, good relations with family members, which are an important source of social support. It may also mean being able to end relationships constructively. Effective communication means that we are able to express ourselves, both verbally and non-verbally, in ways that are appropriate to our cultures and situations. This means being able to express opinions and desires, and also needs and fears. And it may mean being able to ask for advice and help in a time of need. Coping with stress means recognizing the sources of stress in our lives, recognizing how this affects us, and acting in ways that help us control our levels of stress, by changing our environment or lifestyle and learning how to relax. Coping with emotions means involving recognizing emotions within us and others, being aware of how emotions influence behaviour and being able to respond to emotions appropriately. Intense emotions like anger or sadness can have negative effects on our health if we do not respond appropriately. Coping with stress: 95% of all the diseases are created by stress. Wrong beliefs like “I’m not good enough” or "Something is wrong with me" cause up to 95% of all illness and disease. The membrane of the cell is the brain of the cell, not the nucleus. Our beliefs are stored in the membrane of our cells. Unless we are fully aware of what we are doing and why we are doing it at every moment, we are always acting on our unconscious programming stored as beliefs in our cells. Scientific research has established that stress is the core factor in physical, mental, and emotional disease. Discovering how unconscious physical, mental and emotional habits create stress, aging, addiction and disease, through awareness and simple lifestyle changes reclaiming youthful vitality, joy and well being. Recognizing Mental Stress and Well being Mental Stress Mental Well Being • Saying ‘No', 'I can't' - Saying ‘Yes’, 'I can!' • Disapproval Self/Others - Approval Self/Others • Mental Confusion - Mental Clarity • Thoughts of Fear, Anger, Grief - Courage, Acceptance • Mental Tension - Relaxed, Creative thinking • Wanting Control, Approval, Safety - Allowing, Being • ‘I am Separate’ - ‘I am connected with the world’ Coping with Stress: (stress Brain Chemistry, Mental Health and Neurotransmitters) Mental health relies on neurotransmitters and hormones being produced utilized and metabolized properly. Hormones and neurotransmitters govern our moods, emotions, behavior, and sleep patterns, as well as every aspect of our physical health. Stress resulting from false beliefs causes imbalances of hormones and neurotransmitters. The diminished availability of just one neurotransmitter or a disruption in its path can adversely affect every aspect of life and health. Suboptimal Neurotransmitter Levels Depression, low mood, mood swings. Insomnia, sleep disturbances. Difficulty concentrating, focusing or remembering. Every thought has a biological impact on the body and emotions and influence our heart rhythms. Thoughts of frustration causes a chaotic heart rhythm pattern creating stress and raising levels of the aging hormone, cortisol. Thoughts of appreciation cause a coherent heart rhythm, and raise the youthful, happy hormones of dopamine and oxytocin. Balancing Brain Chemistry Our thoughts and attitudes alter our brain chemistry. When the body and mind can make its own “feel-good” neurotransmitters again, the craving for sugar and alcohol disappears. True peace, joy, optimism and centeredness replace mental and physical fatigue, anxiety, depression and nervousness. Serotonin, Dopamine and Endorphins Created Naturally –Lowering Stress MEDITATION, HEARTMATH produces optimum levels. POSITIVE THINKINING – raises levels. DEEP BREATHING is one of the most important ways. SUNLIGHT bright light increases. EXERCISE one of the best natural ways. ELIMINATING SUGAR – Sugar creates imbalance. SPENDING QUALITY TIME with loved ones. SEX is a powerful producer. LAUGHTER and smiling have a positive effect on. OMEGA 3 and VITIMIN C increase levels. EAT SPICY FOODS like chilies', peppers and jalapenos. EAT fruits, vegetables, lean protein, nuts and seeds. Coping with Emotional: Emotional Factors in Mental well being our feelings are a wonderful barometer of our well being. When we are not caught up in negative thinking, our feelings remain positive, and we feel joyful, loving and peaceful. When we are feeling fearful, angry, or depressed it is a sure sign that our thoughts have become negative and dysfunctional. Developing this awareness and making the decision to eliminate negative thinking can be dramatically life changing. Alter your own brain chemistry with thoughts of appreciation, gratitude, joy and love. Irritability People are low information processors—max out on info processing when stressed b/c constantly thinking of things, More information makes you angry, see everything as serious Anxiety Free-floating anxiety: constantly waiting for the other shoe to drop Mental fatigue Forget things, what you meant to do Overcompensate or live in denial by taking on extra work Coping and self-management skills refer to skills to increase the internal locus of control, so that the individual believes that they can make a difference in the world and affect change. Self esteem, self-awareness, self-evaluation skills and the ability to set goals are also part of the more general category of self-management skills. Anger, grief and anxiety must all be dealt with, and the individual learns to cope loss or trauma. Stress and time management are key, as are positive thinking and relaxation techniques. The Skills -This involves a group of psychosocial and interpersonal skills (described in section 3) which are interlinked with each other. For example, decision making is likely to involve creative and critical thinking components and values analysis. Under five main headings relating to: concerns shared by the organizations represented; the definition of “life skills”; the reasons for teaching life skills; life skills education in schools today; and life skills outside schools. Identified in relation to life skills education included the need to: Strengthen and improve school health; Promote the development of long-term and holistic life skills curricula in schools; Promote democracy, gender equality and peace; Prevent health and social problems including psychoactive substance use, HIV/AIDS, adolescent pregnancy and violence. The needs of adolescents; The importance of supporting life skills initiatives for children who do not attend School Why teach life skills? That the life skills are essential for: The promotion of healthy child and adolescent development; primary prevention of some key causes of child and adolescent death, disease and disability; socialization; preparing young people for changing social circumstances Life skills education contributes to: basic education; gender equality; democracy; good citizenship; child care and protection; quality and efficiency of the education system; the promotion of lifelong learning; quality of life; the promotion of peace. It was also suggested that the learning of life skills might contribute to the utilization of appropriate health services by young people. Areas of primary prevention for which life skills are considered essential include: Problems related to the use of alcohol, tobacco and other psychoactive substances; The following reasons why life skills are essential for primary prevention were listed during a brainstorming session: State of the art in life skills education in schools The Meeting emphasized that life skills education is already happening, and that it is possible for United Nations agencies to speed up its development at country level. Many teachers are already engaging in activities related to the development of life skills, but need support to create effective approaches to life skills education for health promotion and primary prevention. Life skills are generic skills, relevant to many diverse experiences throughout life. They should be taught as such, to gain maximum impact from life skills lessons. However, for an effective contribution to any particular domain of prevention, life skills should also be applied in the context of typical risk situations. Facilitating the learning of life skills is a central component of programmes designed to promote healthy behaviour and mental well-being. To be effective, the teaching of life skills is coupled with the teaching of health information and the promotion of positive (health promoting and pro-social) attitudes and values. The development of life skills requires modeling of life skills by school staff and a “safe”, supportive classroom environment that is conducive to the practice and reinforcement of skills. Furthermore, life skills education needs to be developed as part of a whole school initiative designed to support the healthy psychosocial development of children and adolescents, for example, through the promotion of child-friendly practices in schools. To be effective, life skills lessons should be designed to achieve clearly stated learning objectives for each activity. Life skills learning is facilitated by the use of participatory learning methods and is based on a social learning process which includes: hearing an explanation of the skill in question; observation of the skill (modeling); practice of the skill in selected situations in a supportive learning environment; and feedback about individual performance of skills. Practice of skills is facilitated by role-playing in typical scenarios, with a focus on the application of skills and the effect that they have on the outcome of a hypothetical situation. Skills learning are also facilitated by using skills learning “tools”, e.g. by working through steps in the decision- making process. Life skills education should be designed to enable children and adolescents to practice skills in progressively more demanding situations for example, by starting with skills learning in non-threatening, low-risk everyday situations and progressively moving on to the application of skills in threatening, high-risk situations. Other important methods used to facilitate life skills learning include group work, discussion, debate, story-telling, peer-supported learning and practical community development projects. Practical advice offered during the Meeting included: be humorous, and make it relevant! Life skills learning cannot be facilitated on the basis of information or discussion alone. Moreover, it is not only an active learning process, it must also include experiential learning, i.e. practical experience and reinforcement of the skills for each student in a supportive learning environment. The introduction of life skills education requires teacher training to promote effective implementation of the programme. This can be provided as in-service training, but efforts should also be made to introduce it in teacher training colleges. The successful implementation of a life skills programme depends on: The development of training materials for teacher trainers; A teaching manual, to provide lesson plans and a framework for a sequential, developmentally appropriate programme; Teacher training and continuing support in the use of the programme materials. The scope of life skills education varies with the capacity of education systems. Although programmes can begin on a small scale and for a targeted age group, as a longer-term goal life skills education should be developed so that it continues throughout the school years – from school entry until school leaving age. Life skills education can be designed to be spread across the curriculum, to be a separate subject, to be integrated into an existing subject, or a mix of all of these. The development of life skills education is a dynamic and evolving process, which should involve children, parents and the local community in making decisions about the content of the programme. Once a programme has been developed, there needs to be scope for local adaptation over time and in different contexts. In the short term (after 3-6 months of implementation), the effectiveness of a life skills programme can be measured in terms of the specific learning objectives of the life skills lessons, and factors such as changes in self-esteem, perceptions of self-efficacy, and behavioural intentions. Only in the longer term (after at least a year) is it feasible to evaluate life skills education in terms of the prevention of health-damaging and antisocial behaviour, e.g. smoking and use of other psychoactive substances, or incidence of delinquent behaviour. Additional factors may be measured to assess the impact of a life skills programme, such as the effect of life skills education on school performance and school attendance. Evaluation of life skills education should include a combination of quantitative and qualitative assessment. Qualitative assessment gives an indication of how well the programme is implemented and received. This is an important aspect of evaluation, which has an effect on the interpretation of quantitative research findings. Life skills outside school Current knowledge about life skills education internationally is derived chiefly from the school setting. There is a need for greater understanding of the nature of life skills education for young people who are not attending school, in order to identify the best strategies for supporting effective life skills initiatives to reach out-of-school children and adolescents. There was a consensus among participants that the development of life skills initiatives out of school requires special attention from United Nations agencies. Different types of life skills intervention to reach out-of-school children and adolescents were identified: (1) Life skills in action. This involves the modeling of life skills using methods such as video films, puppet shows and cartoons (in magazines, newspapers and on television). Such initiatives can be coupled with support materials to introduce discussion about the scenarios presented. The support materials can be developed for implementation by peer or other educators in settings such as youth clubs. UNICEF’s Sara and Meena projects are of this type.2 (2) Life skills training workshops. Short courses of life skills training can be carried out with children and adolescents who participate in sports and recreational clubs. Life skills training workshops can also be integrated into existing courses offering training in livelihood or vocational skills. (3) Life skills for vulnerable children and adolescents. There is a need for life skills interventions to reach vulnerable children such as street children, sexually exploited and working children, and orphans. Little is known about life skills interventions with vulnerable young people, although there are many indications that life skills play an important role in determining which children cope in difficult circumstances. One suggestion made during the Meeting was to start from what the children are interested in and experiencing and to use that as a basis for building life skills sessions with them. However, that would mean a less structured approach, implying an additional need for well trained educators. All these three approaches to life skills learning are most likely to rely on short-term interventions. Given the limitations on access to out-of-school children and adolescents over an extended period, an important consideration in the development of life skills interventions will be to identify what is the minimum intervention required to have a positive impact. KEY ISSUES & CONCERNS OF ADOLESCENT STUDENTS Developing an Identity Self – awareness helps adolescents understand themselves and establish their personal identity. Lack of information and skills prevent them from effectively exploring their potential and establishing a positive image and sound career perspective. Adolescents have frequent mood changes reflecting feelings of anger, sadness, happiness, fear, shame, guilt, and love. Very often, they are unable to understand the emotional turmoil They do not have a supportive environment in order to share their concerns with others. Counseling facilities are not available. 1. As a part of growing up, adolescents redefine their relationships with parents, peers and members of the opposite sex. Adults have high expectations from them and do not understand their feelings. Adolescents need social skills for building positive and healthy relationships with others including peer of opposite sex. They need to understand the importance of mutual respect and socially defined boundaries of every relationship. Resisting Peer Pressure Adolescents find it difficult to resist peer pressure. Some of them may yield to these pressures and engage in experimentation. Aggressive self conduct; irresponsible behaviour and substance abuse involve greater risks with regard to physical and mental health. The experiment with smoking and milder drugs can lead to switching over to hard drugs and addiction at a later stage. Acquiring Information, Education and Services on issues of Adolescence Exposure to media and mixed messages from the fast changing world have left adolescents with many unanswered questions 2The widening gap in communication between adolescents and parents is a matter of great concern. Teachers still feel inhibited to discuss issues frankly and sensitively. Adolescents seek information from their peer group who are also ill informed and some may fall prey to quacks. Fear and hesitation prevents them from seeking knowledge on preventive methods and medical help if suffering from RTIs and STIs. Communicating and negotiating safer life situations Sexually active adolescents face greater health risks. Girls may also face mental and emotional problems related to early sexual initiation. Resisting the vulnerability to drug abuse, violence and conflict with law or society. Challenges faced by Young people: Developmental Challenges As adolescence is the period of onset puberty to adulthood. During this period children go through physical, cognitive and emotional changes. For this reason it is very important for individuals to understand and be prepared for the phases of adolescence. During the adolescence stage the individual’s body begins to grow rapidly, size and the shape of the body changes, causing some teenagers to feel uncomfortable in their body. In addition to physical growth, teenagers also experience hormone changes and sexual maturation. These changes leave them confused, vulnerable and egocentric. Research reveals that these pubertal changes affect adolescent’s self image, mood and interaction with parents and peers (Berk, 2007). However, if the adolescent is informed in advance about these changes, their psychological reactions are known to differ from those that have no prior knowledge about these pubertal changes. For girls who have not been informed about menarche the reactions could be shocking, frightening and disturbing. Similarly for boys who have not been informed about spermarche the reactions could cause mixed feelings. Moreover, information on these changes could help the young person to develop a more positive body image. On the other hand, when teens have a poor body image, self esteem is low, relationships gets rocky. Conversations with friends shift to dieting and exercise, focus gears to how they look than on what they want to accomplish in life. In the worst cases, eating disorders such as anorexia, bulimia and other unhealthy behaviours develop. The media complicates this condition by placing standards for how girls and boys should look defining what is beautiful in our culture and society. Accepting and being satisfied with the way the body is transforming will have a positive impact on the self image of an individual. According to Ohannessian, McCauley, Lerner, Lerner and von Eye (as cited in Atwater & Duffy, 1999) young people who had high levels of self worth are able to cope well with the challenges they face, than the adolescents who had poor family adjustments. Adolescence is a time for excitement, growth and change. Sometimes adolescents divert their energy into more experimental activities such as smoking, drugs, fighting and breaking rules. Often parents, teachers and care givers are concerned about these changes and believe that this is due to raging hormones. Buchanan, Eccles, and Becker (as cited in Price, 2007) stated that the advancement in developmental psychology and neuroscience explained this phenomenon as the result of complex interplay of body chemistry, brain development and cognitive growth. Nevertheless, these changes that the adolescents experience take place in the context of multiple systems, such as individual relationship, family, school and community that support and influence the change. Neuroscientists believe that by the time the young child reaches puberty, youth had undergone the crucial transformations in the brain development (Price, 2007). The ability to distinguish theory from evidence and to use logic to examine complex relationships and multivariable situations improves in adolescence and adulthood (Berk, 2007). This capacity to think about possibilities expends the mental horizon of the young person causing them to voice out their opinions in family matters, religion, political and moral system. These differences in opinion lead them to explore their boundaries in the quest of finding their identity and thus, involves in risky behaviours. According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (as cited in McWhirter, McWhirter, Mcwhirter, & McWhirter, 2007) individual human development takes place within multiple ecological systems. The Microsystem consists of people with whom the individual comes into direct contact, including family, school – classmates, teachers and staff. The family Micro system has a major influence on individual development because within this system the individual learns values and attitudes, which will have a long term impact in the future. Hence, the stability of the family, the parenting style, types of family problems and conflicts in a family will determine the type of stresses, conflicts and psychological effects on the individual particularly on adolescents. These ups and downs in the family cause parent-child conflicts, risky behaviours and mood changes in the adolescent’s life (Lahey, 2007).These situations lead to unnecessary stress, anger issues and low self esteem resulting in, low academic performances, and disruptive behavior in school and at home. Provide a safe and supportive environment for all youth, including teenage parents and children and youth living with, or affected by, HIV/AIDS. These young people need the care and protection of adults they can trust. This is a role for which teachers and other adults in the community may need training and support. Work to meet the special needs of children and youth in unstable and crisis situations. Instability and adversity are normal conditions for many young people, and their vulnerability to sexual health risks can increase significantly during crises. What is the Life Skills Education Approach? The life skills approach is an interactive, educational methodology that not only focuses on transmitting knowledge but also aims at shaping attitudes and developing interpersonal skills. The main goal of the life skills approach is to enhance young people's ability to take responsibility for making healthier choices, resisting negative pressures, and avoiding risk behaviors. Teaching methods are youth-centered, gender-sensitive, interactive, and participatory. The most common teaching methods include working in groups, brainstorming, role-playing, storytelling, debating, and participating in discussions and audio visual activities. Are Life Skills Education Programs Effective in Improving Young Adults' Sexual and Reproductive Health? Over the years, life skills education programs that include sexual and reproductive health information have proven to be effective in delaying the onset of sexual intercourse and, among sexually experienced youth, in increasing the use of condoms and decreasing the number of sexual partners. Evaluation shows that life skills programs can contribute to the reproductive and sexual health of young people around the world. Some programs that have been proven effective or that have shown promise for improving youth's reproductive and sexual health are highlighted here. How can Life Skills Help Young People make Better Choices concerning their Health? Developing life skills helps adolescents translate knowledge, attitudes and values into healthy behaviour, such as acquiring the ability to reduce special health risks and adopt healthy behaviour that improve their lives in general (such as planning ahead, career planning, decision-making, and forming positive relationships). The adolescents of today grow up surrounded by mixed messages about sex, drug use, alcohol and adolescent pregnancy. On one hand, parents and teachers warn of the dangers of early and promiscuous sex, adolescent pregnancy, STDs/HIV/AIDS, drugs and alcohol, and on the other hand, messages and behaviour from entertainers and peer pressure contradict those messages. Often, they even promote the opposite behaviour. It is through life skills that teenagers can fight these challenges and protect themselves from teenage pregnancy, STDs, HIV/AIDS, drug violence, sexual abuse, and many other health-related problems. Hopefully, developing life skills among adolescents will empower girls to avoid pregnancy until they reach physical and emotional maturity, develop in both boys and girls responsible and safe sexual behaviour, sensitivity and equity in gender relations, prepare boys and young men to be responsible fathers and friends, encourage adults, especially parents, to listen and respond to young people, help young people avoid risks and hardships and involve them in decisions that affect their lives. What does Research say about the Outcomes of Life Skills-Based Education? Developing of life skills have produced the following effects: lessened violent behaviour; increased pro -social behaviour and decreased negative, self-destructive behaviour; increased the ability to plan ahead and choose effective solutions to problems; improved self-image, self-awareness, social and emotional adjustment; increased acquisition of knowledge; improved classroom behaviour; gains in self control and handling of interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety; and improved constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control and popularity. Research studies have also shown that sex education based on life skills was more effective in bringing about changes in adolescent contraceptive use; delay in sexual debut; delay in the onset of alcohol and marijuana use and in developing attitudes and behaviour necessary for preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS. Life Skills and Positive Prevention methods Establishing Rules for our Group Various Forms of Communication How to Start and Stop Conversations Aggressive Behaviour and Assertive Behaviour Types of Group Pressure How to Say "No" Coping with Stress Coping with Anger Responding to Criticism Criticising and Praising Critical Thinking Skills Decision Making Skills Stages of Problem Solving Coping with Conflict Teenager: A Child or an Adult? How to Start Friendships How to End Harmful Friendships Relationships with Members of the Opposite Sex Relating with Adults What are Drugs? Good and Bad Uses of Drugs Drug Misuse and Abuse Drugs and Other Toxic Substances Behaviours of Drug Users It's Okay to be Drug Free How to be a Responsible Person and Say "No" to Drugs Soft skills Need to develop soft skills for enhancing the life. Personality & attitude Development, Improving success ratio & Performance Analytical and logical thinking SWOT Analysis (based on psychology test) Management a different perspective Time & Time Management Stress & strain Management Benefits of Soft Skills training:- Enhance and improve employable skills The ability to communicate effectively with coworkers, employers, client s and customer s, friends and family members The opportunity to enhance organizational skills Improve Personal and professional effectiveness Helps in promotions and upgrading Skills Increased efficiency and leadership skills to improve team results Development of presentation skills to promote more successful projects Gaining the ability to recognize symptoms of stress and learning management strategies Soft skills represent a fundamental at tribute to today’s knowledge based economy. The Workforce Profile defined about 60 "soft skills", which employers seek. They are applicable to any field of work, according to the study, and are the "personal traits and skills that employers state are the most important when selecting employees for jobs of any type." TOP 60 SOFT SKILLS 8. Team skills. 9. Eye contact. 12. Follow rules. 14 Good attitudes. 15. Writing skills. 16. Driver's license. 18. Advanced math. 20. Good references. 21. Being drug free. 22. Good attendance. 23. Personal energy. 24. Work experience. 25. Ability to measure. 26. Personal integrity. 27. Good work history. 28. Positive work ethic. 29. Interpersonal skills. 30. Motivational skills. 31. Valuing education. 32. Personal chemistry. 33. Willingness to learn. 34. Common sense. 35. Critical thinking skills. 36. Knowledge of fractions. 37. Reporting to work on time. 38. Use of rulers and calculators. 39. Good personal appearance. 40. Wanting to do a good job. 41. Basic spelling and grammar. 42. Reading and comprehension. 43. Ability to follow regulations. 44. Willingness to be accountable. 45. Ability to fill out a job application. 46. Ability to make production quotas. 47. Basic manufacturing skills training. 48. Awareness of how business works. 49. Staying on the job until it is finished. 50. Ability to read and follow instructions. 51. Willingness to work second and third shifts. 52. Caring about seeing the company succeed. 53. Understanding what the world is all about. 54. Ability to listen and document what you have heard. 55. Commitment to continued training and learning. 56. Willingness to take instruction and responsibility. 57. Ability to relate to coworkers in a close environment. 58. Not expecting to become a supervisor in the first six months. 59. Willingness to be a good worker and go beyond the traditional eight-hour day. Life Skills Education results in bridging up communication barriers with parents and other adults. It enables young people to handle stressful situations effectively without losing one’s temper or becoming moody, learning to disagree politely with use of appropriate “I” messages, and assertive skills are important for development of self esteem, positive attitudes, making a firm stand on values, beliefs and cultural differences. When an individual learns all the basic skills to cope with challenges individuals will feel more confident, motivated, and develop a positive attitude towards life, thus, make more mature and adult like decision, starts taking responsibilities for their actions and in turn refrain from risk taking and risky behaviours and become more useful people for the next generation.

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1 Lit Terms Take notes as we review each of these terms and examples. 2 Types of Writing Expository writing EXPLAINS something a process how something works Remember that EXPository EXPlains something. 3 Types of Writing Persuasive writing ARGUES something tries to convince the reader offers strong evidence to sway the reader PERSUASIVE writing is what we re focusing on for the Writing SOL. 4 Types of Writing Cause/Effect writing DESCRIBES something (a cause) and how it changes (or the effect it has on) something else Example: Poor dental hygiene leads to cavities and other issues. 5 Types of Writing Narrative writing TELLS a story and comes in many different forms. 6 Allegory A story or poem in which characters, settings, and events stand for other people or events (or for abstract ideas or qualities) 7 Alliteration The repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds in words that are close together Examples: For the first time in forever There are tons of tools here! 8 Allusion A reference to someone or something that is known from history, literature, religion, politics, sports, science, or another branch of culture 9 Ambiguity A technique by which a writer deliberately suggests two or more different, and sometimes conflicting, meanings in a work 10 Analogy A comparison between two things to show how they are alike Example: Square is to rectangle as circle is to oval. 11 Anecdote A short account or story about an incident that is usually funny, interesting, or biographical 12 Aphorism A short, pointed sentence expressing a wise or clever observation or a general truth; maxim; adage Example: The early bird catches the worm. 13 Apostrophe An arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings EXAMPLES: Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star Death be not proud Ugh, cell phone! Why won t you load my message?! 14 Archetype An old, imaginative pattern that appears in literature across the ages EXAMPLES: heroes, villains, tricksters, outcasts, rebels, misfits... 15 Atmosphere The mood or feeling you (the reader) get from the story or poem What is the atmosphere of each of these two pics? 16 Autobiography An account of a person s life written by that person You would write your own autobiography. 17 Biography An account of someone s life written by someone else Mark wrote Ellie s biography. 18 Character A person or animal that plays a role in a novel, play, or movie 19 Direct Characterization When the author openly tells the audience about the character and his/her/its traits 20 Indirect Characterization When the reader must infer a character s traits through his/her/its actions, thoughts, or appearance 21 cliché A cliché is an overused expression or idea. In good writing, you want to AVOID them! 22 Climax The high point or turning point of a novel, play, or movie When the author reveals or hints to the outcome 23 Conflict A problem Internal- a character s problem with him/herself External- a character s problem with another character, group, or force 24 Connotation an idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning an undertone 25 Denotation the literal or primary meaning of a word its dictionary definition 26 Diction style of speaking or writing as dependent upon choice of words 27 Fact a truth known by actual experience or observation something that can be verified 28 Opinion a personal view, attitude, or appraisal cannot be certain 29 Fact or Opinion? Truman was a President of the U.S. Truman was the best President of the U.S. Non-poisonous snakes make delightful pets. Gold was discovered in CA in 1848. 30 Figure of Speech Language that is not meant to be taken literally Similes, metaphors, personification, etc. all fall under the figure of speech umbrella 31 Metaphor A comparison in which one thing is said to be another (often unlike) thing 32 Personification Gives human qualities to non-human or abstract things Ex. Love is blind. 33 Simile A figure of speech where two unlike things are explicitly compared, usually using like or as to link them 34 Flashback A scene in a movie or novel that takes a character back to a time earlier than the main setting 35 Foreshadowing A warning or indication of a future event Beware the ides of March 36 Hyperbole An extreme exaggeration that is not meant to be taken literally I have a million things to do! 37 Dramatic Irony When the audience knows something that the characters in a book or play do not know 38 Situational Irony When the expected outcome does not happen Can be humorous or serious 39 Verbal Irony When someone says one thing, but means another for effect Similar to sarcasm 40 Mood The feeling the reader gets from a work of literature 41 Onomatopoeia A word formed from the association of the noise it makes Sizzle, cuckoo, chirp... 42 Oxymoron A figure of speech when apparently contradictory words are used in conjunction It s the same difference. 43 Paradox A statement that seems self-contradictory Ex. It is opposite day today. 44 Plot The sequence of events in a work of literature You can trace it on a plot chart. 45 Setting The environment in which a story or event takes place Typically developed at the beginning of a work 46 soliloquy When a character in a play gives a speech alone onstage Indicates the speaker talking to him or herself 47 Monologue A speech delivered by one person, usually in a poem or play 48 dialogue When characters are in conversation with one another Usually indicated by quotation marks 49 Dialect A form of language that is particular to a specific region or social group 50 Stereotype A fixed idea about a particular type of person or thing Usually a negative idea or prejudice 51 Style The way the author uses words in his or her writing 52 Suspense Feeling anxious or excited uncertainty about what may happen in the future 53 Symbol A material object that represents something immaterial Love, religion, trust, etc. 54 Theme The subject of a piece of writing 55 Tone The character or attitude of a piece of writing 56 Understatement The presentation of something being smaller, worse, or less important than it is 57 Protagonist The leading character in a work 58 Antagonist The force working against the main character in a work 59 Pun Word play that suggests two or more meanings of a word or words 60 Premise A previous statement from which another is inferred or followed as a conclusion Types of Literature TERM Definition Example Way to remember A literary type or Genre form Short Story Notes Fiction Non-fiction Essay Novel Short story Works of prose that have imaginary elements. Prose Language Arts Literary Terms Shires Memorize each set of 10 literary terms from the Literary Terms Handbook, at the back of the Green Freshman Language Arts textbook. We will have a literary terms test Literary Element And Definition Cards For use as Classroom Labels/Decoration Simile Comparing two things using like or as. Walks like a duck As strong as an ox Metaphor Comparing two things WITHOUT using Sound Devices 1. alliteration (M) the repetition of a consonant sound at the beginning of nearby words 2. assonance (I) the repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words 3. consonance (I) the repetition of LITERARY TERMS Name: Class: TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE (BE SPECIFIC) PIECE action allegory alliteration ~ assonance ~ consonance allusion ambiguity what happens in a story: events/conflicts. If well organized, Literary Terms Review Part I Protagonist Main Character The Good Guy Antagonist Characters / Forces that work against the main character Plot / Plot Development Sequence of Events Exposition The beginning LITERARY ELEMENTS SETTING WHEN AND WHERE A STORY TAKES PLACE PLOT THE SEQUENCE OF RELATED EVENTS THAT MAKE UP A STORY THE PLOT OF A STORY CONSISTS OF 4 PARTS: BASIC SITUATION (EXPOSTION) CONFLICTS (COMPLICATIONS) Literary Terms 7 th Grade Reading Point of View The vantage point from which a story is told First person is told by a character who uses the pronoun I Second person You Third person narrator uses he/she Short Story and Literature Notes English 9 Mrs. DiSalvo I. Narrative Forms A. Allegory: a story in which characters and events symbolize ideas or concepts B. Anecdote: a short, funny tale or biographical Literary Terms We will be using these literary terms throughout the school year. You need to keep up with your notes. Don t t lose your terms! You might be able to use them be RESPONSIBLE!! We will use Page 1 of 9 Glossary of Literary Terms allegory A fictional text in which ideas are personified, and a story is told to express some general truth. alliteration Repetition of sounds at the beginning of a story or visual image with a second distinct meaning partially hidden behind it literal or visible meaning Allegory the repetition of the same sounds- usually initial consonant sounds Alliteration an 3200 Jaguar Run, Tracy, CA 95377 (209) 832-6600 Fax (209) 832-6601 firstname.lastname@example.org Dear English 1 Pre-AP Student: Welcome to Kimball High s English Pre-Advanced Placement program. The rigorous Pre-AP classes All you ever wanted to know about literary terms and MORE!!! Literary Terms We will be using these literary terms throughout the school year. There WILL BE literary terms used on your EOC at the end of STAAR Reading Terms 6th Grade Group 1: 1. synonyms words that have similar meanings 2. antonyms - words that have opposite meanings 3. context clues - words, phrases, or sentences that help give meaning Conflict Conflict is the struggle between opposing forces in a story or play. There are two types of conflict that exist in literature. External Conflict External conflict exists when a character struggles 6.3, 7.4, 8.4 Figurative Language: simile and hyperbole Figures of Speech: personification, simile, and hyperbole Figurative language: simile - figures of speech that use the words like or as to make comparisons Allusion brief, often direct reference to a person, place, event, work of art, literature, or music which the author assumes the reader will recognize Analogy a comparison of points of likeness between Literary Terms Every 8 th Grader Needs to Know Before Going to High School You need to know the definition of and be able to identify each literary term 1. Allusion: making a reference to literature, art, Rhetorical Analysis Terms and Definitions Term Definition Example allegory a story with two (or more) levels of meaning--one literal and the other(s) symbolic alliteration allusion amplification analogy SHORT STORY NOTES Fall 2013 I. WHAT IS THE SHORT STORY? A. Prose fiction (ordinary language) B. 7,000-10,000 words C. Can be read in one sitting II. WHY IS THE SHORT STORY IMPORTANT? A. It is a distinct Literary Elements Allusion* brief, often direct reference to a person, place, event, work of art, literature, or music which the author assumes the reader will recognize Analogy Apostrophe* Characterization* ELA 9 Novel Study Literary Devices, Elements, Techniques, and Terms A literary devise is any tool used in literature to help the reader understand the story and its character(s). There are two types of Literary Terms 1. Allegory: a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. Ex: Animal Farm is an Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in accented syllables. Allusion An allusion is a reference within a work to something famous outside it, such as a well-known person, 2016 Summer Assignment: Honors English 10 Teacher: Mrs. Leandra Ferguson Contact Information: email@example.com Due Date: Monday, August 8 Text to be Read: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte Instructions: Literary Vocabulary Literary terms you need to know! What is figurative language? all language that involves figures of speech or symbolism and does not literally represent real things alliteration the Literary Term Vocabulary Lists [Longer definitions of many of these terms are in the other Literary Term Vocab Lists document and the Literary Terms and Figurative Language master document.] List A from STAAR Reading Terms 5th Grade Group 1: 1. synonyms words that have similar meanings 2. antonyms - words that have opposite meanings 3. context clues - words or phrases that help give meaning to unknown Kindergarten LI.01 Listen, make connections, and respond to stories based on well-known characters, themes, plots, and settings. LI.02 Name some book titles and authors. LI.03 Demonstrate listening comprehension 1. abstract Conceptual, on a very high order concrete 2. allegory Work that works on a symbolic level symbol 3. allusion Reference to a well-known person, place, event, or work of art. An allusion brings GLOSSARY OF TECHNIQUES USED TO CREATE MEANING Active/Passive Voice: Writing that uses the forms of verbs, creating a direct relationship between the subject and the object. Active voice is lively and much Prose What You Should Already Know Wri tten in Pa ragra ph s Types of Prose Nonfiction (based on fact rather than on the imagination, although may can contain fictional elements) -essay, biography, letter, 1. Absolute: Word free from limitations or qualification 2. Ad hominem argument: An argument attacking a person s character rather than his/her position on a issue- a personal attack 3. Adage: Familiar AP Literature and Composition 2017 Summer Reading Assignment Required reading over the summer: How to Read Literature like a Professor by Thomas C. Foster Assignment: Read How to Read Literature like a LITERARY ELEMENTS SETTING WHEN AND WHERE A STORY TAKES PLACE PLOT THE SEQUENCE OF RELATED EVENTS THAT MAKE UP A STORY THE PLOT OF A STORY CONSISTS OF 4 PARTS: BASIC SITUATION (EXPOSITION) CONFLICTS (COMPLICATIONS) CRCT Study Guide 6 th Grade Language Arts PARTS OF SPEECH 1. Noun a word that names a PERSON, PLACE, THING, or IDEA Singular Noun refers to ONE person, ONE place, ONE thing, or ONE Idea. (teacher, store, LiteraryTerms Character Character a person in a story, poem, or play. Types of Characters: Round- fully developed, has many different character traits Flat- stereotyped, one-dimensional, few traits Static Grade 6 Standard 8 - Literature Grade Level Expectations GLE 0601.8.1 Read and comprehend a variety of works from various forms Anthology includes a variety of texts: fiction, of literature. nonfiction,and Literary Terms I. Literary Device: Any literary device or technique used to achieve a specific effect. A. Allusion: A reference to a LITERARY, MYTHOLOGICAL, BIBLICAL OR HISTORICAL person, place or thing. allusion appendix assonance cause characterization characterize chronological classified ad connotation consonance a literary or historical reference a section at the back of a book that gives additional Literary Terms Review AP Literature 2012-2013 Overview This is not a conclusive list of literary terms for AP Literature; students should be familiar with these terms at the beginning of the year. Please Grade 6 Tennessee Course Level Expectations Standard 8 - Literature Grade Level Expectations GLE 0601.8.1 Read and comprehend a variety of works from various forms of literature. Student Book and Teacher A GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS LITERARY DEVICES Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds used especially in poetry to emphasize and link words as well as to create pleasing musical sounds. R-Review First Nine Weeks Grade: 9 Subject: English Year: 2017-2018 IN PROGRESS # Days SOL Student Essential Knowledge and Skills Resources Vocabulary Bloom s 4 GR Virtual Classroom-Moodle Star Reading Name: *Due: directly before you take this exam Your study guides will be due directly before you take my exam. I will not take them at a later date. If you have the same answers as someone else, neither Grade 7 Key Ideas and Details Online MCA: 23 34 items Paper MCA: 27 41 items Grade 7 Standard 1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific Grade 8 Key Ideas and Details Online MCA: 23 34 items Paper MCA: 27 41 items Grade 8 Standard 1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific ABSTRACT Refers to language that describes concepts rather than concrete images. ALLITERATION Repetition of the initial consonant sound. ABSTRACT NOUN Something (a noun) you cannot perceive using any of Incoming 11 th grade students Summer Reading Assignment All incoming 11 th grade students (Regular, Honors, AP) will complete Part 1 and Part 2 of the Summer Reading Assignment. The AP students will have Unit 1: Nine Weeks Essential Question: informational W.7.3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured Glossary to the Assessment Anchor & Eligible Content The Keystone Glossary includes terms and definitions associated with the Keystone Assessment Anchors and Eligible Content. The terms and definitions Sixth Grade 101 LA Facts to Know 1. ALLITERATION: Repeated consonant sounds occurring at the beginnings of words and within words as well. Alliteration is used to create melody, establish mood, call attention Literary Devices character an animal or person that takes part in the action of the story -a main character is the most important character in the story -a minor character takes part in the action, but Poetic Devices Poetic Devices and Terms to Know Alliteration repetition of consonant sounds Assonance repetition of vowel sounds Allusion reference in a poem to another famous literary work, event, idea, ~A BINGO BOOK~ Figurative Language BingoBook COMPLETE BINGO GAME IN A BOOK Simile Imagery Personification Irony Metaphor Pun Idiom AND MORE! Written by Rebecca Stark Educational Books n Bingo 2016 Barbara Summer Reading Assignment: Honors English I Harun and the Sea of Stories by Salman Rushdie ISBN: 978 0140157376 We will begin our year with a discussion of Haroun and the Sea of Stories by the nobel prize English 1310 Lesson Plan Wednesday, October 14 th Theme: Tone/Style/Diction/Cohesion Assigned Reading: The Phantom Tollbooth Ch. 3 & 4 Dukes Instructional Goal Students will be able to Identify tone, style, Literary Devices character an animal or person that takes part in the action of the story -a main character is the most important character in the story -a minor character takes part in the action, but English II Pre-AP SUMMER ASSIGNMENT Welcome to Pre-AP English II! Part I: As part of this course, you will read, annotate, and analyze a work of literary non-fiction over the summer in order to prepare Wichita High School East International Baccalaureate Diploma Program 2301 E. Douglas Wichita, KS 67211 (316) 973-7289 phone (316) 973-7209 fax 2018 PIB English 2 Summer Reading Assignment In an abundant FCAT 2.0 (Reading) Words to Know Study online at quizlet.com/_2twnd 1. Alliteration The repetition of the same sound, usually of a consonant, at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding The 10 Commandments of IB Analysis: IB Analysis and Fundamentals of Composition Guide #1: Despite the vagueness or the complexity of a given analysis prompt, assume that analytical prompts are essentially POETIC STUDY Quiz Format: 4 selected response questions 1 constructed response question Study Tips - Review literary and language terms in key terms booklets. - Review the format for responding to 6 point Kindergarten First Grade First Grade mclass Specific Second Grade Third Grade Fourth Grade Alphabet adjetives who Adverb abstract nouns Reading Literature Author audience what Alliteration audience inference Grade 12 Grade 11 Grade 10 Grade 9 LITERATURE (British) (American with foundational historical documents and standardized testing passages) (World and more emphasis on poetry and drama as genre/persuasive Ms. Rose Pre-AP 2018 Summer Reading Summer Reading Material: Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie by David Lunbar *STUDENTS MUST BUY THE BOOK FOR SUMMER READING. ELECTRONIC FORMAT IS ACCEPTABLE.* PLEASE READ THE CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.L.6 Acquire and use accurately a range of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career Vocabulary Workstation 1. Read the directions and discuss with your group what context clues are and how we can use them to help us determine the meaning of words we are unsure of. 2. Choose three vocabulary ONLY THE IMPORTANT STUFF. English 9 2013-2014 Setting Helps readers visualize Helps set tone or mood of story is WHEN and WHERE a story takes place Sights Sounds Colors Textures Time of day Time of year Summer Reading Assignment The English Department of Boca Ciega High School Assistant Principals Welcome to English at Boca Ciega High School. Since this is a course that requires extensive background knowledge, Glossary of Literary Terms Alliteration Audience Blank Verse Character Conflict Climax Complications Context Dialogue Figurative Language Free Verse Flashback The repetition of initial consonant sounds. LITERARY TERMS QUIZ Directions: Please identify numbers 1-5 on the plot graph and write the definitions for all of the following terms. PLOT- The action or series of events that make up a story 1. Exposition- Section 1: Reading/Literature 8% Vocabulary (1.0) 1 Vocabulary (1.1-1.5) Vocabulary: a. Analyze the meaning of analogies encountered, analyzing specific comparisons as well as relationships and inferences. THE QUESTION IS THE KEY KEY IDEAS AND DETAILS CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.8.1 Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from ENGLISH TWELVE TERMS AND DEVICES HANDBOOK POETRY TERMINOLOGY I. KINDS OF POETRY A. Narrative a recording of events; has an identifiable plot and characters 1. Classical epic based on a background of warfare Fiction Mini-Lessons ELEMENTS OF PLOT/STORY MAP All fiction is based on conflict and this conflict is presented in a structured format called PLOT. ~Exposition The introductory material which gives the A figure of speech is a change from the ordinary manner of expression, using words in other than their literal sense to enhance the way a thought is expressed. (Refer to English Grammar p. 70 75) Learn Essential Question: How do writers use figurative language in their writing?measured by: Cornell Notes, Quiz, Discussion, and Project/presentation usage 1. Allusion A reference to a historical event, person, Independent Reading Assignment Checklist Ms. Gentile Grade 7 Name: Book Checklist Date: Period: QUARTER 4! Teacher Checklist Each student must submit the following: Due Dates for the Year 2013-2014 (Every Cornell Notes Topic/ Objective: Name: 1st Quarter Literary Terms Class/Period: Date: Essential Question: How do literary terms help us readers and writers? Terms: Author s purpose Notes: The reason why Grade 6 Key Ideas and Details Online MCA: 23 34 items Paper MCA: 27 41 items Grade 6 Standard 1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific

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What is a Value Conflict? Conflicts are an inherent part of social existence because we are in constant competition for resources. We also are in conflict because we have different goals and different ideas about our place in society, what our rights, duties, and responsibilities to other people are, and what constitutes right, wrong, fairness, or justice. We can call conflicts arising out of the evaluation of our own and others’ actions, motives, and notices about what is just and fair and what is good or bad behavior, value conflicts or moral conflicts. They are a result of different principles or codes of conduct we live by. Value conflicts are particularly difficult to resolve because once such attitudes form, they are very stable, and their preservation becomes part of our social and political identity. They often are the ideals we consider “worth fighting for.” (Although the author will discuss controversial issues for purposes of illustration, no position for or against any position is taken here.) Well, you can change. One might gain or lose faIth, or switch political parties. But such instances, if they are truly value-driven, should be extremely rare. It may be that the institution one belonged to has changed. Someone once said to the author “I did not leave the Church. The Church left me.” Sources of Our Values There are a number of sources for our values, each of which may exert more or less influence depending on our personal circumstances. The most basic values come from these sources: - Our culture (especially individualism vs. collectivism) - Our upbringing - Our religion or personal philosophy - Our political beliefs - Our education - Our profession - Our life experience Even when we share similar ideas of what constitutes right and wrong, we may prioritize them differently. What takes precedence? Our faith? Our family? Our political affiliation? Professional ethics? This will differ from person to person. Perhaps our individualism and materialistic culture tell us every adult should be responsible for making their own way in the world, but our upbringing and religion teach us to give money to the poor. This internal conflict of values is called “cognitive dissonance,” and causes feelings of unease or confusion. But if one of these values ranks much higher than the other, the internal conflict will be easier to resolve. The same situation illustrates how difficult it is to generalize values. Suppose my sibling shares my culture, my upbringing, my religion, and my political affiliation, but prioritizes these things differently, or perhaps has less money than I do. Perhaps she recently heard a news story about panhandlers with very high bank balances. Despite our similarities, our values and resulting behaviors may differ by a wide margin. Two Kinds of Value Conflicts The above discussion helps illustrate the difference between actual value conflicts and perceived value conflicts. Let’s take another example. Politics in the United States are currently extremely polarized. So if I say “I am a Democrat” or “I am a Republican,” without more, a listener Is likely to assume that he or she knows where I stand on a whole host of social and political issues on which the party has taken a public position. But though the leadership of the parties may claim that they should go elsewhere, there will always be dissenters from particular party policies or religious doctrines. Political parties, in particular, have been declining in influence since the 1950s; For example, three in ten voters, whether Republicans or Democrats, disagree with their party’s position on abortion. Similar results are found regarding other issues. Recent research shows that a growing number of voters make choices based on policy details rather than party. The lack of ideological agreement means that group membership alone cannot predict his or her actual values. People reach the same policy results by different paths. Both Democrats and Libertarians support abortion rights, though they are far apart on other issues. Nor is political affiliation the only group membership that poorly predicts actual values. 56% of US Catholics support abortion rights and Only 8% of view contraception as morally wrong, despite clear Vatican teachings to the contrary. In America, at least, values appear to be individualized, discoverable only through dialogue. This realization is critical because even a perception of value conflict where none exists will lead participants to see less opportunity for common ground and escalate the dispute more quickly. Disputants know that basic principles do not readily change and are disinclined even to try. More exploration of possible solutions takes place if the same dispute is framed as a conflict of interests. So far we have discussed the difficulty of predicting values merely from group membership and the need to engage in dialogue to determine whether value conflicts exist. But what if values actually conflict? What makes value conflicts so difficult or even intractable and what steps can lead to dispute resolution? Our examples thus far have not expressly discussed a value conflict between parties who did share worldviews or cultures. But this can easily happen and quickly lead to a dispute, as things one party thinks are normal and acceptable end up insulting or hurting the other parties. This can easily happen in business or even in the same family and can cause serious harm to relationships. For example, did you know that a direct refusal is treated as a hostile act in some Middle Eastern cultures? Someone not familiar with the culture may consider a simple refusal morally neutral. But suddenly he or she has acted aggressively, and reciprocation or escalation might be expected. What could have been a profitable business venture becomes a value conflict. Now let’s suppose three generations of a family from a collectivist culture are living in the same house. In this culture, elders are to be respected as authority figures and presumed to be correct, family harmony is paramount, and that the presence of conflict is a disgrace. Also suppose that, while the older generations are traditionalists, the adult granddaughter, having been born and educated in the U.S. has thoroughly adopted its individualist, rights-based approach. One day, Granddaughter announces that she is dating a boy who does not share their ethnicity. Grandmother immediately says she should stop dating him. Granddaughter asks for an explanation. Grandmother says a boy from his own culture would be better. Granddaughter calls this racist and says she can date whom she wants. She is very upset. To end the conflict, Grandmother apologizes, losing face but avoiding the disgrace of continuing conflict before the rest of the family. The situation also illustrates that something considered morally good in one culture may be considered bad in another. Some moral codes, like the Enlightenment values of egalitarianism, individualism, and preference for a reason common in the United States, focus on rights. But many more traditional, collectivist societies are hierarchical, emphasizing duty, virtue, and obedience, built on virtues. Modern individualists emphasize freedom, and its corollaries, inclusivity, and tolerance. They view an interracial or interfaith relationship or even such a marriage as unremarkable or even good. In their view, the freedom to date or marry anyone is a “right.” Traditionalists, however, might see it as evil — harmfully diluting their race or religion. A few months after the announcement that they are dating, his granddaughter and her boyfriend break up. Despite this, silent tension continues between her and grandmother. She does not understand. But she violated her Grandmother’s values in the following ways: - Not treating her grandmother as an authority figure; - Demanding an explanation; - Grandmother should have been presumed correct; - Putting her individual desires above family harmony; - Causing conflict within the family; - Making her grandmother lose face by apologizing to end open conflict within the family. It’s important to remember that everything the granddaughter did was perfectly acceptable in the individualist culture of the United States, just as a direct refusal was not considered hostile behavior in the previous vignette. Her peers might even praise her for “standing up for herself. ” The concerns of the older generation would likely be rejected as “old-fashioned,” but are based on actual events and represent real value conflict between individualist and collectivist norms. Both conflicts arose out of ignorance and misunderstanding rather than hostility. Both could nonetheless result in badly damaged relationships. Another source of misunderstandings is patterns of communication. Shared culture means shared rules of communication and shared meanings. Respect in one culture may mean being polite when you ask questions, respect in another culture may mean not asking questions at all. Honor in one culture may mean keeping one’s word. Honor in another may mean sacrifice for the sake of the group. In America, we are taught to look at our communication partners when we speak to them. But in other cultures, it is considered rude. The potential cultural differences in meanings, body language, things that “go without saying” and so on make misunderstandings common between those with widely differing values or cultures, and require thought, preparation and self-awareness to be overcome. Another feature of value conflicts is mistrust. This may manifest as a feeling that the opposing value system is dangerous, or even that it is a threat to the continued existence of a way of life. The result of this is that the conflict becomes an all-or-nothing affair, with compromise impossible. That theme ran through the Cold War between the United States and the USSR, including crippling defense spending and support of satellite nations. It also explains the militarization and aggression of the State of Israel in the face of several wars and claims it had no right to exist. These attitudes persisted even after peace treaties were signed and the right to exist was officially recognized. Domestically, the polarIzation of US politics may spring partly from the belief that long-standing, cherished rights and institutions (whether they be the electoral college, rights under the Second Amendment, the right to choose abortion, or something else) will be eliminated if an opposing party or candidate wins. We react strongly to these perceived threats even if is objectively unlikely that the feared changes will come to pass. We do not want to live in a society in which such a thing is even remotely possible. A threat to something important makes us angry. Anger, in turn, energizes us, makes us suspicious, overeager to act, and risk-tolerant. It even physically prepares us for violence. In such a state, we are not analytical. We do not weigh probabilities accurately. We are ready to act and react, not to think objectively. Hostile Communication Patterns When we deal with somebody whose values are fundamentally different from our own, we may think of them as evil, lazy, dishonest, disrespectful, foolish, or otherwise fundamentally flawed. Or we may find their contrary position on a core issue simply incomprehensible. Because of this, and because we may feel anger at a threat to an important value, our communications with those on the other side of the conflict are often difficult and hostile. Rather than trying to reason with our opponents, we often resort to personal attacks, arguing, name-calling and indignation. Let’s return to the abortion issue as an example. Suppose you believe that life begins at conception. Your parents and your church both taught you this, and the progress medicine is making in keeping very premature babies alive only strengthens your belief. This means that abortion under any circumstances is murder; regardless of how early it takes place, whether the mother is at risk or whether the pregnancy is forced. You can’t understand how anyone could believe otherwise. The fetus can’t develop unless it’s alive. To you those who undergo or perform abortions are murderers. Those who support abortion rights cannot understand your perspective. Cell division is something very simple organisms do. It should not be the basis for preventing a woman from exercising autonomy over her own body. At the very least, they say, there should be another person involved, one whose rights weigh against those of the mother. The personhood argument is often discussed in a medical ethics context. There is no accepted definition. Each test yields a different result. Does personhood begin with a heartbeat (6 weeks)? Pain response (8 weeks)? Self-awareness (up to 2 years)? Viability outside the mother (22 weeks)? The details of the debate are unimportant. The point is that the disputants are operating under very different assumptions— one using a bright-line test that takes no account of the woman’s desires or even threats to her health from the moment of fertilization, while the other is based on an indeterminate standard that gives maximum choice and safety to the woman. The existing legal standard is irrelevant except to the extent that it helped form one’s values or supports o favored position. Value conflicts are about the way things ought to be, not the way they are now. The parties are operating under completely different assumptions and using different vocabulary, focused on concepts that may appear irrelevant to one another. Unable or unwilling to communicate with one another effectively, the disputants often stop talking to each other altogether. Reduced to insults, labels, slogans, and harsh words. What rhetoric there is serves to fire up one’s base or persuade new recruits to join the cause. Of course, the targets of our criticisms become defensive and respond in kind. A vicious cycle results. None of this contributes to the resolution of the dispute. Social psychology research informs us that in-group members negatively evaluate members of out-groups. Additionally, there is an out-group homogeneity effect. That is, we tend to think of those unlike us as being all the same, even though we know that members of our own group are different from one another. As previously discussed, those with value systems unlike our own are seen as strange, foolish, or bad, and ourselves as normal, wise, and good. Not surprisingly, this leads to avoidance behavior by both groups, meaning that they have little actual data about one another. When they do look for data, they will generally find information that supports their previous negative assessments. Not only do negative events stand out more strongly in our consciousness than positive ones, but also unless we make a real effort to counter it, we suffer from confirmation bias, the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of our existing beliefs or theories. We also tend to rely on the most easily recalled information, rather than making the effort to search for more difficult to find data. Because we avoid contact with those of contrary value systems, we most easily recall stereotypes. So rather than actual information, when we speak of those we are in moral conflict with we use sweeping generalizations and emphasize the negative. Finally, we are guilty of the fundamental attribution error. This is a cognitive bias that leads us to attribute negative outcomes to character traits and positive one to external forces. For example, if you are late, your tardiness is likely to be attributed to laziness or irresponsibility. However, if you are early, it is because of external factors such as light traffic. Two methods of reducing the impact of stereotypes suggest themselves. First, the psychological literature indicates that contact with members of the stereotyped group reduces their impact, presumably because the need for them disappears with actual experience. However, if that contact includes instances of stereotypical behavior, however, that stereotype will be reinforced. A second means of reducing reliance on negative stereotyping is perspective-taking, deliberately putting oneself in the place of the out-group, imagining their motivations, the hopes and fears they experience, and the obstacles they must overcome. The Non-Negotiability of Values Generally, conflicts end because the parties compromise or negotiate a resolution all can tolerate. That is a straightforward task when the issue is how much value each party should claim from a fixed amount, or when different priorities allow trade-offs and integrative solutions But value conflicts are not like that. They spring out of our most important and deeply held beliefs m, and concern policy questions about whether certain things are acceptable in society or not. Such choices are binary, not incremental, and rarely subject to compromise. If I oppose abortion because all life is sacred, I would not allow “just a few” abortions to end the conflict. The taking of a life is wrong, and I cannot condone it. If I am morally consistent, I will also oppose capital punishment. If exceptions are to be made, they should involve the protection of the same value, or one ranked even higher by us. For example, we might concede that abortion is permissible if the life of the mother is at stake because that choice balances the loss of a fetus —which might miscarry in any event— against a threat to the life of the mother. Value conflicts are extremely emotional and sometimes violent. Participants sometimes violate their own values, claiming that the act was justified by the actions of the opponent. In this way, the murder of abortion providers has been rationalized as the only way to save the lives of unborn babies that otherwise would have been lost to legal abortion. Why Value Conflicts Might be Intractable Because they concern our most important principles, moral or value conflicts are often very difficult to resolve, long-lasting, destructive, and consist of a number of clashes over time. (Disputes with these characteristics are sometimes called “intractable”). Value conflicts often are considered intractable for a number of reasons. For example, the difference in which concepts are deemed important and how ideas are stated means that those caught in such conflict experience great difficulty in describing the underlying issues in shared terms. This makes it hard to understand one another. Because they are arguing from different moral positions, they disagree about the significance of apparent issues. Someone who believes life begins at conception may be completely mystified by a debate over personhood. Disagreement about what issues matter makes negotiation or compromise extremely difficult. Resolution becomes more difficult when parties disagree not only about the issues, but also about which forms of conflict resolution are morally right or politically palatable. A good example of this is the question of whether violence is ever justified. Over time, the original issues often become irrelevant and new grievances arise from actions taken during the ongoing dispute. In moral conflict, actions that are acceptable to one side “prove” to the other side that they are fools or villains. Efforts to achieve resolution often cause further conflict. When the means of resolving conflict cause further conflict, the original issues are no longer important and the dispute becomes self-sustaining. Dealing With Value Conflicts How can practitioners of dispute resolution promote peace in seemingly intractable values disputes? While we have to admit that success will be difficult, there are some things we can try. Get People Talking The differing values of the other parties made them seem difficult to talk to and strange to us, and we respond by avoiding contact. This is counterproductive. Our disputes can’t be settled If we don’t talk to one another. We must have the courage to engage in dialogue. Because not everyone who identifies with the group believes the same thing, we may discover that there are more shared values between us than we thought. If so, we are dealing with a perceived value conflict rather than an actual one, and the matter can be put to rest. Even if there is a real value conflict between us, it might be narrower than we think. To the extent we can find commonalities, we will reduce reliance on negative stereotyping, and discover the framework for an agreement. Using storytelling to build empathy Storytelling is as old as society itself. It is both a way to organize our thoughts and a way to hold the listeners’ interest. In the presence of a neutral third party, the disputants can tell their stories — how and why they became involved, what suffering the conflict has caused them, what sacrifices they have made, and what they hope to achieve. Everybody has a story, and the interesting thing about them Is that they help build understanding and empathy. We recognize ourselves in the stories of those around us. We become invested in the well-told story. We develop empathy. We sympathize. While our worldview may not change, we understand the other person better. We may not want to be in conflict with them anymore. At least, we may renounce violence in favor of the peaceful resolution Third parties can sometimes help the disputants reframe the conflict from a values-based zero-sum game to an achievable practical problem, like this: Let’s not argue today about whether abortion should be legal. We can’t solve that issue. But in recent protests, there has been violence, and innocent people have been hurt and suffered damage to their businesses. I know that there are strong emotions on both sides, but the violence is unacceptable and hurts the cause on both sides. Can we agree there will be no more violence? From here we might move forward to explore whether there were any circumstances under which abortion was acceptable. To protect the life of the mother? To protect the life of a stronger twin who would otherwise not survive? To protect the health of the mother? And conversely, under what circumstances is abortion definitely not acceptable? Must we change the law every time a younger premature infant is born alive, or can we set the threshold ahead of current medical outcomes? In this practical way, reframing can make the intractable achievable, whatever the moral disputes. The participants can find ways to coexist while they wait for the world to change, without giving up their cherished values. - Can You Back Out of a Settlement Agreement? Legal Advice - April 22, 2022 - Objecting to Form - April 11, 2022 - Legal Representation: Why Should I Hire an Attorney? - April 8, 2022

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During the very time period in which Vichy France attempted to build a colonial empire on the backs of Algerians in French Algeria and Vietnamese in French Indochina (now Vietnam), they were systematically persecuting Jewish people who lived in France. While using youth corps and integrationalist policies in Indochina to foster obedient and Franco-patriotic colonial subjects, they enacted laws in France that began with mandating registration of all Jewish people in France to their eventual roundup and deportation in 1942 to Auschwitz. The contradictions of this can be seen in French Indochinese policies that exalted nationality through a soulful connection rather than division by race, class, or soil. At the same time, Vichy France removed Jews from various positions in French Indochina and restricted attendance of Jews at public schools established for French colonial children in French Indochina. In 1940, about 350,000 Jews lived in metropolitan France. By the end of 1942, 76,000 were deported and died in concentration and extermination camps. Only a tiny fraction, 2, 566, of those deported survived. Even given this, the survival rate of Jews in France was 75%, more than in any other European country, due in part to the efforts of non-Jews who risked their lives to protect Jews. Towards the end of the war, occupied France, relying upon age old state secrecy rules aimed at protecting the French government and the state from embarrassing revelations, destroyed nearly all of the massive archive of Jewish arrests and deportations. There were attempts early on to save the historical record of the Holocaust. For example Drancy internment camp records were carefully preserved and turned over to the new National Office for Veterans and Victims of War; however, the bureau held them in secret, refusing to release copies to the Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation. One of the most heart-wrenching things that I came across was this online interactive map that shows the origin of every child deported from France between July 1942 and August 1944. The map was created by French historian Jean-Luc Pinol, and uses data collected by former Nazi hunter Serge Klarsfeld. The following is my attempt to compile a comprehensive book list for memoirs and biographies that detail the Holocaust in France: - The Holocaust, The French And The Jews by Susan Zuccotti – Zuccotti uses memoirs, government documents, and personal interviews with survivors to chronicle some of the stories of ambiguity and betrayal, as well as those of courageous protection during Nazi occupation of Germany. - Vichy France and the Jews: with a new Foreword by Stanley Hoffmann by Michael Marrus, Robert Paxton – “Marrus and Paxton provide a graphic and often heartrending account of official cruelty, administrative callousness, public prejudices, and popular indifference; the section on Vichy’s concentration camps is particularly eloquent. Their exhaustive research and the sobriety of their prose make this indictment far more powerful than previous works on the subject.” (New York Times Book Review) - Jews in France During World War II by Renée Poznanski – Renée Poznanski presents an extraordinary panorama of Jewish daily life in France during World War II. The book provides a detailed and nuanced account of Jews in both occupied and Vichy France as well as of Jewish life in French camps. - French Children of the Holocaust: A Memorial by Serge Klarsfeld – Drawing together archival evidence pried with difficulty from the French government, family testimony and photographs solicited by advertisements in Jewish publications in Europe, Israel, and the United States, and the Nazi’s own lists of deportees–which were discovered, fading and crumbling, this book represents the culmination of many volunteers’ painstaking efforts to give testimony to the short lives of these Jewish children. - Operation Yellow Star / Black Thursday by Maurice Rajsfus – In this two-part book, French investigative journalist, Maurice Rajsfus, who survived the 1942 “Black Thursday” roundup at Vel d’Hiv of 13,000 Jews, recollects events that point to Vichy/police collaboration and culpability in the Holocaust, and the influence of right-wing media. - The Vél d’Hiv Raid: The French Police at the Service of the Gestapo by Maurice Rajsfus – Beginning in the early morning hours of July 16, 1942, and lasting for two days, the French police went beyond Nazi ordinances and imprisoned more than 13,000 Jews at a Paris sporting arena, the Vélodrome d’Hiver. For most of the Jews, this detention without water, food, or sleep was the first horrific step toward death in the concentration camps. This is the companion piece to Rajsfus’s Operation Yellow Star / Black Thursday. - Mémorial de la Shoah is the Holocaust museum in Paris, France. - The Holocaust in France is a website hosted by the Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center which provides an excellent historical breakdown of the persecution of Jewish people in France. - The Holocaust Survivor’s Program otherwise known as the “The Azrieli Series of Holocaust Survivor Memoirs” is an excellent program that is guided by the conviction that each survivor of the Holocaust has a remarkable story to tell, and that such stories play an important role in education about tolerance and diversity. The program preserves survivors’ stories and makes them widely available to a broad audience. Their website has listings of memoirs and references to the age appropriateness of each book. Their website also features “Collection” which utilizes interactive storytelling and innovative design to provide a truly unique journey through Holocaust history. - The Holocaust in France – A Resource Guide – This is an online resource guide that has a a selection of books and on-line resources presenting the fate of the Jews in France during the Second World War. They enable people to trace specific victims and/or survivors of the Holocaust. - Hiding in Plain Sight: Eluding the Nazis in Occupied France by Sarah Lew Miller and Joyce B. Lazarus – an unusual memoir about the childhood and young adulthood of Sarah Lew Miller, a young Jewish girl living in Paris at the time of the Nazi occupation. - You’ve Got to Tell Them: A French Girl’s Experience of Auschwitz and After by Ida Grinspan, Bertrand Poirot-Delpech – On a quiet winter night in 1944, as part of their support of the Third Reich’s pogrom of European Jews, French authorities arrested Ida Grinspan, a young Jewish girl hiding in a neighbor’s home in Nazi-occupied France. She spends the next year and a half at Auschwitz. - The Journal of Hélène Berr by Hélène Berr – On April 7, 1942, Hélène Berr, a 21-year-old Jewish student of English literature at the Sorbonne, took up her pen and started to keep a journal, writing with verve and style about her everyday life in Paris — about her studies, her friends, her growing affection for the “boy with the grey eyes,” about the sun in the dewdrops, and about the effect of the growing restrictions imposed by France’s Nazi occupiers. - But You Did Not Come Back: A Memoir by Marceline Loridan-Ivens – This is a profoundly moving and poetic memoir about the author who was arrested by the Vichy government’s militia, along with her father. At the internment camp of Drancy, France, her father told her that he would not come back, preparing her for the worst. On their arrival at the camps, they were separated—her father sent to Auschwitz, she to the neighboring camp of Birkenau. - Hunting the Truth: Memoirs of Beate and Serge Klarsfeld by Beate and Serge Klarsfeld – In this dual autobiography, the Klarsfelds tell the dramatic story of fifty years devoted to bringing Nazis to justice. They have tracked them down in places as far-flung as South America and the Middle East. They both have a reputation as world-famous Nazi hunters and as meticulous documenters of the fate of the innocent French Jewish children who were killed in the death camps. - Rue Ordener, Rue Labat by Sarah Kofman – this memoir opens with the horrifying moment in July 1942 when the author’s father, the rabbi of a small synagogue, was dragged by police from the family home on Rue Ordener in Paris, then transported to Auschwitz. Not long after her father’s disappearance, Kofman and her mother took refuge in the apartment of a Christian woman on Rue Labat, where they remained until the Liberation. - Playing For Time by Fania Fenelon – In 1943, Fania Fenelon was a Paris cabaret singer, a secret member of the Resistance, and a Jew. Captured by the Nazis, she was sent to Auschwitz where she became one of the legendary orchestra girls who used music to survive the Holocaust. - Behind Enemy Lines: The True Story of a French Jewish Spy in Nazi Germany by Marthe Cohn – Marthe was a beautiful young Jewish woman living just across the German border in France when Hitler rose to power. Her family sheltered Jews fleeing the Nazis. When France fell under Nazi rule, her sister was sent to Auschwitz and the rest of her family fled. Marthe joined the French Army and used her perfect German accent and blond hair to pose as a young German nurse to spy on the Nazis. - Confronting Memories of Nazi-Occupied France – this photojournalism article chronicles the author’s journey to review French released police documents from the Vichy era with his grandmother. - A Stone for Benjamin by Fiona Gold Kroll – Since childhood, author Fiona Gold Kroll has been drawn to a photograph of her great-uncle, Benjamin Albaum, a Jewish man who disappeared from Paris at the beginning of World War II. Determined to uncover the truth about Benjamin’s life and death and France’s betrayal of its Jewish population, Fiona pieces together her great-uncle’s life, elevating Benjamin’s legacy from a number tattooed on his arm at Auschwitz to a more complete memory of the vibrant man he was. - None of Us Will Return & Days and Memory & Auschwitz and After by Charlotte Delbo – Though Delbo is not Jewish, her memoirs, which detail her time in concentration camps as a member of the French resistance, provide insight to the plight of Jewish women in the camp. Delbo was arrested in 1942 with her husband, Georges Dudach, who was executed almost immediately. Delbo was interned first in a French prison, then in Auschwitz, Birkenau, and Ravensbrück. - Dangerous Measures by Joseph Schwarzberg – Joseph Schwarzberg is sixteen years old and living a dangerous double life—as a German Jew carrying false identity papers in France, he must constantly lie, constantly evade capture. Under threat since fleeing with his mother and sister from Germany after the violent attacks during Kristallnacht in 1938, Joseph and his family resolve to get as far from the Nazis as possible. They flee to France where their safety is short-lived when the Germans occupy the country in June 1940. - Where Courage Lives by Muguette Szapjzer-Myers – In 1942, in the village of Champlost, France, ten-year-old Muguette Szpajzer finds solace from the war. As her mother risks living in a Paris swarming with Nazis, the mayor of Champlost rips up letters of denunciation and the priest gives Muguette a new Catholic name, Marie. Sheltered by the kindness of the townspeople, Muguette delights in her new surroundings, filling her days by learning to ride a bike, recite catechism and adapt to rural life. Where Courage Lives provides rich insight into life in a small village against the backdrop of the war, paying tribute to both Muguette’s indomitable mother and the courage of the people of Champlost. - One Step Ahead of Hitler: A Jewish Child’s Journey Through France by Fred Gross – Told in words and photographs, this memoir chronicles the journey of Fred Gross and his family beginning in Antwerp and ending with his freedom in America. Most of the Grosses’ flight takes place in France where they were assisted by the brave men and women of other faiths, reverently referred to as The Righteous Among the Nations, who risked their lives standing up to their collaborationist government. - A Fifty-Year Silence: Love, War, and a Ruined House in France by Miranda Richmond Mouillot – A young woman moves across an ocean to uncover the truth about her grandparents’ mysterious estrangement and pieces together the extraordinary story of their wartime experiences as Holocaust survivors. - Asylum: A Survivor’s Flight from Nazi-Occupied Vienna Through Wartime France by Moriz Scheyer – Moriz Scheyer was a prominent journalist in Vienna until he was forced to flee after the Anschluss in 1938. While hidden by the Resistance in a French convent after his release from a concentration camp, he secretly wrote down the details of his struggle to stay alive. - Of No Interest to the Nation: A Jewish Family in France, 1925 – 1945: A Memoir by Gilbert Michlin – This memoir traces the efforts of Michlin’s parents as they emigrated to France prior to the war where they sought to totally integrate into French life, retaining very little, if anything, of their Jewish identity or religion. Despite this, Michlin’s mother was denied citizenship because she did not fit into the various categories of acceptance; she was of ‘no interest to the nation.’ Michlin’s skill in engineering enabled him to belong to a special privileged cadre of prisoners who worked for the Siemens plant. - Diary of the Dark Years, 1940-1944: Collaboration, Resistance, and Daily Life in Occupied Paris by Jean Guéhenno – Guéhenno was a well-known political and cultural critic, left-wing but not communist, and uncompromisingly anti-fascist. Unlike most French writers during the Occupation, he refused to pen a word for a publishing industry under Nazi control. He expressed his intellectual, moral, and emotional resistance in this diary: his shame at the Vichy government’s collaboration with Nazi Germany, his contempt for its falsely patriotic reactionary ideology, his outrage at its anti-Semitism and its vilification of the Republic it had abolished, his horror at its increasingly savage repression and his disgust with his fellow intellectuals who kept on blithely writing about art and culture as if the Occupation did not exist. Tales of Extreme Tragedy & Biographies - Your Name Is Renée: Ruth Kapp Hartz’s Story as a Hidden Child in Nazi-Occupied France by Stacy Cretzmeyer – In Nazi-occupied France in 1941, four-year-old Ruth Kapp learns that it is dangerous to use her own name. “Remember,” her older cousin Jeannette warns her, “your name is Renee and you are French!” A deeply personal book, this true story recounts the chilling experiences of a young Jewish girl who was helped by French people who risked their lives to protect her. - The Children of Izieu: A Human Tragedy by Serge Klarsfeld – In 1944 the Nazis from Lyon sent three vehicles to the tiny French village to exterminate the children of the orphanage known as La Maison d’Izieu. Here 44 Jewish children in age from 3 to 18 were hidden away from the Nazi terror that surrounded them. All of the children were deported to Auschwitz and murdered immediately upon arrival. Of the supervisors there was one sole survivor, twenty-seven year old Lea Feldblum. [See also The Children of Izieu] - Hell’s Traces: One Murder, Two Families, Thirty-Five Holocaust Memorials by Victor Ripp – Hell’s Traces tells the story of the two families’ divergent paths. In July 1942, the French police in Paris, acting for the German military government, arrested Victor Ripp’s three-year-old cousin, Alexandre. Two months later, the boy was killed in Auschwitz. In addition to Alexandre, ten members of Ripp’s family on his father’s side died in the Holocaust. His mother’s side of the family, numbering thirty people, was in Berlin and survived. - Holocaust Odysseys: The Jews of Saint-Martin-Vésubie and Their Flight through France and Italy by Susan Zuccotti – The terrifying tale of nine families as they fled hostile Vichy France to the Alpine village of Saint-Martin-Vésubie and on to Italy, where German soldiers rather than hoped-for Allied troops awaited. Those who crossed over to Italy were either deported to Auschwitz or forced to scatter in desperate flight. - Dora Bruder by Patrick Modiano (2014 Winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature) – Dora Bruder is the story of a teen aged Jewish girl in Paris during the German occupation, who ran away from a Catholic school where she might have been safe. Only a few records and photographs of Dora and her parents survive, all with no reason for her escape, her return to her parents, her subsequent return to the school and her second escape. Shortly afterwards Dora and then her parents were arrested and sent to Auschwitz. - Bad Faith: A Forgotten History of Family, Fatherland and Vichy France by Carmen Callil – Bad Faith tells the story of one of history’s most despicable villains and con men—Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, Nazi collaborator and “Commissioner for Jewish Affairs” in France’s Vichy government. Darquier set about to eliminate Jews in France with brutal efficiency, delivering 75,000 men, women, and children to the Nazis and confiscating Jewish property, which he used for his own gain. - Hunting Down the Jews: Vichy, the Nazis and Mafia Collaborators in Provence, 1942-1944 by Isaac Levendel and Bernard Weisz – Hunting Down the Jews is about the French Mafia of Marseille who were paid by the Nazis to round up the Jews and deliver them to Nazi SS Commander Rolf Mühler. Evidently, the French police in this zone were too lax in arresting Jews and so the Germans turned to French criminals to do the job. The impetus for the book is the arrest of a Polish Jewish woman, Sarah Lewendel, who had taken refuge in the south and slashed her wrists as she was being arrested. They missed her little son who grew up to investigate the crime and to write this book. - A Girl Called Renee by Ruth Uzrad – This is the unbelievable autobiographical story of Ruth Uzrad, a Jewish teenager whose father was arrested from their Berlin apartment by the Gestapo. Ruth is sent into hiding to Belgium but when Belgium falls under the Nazis, Ruth goes into the French Jewish underground movement where she takes on a false identity and a new name, Renee, and participates in special operations aimed at rescuing Jews in danger. - The Survival of the Jews in France, 1940-44 by Jacques Semelin -Between the French defeat in 1940 and liberation in 1944, the Nazis killed almost 80,000 of France’s Jews, both French and foreign. 75% of France’s Jews escaped the extermination, while 45% of the Jews of Belgium perished, and in the Netherlands only 20% survived. This book sheds light on how this came about. - Heroines of Vichy France: Rescuing French Jews during the Holocaust by Paul R. Bartrop and Samantha J. Lakin – the largely unknown story behind the rescue activities of several remarkable young Jewish women in Vichy France. - Behind Enemy Lines: The True Story of a French Jewish Spy in Nazi Germany by Marthe Cohn and Wendy Holden – Memoir by Jewish woman who sheltered Jews fleeing the Nazis before using her perfect German accent and blond hair to pose as a young German nurse who would slip behind enemy lines to retrieve inside information about Nazi troop movements. - The Marcel Network: How One French Couple Saved 527 Children from the Holocaust by Fred Coleman – Syrian immigrant Moussa Abadi was only 33, and his future wife, Odette Rosenstock, 28, was a young Jewish couple that was trapped in Nazi-occupied France. Risking their own lives and relying on false papers, the Abadis hid Jewish children in Catholic schools and convents and with Protestant families with their clandestine organization—the Marcel Network. By the end of the war, 527 children owed their survival to the Abadis. - A Good Place to Hide: How One French Community Saved Thousands of Lives in World War II by Peter Grose – The story of an isolated community in the upper reaches of the Loire Valley that conspired to save the lives of 3,500 Jews under the noses of the Germans and the soldiers of Vichy France. Nobody asked questions, nobody demanded money. Villagers lied, covered up, procrastinated and concealed, but most importantly they welcomed. - The Archive Thief: The Man Who Salvaged French Jewish History in the Wake of the Holocaust by Lisa Moses Leff – Jewish historian Zosa Szajkowski stole tens of thousands of archival documents related to French Jewish history from public archives and collections in France and moved them, illicitly, to New York. - Village of Secrets: Defying the Nazis in Vichy France by Caroline Moorehead (Author) – Le Chambon-sur-Lignon is a small village of scattered houses high in the mountains of the Ardèche, one of the most remote and inaccessible parts of Eastern France. During the Second World War, the inhabitants of this tiny mountain village and its parishes saved thousands wanted by the Gestapo: resisters, freemasons, communists, OSS and SOE agents, and Jews. Many of those they protected were orphaned children and babies whose parents had been deported to concentration camps. - Lest Innocent Blood Be Shed: The Story of the Village of Le Chambon and How Goodness Happened There by Philip P. Hallie – in a small Protestant town in southern France called Le Chambon, villagers and their clergy organized to save thousands of Jewish children and adults from certain death. - Hidden on the Mountain: Stories of Children Sheltered from the Nazis in Le Chambon by Karen Gray Ruelle & Deborah Durland Desaix – another book about Le Chambon. - Rescue as Resistance: How Jewish Organization Fought the Holocaust in France by Lucien Lazare, Jeffrey Green – A survivor of the Holocaust and a distinguished scholar of Jewish history, Lucien Lazare presents a compelling defense of the Jewish resistance movement in France during World War II, arguing that rescue was a genuine and significant way of fighting back. - Life in Shadows: Hidden Children and the Holocaust – When World War II began in September 1939, there were approximately 1.6 million Jewish children living in the territories that the German armies or their allies would occupy. When the war in Europe ended in May 1945, more than 1 million and perhaps as many as 1.5 million Jewish children were dead. Thousands of Jewish children survived this brutal carnage, however, many because they were hidden. This amazing exhibit captures their stories. - Père Marie-Benoît and Jewish Rescue: How a French Priest Together with Jewish Friends Saved Thousands during the Holocaust by Susan Zuccott – Zuccotti narrates the life and work of Père Marie-Benoît, a courageous French Capuchin priest who risked everything to hide Jews in France and Italy during the Holocaust. Acting independently without Vatican support but with help from some priests, nuns, and local citizens, he and his friends persisted in their clandestine work until the Allies liberated Rome. - Diary of a Witness, 1940-1943 by Raymond-Raoul Lambert – Lambert, a leader of the Union of French Jews, reveals in this book his efforts to save the Jews in France, particularly the children. - The Plateau by Maggie Paxson – During World War II, French villagers offered safe harbor to countless strangers – mostly children – as they fled for their lives. Anthropologist Maggie Paxson poses the question: What are the traits that make a group choose selflessness? - My Maman Grete by Michel Stermann – This is the true story of Rémy and Grète, a couple of educators at orphanages in which, after WW II, children of Jewish Holocaust victims were taken care of in France. - Sudden Courage: Youth in France Confront the Germans, 1940 – 1945 by Ronald Rosbottom – Tells the incredible story of the youngest members of the French Resistance—many only teenagers—who waged a hidden war against the Nazi occupiers and their collaborators in Paris and across France. Though many French citizens adapted and many even allied themselves with the new fascist leadership, a resistance arose among Jews, immigrants, communists, workers, writers, police officers, shop owners, including many young people in their teens and twenties. - A Portrait of Pacifists: Le Chambon, the Holocaust, and the Lives of André and Magda Trocmé by Richard Unsworth – Explores the lives of heralded Holocaust rescuers Andre and Magda Trocme, and the people of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon France who saved thousands of Jews from the Nazis. America – Where were you??? I could not resist leaving this book out. Land of the “free”, home of the “brave…” – the U.S. finally entered the war and was present to liberate Jews from concentration camps at the end of the war. However, there was a period of lethargy before that… - The Unwanted: America, Auschwitz, and a Village Caught In Between by Michael Dobbs – In 1938, on the eve of World War II, the American journalist Dorothy Thompson wrote that “a piece of paper with a stamp on it” was “the difference between life and death.” The Unwanted is the intimate account of a small village on the edge of the Black Forest whose Jewish families desperately pursued American visas to flee the Nazis. Battling formidable bureaucratic obstacles, some make it to the United States while others are unable to obtain the necessary documents. Some are murdered in Auschwitz, their applications for American visas still “pending.” For those of us for whom non-fiction is to difficult to read, there are a few novels that I came across. Most are meant for younger children. - Suite Française by Irène Némirovsky – published posthumously, this novel was written by a famous Jewish novelist who was denied French citizenship due to her Jewish heritage despite her recognition as an author. Sometimes criticized as a “self-hating” Jew, she, nevertheless, suffered as a result of her ethnicity. She died in Auschwitz of typhus. This novel is unique in that it reflects experiences of Jews in France during the era (as opposed to by reflection/memories). Suite Française tells the remarkable story of men and women thrown together in circumstances beyond their control. As Parisians flee the city, human folly surfaces in every imaginable way: a wealthy mother searches for sweets in a town without food; a couple is terrified at the thought of losing their jobs, even as their world begins to fall apart. The novel remained hidden for 64 years until its discovery. - Greater Than Angels by Carol Mata – based on the true story of a French village, Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, that banded together to protect the Jews during WWII. In the autumn of 1940, Anna Hirsch and her friends and family are rounded up by Nazis and deported to Gurs, a refugee camp in the south of France. Food is scarce, and the living conditions inhumane. Anna and the other children are moved not to the death camps, Auschwitz or Buchenwald, but Le Chambon-sur-Lignon: a tiny village whose citizens have agreed to care for deported Jewish children. - A Pocket Full of Seeds by Marilyn Sachs (Author), Ben Stahl (Illustrator) – Nicole, who is 8, and her family feel safe in France during the German occupation since they are non-religious Jews. They soon realize that non-religious Jews are in as much danger as religious ones. - Twenty And Ten by Claire H. Bishop (Author), William Pene Du Bois (Illustrator) – Meant for young readers, this is a story about twenty school children hide ten Jewish children from the Nazis occupying France during World War II. - Black Radishes by Susan Lynn Meyer – Sydney Taylor Honor Award Winner Black Radishes is a suspenseful WWII/Holocaust story in which Gustave flees Paris during Nazi occupation for the countryside. When Paris is captured by the Nazis, Gustave knows that Marcel, Jean-Paul, and their families must make it out of the occupied zone. He works with his new friend, Nicole, who works for the French Resistance, to come up with a plan.

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Foreign languages, now known as second languages (L2), world languages, and languages other than English (LOTE), are a continuously evolving area of education. As student characteristics change over the years, techniques must also adapt to fit the needs of today’s students. One approach being used is the Meaningful and Motivating strategy, nicknamed the “M & M” approach. This approach is successful because of the components of brain-based learning, and the idea of a quality classroom. Sometimes integrated with the M & M approach are the areas of multiple intelligences, total physical response storytelling, and the introduction of technology into the LOTE classroom. The M & M approach is broken down into five key elements to ensure teachers plan meaningful lessons to keep students motivated to learn. First, students are actively involved and have fun, and this is achieved by implementing activities which are hands-on and are meaningful to the learner (Sherwood, 1). Secondly, there is an emphasis on quality, which is accomplished by creating a syllabus with a theme and allowing student choice and responsibility (Sherwood, 1). Using this strategy, students learn other concepts while they are leaning the language, including skills for living, journaling and portfolio creation (Sherwood, 1). Students are also encouraged to realize there is not one BEST way to learn, and that everyone is capable of learning (Sherwood, 1). Finally, the M & M approach is characterized by thinking skills as an integral part of every lesson, which is best accomplished by inductive lessons (Sherwood, 1). In a personal interview, Candace Sherwood, nationally renowned speaker and LOTE presenter, explained the usefulness of the M & M approach. “Teaching students things we learn in methods classes is key. They need to know about [Gardner’s] multiple intelligences. It’s not enough for us to plan diverse lessons. They need to be aware of where their strengths and weaknesses are, as well as to appreciate the same amongst their peers.” The M & M approach works because of two key theory components: brain-based learning and the idea of a quality classroom. Brain-based learning, formulated by Regate and Geoffrey Caine, involves a foundation of twelve facts, but these can be combined into six focused ideas: 1) The brain is a parallel processor, which deals with “thoughts, emotions, imagination and predispositions that operate concurrently and interactively as the entire system interacts and exchanges information in the environment” (Caine). 2) Learning engages a student’s entire physiology. The implications of this fact for educators is the realization that everything that affects students’ physiological functioning affects their capacity to learn, including stress management, nutrition and amount of sleep (Principles). 3) The search of meaning is innate. This means that the “learning environment needs to provide stability and familiarityâÂ?¦ and provision must be made for students to satisfy their curiosity and hunger for novelty, discovery and challenge” (Principles). 4) Emotions are critical to patterning, which refers to the “meaningful organization and categorization of information” (Caine). “The brain is designed to perceive and generate patterns, and it resists having meaningless patterns imposed on it,” thus teachers are encouraged to use thematic teaching, integrating of the curriculum, and life-relevant approaches to learning (Caine, Principles). The way students pattern things are influenced by emotions and “mind sets based on expectancy, personal biases and prejudices, degree of self-esteem, and the need for social interaction,” and emotions and thoughts cannot be separated (Caine). 5) There are two types of memory: spatial and rote learning. Students have a “spatial/autobiographical memory that does not need rehearsal and allows for instant recall” (Caines). This memory is “always engaged,” yet the two ways of organizing memory are stored differently (Caines). By ignoring the personal world of the learner, “educators actually inhibit the effective functioning of the brain” (Principles). 6) The brain understands and remembers best if facts/skills are embedded in natural spatial memory, which means giving students real-life events and examples. Just as our native language is learned through “multiple interactive experiences with vocabulary and grammar,” it is shaped both by “internal processes and by social interaction” (Caines). Keeping this in mind, teachers need to use a great deal of real-life activities, including “classroom demonstrations, projects, field trips, visual imagery, stories, metaphors, drama, and interaction of different subjects” (Principles). Combined with the foundations of brain-based learning to make the M & M approach a success is William Glasser’s idea of a quality school teacher and quality classroom. A quality school is achieved by “using lead-management rather than boss-management principles,” and this requires six phases, with the first being the most crucial (Glasser). The first stage occurs when “relationships are based upon trust and respect, and all discipline problems, not incidents, have been eliminated” (Glasser). This quality school is made up of “quality school teachers” and “quality classrooms,” which are also defined by Glasser. In a quality classroom: 1) There is a warm, supportive classroom environment. 2) Students should be asked to do useful work. 3) Students are always asked to do the best they can do. 4) Students are asked to evaluate their own work and improve it. 5) Quality work always feels good. 6) Quality work is never destructive. Together, Glasser’s ideas of a quality classroom and Caines and Caines’ belief in brain-based learning make the Motivated and Meaningful approach to LOTE classrooms a success. A different approach to teaching in a LOTE classroom is using Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences as a base. With a core of seven distinct areas of intelligence, Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences has been incorporated into classrooms around the world since its publication in 1983. Gardner defined intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one of more cultural setting” (Gardner & Hatch, 8). His new outlook differed substantially from the traditional view, which focuses on two intelligences, verbal and computational. In the book Frames of Mind, Gardner’s seven intelligences are: 1) Logical-Mathematical: the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically, usually associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. 2) Linguistic: having a mastery of language, includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically, allows one to use language as a means to remember information. 3) Spatial: the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems, not limited to visual domains. 4) Musical: the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones and rhythms. 5) Bodily-Kinesthetic: the ability to use one’s mental abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily movements, allows mental and physical activity to be related. 6) Interpersonal: the ability to understand the feelings and intentions of others. 7) Intrapersonal: the ability to understand one’s own feelings and motivations. (Gardner; Sherwood, 43 – 44). Newly added to Gardner’s intelligences are naturalistic and existential intelligences. In 1996, Gardner updated his theory published in Frames of Mind and explained naturalistic intelligence as the ability to recognize plants, animals and other parts of natural environment such as rocks, trees, flowers and clouds (Checkley, 52). Students with a strong naturalistic intelligence may like doing activities related to nature, such as fishing, hiking and/or camping. Students using existential intelligence will like and enjoy thinking and questioning, and will be curious about life, death, and ultimate realities. Gardner defines this intelligence as to “exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death and ultimate realities,” and students using this intelligence will show curiosity about what the earth was like years ago, if there is life on another planet, where living things go after they die, and if there are ghosts or spirits (Reframed, 60 – 64). Many teachers use the idea of multiple intelligences when planning lessons, keeping in mind the varying ways their students learn best. Examples of combining the idea of multiple intelligences with the M & M approach are easy to come by, as element four specifically deals with Gardner’s theory. Students understand that there is not one BEST way to learn can be easily achieved by applying multiple intelligences to one’s curriculum. Linguistic learners master concepts best using teaching strategies like discussions, word games, storytelling, and journals; while logical-mathematical learners understand easiest through puzzles, problem solving, and activities involving grammar and syntax (Sherwood, 44). Visual presentations and art activities are effective tools to use with visual-spatial learners, with drama, hands-on learning and physical movement for bodily-kinesthetic learners (Sherwood, 44). Using songs, rhythms, and dialects will help musical learners (Sherwood, 44). Interpersonal learners understand best through cooperative learning, projects, games and small group activities, while intrapersonal learners flourish with individualized instruction, journals and independent projects (Sherwood, 44). Although it may seem overwhelming and nearly impossible to design each lesson to meet the demands of Gardner’s theory, allowing student choice helps to make the theory a reality. For example, after students finish learning about the grammar concept of subjunctive/subjuntivo, which does not occur in English, assigning students to complete one of five possible tasks (each corresponding to differing intelligences), allows for authentic assessment in the way a student learns best. Opponents in the educational field and in varying disciplines do not encourage using multiple intelligences mainly due to reasons associated with assessment (Grabowski). Some believe they are not useful and give students a false sense of security and success, meaning that when a student leaves the educational setting s/he will not be able to sing a song at work instead of writing a report. Gardner combats this thinking by explaining that those with strong linguistic intelligence will seek out careers that allow them to thrive, including poets (Seven Steps). Scientists usually have strong logicial-mathematical intelligence, composers have increased musical intelligence, airplane pilots and sculptors use spatial intelligence, and athletes and dancers have increased bodily kinesthetic intelligence (Seven Steps). Salesmen and teachers are known for having strong interpersonal intelligence, yet many still disagree with the use of Gardner’s theory past middle school. While Gardner’s multiple intelligences are widely used in elementary classrooms, as students age, thus the emphasis reverts back to verbal and computational. R1: If students are aware of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, are they more successful in achieving academic goals? R2: Can Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences be incorporated successfully into the M & M approach at all grade levels? A new area of focus in the LOTE classroom has been total physical response storytelling, commonly known as TPRS or TPR Storytelling. TPRS if a methodology created by Blaine Ray of California, and it was specifically designed for second language education. Based upon the work of Stephen Krasher and James Asher, this technique uses TPR as its basic concept, but expands it in order to “create a more meaningful and contextualized environment for learning a foreign language”(Sherwood, 52). There are two critical concepts to understand about TPRS: learning (understanding about the language) and acquisition (an unconscious process with a focus on the meaning) (Sherwood, 52). One downfall of this strategy is that students may feel they have not learned anything since the learner is “picking up the language” in a very non-traditional way (Sherwood, 52). According to Blaine Ray, three things that don’t work in acquisition are forced speech beyond the acquisition level (listening and merely repeating), error correction, and the study of grammar rules. Many experienced teachers are not willing to try this strategy because of the lack of grammar instruction, which many believe is the bedrock of learning a second language. The underlying principle of TPRS is acquisition of the target language (Sherwood, 52). According to Ray, this communicative strategy is made up of five key elements: 1) Language must be taught in context. 2) Language must be comprehensible. 3) Learning has an element of realism. 4) Class should be taught so it is interesting. 5) Students need to learn a foreign language for their long-term memory, not just memorize for tests. In order to better understand what TPRS is all about, it is a necessity to review the basic concepts, as well as offer illustrative examples for incorporating this technique into the classroom. The first step to using TPRS is to select a vocabulary list, then the teacher gestures each word to the class. The students repeat the word with the gesture, using “novel TPR commands” (Sherwood, 53). The instructor then tells a story using the vocabulary words, and when each word comes up the teacher gestures and the students do as well. After the story is completed, personal questions and answers (P.Q.A.) are discussed, and personalized mini-situations (P.M.S.) take place for a period of one to four days, with new vocabulary being introduced and acted out as necessary (Sherwood). A mini-story takes place for about one week, with students incorporating old and current vocabulary, and the final phase of TPRS occurs when a chapter story takes place after about seven weeks of mini stories (Ray). Personalized mini-situations are a key element in using TPRS. According to Ray, these are created by first telling a story in the target language using a few students as actors. The teacher will use only a short list of vocabulary – usually only one to four words – that the students need to learn. Then the teacher then retells the story and asks questions of the class, which are usually simply yes/no questions but, like the story, are in the target language. Individual students retell the story again as the teacher acts it out; this is usually done by a high level L2 student, which uses the strategy of differentiated instruction. The next phase is to have many students help tell the story together, allowing each only fifteen seconds to tell as much of the story as possible then moving on to another student who continues the story. If further practice is needed, Ray suggests groups of students draw the events of the story. The following day the process continues, as the P.M.S. is repeated to ensure all students understood it, and reteaching is done as necessary. Assessment is done through the teacher making mistakes on purpose for the students to correct. In order to implement TPRS and have the maximum impact possible, Ray offers many suggestions. Teachers should personalize words and put them in context, for example to teach oso, the Spanish word for bear, an instructor could relate it to the school’s mascot. Those certified by Ray in TPRS methodology always “eliminate the normal and exaggerate!” (Sherwood, 53). Using proper names of celebrities, such as Brad Pitt is another tactic used to help students remember stories, and therefore vocabulary (Ray). A teacher should always try to make students look good in the situation, and should act like what is being said is real, even if it is false information (Sherwood, 53). Remembering to use specific situations instead of general, and using appropriate level words during the entire story, as ALL words in the L2 must be comprehensible (Sherwood). Finally, teachers should be sure to prepare student actors ahead of time by whispering what they should do, and also use hand signals to guide students to act in a certain way. Incorporating these strategies into a TPRS classroom is crucial for its success. Opponents of TPRS believe not enough vocabulary is covered, with only one-hundred specific words being focused on in an average seven-week chapter story unit. Many also believe that older students may not benefit as much, due to the similarities of TPRS to elementary school same-language vocabulary acquisition (Triplett). Students may even be insulted by the technique if not familiar with the foundation of TPRS (Triplett). Some educators are not convinced of its effectiveness, as few classrooms with a state assessment rely solely on TPRS as a methodology (Triplett). However, as the desire to learn more about TPRS increases, Blaine Ray continues to offer workshops and seminars around the world to faculty of all language backgrounds and skill levels. Currently TPRS is used most often in elementary LOTE classrooms, yet it is beginning to gain popularity with middle and secondary L2 educators. R3: Is TPRS a successful strategy for 7 – 12 language acquisition in LOTE R4: Do students respond positively to TPRS teaching strategies in 7 – 12 LOTE Including technology is the classroom is not a new phenomenon, and many teachers use basic technological devices on a daily basis. Televisions, VCRs, tape recorders and stereos, as well as overheads are common place in many schools today. Unfortunately, LOTE classrooms are often times at the bottom of the list for departmental funding (Grabowski). Technology such as listening centers, projectors, new computer software and interactive DVDs are beginning to be found in L2 classrooms across the country. In order to justify funding for LOTE classrooms, it is important to determine the usefulness of technology specifically to L2 acquisition. R5: Does technology positively affect student participation and achievement in It is the hope that the data collected from this study will help to guide the future of L2 methodology instruction. By explaining why teachers choose the activities they do, what works best for student participation and academic achievement, in an effort to change the future of LOTE education. In order to gain acceptance as more than a special area subject, this study seeks to substantiate effective teaching techniques, as well as decipher ways to integrate many newly emerging teaching techniques into different levels of LOTE education. In order to answer the research questions, I propose an ethnographic study of twelve LOTE teachers. These would be divided into three groups with five teachers in each. Group A: Four (4) New York State certified elementary school LOTE teachers currently teaching LOTE full-time with students from grades K – 4. Group B: Four (4) New York State certified middle school LOTE teachers currently teaching LOTE full-time with students from grades 5 – 8. Group C: Four (4) New York State certified high school LOTE teachers currently teaching LOTE full-time with students from grades 9 – 12. All teachers that participate must have tenure with at least three years in current position/grade level assignment, and must be certified in area and specific grade levels being taught. They will all be selected from NYS public schools, as the 8th grade NYS Proficiency Exam and the 11th grade NYS Regents Exam will be used as part of an evaluative tool. Five districts will be chosen to help with the study, with one teacher from each group participating. This limits the schools dramatically, as many districts do not have elementary LOTE programs, yet it is important to select schools that have a commitment to L2 education for the study to be as successful as possible. Teachers will nominate their schools with the use of FLTeach, a worldwide LOTE education LISTSERV based at SUNY Cortland with the help of a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities (cortland.edu). I will pose as a college student doing my pre-student teaching (which means I would be there in order to complete twenty hours of observations in each grade level) in each of the high school classrooms. It is not uncommon for pre-student teachers and student teachers to have forms for the teacher to fill out including teaching methodologies used. The reason pre-student teaching has been chosen is because college students engaged in pre-student teaching are not required at any time to plan lessons or instruct the classroom, thus allowing the observer role to remain intact. Many students are also already familiar with the procedures of a student teacher, and during these times teachers usually perform at their peak, in an attempt to pass their wisdom on to the teacher-to-be, thus students would not question the techniques used by the teacher. The teachers being observed would be aware that I was gathering information to become a better teacher. As I am certified in 7 – 12 Spanish in accordance with the standards that will change February 1, 2004, one observer specialized in grades 5 – 8 as well as a K-12 certified LOTE instructor will be necessary to observe groups A and B respectfully. The reason a K – 12 certified teacher is a requirement to work with group A is due to the lack of specific K – 4 NYS special area certification. Other researchers will follow the same procedure, posing as pre-student teachers in each of the selected classrooms. Researchers will keep detailed notes, and will ask the teachers for clarification during planning time. This is essential everyday, as the reason behind choosing specific activities must accompany data. Students response and participation must be documented, as well as specific comments made during activities/lessons. Teachers will not be surprised at the informal questioning, as pre-student teachers must gather information on a wide variety of teaching strategies and foundations while in methods classes. Data will be analyzed by all three observers separately. Once reports have been written by all three observers dealing with the research questions and data collected, discussions can begin surrounding implications of the research findings. Round-table conversations will take place over a series of days, with follow-up questionnaires being designed and mailed and/or phone or in-person interviews conducted with participating teachers as necessary for clarification of data/research findings. Research could be used to help design a new L2 methodology textbook. “It’s not how smart you are that matters, what really counts is how you are smart.” – Howard Gardner Caine, Renate Numela and Geoggrey Caine. Unleashing the Power of Perceptual Change: The Potential of Brain-Based Teaching. Alexandra, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1997. Checkley, Kathy. “The First SevenâÂ?¦ and the Eighth.” Educational Leadership. 55.1 (1997): 45 – 53. “FLTeach: Foreign Language Teaching Forum.” . Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books Inc., 1983. – -. “Intelligence in Seven Steps.” New Horizons for Learning Online Journal. Spring 2003. . – -. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2000. Gardner, Howard and Tom Hatch. “Multiple Intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences.” Educational Researcher. 18.8 (1993): 4 – 9. Glasser, William. The Quality School. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1992. Reprinted online: . – -. The Quality School Teacher. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1993. Grabowski, Ada, PhD. Superientendent, Albion Central School. Interview with the author. 10 Nov. 2003. “Principles of Brain-Based Learning.” Developed by the Combined Elementary Task Forces of the Metropolitan Omaha Educational Consortium (MOEC). Omaha: University of Nebraska, 1999. Ray, Blaine. E-mail to the author. 20 Nov. 2003. Sherwood, Candace. Strengthening Foreign Language Instruction. Washington: Bureau of Education & Research, 2002. Triplett, Frank, PhD. Head of the Department of World Languages, Mount Union College. E-mail to the author. 15 Nov. 2003.

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Date of Publication: 01 March 2022 Throughout history, some of the most influential women have been writers, poets and essayists; breaking social barriers, challenging the status quo and questioning the rules through the art of their writing. From the pioneering voices of the late 18th and early 19th Century through to modern day feminist contemporaries in the literary sphere, women have long shaped the landscape of literature, of cultures around the world, and of history with their ingenious creative writing talents. In honour of International Women’s Day, we wanted to share just a small selection of the most pioneering female writers in history. Each of the authors featured on this list have gone down in history as some of the greatest artists in history, with various film and TV adaptations made from their work. 1. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) English novelist Jane Austen is one of the most famous 18th Century novelists, known primarily for her six major novels. One of the earliest female writers to produce works that critiqued and commented on the British landed gentry, Austen was a writer who focused on plots which explored the dependence of women on marriage, or women who were in the pursuit of economic security. As such, many of Austen’s works were published anonymously, meaning that she enjoyed little fame during her life. It was after her death that she gained far more status as a writer, with her six full-length novels rarely having been out of print. There have also been several film adaptations of her works, with a number of critical essays and anthologies accompanying them. Jane Austen’s famous works: - Sense and Sensibility (1811) – First published anonymously by ‘A Lady,’ it tells the story of the Dashwood sisters, Elinor and Marianne as they come of age and are forced to move with their widowed mother from the estate on which they grew up. - Pride and Prejudice (1813) – A novel following the character Elizabeth Bennet, who learns about the repercussions of hasty decision-making and the difference between superficial goodness and actual goodness. - Emma (1815) – A comedy of manners, depicting the concerns of genteel women living in Georgian-Regency England, focusing on issues of marriage, sex, age and social status. 2. Mary Shelley (1797 – 1851) Second on our list of famous female writers in history is famous Gothic fiction writer, Mary Shelley. Recognised as one of the early creators of science fiction, she was also a prominent editor, working mainly on the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher, Robert Bysshe Shelley. Born to political philosopher William Godwin and feminist activist, Mary Wollstonecraft, Shelley was raised solely by her father after her mother’s premature death. Having been provided a rich yet informal education, with her father promoting a lifestyle of anarchism, Shelley married early and pursued a life predominantly dedicated to promoting her husband’s works but also towards writing fiction. Mary Shelley’s famous works: - Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818) – Written when Shelley was just 18 years old, the story follows young scientist Victor Frankenstein who accidentally creates a sapient creature during an unorthodox experiment. - Valperga (1823) – A historical novel set amongst the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines which retells the adventures of Castruccio Castracani – a real historical figure who became the Lord of Lucca and conquered Florence, Italy. - Rambles in Germany and Italy (1844) – A travel narrative published in two volumes that describes two European trips Shelley took with her son, Percy, and several of his university friends. 3. Emily Brontë (1818 – 1848) Sister to the aforementioned Charlotte Brontë, Emily Brontë was another famous female writer of the Victorian era who is best known for her only novel, Wuthering Heights (which also features on our list of classic books to read for students!) Publishing her work under the pen name, Ellis Bell, Brontë was also a prolific poet, with her writing at the time and still today regarded as ‘genius.’ Her most famous collection of works, Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell, was a collection of pieces published with her sisters Charlotte and Anne under their pseudo-names. Emily Brontë’s famous works - Poems by Currer Ellis, and Acton Bell (1846) – A volume of poetry published jointly by the three Brontë sisters, Charlotte, Emily and Anne. It was their first work to ever go to print. - Wuthering Heights (1847) – A prime influence of Romantic and Gothic fiction which concerns two families of the landed gentry living on the West Yorkshire moors – the Earnshaws and the Lintons – the book follows their turbulent relationships with Earnshaw’s adopted son, Heathcliff. 4. Charlotte Brontë (1816 – 1855) One of the most famous Victorian female writers in history, Charlotte Brontë is best known for her novels, including Jane Eyre (1847). The eldest of one of three sisters who survived into adulthood, she became an author only after she and her sisters attempted to open a school – which failed to launch. Although her first novel, The Professor, was initially rejected by publishers, it was her second novel, Jane Eyre which was well-received by critics and has gone on to become a capsule piece in the history of British literature. Setting the characteristic tropes of Victorian literature, Brontë was one of the earliest authors to experiment with different poetic forms, including the long narrative and dramatic monologue – but later gave up on poetic writing after the success of her prose. Charlotte Brontë’s famous works - Jane Eyre (1847) – This coming-of-age novel follows the journey of its eponymous heroine, including her love for Mr Rochester and his home at Thornfield Hall. - Shirley (1849) – Set in Yorkshire during the industrial depression of the early 19th Century, the story follows characters during the Luddite uprisings in the Yorkshire textile industry. - Villette (1853) – Follows the protagonist, Lucy Snowe, as she flees a family disaster and travels to the fictional city of Villette in France to teach at a girls’ school, where she’s drawn into adventure and romance. 5. Louisa May Alcott (1832 – 1888) American novelist, short story writer and poet, Louisa May Alcott, may be best known as the author of Little Women, but has made a much larger literary contribution than you may have first thought. Raised in New England by her parents and Abigail and Amos, Alcott was one of four daughters in the family. Just like the four sisters in her famous novel do, Alcott worked hard to support her family’s struggling financial situation, using writing as an outlet when she had the time. Published in 1868, Little Women was her first major literary success, after having written for the Atlantic Monthly from 1860. In the early 1860s, she also published a number of lurid short stories for adults under her pen name, A. M. Barnard, in an attempt to break onto the literary scene. Once a popular household name with her debut novel, Alcott became an active member of various abolitionist and feminist reform movements, including working towards women’s suffrage, which she continued to support throughout her life until her passing in 1888. Louisa May Alcott’s famous works: - Moods (1864) – Alcott’s first novel which tells the story of passionate tomboy, Sylvia Yule, who embarks on a camping trip with her brother and his two friends, both of whom fall in love with her. - Little Women (1868) – Coming-of-age novel following the lives of four sisters and their journey through genteel poverty as children into womanhood. - Little Men (1871) – Sequel to Alcott’s famous Little Women, reprising characters from the original – Jo Bhaer, her husband, and the various children at Plumfield Estate School. 6. Gertrude Stein (1874 – 1946) Pioneering American novelist, poet, playwright and art collector, Gertrude Stein was a key figure in early twentieth century feminism – both in a literal and literary sense – who rose to mainstream attention thanks to her ‘quirky’ lifestyle and modernist writing style. As an advocate of the avant-garde, she shaped an artistic movement that broke the traditional norms of femininity, writing style and form. Her experimental creative styles included the use of broken grammar and illogical writing flows, as featured in her 1914 novel Tender Buttons: Objects, Food, Room, as well as repetition to emphasise and re-shape traditional concepts in her later works like, The Making of Americans. Although born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and then raised in California, it was Paris, France, that Stein moved to as an adult that she called home for the remainder of her life. During her time here, she hosted a salon in Paris, where leading figures in literature and art would meet and share their work. Notable attendees included Pablo Picasso, Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Gertrude Stein’s famous works: - Three Lives (1909) – Separated into three separate stories, ‘The Good Anna,’ ‘Melanctha,’ and ‘The Gentle Lena,’ which follow three different lives of working-class women living in Baltimore. - Tender Buttons (1914) – Consisting of three separate sections; ‘Objects,’ ‘Food,’ and ‘Rooms,’ the book consists of poems about the mundanities of everyday life, whilst experimental language keeps the subjects unfamiliar and engaging. - The Making of Americans: Being a History of a Family’s Progress (1925) – A novel which traces the genealogy, history, and psychological development of members of two fictional families. 7. Virginia Woolf (1882 – 1941) Adeline Virginia Woolf was an early 20th-century writer from England. Considered to be one of the most modernist authors of her period, Woolf not only challenged the social injustices on women in the early 1900s, but also tested and embedded different literary devices into our modern lexicon of creative writing. For example, Woolf is considered a pioneer in the use of stream of consciousness as a narrative device, especially in one of her more famous novels, A Room of One’s Own. Born into a blended family of eight, Woolf lived in an affluent household in South Kensington, London with her mother, father, and five siblings. She was home-schooled in English Classics and Victorian Literature before attending the Ladies’ Department of King’s College London to study Classics and History. Encouraged by her father, Woolf began writing professionally in 1900, eventually moving to the more bohemian Bloomsbury area of London, where she was part of the formation of the famous Bloomsbury Group. Throughout her life and even long after she passed, Woolf has remained a prominent literary figure; in 1917 she married her husband Leonard Woolf, who she went on to found the Hogarth Press with, a publishing house which published much of her work; she published over 20 different works; and was the central subject of the 1970s movement of feminist criticism, cited as “inspiring” and drawing much attention to her literature. Virginia Woolf’s famous works: - Mrs Dalloway (1925) – Fictional high-societal Clarissa Dalloway living in post-First World War England shares the details of a day in her life. - To the Lighthouse (1927) – A philosophical introspection novel which centres on the Ramsay family and their visits to the Isle of Skye in Scotland between 1910 and 1920. - A Room of One’s Own (1929) – An extended essay, based on two lectures Woolf delivered in October 1928 at Newnham College and Girton College (both constituent colleges at the University of Cambridge) about social injustices against women. 8. Agatha Christie (1890 – 1976) Detective crime writer Dame Agatha Christie is recognised by the Guinness World Records as the best-selling fiction writer of all time, with her novels having sold more than two billion copies around the world. Famed for creating the fictional detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, she also wrote the longest-running play, The Mousetrap, which has been running in the West End since 1952. Born into a wealthy upper middle class family in Devon, she eventually moved to Wallingford in Oxfordshire with her husband, where she passed away aged 85. Christie’s works remain popular amongst detective fiction fans, (with her even featuring on our list of classic authors to read!), with several of her works having been transformed into TV and film adaptations. Agatha Christie’s famous works: - Murder on the Orient Express (1934) – During Poirot’s trip home to London from the Middle East on the Orient Express, snowfall brings the train to a halt. A murder is discovered, and detective Poirot is forced to solve the case. - The A.B.C. Murders (1936) – Featuring crime detective Poirot, Arthur Hastings and Chief Inspector Japp – the characters are forced to contend with a series of killings by a mysterious murderer known only as “A.B.C.” - The Mousetrap (1952) – The longest-running West End show, this murder mystery play was written as a birthday present for Queen Mary, the consort of King George V. The plot is still unknown amongst those who have not seen the stage play, with the audience asked not to reveal the twist at the end when they leave the theatre. 9. Harper Lee (1926 – 2016) Pulitzer prize-winning novelist, Harper Lee, was an American writer best known for her 1960 novel To Kill a Mockingbird. The book went on to win her the Prize in 1961 and pushed her into literary success as an acclaimed writer. Lee’s childhood in Monroeville, Alabama, is what inspired her idea for the novel. Her father, a former newspaper editor, businessman and lawyer, served in the Alabama State Legislature from 1926 to 1938. During his time in this role, he defended two black men accused of murdering a white storekeeper. Both men were found guilty of the act and hanged – setting the plot of Harper Lee’s famous novel. Thanks to the book’s widespread success, Lee has received numerous awards and honorary degrees, including the Goodreads Choice Awards Best Fiction in 2015, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007 for her contributions to literature. Today, Harper Lee’s works are widely taught in schools in the United States, encouraging students to learn more about how to empathise tolerance and dissipate prejudice towards others. In 2006, British librarians even ranked the book ahead of the Bible, calling it a novel that “every adult should read before they die.” Harper Lee’s famous works: - To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) – A novel about justice, that deals with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. Loosely based on Lee’s observations of an event that occurred near her hometown when she was a child. - Go Set a Watchman (2015) – The second of only two novels published by Harper Lee. First published as a sequel to To Kill a Mockingbird, it is now widely accepted that Go Set a Watchman was a first draft of the aforementioned book, drawing parallels with the original plot. 10. Toni Morrison (1931 – 2019) Born and raised in Lorain, Ohio, Toni Morrison was an American novelist and editor, made famous by her ability to depict the Black American experience in her writing with such authenticity; in an unjust society, her characters typically struggle to find themselves and their cultural identity; while her use of poetic style and often fantastical style of writing give her stories great strength and texture. After achieving an MA in American Literature at Cornell University in the mid-to-late 1950s, Morrison established herself in the literary world when she secured a role as first black female editor in fiction at Random House in New York City in the late 1960s. However, it wasn’t until the 1970s and mid ‘80s that Morrison developed her reputation as an author and published her most famous works. Morrison was incredibly successful as an author, receiving several awards and accolades for her work. In 2012, President Barack Obama presented her with the Presidential Medal of Freedom; in 2016, she received the Saul Bellow Award for Achievement in American Fiction; and in 2020, Morrison was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame. Toni Morrison’s famous works: - The Bluest Eye (1970) – Morrison’s first novel tells the story of a young African-American girl named Pecola who grew up following the Great Depression. - Sula (1973) – Morrison’s second novel focuses on a young black girl named Sula as she comes of age during a period of harsh adversity and distrust, even hatred, within the black community that she lives in. - Beloved (1987) – Set after the American Civil War, Beloved tells the story of former slaves who Cincinnati home is haunted by a malevolent spirit. The novel is inspired by an event that actually happened in Kentucky: when an enslaved person, Margaret Garner, escaped and fled to the free state of Ohio in 1856. 11. Margaret Atwood (1939 – ) Canadian-born poet and novelist, Margaret Atwood, is most famous for creating the dystopian novel, The Handmaid’s Tale in 1985, which has subsequently led to tremendous success – including a hit US TV series adaptation of the original book. As a literary artist, Atwood covers a variety of themes across time but which still remain relevant today, including themes on gender and identity, religion, climate change, ‘power politics’ and the power of language. And it’s her combination of these themes with sharp literary tongue which makes her the subject of study for many A-Level syllabi. Atwood has won numerous awards for her writing, including two Booker Prizes, the Arthur C. Clarke Award, and the PEN Center USA Lifetime Achievement Awards, amongst many others. Margaret Atwood’s famous works: - The Handmaid’s Tale (1985) – Dystopian novel set in a near-future New England in a strongly patriarchal, totalitarian state which has overthrown the United States government. The central character and narrator, Offred, is one of a group of ‘handmaids’ who are forcibly assigned to produce children for ‘commanders’ – the ruling class of men in the state. - Alias Grace (1996) – A novel of historic fiction which re-tells the notorious 1843 murders of Thomas Kinnear and his housekeeper Nancy Montgomery in Canada, where two of the servants in the household were convicted of the crime. - The Testaments (2019) – A sequel to ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’ set 15 years after the events of the original. Narrated by Aunt Lydia, a character from the previous novel; Agnes, a young woman living under state control; and Daisy, a young woman living in the free country of Canada. 12. Alice Walker (1944 – ) Although all the female writers on our list are very much accomplished in their own right, Alice Walker certainly stands out as one of the most successful in female literary history. In 1982, she became the first African-American woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her novel The Color Purple. Since then, she’s also been awarded over 15 different awards for her fiction work and social activism, including the Domestic Human Rights Award from Global Exchange (2007) and being inducted into both the Georgia Writers Hall of Fame (2001) and the California Hall of Fame for History, Women and the Arts (2006). During her career, she has also published seventeen novels and short stories, twelve non-fiction works, and various collections of essays and poetry. Alice Walker’s famous works: - Meridian (1976) – Described as Walker’s “meditation on the modern civils right movement,” ‘Meridian’ follows a young black woman in the late 1960s who is attending college at a time when the civil rights movement begins to turn volatile. - The Color Purple (1982) – This epistolary novel follows the life of Celie, a poor, uneducated 14-year-old girl living in the Southern United States in the early 1900s who shares her story through a series of letters to God. - Possessing the Secret of Joy (1992) – Follows the story of Tashi, a minor character who features in Walker’s earlier novel, ‘The Color Purple.’ Now in the US we watch her battle an internal conflict between her new culture and the heritage she’s entrenched in. 13. Octavia E. Butler (1947 – 2006) American author, Octavia Estelle Butler, was an award-winning female writer who rose to fame in the literary industry in the late 1970s after releasing a series of novels in the science fiction genre. Acclaimed for her sharp prose, strong protagonists and social commentaries on society from the distant past through to the far future, she also frequently wrote on themes of racial injustice, global warming, women’s rights and political disparity. Butler’s writing received a tremendous amount of attention, making her a multiple recipient of the Hugo and Nebula awards and a recipient of the PEN West Lifetime Achievement Award. In 1995, she also became the first science fiction writer to receive a MacArthur Fellowship. Today, many of her books remain a common choice for high school and college syllabi. Octavia E. Butler’s famous works: - Kindred (1979) – Incorporating time travel and slave narratives, the book follows a young African-American woman writer, Dana, who finds herself stuck in time between her LA home in 1976 and a pre-Civil War Maryland plantation. - Parable of the Sower (1993) – A New York Times Notable Book of the Year, this apocalyptic science fiction novel provides commentary on climate change and social inequality. It follows central protagonist Lauren Olamina in her quest for freedom. - Parable of the Talents (1998) – Winner of the Nebula Award for Best Novel, the novel consists of journal entries from Lauren Olamina (previous protagonist in Parable of the Sower) and her husband Taylor Bankole after having founded a new community called Acorn. 14. J. K. Rowling (1965 – ) Joanne Rowling OBE, better known by her pen name J. K. Rowling, is a British author, film producer and screenplay writer, best known for being the author of the bestselling Harry Potter book series. After working as a researcher and secretary for Amnesty International, in 1990 Rowling conceived the idea for the Harry Potter series while sitting on a delayed train to London. For seven years, Rowling worked on the first book draft, which was initially rejected by twelve different publishers before being eventually purchased by Barry Cunningham – giving her the platform she needed to launch her fantastical book series. Having won multiple awards and having sold more than 500 million copies of her works, Rowling is the best-selling living author in Britain and recognised as the best-selling children’s author in history. J. K. Rowling’s famous works: - Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (1997) – The first book in the series; Harry is a wizard who lives with his non-magical (muggle) relatives until his eleventh birthday when he is invited to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The book followed with six sequeuls, following Harry’s adventuress at Hogwarts with friends Hermione and Ron and his attempts to defeat Lord Voldemort, who murdered Harry’s parents when he was a child. - The Casual Vacancy (2012) – Rowling’s first book for adult readership is a mature murder mystery which explore complex themes such as class, politics and adult social issues. The novel was the fastest-selling in the UK in three years and had the second best-selling opening week for an adult novel ever. 15. Zadie Smith (1975 – ) Sadie Adeline Smith is an English novelist, essayist and short story writer who rose to fame back in the year 2000 after her debut novel, White Teeth became an international bestseller. This initial success has since led her to win a number of awards, including the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and the Betty Trask Award. White Teeth set the tone of Smith’s subsequent writing style. Known for her novels’ eccentric characters, savvy humour and snappy dialogue, her fiction often deals with discussions on the treatment of race, religion and cultural identity. Since Smith’s early successes, she has gone on to enjoy a lifelong career in the literary world. She began serving as writer-in-residence at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London, before teaching fiction at Columbia University School of the Arts. Since 2010, she has been a tenured professor in the Creative Writing faculty of New York University while also being a regular contributor to The New York Review of Books. Zadie Smith’s famous works: - White Teeth (2000) – Centred on Britain’s relationship with immigrants from the British Commonwealth, Smith’s debut novel focuses on the later lives of two wartime friends and their families in London. - On Beauty (2005) – Smith’s third novel won the Women’s Prize for Fiction tells the story of two families – each set between New England and London – with events spurred on by a long-time professional rivalry of the two protagonists. - Grand Union (2019) – This is a collection of 11 new and previously unpublished short stories, as well as snippets of work from The New Yorker and other renowned publications. Follow in the footsteps of these female literary heroes Feeling inspired by the work of these famous female writers? Join us for a 2-week summer course in the UK and have the opportunity to learn the art of writing from top tutors and published authors. During a 2-week course, you’ll learn the fundamentals of creative writing and put its key techniques into practice as you work on your own piece of prose. You’ll be joined by a small group of other passionate students (no more than 8 students per class) and have the opportunity to workshop your work with one another for the most constructive course possible.

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In the lesson Writing an Engaging Short Story with Well-Developed Conflict and Resolution, the short story was defined as “an invented prose narrative shorter than a novel.” However, knowing the length of something is of limited use when you’re at the keyboard searching for inspiration. We aren’t going to redefine a short story, but knowing the genre from another perspective may help you write in it. The metaphor below has added to many students’ understanding and aided them in final revisions. Consider this comparison: A novel is a house where the reader is invited to explore every room, right down to snooping in the closets. Novels are discursive (expansive) and apt to take side trips. A short story is a single room in the house that invites the reader to lean in through the open window and see what's happening in one room. —Kate Wilhelm, science fiction author Every stage of writing a short story is a formidable challenge. In earlier lessons, you have plotted, profiled, and drafted a story. If not, your teacher has probably explained those parts of the short story writing process. In this lesson, you will need to have drafted a short story as you learn how to revise and tighten your draft by eliminating side trips and incorporating some of the literary strategies that the masters of the genre have used. You will improve your story by keeping the elements of point of view, dialogue, suspense, and theme foremost in your mind. In the end, you will open a window to a room that tells a compelling story. Choose the Point of View If a novel is a house and a short story a single room, one of the first things to ask is who is telling the story about the people in that room? Is your story told in first, second, or third person? Notice the different personal pronouns used in each: - I am in the room. I am the first person. - You came into the room. You are the second person. - He or she came into the room. He or she is the third person. When you select which “person“—first, second, or third—will tell your story, you are deciding on your narrator’s point of view. You’re making a choice about whose eyes the reader will be looking through. First-person and third-person narrators are most commonly used in short stories. First-Person Point of View The narrator—often the protagonist—participates in the action and uses the pronouns like I, me, we, and our. This is a good choice for beginning writers because it is easiest to write. TRUE! —nervous—very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad? The disease had sharpened my senses—not destroyed—not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute. I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in hell. How, then, am I mad? Hearken! and observe how healthily—how calmly I can tell you the whole story. —Edgar Allen Poe, “The Tell-Tale Heart” Third-Person Point of View If you elect to use third person, you will choose from one of three possible points of view. Decide which by answering this pivotal question: Do you want your narrator to share the thoughts and feelings of all of the characters, just one of them, or none of them? Consider the following points and examples: - If you want the narrator to probe into the minds and hearts of all the characters, you will write in the third- person omniscient point of view. You will be able to probe every character’s mind since you will be omniscient or all-knowing. In Charlotte’s Web, E. B. White reveals the feelings of all his characters, including a barnyard pig named Wilbur. When he doesn’t want to eat, the omniscient narrator tells us why. Wilbur didn’t want food, he wanted love. He wanted a friend—someone who would play with him. - To reveal the viewpoint of only a single character, use third-person limited. Your narrator can tell what a single “he” or “she” thinks. An author can accomplish a lot by getting into one character’s head. We may feel anything that character feels, see anything that character sees, tastes, smells, senses, or hears. For example, in “Contents of the Dead Man’s Pocket,” author Jack Finney allows us to eavesdrop on the regrets of his protagonist. We are looking in through the window at a man who stands outside his apartment on a ledge eleven stories up—a man very recently driven to succeed. Read his frightening epiphany. He understood fully that he might actually be going to die; his arms, maintaining his balance on the ledge, were trembling steadily now. And it occurred to him then with all the force of a revelation that, if he fell, all he was ever going to have out of life he would then, abruptly, have had. Nothing, then, could ever be changed; and nothing more—no least experience or pleasure—could ever be added to his life. He wished, then, that he had not allowed his wife to go off by herself tonight—and on similar nights. He thought of all the evenings he had spent away from her, working; and he regretted them. He thought wonderingly of his fierce ambition and of the direction his life had taken; he thought of the hours he’d spent by himself, filling the yellow sheet that had brought him out here. Contents of the dead man’s pockets, he thought with sudden fierce anger, a wasted life. - If you don’t want to reveal any of your characters’ thoughts, you will use a third-person objective point of view. Your narrator will function like a video camera, recording the action in the room without concern for the thoughts or feelings of the people. Another way to understand the objective point of view is to think of the narrator as a fly on the wall, or in our extended metaphor, a fly on the window. Ernest Hemingway uses this point of view in “Hills like White Elephants.” The girl stood up and walked to the end of the station. Across, on the other side, were fields of grain and trees along the banks of the Ebro. Far away, beyond the river, were mountains. The shadow of a cloud moved across the field of grain and she saw the river through the trees. In To Kill a Mockingbird, Atticus explains to Scout that “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view . . . until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.” Writing a short story gives you a chance to share the insight you gained when you walked around in someone’s skin and listened to that other person’s thoughts. Whether you use first-person or third-person point of view, be consistent and make your narrator reliable. For a comprehensive lesson on the various points of view, read Narrator’s Point of View, which is in Related Resources. When you decide which point of view you want to use in your short story, you should begin to consider what you want your characters to say and how you want them to say it. Images used in this section: Source: Street-1, Fotograf Myregrund Source: Shannon, Fire monkey fish, Flickr Source: edgar allen poe-tato flakes, Rakka Source: To Kill A Mockingbird, cgauthier2112, Flickr Figure Out What to Say Dialogue, or what characters say, truly makes a lasting impression. You don’t have to be a wizard to name the iconic movie whose characters spoke the memorable lines that follow: - “Toto, I’ve a feeling we’re not in Kansas anymore.” - “I’ll get you my pretty and your little dog too.” - “There’s no place like home.” Just like The Wizard of Oz and nearly all movies, your short story will be more animated and interesting if you include dialogue. Your characters will come to life through their words. Also, dialogue speeds up the action and keeps readers focused. Through dialogue you can, among other things, advance the plot, reveal relationships between characters, share insights, or just have some fun. Listen to how dialogue enriches these animal encounters in the video below. After you watch it, imagine how it would be without dialogue. This is the magic that also happens when you add thoughtful dialogue to your own characters. O. Henry, who was fond of having dialogue in his short stories, said it was important to “inject a few raisins of conversation into the tasteless dough of life.” K.M. Weiland uses another food metaphor for dialogue, writing “You can think of dialogue as sort of like salt. It perks up the [reader’s] taste buds and makes everything else taste better.” Paragraph after paragraph of dense text does not appeal to most readers. Remember that each time a character speaks, you start a new paragraph. This mean you can use dialogue to increase the amount of white space on the pages of your story. When you revise your short story, consider how you can season it with dialogue while simultaneously improving its readability. Before you insert dialogue in your short story, however, try this brief, guided practice. John Hughes’s “Vacation 58” inspired the 1983 comedy movie Vacation. Chevy Chase, as Clark Griswold, drives the family cross-country to “Walley World.” While much of this story is sprinkled with amusing dialogue, the following paragraph is not. Think how you might enliven this leg of the Griswolds’ journey with a few lines of dialogue. The narrator, a kid, sits in the backseat staring at endless rows of corn. What do you think he overhears from the front seat?Using your notes, script some of the parents’ conversation. When you are finished, check your understanding to see a possible response. Mom pleaded with Dad to stop at a motel when we got to Springfield, Illinois. Several times he crossed completely over the median lines and drove in the opposite lane. Once while going through a little town, Dad drove up on the sidewalk and ran over a bike and some toys. Mom accused him of being asleep at the wheel, but he said he was just unfamiliar with Illinois traffic signs. Now, reread the draft of your own short story. Is there a scene that drags? Is there a character demanding to speak? Was there something you told the reader that you could have shown through lively dialogue? When you add dialogue, skip the small talk like “Hi, how are you?” and get right into real, spirited, and substantive conversation. Images used in this section: Source: Wizard of Oz 1939 Insert Poster, Cinemamasterpieces, Wikimedia Source: MR GRISWOLD, Zellaby, Flickr Suspend Readers in Midair On May 23, 2012, Nik Wallenda stepped out on a tightrope “suspended” over Niagara Falls, slowly making his way through the mist from the United States to Canada. ABC News was there to catch the action, but since Wallenda was tethered by a safety harness, his highly publicized walk was somewhat anticlimactic. In fact, a far more suspenseful tightrope walk had already occurred in New York almost half a century before. After you finish this section, you’ll be able to watch television footage about the earlier aerialist’s extraordinarily dangerous feat. When the outcome is certain, viewers tune out, and readers become disengaged. No one expected Wallenda to fail to reach the other side of Niagara Falls. He was a seventh-generation circus performer wearing a safety line. There was a possibility of surprise, but no real surprise. However, suspense will keep readers or viewers more deeply engaged than the distant possibility of surprise. To illustrate the difference between creating surprise and building suspense, we turn to Alfred Hitchcock, the master of suspense. You and I sit here talking. We’re having a very innocuous conversation about nothing. Boring. Doesn’t mean a thing. Suddenly, boom! A bomb goes off and the audience is shocked—for 15 seconds. Now you change it. Play the same scene, show that a bomb has been placed there, establish that it’s going off at 1 p.m.—it’s now a quarter of one, ten of one—show a clock on the wall, back to the same scene. Now our conversation becomes vital, by its sheer nonsense. Look under the table! You fool! Now the audience is working for 10 minutes, instead of being surprised for 15 seconds. From the beginning of a story, good writers deliberately involve readers by providing clues that foreshadow the ending. With clues, the reader knows more than the main character, becomes invested in the outcome, and anticipates the ending. Suppose your story is about a tightrope artist taking a skywalk on a high wire suspended between two buildings. What if you mention that, unknown to the aerialist, the far end of the steel cable is beginning to fray? By mentioning the compromised wire, you pose a threat to your protagonist. You heighten the tension by worrying the reader that the aerialist might not reach the other side safely. You’ve created suspense, which has been recognized as an important element in literature as far back as Aristotle. Short story readers are intrigued when writers couple a real sense of danger with a glint of hope that the story will end well. Thinking of the story you have drafted leading up to this lesson, take the time to consider how to add suspense by sharing something with the reader that your main character doesn’t know. Look at the rising action: Can you provide another hint about the trouble your protagonist will face? Can you insert a realistic detail that will give a clue about the resolution of the story? Can you prolong the climax and keep your reader guessing a while longer? Naturally, we don’t want to leave you hanging in midair. If the suspense is killing you, you can delay writing your revisions until after you watch the video mentioned at the beginning of this section. Watch as Philippe Petit makes history by traversing a high wire strung between two iconic buildings. Look carefully for his safety harness. Images used in this section: Source: Nik Wallenda tight rope, canadiantourism, Flickr Source: Nik Wallenda Walks Across Pittsburgh, jstrak, Flickr Write about a Central Theme Stories, novels, plays, and poems, almost always contain a theme or themes. Themes are underlying messages about life and human nature; they are big ideas an author wants to pass on to you. What is tricky about themes is that sometimes they don’t stand out but only emerge after careful analysis. Understanding the theme of a text is an “aha” moment that gives you deeper insight into what an author is trying to say. As a writer, how do you go about considering theme along with everything else that’s involved in writing a short story? Let’s begin by saying that theme is an important part of your short story planning process. Themes are the abstract concepts or universal truths found in all good literature. Themes are born out of an author’s observation about the human condition. The writer communicates those observations through the characters in the story. The changes your characters make as they progress through the story will help you define your theme. Read the story below and think about how you would answer these three questions: - What is the main character’s internal conflict? - Which of the main character’s views and attitudes will change as a result of the story’s events? How and why? - How does the main character demonstrate those changed views and attitudes at the beginning and the end of the story? The Fish and the Salamander At the beginning of time, Fish and Salamander looked very much alike. They were discussing how they planned to evolve. “I wish to grow thinner and to grow my tail broad,” said Fish. “Then I will swim like lightning and outrace any creature in the pond. How about you?” Salamander considered. “Well, it would certainly be nice to be the fastest creature in the pond. But I think I will keep my awkward tail, which allows me to swim well enough. What I wish to change instead is to grow some modest legs.” Fish laughed. “Legs? In a pond? What a waste!” Soon, though, came a drought, and the pond began to dry up. Fish was trapped, but Salamander was able to crawl out in hopes of finding another pond. “How did you know that legs would come in so handy?” cried Fish to his departing friend. “I didn’t,” said Salamander. “But I wasn’t so naive as to assume that circumstances today would be the same as circumstances tomorrow.” Would you say that the internal conflicts of the characters are their respective decisions about how to change their bodies? Fish seems to change at the end of the story as he realizes the error of his decision when he asks Salamander why he knew the right decision to make. We know that Fish changes or is forced to change by the circumstances of nature. Finally, we can answer question number three by showing Fish’s arrogance in the face of Salamander’s logic and forethought. We see Fish’s arrogance disappear as he “cries” to Salamander for an explanation as to Salamander’s wise choice. Even though this is a very short story with a simple plot and only two characters, we can have a discussion about the “human” condition that informs the story—the theme of this story. As you continue thinking about your short story remember the following: The secret of theme lies entirely in the hands of your characters. As with almost every other aspect of story, character is the vital key to making your theme come to unforgettable life. —K. M. Weiland, “Crafting Unforgettable Characters” You’re nearing the end of this trio of lessons on how to write a short story. You may have been writing with a theme in mind, but if you’re unsure about theme, you might want to review the lesson “Analyzing Various Texts with Similar Themes.” To get to know your own theme better, ask yourself a few questions: What was your purpose in writing this story? What central insight or universal truth did you want to convey? What truth did you discover as you were writing? As with anything worth doing, writing an interesting short story takes time and patience. As you continue to practice, your characters will come alive and themes will take shape from their actions. Images used in this section: Source: FiestaTexas4, Rei, Wikimedia Source: Coryphopterus glaucofraenum, LASZLO ILYES, Wikimedia Source: Salamander larve, Simbyte Read "A Retrieved Reformation" (Part 3) The ending of a short story should satisfy readers and make them feel that the effort of reading to the finish was worth it. Few writers deliver endings that are more satisfactory than O. Henry’s. If you read the earlier lessons on writing, you may recall that in Part 2 of “A Retrieved Reformation,” Jimmy fell in love with the banker’s daughter in Elmore, Arkansas. This love was so transformative for the protagonist that he became willing to go straight, even though going straight meant parting with his prized suitcase of safecracking tools. Before he could send the heavy suitcase to a former “colleague,” however, a five-year-old girl got locked inside Elmore Bank’s foolproof vault by accident. Read this last section to find out how Jimmy deals with this crisis. Click the link to open an excerpt from “A Retrieved Reformation” by O. Henry. When you’re finished reading the document, return to this section. William Sidney Porter took the pen name of O. Henry because he had a criminal record. What pseudonym would you take to conceal your identity? Hopefully the short story you have been working on will be good enough to submit under the name your parents gave you. Before you begin your final revision, answer these questions about “A Retrieved Reformation” to review the literary strategies discussed in this lesson. Click on the best answer for each question. Images used in this section: Source: Gangster look, Kevins’ Collections, Flickr Finish Your Story “Automobile warranty expires. So does engine.” In the succinct story above by Stan Lee, just what you expect is what happens. However, what happens in “A Retrieved Reformation” is the opposite of what you expect. Your tale, predictable or not, must come to an end. Use the rubric below to assess your current draft. After that, your final task is to revise your work, keeping in mind plot, character, theme, and the literary strategies addressed in the three lessons. You can even use the point system included to score your own draft. Good luck! Literary Terms/Elements 30 - Literary elements, including suspense and dialogue, enhance the story. - Characters are interesting and believable (5pts). - Both direct and indirect characterization are used to create well-developed characters (5 pts). - All parts are written well and add to the story: - Exposition sets the scene and introduces the characters while also hooking the reader (10 pts). - The critical incident and rising action build the plot and deepen reader understanding of the characters and the story (8 pts). - Climax is the height of tension and makes the reader wonder what will happen next (8 pts). - Falling action shows effects of the climax and leads toward the resolution (8 pts). - Resolution ties up all of the loose ends and/or might introduce a new conflict (8 pts). - A theme is evident from the story and appropriate to the characters and plot (8 pts). Written Conventions 10 - Spelling, punctuation, and grammar are generally correct with few mistakes (5pts). - Language is appropriate for the story and audience (5 pts). Images used in this section: Source: Junkyard 1, squarejer, Flickr Bailey, Tom. A Short Story Writer’s Companion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Barancik, Steve. “The Fish and the Salamander.“ Best-childrens-books.com. CBS News. “Tightrope Walk Across World Trade Center (1974).” YouTube video, 2:11. Posted Dec 27, 2008. “English Proverbs.” The Phrase Finder. //www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/proverbs.html. Finney, Jack. “Contents of the Dead Man’s Pocket.” Wayne State University. Gavan, Cara. “Using the Genre Approach to Teaching Suspense Short Story Writing.” SUNY Cortland. Gioia, Dana and R.S. Gywnn, eds. The Art of the Short Story. New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. Hemingway, Ernest. “Hills like White Elephants.” Henry, O. “A Retrieved Reformation.” In Roads of Destiny. Project Gutenberg. February 5, 2006. Holland, Bruce. “You’ll Know It When You See It.” Flash Fiction Online, (blog). Hughes, John. “Vacation 58.” Zoetrope 12, no. 2 (Summer 2008). Humpage, A. J. “Creating Suspense in Fiction.” All Write — Fiction Advice (blog). June 4, 2011. Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. First Perennial Classic ed. New York: HarperPerennial, 2002. Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Tell-Tale Heart.” Classic Literature. About.com. Sullivan, Frank. “The Night The Old Nostalgia Burned Down.” New Yorker, May 25, 1946. Thomson, Amy Restivo. “Elemental Fiction.” Trinity University. August 1, 2011. Weiland, K.M. Crafting Unforgettable Characters. KMWeiland.com. E-book. White, E. B. Charlotte’s Web. New York: HarperTrophy, 1980. †Republished with permission from Steve Barancik, Best Children’s Books

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3D Plot in Excel is used to plot the graph for those data sets, which may not give much visibility, comparison feasibility with other data sets, and plotting the area when we have large sets of data points. 3D Plot in Excel is the creative way of change a simple 2D graph into 3D Select Plot > 3D : 3D ColorMap Surface to create a 3D Colormap Surface plot (Graph1 by default). Right click the layer icon on the left-top of the graph to open the Layer Contents dialog. In this dialog, click on the button and select 3D Scatter/Trajectory/Vector from the fly-out menu 3d plot. Natural Language; Math Input; Extended Keyboard Examples Upload Random. Compute answers using Wolfram's breakthrough technology & knowledgebase, relied on by millions of students & professionals. For math, science, nutrition, history, geography, engineering, mathematics, linguistics, sports, finance, music Wolfram|Alpha brings expert-level knowledge and capabilities to the broadest. Like 2-D graphs, we can use different ways to represent 3-D graph. We can make a scatter plot, contour plot, surface plot, etc. Let's have a look at different 3-D plots. Plotting 3-D Lines and Points. Graph with lines and point are the simplest 3 dimensional graph. ax.plot3d and ax.scatter are the function to plot line and point graph respectively. Example 1: 3 dimensional line grap Creating 3-D Plots. Open Live Script. This example shows how to create a variety of 3-D plots in MATLAB®. Mesh Plot. The mesh function creates a wireframe mesh. By default, the color of the mesh is proportional to the surface height. z = peaks(25); figure mesh(z) Surface Plot. The surf function is used to create a 3-D surface plot. surf(z) Surface Plot (with Shading) The surfl function. Gratis online 3D Grafikrechner von GeoGebra: zeichne 3D Funktionen und Oberflächen, konstruiere Körper und viel mehr plot3 (X,Y,Z) plots coordinates in 3-D space. To plot a set of coordinates connected by line segments, specify X, Y, and Z as vectors of the same length. To plot multiple sets of coordinates on the same set of axes, specify at least one of X, Y, or Z as a matrix and the others as vectors The most basic three-dimensional plot is a line or collection of scatter plot created from sets of (x, y, z) triples. In analogy with the more common two-dimensional plots discussed earlier, these can be created using the ax.plot3D and ax.scatter3D functions Funktionsplotter 3D. Mit diesem Tool können Netz-Graphen sowie zusammenhängende und farbschattierte Flächen von Funktionen z=f(x,y) (orthogonale Koordinaten) und von implizit gegebenen Flächen gezeichnet werden. Geben Sie dazu für den ersten Typ den Funktionsterm mit den Variablen x und y ein und für den zweiten Typ eine Gleichung in x, y und z. Als hübsche Zugabe werden Schnittkurven berechnet. Selbstverständlich kann die Graphik per Maus gedreht werden Demonstration of a basic scatterplot in 3D. import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import numpy as np # Fixing random state for reproducibility np.random.seed(19680801) def randrange(n, vmin, vmax): Helper function to make an array of random numbers having shape (n, ) with each number distributed Uniform (vmin, vmax). return (vmax - vmin)*np Creating an Empty 3D Plot: In the below code, we will be creating an empty canvas at first. After that, we will be defining the axes of our 3D plot where we define that the projection of the plot will be in 3D format. This helps us to create the 3D empty axes figure in the canvas 2-D and 3-D Plots. Plot continuous, discrete, surface, and volume data. Use plots to visualize data. For example, you can compare sets of data, track changes in data over time, or show data distribution. Create plots programmatically using graphics functions or interactively using the Plots tab at the top of the MATLAB ® desktop Plotting a 3D continuous line. Now that we know how to plot a single point in 3D, we can similarly plot a continuous line passing through a list of 3D coordinates. We will use the plot () method and pass 3 arrays, one each for the x, y, and z coordinates of the points on the line 3D plots is also known as surface plots in excel which is used to represent three dimensional data, in order to create a three dimensional plot in a excel we need to have a three dimensional range of data which means we have three-axis x, y and z, 3D plots or surface plots can be used from the insert tab in excel Like to plot 3d graph w.r.t. x, y and z. Here is the sample code i used. import matplotlib.pyplot as pltt dfSpark = sqlContext.createDataFrame(tupleRangeRDD, schema) // reading as spark df df = dfSpark.toPandas() fig = pltt.figure(); ax = fig.add_subplot(111, projection='3d') ax.plot_surface(df['x'], df['y'], df['z']) I am getting a empty graph plot. definitely missing something. Any pointers. 3d plot - Wolfram|Alpha. Have a question about using Wolfram|Alpha? Contact Pro Premium Expert Support » Open source API for 3d charts: Jzy3d is an open source java library that allows to easily draw 3d scientific data: surfaces, scatter plots, bar charts, and lot of other 3d primitives. The API provides support for rich interactive charts, with colorbars, tooltips and overlays. Axis and chart layout can be fully customized and enhanced. Relying on JOGL 2, you can easily deploy native OpenGL. Functions 3D Plotter is an application to drawing functions of several variables and surface in the space R3 and to calculate indefinite integrals or definite integrals. Funcions 3D plotter calculates the analytic and numerical integral and too calculates partial derivatives with respect to x and y for 2 variabled functions. Enter the interval for the variable x for variale and Plotter and 3D. Plotting 3D Fields; Implicit Plots; List Plots; Basic Shapes and Primitives ¶ Base Classes for 3D Graphics Objects and Plotting; Basic objects such as Sphere, Box, Cone, etc. Classes for Lines, Frames, Rulers, Spheres, Points, Dots, and Text; Platonic Solids; Parametric Surface; Graphics 3D Object for Representing and Triangulating Isosurfaces. Infrastructure¶ Texture Support; Indexed Face. The ax = plt.axes(projection='3d') created a 3D axes object, and to add data to it, we could use plot3D function. And we could change the title, set the x,y,z labels for the plot as well. TRY IT! Consider the parameterized data set t is a vector from 0 to \(10\pi\) with a step \(\pi/50\), x = sin(t), and y = cos(t).Make a three-dimensional plot of the (x,y,t) data set using plot3 The 3D plotting in Matplotlib can be done by enabling the utility toolkit. The utility toolkit can be enabled by importing the mplot3d library, which comes with your standard Matplotlib installation via pip. After importing this sub-module, 3D plots can be created by passing the keyword projection=3d to any of the regular axes creation. 3D plotting in Matplotlib starts by enabling the utility toolkit. We can enable this toolkit by importing the mplot3d library, which comes with your standard Matplotlib installation via pip. Just be sure that your Matplotlib version is over 1.0. Once this sub-module is imported, 3D plots can be created by passing the keyword projection=3d to any of the regular axes creation functions in. . The data is held in spreadsheets which are referred to as tables with column-based data (typically X and Y values for 2D plots) or matrices (for 3D plots) Plotting a 3D Scatter Plot in Seaborn. Seaborn doesn't come with any built-in 3D functionality, unfortunately. It's an extension of Matplotlib and relies on it for the heavy lifting in 3D. Though, we can style the 3D Matplotlib plot, using Seaborn. Let's set the style using Seaborn, and visualize a 3D scatter plot between happiness, economy and. 3D plotting with matplotlib. There are a number of options available for creating 3D like plots with matplotlib. Let's get started by first creating a 3d scatter plot. 3D scatter plot. Let's first create some data: import numpy as np xyz = np. array (np. random. random ((100, 3))) and assign it to specific variables (for clarity and also to modify the z values): x = xyz [:, 0] y = xyz. 3D-Plot mit unregelmäßig verteilten Datenpunkten Soll Gnuplot unregelmäßig verteilte Datenpunkte darstellen, sollten zuerst die Lücken in der Datenpunktverteilung durch Interpolation geschlossen werden. Dazu dient der Befehl set dgrid3d, welcher regelmäßige Gitterpunkte erzeugt. Parameter sind die Anzahl der gewünschten Intervalle in x- und y-Richtung und ein Gewichtungsfaktor. Inhalt. 3D Vector Plotter. An interactive plot of 3D vectors. See how two vectors are related to their resultant, difference and cross product. Maths Geometry Graph plot vector. The demo above allows you to enter up to three vectors in the form (x,y,z). Clicking the draw button will then display the vectors on the diagram (the scale of the diagram will. There are many functions in R programming for creating 3D plots. In this section, we will discuss on the persp() function which can be used to create 3D surfaces in perspective view.. This function mainly takes in three variables, x, y and z where x and y are vectors defining the location along x- and y-axis. The height of the surface (z-axis) will be in the matrix z 3D Plot in R, one of the quickest ways to create a 3D plot is to use the persp() function. 3D plot the data points on three axes to highlight the link between three factors. Let's see the syntax. persp(x, y, z) Approach 1: Basic 3D Plot in R. Let's create a basic 3D plot, #define x and y. x <- -20:20 y <- -20:2 Creating the Scatter Plot. Select '3D Scatter Plots' from the MAKE A PLOT button on menu bar. Enable the Group By Option from the toolbar, and select the headers as shown in the figure. Finally click on Plot Button to generate the plot. Step 4 3.5. 3D plotting with Mayavi. ¶. Author: Gaël Varoquaux. Tip. Mayavi is an interactive 3D plotting package. matplotlib can also do simple 3D plotting, but Mayavi relies on a more powerful engine ( VTK ) and is more suited to displaying large or complex data. Chapters contents. Mlab: the scripting interface Matplotlib - 3D Surface plot. Surface plot shows a functional relationship between a designated dependent variable (Y), and two independent variables (X and Z). The plot is a companion plot to the contour plot. A surface plot is like a wireframe plot, but each face of the wireframe is a filled polygon. This can aid perception of the topology of. plot3 (X,Y,Z) plots coordinates in 3-D space. To plot a set of coordinates connected by line segments, specify X, Y, and Z as vectors of the same length. To plot multiple sets of coordinates on the same set of axes, specify at least one of X, Y, or Z as a matrix and the others as vectors. example. plot3 (X,Y,Z,LineSpec) creates the plot using. Plots a function in 3d. INPUT: f - a symbolic expression or function of 2 variables. urange - a 2-tuple (u_min, u_max) or a 3-tuple (u, u_min, u_max) vrange - a 2-tuple (v_min, v_max) or a 3-tuple (v, v_min, v_max) adaptive - (default: False) whether to use adaptive refinement to draw the plot (slower, but may look better). This option does NOT work in conjunction with a transformation (see. Besides 3D wires, and planes, one of the most popular 3-dimensional graph types is 3D scatter plots. The idea of 3D scatter plots is that you can compare 3 characteristics of a data set instead of two. This tutorial covers how to do just that with some simple sample data. Here is the code that generates a basic 3D scatter plot that goes with the video tutorial: from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import. After reading the MATLAB 3-D plots topic, you will understand how to create 3-d plots as a surface plot or mesh plot in MATLAB. 3-D plots are useful to present data having more than two variables. The command plot3 (x,y,z) in MATLAB help to create three-dimensional plots. The general form of the command is: x,y, and z are vectors of equal size The video talks about how to make a 3D plot in Matlab accurately and efficiently.Credits Voice: Alok Nath Sharma Production: Adarsh Gaurav (KANAV LORE)Conten.. PGFPlots Gallery The following graphics have been generated with the LaTeX Packages PGFPlots and PGFPlotsTable. They have been extracted from the reference manuals. PGFPlots Hom Whether it's for research, a school assignment, or a work presentation, 3-D plots are great for visualizing what a complicated set of data looks like. With the help of MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory), you'll be able to create stunning 3-D visuals with the data you provide. Using MATLAB for this purpose allows you to have complete control over the customization of your graph. From colors to shading. 3D - the grid. If we have a function of two variables \(z=f(x,y)\), we need three axes to display the graph. When plotting in 2D we use evenly spaced x-values and function values of these stored in a y-vector.. When plotting in 3D we need evenly spaced x- and y-values, spaced on a grid where each function value z is taken of a point (x, y) on the grid This tutorial illustrates how to generate 3D plots in Matlab. We investigate the concept of how to generate a discrete representation of a continuous, 3D fu.. . Rather than showing the individual data points, surface plots show a functional relationship between a designated dependent variable (Y), and two independent variables (X and Z). The plot is a companion plot to the contour plot. It is important to understand how these plots are constructed. A two -dimensional. This page shows how to generate 3D animation of scatter plot using animation.FuncAnimation, python, and matplotlib.pyplot. By updating the data to plot and using set_3d_properties, you can animate the 3D scatter plot Static and interactive inline plots are possible using a Jupyter notebook. The code snippet below will create a static screenshot of the rendering and display it in the Jupyter notebook: import pyvista as pv sphere = pv.Sphere() sphere.plot(jupyter_backend='static') It is possible to use the Plotter class as well Options for 3-D Plots Description Options Notes Examples Compatibility Description The options listed below may be provided to commands that create 3-D plots. These options can be used with the plot3d command and are generally available to all Maple.. . When I took a course in grad school on statistical image processing, I saw a very interesting plot where data is shown as a surf plot and underneath, on the ground or x-y plane, an image is shown. The pixels of the image corresponded to the points in the 3D surface and gave some extra information about the each point, sort of like an. The 3D plots use OpenGL so you can easily rotate, scale and shift them with the mouse. Via the 3D plot settings dialog or via the Surface 3D Toolbar you can change all the predefined settings of a three dimensional plot: grids, scales, axes, title, legend and colors for the different elements. There are several types of plots which can be built from a matrix. They are presented in the plot3d. 3D Plot mit Excel - Crashkurs Rotationsmatrizen. Visualisierung einer Kugel in Excel. Visualisierung von 3D Koordinaten ist in Excel nicht ohne weiteres möglich. Ein Ansatz diesem Problem Herr zu werden sind 3D zu 2D Transformationen. Herleitung der Formeln zur Projektion eines 3D Objektes in eine 2D Ebene z. B. KRAUSS (2004) 1 entnommen werden 3D-online-Plotter (surface graph) - lamprechts.d Plot 3D Graph. If you know of a really cool 3D function that you would like to send to me, I could add it here and put it up as the 3D surface curve of the month. The X, Y, and Z axes are where they are for illustration purposes only. Mathematicians would switch the Y and Z axes with each other. Computer graphics people would have at least one of the axes pointing in the other direction, away. You can try 3 plots to get a hint of the form geometry of your data: m(x,y), m(x,z), m(y,z), besides you can think of a coloring the plot for 4th dimention or even using time (kind on animation. Turn Your 3D Printer Into a Plotter: The goal of this ible is to show you how to turn your 3D printer into a plotter. I did find pen holders out there, but that was it. What I needed was a ready made solution for the pen to hop between strokes, using permanent ink to print on various Plotting 2D and 3D . Plotting 2D and 3D. Vigii. Hi, I'm a beginner to c++. I need to plot 3D and 2D plots from my c++ program. Please share me the libraries which are more easier to use. I don't want 100 lines for codes for making a single plot. Because I have lot to plot. so that I'm preferring an easiest and understandable one. Please help me guys. closed account . What? mutexe. http. It is also used as a plotting engine by third-party applications like Octave. Gnuplot has been supported and under active development since 1986. Gnuplot supports many different types of 2D and 3D plots. Here is a Gallery of demos. Gnuplot supports many different types of output. interactive screen display: cross-platform (Qt, wxWidgets, x11) or system-specific (MS Windows, OS/2) direct output. Erfahrungswert der Lieferung 1-3 Tage. Schnell & übersichtlich . Sie können mit nur wenigen Mausklicks und Zeitaufwand Ihre Bestellung ausführen. Unser Online-Plot-Upload-Tool ist so programmiert, dass vom Upload bis zur Bestellung nicht mehr als 2 Minuten gebraucht werden. Standort Headquarter. Stiftsallee 2 32425 Minden. Service-Zeiten Mo - Fr, 9.00 - 13.30 & 14.30 - 18.00 Uhr Produktion. Plotter-Freebie zum Muttertag. Makerist Anleitungen. Gratis! (5) Shirt Kinder Maxim(a) Schnitt und Plott Größe 62/68 -122/128. NähCram. Gratis! Freebie Plotterdatei Planet B Doodles Frollein Tausendschön. Gratis! Eulengesicht Plottdatei gratis. Engelinchen Design. Gratis! (6) *Geimpft* Plotterdatei FREEBIE. B.Style . Gratis! Plotterdatei Impfpass Freebie. Frollein Tausendschön. Grat Seit 3 Jahren arbeitet Objectplot mit 3D-Künstlern eng zusammen. So erhielten wir auf Empfehlung auch den Auftrag der Fertigung der oben gezeigten Sculptur für das renommierte Museum Palais de Tokyo in Paris. Neben der Beratung hinsichtlich des bestmöglichen Druckverfahrens für das erstellte Kunstwerk bieten wir die Möglichkeit der Oberflächenveredlung fast jeder Optik - Chrom, Bronze. 3D Graph using Parametric Lines. 3D Graph using Parametric Lines. Log InorSign Up. This is an example of pushing the limits of the calculator. f(x,y) is any 3-d function. Try changing it! 1. f x, y = cos x + y + x 2 6 − y 2 6 2. Slide a, b, and c to see what they do: 3. a = − 2. 4. b = 0. 6 6. 5. c = 0. 6. here we do some transformations to find out where to plot a 3-dimensional point on. Interactive surface plotting and graphing for multivariable expressions I am looking for code that can plot radio waves from a dipole antenna at a given frequency in 3 dimensional space. So, instead of plotting on a surface, the plot is in space. The point of this exercise is to illustrate how an avalanche beacon transmits a signal and how the waves of this signal can affect searchers receiving a signal. Eventually I would use this in a search simulator where. 2-D Plot ; 3-D Plot . origin of Z-axis ; fine mesh ; view point ; contours ; contours on the 2D plot ; 3D grid graph ; colored 3D figure ; colors for contours ; pseudo 3D bar ; change 3D colors . Polar Coordinate ; Parametric Functions ; Data File ; After Plotting ; Miscellaneous Stuff . About 3-Dimensional Plot (No.2 From to. Connect Dotted Dashed - Dashed — Fill in Fill out. Show term. Second graph: g (x) Derivative Integral. +C: Blue 1 Blue 2 Blue 3 Blue 4 Blue 5 Blue 6 Red 1 Red 2 Red 3 Red 4 Yellow 1 Yellow 2 Green 1 Green 2 Green 3 Green 4 Green 5 Green 6 Black Grey 1 Grey 2 Grey 3 Grey 4 White Orange Turquoise Violet 1 Violet 2 Violet 3 Violet 4. Before we begin, This is not a fight between 2D vs 3D plots — nor this is to claim that 3D Plots are superior to 2D, because it's got one-extra dimension. In fact, I'm one of those who try to avoid adding too much to a plot that the plot loses its own plot. But there are instances when you know you can be better at storytelling by using 3D plots. This article is to help you in those.

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This post is also available in: हिन्दी (Hindi) Computer and Internet use has expanded many folds in the last decade. At the rate at which our society has become dependent on digital technology, it is appropriate to say that basic knowledge of computer programming has become a necessity. Based on current patterns, trends, and technological advancements, the future is in coding. As pointed out by the former U.S. Chief Technology Officer “To be prepared for the demands of the 21st century—and to take advantage of its opportunities—it is essential that more of our students today learn basic computer programming skills, no matter what field of work they want to pursue.” Learning how to code at a young age can truly set your child up for a lifetime of success. But just like anything that captures the imagination, it still has to be fun! Coding teaches kids how to find a logical solution to a problem using a sequence of steps, actions, or instructions. It helps your child to develop problem-solving skills and learn the importance of perseverance. It challenges them to think creatively and to pursue innovative ideas and solutions in the face of adversity. Thus it’s very essential to introduce to kids coding languages at the early stage of learning. What is Kids Programming Language? There are many different features that can make it easy and useful for kids to learn a programming language that is easy, to begin with, i.e., with kids programming language. So what is a kids programming language? Two important aspects that need to be considered for language to become a kids programming language are Accessibility and Practicality. What makes a programming language accessible to kids is its simplicity and comprehensible code language. One particular language cannot be graded as kids-friendly or kids programming language. A language that is suitable for one age group may not fit for the other age group. For kids between the ages of five and eight, it is best to choose coding languages with visual learning environments. When kids learn to code, it’s typically done under the guise of a game. This makes the process fun and engaging while the kids are still learning a new skill. There are many coding languages that allow children to code using a visual environment where coding is done by dragging and dropping the coding blocks similar to jigsaw puzzles. The most popular language under this category is Scratch which is globally recognized as kids programming language. Some of these coding languages are similar to traditional text-based languages with easy-to-learn syntax and programming rules. However, there are plenty of different programming languages and they keep updating with each passing year. Choosing the right programming language, to begin with, could be a nerve-wracking job. In this article, we shall be discussing the best coding languages for kids in 2022. What Type of Kids Coding Languages Would Be Best For Your Child? When thinking about which coding language is right for your child, you should take into consideration their current interests, as this will often dictate the choice of language used. If your child is into robotics, then they may want to consider Lua. If, however, they have an interest in App development then MIT App Inventor might give them the edge. Whether it is engineering, apps, 3D gaming, or website design; the most important thing while learning any kids programming language is to make coding fun. Your child doesn’t have to exclusively stick to one coding program either. Often the fundamentals of one coding language overlap with another, and once your child has mastered the basics, they’ll find it quicker and easier to progress. Teaching children to code is easy – especially if you make it creative and interactive. At CodigHero our team of mentors can help your child develop vital coding skills in a safe, encouraging, and nurturing environment. Best Kids Coding Languages Following are what we believe are the 10 best coding languages for kids for 2022. When it comes to kids coding languages, visual programming languages like Scratch provide a solid foundation of programming principles, with kids being able to drag and drop code blocks (also known as the drag and drop approach of programming) to animate characters, create games, and build apps. Scratch is designed and maintained by the Lifelong Kindergarten group at the MIT Media Lab and is one of the most popular kids coding languages. Another important feature of Scratch is that it has a very interactive online community where people share their artwork and games with each other, which can further engage your students. CodingHero’s Online Coding Classes For Kids introduces coding to children through the drag and drop approach of programming using Scratch. Following are the features of Scratch programming language: - Scratch allows young people to integrate creativity in storytelling, games, and animation. Kids can collaborate on projects through the use of Scratch, and share their projects online. - Scratch allows students to develop 21st-century skills through the use of technology. - Scratch can be used by people of all ages including students from elementary-high school ages, and adults in a variety of settings. - Scratch is used in over 150 countries and is available in over 40 languages. This is great for teachers that are working with bilingual or ESL students. - Scratch can be used across curricula and students and teachers can create and share resources via scratch. - A major advantage of scratch is that it is a free program so people can access and utilize scratch for both personal and academic use. - Provides a facility called remix, where one can create a project from someone else work. Others taking credit for work created can be a disadvantage if the user does not credit the initial creator of the Scratch project. Even though Scratch does have its few drawbacks, on the whole, it is a relatively good programme that can enhance the abilities of children in a number of ways, such as giving them a basic understanding of how computer algorithms and programming works. Scratch can be seen as a stepping stone in the world of computer programming and it makes it one of the most popular kids programming language. Blockly is Google’s more advanced version of a block-based coding language. Blockly is similar to Scratch in that they both use visual blocks in place of manually coding but they’re different because Blockly is designed for a slightly older audience with more advanced skills. Blockly and Scratch have recently teamed up to create Scratch blocks, which is a nice amalgamation of both interfaces. Blockly is a fantastic learning tool in the category of kids coding languages and makes code both readable and easy to manipulate thus helping kids in boosting their confidence. Also, it is a user-friendly UI(user interface) that helps in making it interesting. You don’t need to know the languages you are working with or even be familiar with programming languages at all to figure this out. This makes it a fantastic learning tool if you are just trying to learn how to code. Following are the features that place Blockly in the list of kids coding languages: - Fosters experimentation and creativity with new coders - The interface is clean and user-friendly. - Blockly translates blocks to text-based code in several different languages which allow kids to see the subtle differences between various languages. - Blockly has been used by a variety of developers to create games and apps that kids will enjoy. Overall, Blockly is also extremely easy to navigate through and understand. This programming language includes many safety nets for errors such as syntax, logic, and arithmetic errors. It is a great gateway for starting programmers. On top of that, the accessibility of the language is fantastic for everyone. It is one of the most versatile languages in terms of platform availability. All of these aspects make this a great language for almost anyone to pick up and learn! Alice is another free-to-use, block-based visual kids programming language developed by Carnegie Mellon University. It’s an innovative coding environment that makes it fairly simple to program animations, interactive narratives, and easy games in 3D. It is designed to teach the concepts of object-oriented programming language (like C++) through creative exploration—with a side focus on logical and computational thinking skills, fundamental programming principles, and a foundational understanding of coding overall. Alice utilizes the same drag-and-drop-building blocks system that Scratch, Blockly, and most other visual coding programs use. And, just like those platforms, this eliminates the clutter that comes with text-based coding and allows the users to focus on simply developing scripts and writing up solutions. Following are the features of Alice: - Works on drag and drop concept - Possible to be installed on all platforms, Mac, Windows, Tablets and Android devices - Is available freely to be downloaded - Provides object-oriented programming - Simple to learn Twine is one more language that comes under the category of kids programming language. It is defined as a free “open-source tool for telling interactive, nonlinear stories.” It focuses heavily on the creation aspect of coding, doing away with coding concepts and technical terms. In fact, Twine chooses to teach users how to code by teaching them how to structure and present interactive games and stories instead. This makes Twine perfect for kids who love to create but feel overwhelmed or frustrated with the more mechanical and methodological aspects of coding. Following are features of Twine: - Easily create interactive fiction games - Little to no coding knowledge is needed - Potential for radical, experimental work - Free desktop and web app - Community resources 5. MIT App Inventor MIT App Inventor is an intuitive, visual programming environment that allows everyone, even children to build fully functional apps for smartphones and tablets. CodingHero’s Web & Mobile App Development Course For Kids make them proficient enough to have a simple first app up and running in less than 30 minutes. It uses a blocks-based environment to facilitate the creation of complex, high-impact apps in significantly less time than traditional programming environments. App Inventor lets kids develop applications for Android phones using a web browser and either the connected phone or emulator. The App Inventor servers store your work and help you keep track of your projects. App Inventor’s features that place it in the category of kids programming language are: - It is very less time-consuming, you can develop an App in less than one hour. - It helps in promoting creativity through the blocks and eliminating annoying factors of failure. - The Apps built in this inventor can be easily shared. - It is ideal for teaching perspectives. One can use it to teach the students to start with the very basics. - It has the ability to invoke other apps. This is possible with one of its programming components which is the Activity Starter. - It also provides access to many other functions of a phone like phone calls, SMS texting, sensors for location, sound, video, and much more. - You can also save your data along with its web database among other phones. - You can also import the data from different sites. These sites may be social or online stores, i.e., Facebook, Twitter, and Amazon. Python is a programming language that reads like normal speech and that’s the reason it gets mentioned in a list of kids coding languages. One rarely has to add comments to the code because Python code that is written well enough reads as if the comments are already included in the code. If your kids are going to learn something like coding, then you would want them to get a basic grasp on how to think like a programmer. With Python, kids will have very few obstacles with regards to learning how to program. They will be able to learn how to construct programming ideas within their heads and then focus on transferring these ideas into instructions that the machine can interpret. One of the great features of Python is its libraries. Python’s standard library is very extensive, offering a wide range of facilities as indicated by the long table of contents listed below. The library contains built-in modules (written in C) that provide access to system functionality such as file I/O that would otherwise be inaccessible to Python programmers. Python is seeing a steady rise to fame and jostling for the first position in the list of the most preferred programming languages for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) projects. Kids can learn to incorporate the tools required to develop ML models in Artificial Intelligence Course For Kids at CodingHero. Features of Python that makes it yet another in the list of kids coding languages are: - Python is Simple: As compared to other programming languages, Python is easy to learn. - Python is Easy to install at Home: Python can be installed easily on your home computer/laptop. Kids can practice coding at home, as well. - Python is Free and Open Source: Python is free to use by everyone. You don’t have to spend on buying the software. - Python Has Interactive Communities: Many communities discuss Python code problems. These communities are interactive and informative. - Python Coding Helps Kids with Studies: Learning coding has many benefits for kids. Coding increases focus and concentration. It also helps with improvement in academics. Coding also teaches kids to break down a problem into smaller parts and work on each part. They learn skills of critical thinking. Created in Brazil, Lua (which means “moon” in Portuguese!) is a lightweight coding language designed to be embedded in applications. It’s a multi-paradigm language, meaning it has a set of general features that can be applied to many issues. With a short learning curve (like Python), ease of embedding, and rapid execution, it’s an ideal choice when it comes to activities like learning how to code a game. It’s great for - Kids and teens who want to pick up a language quickly - Students interested in game programming - Getting knowledge in a language that spans careers - Learning how to make games in Roblox! 9. Teachable Machine Teachable Machine is an experiment from Google to bring a no-code and low-code approach to training AI models. Anyone with a modern browser and webcam can quickly train a model with no prior knowledge or experience with AI. Teachable Machine supports models based on images, sounds, and poses. You can use the webcam to capture images or upload existing image files from your machine. The browser simply relies on your machine’s inbuilt microphone to capture 10 seconds of audio samples for sound. You can train models that can detect your hand movements and body poses – all from the webcam. Our Artificial Intelligence Course For Kids guides them through the process of creating amazing AI models. The reason why it is one of the preferred kids coding languages is that they can easily train and create AI models because of its following features: - Gathering the data: This process involves gathering the data we want to train and test as mentioned earlier. The data can be of any type like jpg, png, mp3, mp4, etc. The train and test data should be separately prepared otherwise the tool will not function properly and give improper results. - Training the model: After data gathering, the next step is to train the model. Training the model can be done either through the default parameters that Teachable Machine provides or one can play with the parameters and tune the model as per his/her choice. - Testing the model: After the model is trained the next step is to test the model and validate the same on an unknown dataset. - Exporting the model: The final and interesting step that this tool provides is the provision to export the model that we created. One can download the trained model and visualize the number of hyper-parameters used and no. of neural network layers used to create the model. This helps every naive ML developer to see how to manually create a model and attain good results. 10. Swift Playgrounds Swift is a robust and intuitive programming language created by Apple for building apps for iOS, Mac, Apple TV, and Apple Watch. It’s designed to give developers more freedom than ever. Swift is easy to use and open-source, so anyone with an idea can create something incredible. Swift Playgrounds was designed to be a development environment and an education tool simultaneously. The app allows users to download lessons and challenges. Once stored on the iPad, these can be copied and modified without the need for an active internet connection. The Swift Playgrounds app features a number of basic coding lessons and gamified coding challenges for kids to complete. The interface is tight, clean, and visually pleasing. Definitely, a good try, if not just for the experience alone. Swift Playgrounds is suitable for beginners and very friendly to children because it requires no coding knowledge. In addition, the fact is that there are more and more children using iOS now, and learning something about Swift on the iPad can help them understand iOS products better. The app’s unwavering commitment to Apple’s flagship programming language means more benefits for iOS users. For example, the keyboard can satisfy users’ unique needs, and it offers an autocomplete service that can suggest the following few codes children might need. By providing a visual environment that is shown side-by-side with the coding challenges, kids can see the results of their efforts in real-time, giving them a better understanding of what changes to their code could bring and what to do next. Conclusion: Programming is a useful skill for virtually anyone. It teaches you to think about how a process works. It teaches you to think about the steps that are needed to make a process happen and how to solve problems. It’s important to remember that every child is different. There is no one-size-fits-all solution to teaching coding for kids. Each language will have its benefits and drawbacks. The important thing is that kids learn the concepts behind the programming, such as the logic behind writing code, how to use constructs, and tricks of the trade.

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MES/Q0507Storyboard Artist:UNIT 1Chapter 1: Story WritingChapter 2: Script Writing UNIT 2Chapter 1: What is Animation – Types of AnimationChapter 2: Principals of AnimationUNIT 3Chapter 1: What is Storyboarding UNIT 1CHAPTER 1 Story Writing:Before we understandhow to write a story for any Animation film/video, lets us first understand thebasic structure of a story. STORYSTRUCTUREStory structure is about story and plot. It contains thecontent of a story and the form used to tell the story. Story refers to thedramatic action as it might be described in chronological order. Plot refers tohow the story is told. Story is about trying to determine the key conflicts,main characters, setting and events. Plot is about how, and at what stages, thekey conflicts are set up and resolved. Whenever we begin with a new story we mustdefine the foundation first so we need to follow 2 basic steps while writing astory:STEP 1: Fiction or Non fictionThe first step involves the choice thestory. There are 2 choices1. Fiction: Fiction story isderived from imagination in other words, not based strictly on history or fact.A work of fiction is created in the creative imagination ofits author. The author invents the story on his own and makes up thecharacters, the plot or storyline, the dialogue and sometimes even the setting.A fictional work does not claim to tell a true story. Instead, it immerses usin experiences that we may never have in real life, introduces us to types ofpeople we may never otherwise meet and takes us to places we may never visit in any other way. Fiction can inspire us,intrigue us, scare us and engage us in new ideas. References:Mr.India(1987) ,Ra One(2011) ,Koi Mil Gaya(2003),Krish(2006)2. Non fiction- Nonfiction stories are true stories based on actual people and events. Non fictionstories include documentaries, biographies and stories based on history, politics,travel, education or any real world subject matter. Always beaware of the rights involved in making a movie; fictional stories grant youunrestricted access to the material because you are creating it. Non fictionalstories may require you to secure the rights to an idea. Make sure you havepermission to write about the subject matter you are writing. References: Jodhaa akbar (2008), Gandhi (1982), Lagaan: Once Upon aTime in India (2001), Mughal-E-Azam (1960) STEP 2GENREA genre is a category or type of story. Genrestypically have their own style and story structure, and although there areseveral primary categories, movies can be a mixture of two or three differentgenre.Some common genres include:· Action · Comedy· Crime· Drama· Family· Fantasy· Horror· Musical· Romance· Romantic comedy· Science fiction· Thriller· War· WesternWhen choosing the genre for anindependent film, be aware of the costs and the difficulties of shootingcertain genres like science fiction or westerns, for which the cost of sets, costumesand props may be prohibitive.Step 3 FORMAT Storiescan be told in many different formats, each designed for a different purpose. Themain formats include: Animation is the process of designing, drawing, making layouts andpreparation of photographic sequences which are integrated in the multimedia and gamingproducts. In other words, Animation is the simulationof movement created by displaying a series of pictures, or frames.Cartoons on television is one example of animation. Animation is the illusionof movement created by showing a series of still pictures in rapid succession. In the world of computers, graphic software like Flash,After Effects, MAYA etc. are used tocreate this effect. Commercials: Commercials are designed to advertise a product or services. Television commercials incorporate a wide range of styles, techniques, and animation narratives into 10, 15, 30 or 60 second time lengths. Commercials are a great way for filmmakers to showcase their style of storytelling and production capabilities and are among the most lucrative forms of production. 3. Documentaries- A documentary is a broad term to describe a non-fiction video production that in some way “documents” or captures reality. Documentaries are intended to study a subject, occurrence, theme or belief in an attempt to either explore the subject or arrive at a conclusion about the subject. Documentaries can either take on an investigative approach in which the filmmaker tries to answer a question or research a subject and allow the story to unfold during the production. Documentaries can in some instances be inexpensive but time consuming to produce. 4. Feature films- The term feature film came into use to refer to the film presented in a cinema theatre. A feature film is a film (also called a movie, motion picture or just film) with a running time long enough to be considered the principal or sole film to fill a program. The majority of feature films are between 70 and 210 minutes long. The popular Bollywood films like the ‘3 Idiots’ and ‘Rang De Basanti’ are an example of the Feature Films. Industrial /corporate videos- Industrial/corporate video productions are typically meant for marketing of businesses. Music videos- These highly stylized promotional videos for music artist are a great way for a filmmaker to explore his creativity using any medium, any style of narrative or performance and artistic editing. 5.Short films- Ideally under 20 minutes, short films are a good way of learning the process of making a movie showcasing your talents and generating interest from investors for future projects.HOW TO WRITE A STORY:Storieshave been told a certain way throughout history. It is a language both thestoryteller and audiences agree upon. First,stories begin by establishing the characters and setting in which the storywill take place, then the problem or conflict appears. The drama of the storybegins when the main character has to figure out how to cope with or solve theproblem. These three components are considered the basic story structure; eachcan be divided into three distinct parts, called acts. Act1Act1 is the first 30 minutes of the 120 (2 hour) film. The audience is introducedto the main characters, where the story takes place, what the story is aboutand what are the main issues.Act2 Act 2 is the next movement in the story,running an hour, from 30 to 90 minutes and begins from when the conflict isintroduced. Turningpoint – Themost important part of the second act is called the ‘turning point’, whichoccurs at the middle of the story. Act3Act3 is the last quarter of the story, running from 90-120 minutes, wherein theconflict becomes the most difficult for the character and he is forced to usehis skills, wit and ability to resolve or escape from the problem with themaximum possible risk. Thethird act ends with the conclusion of the story when the character resolves theconflict. Answer theFollowing Questions:Q.1 what is story and how to write a story?Q.2 What is the difference between fiction& non fictional story?Q.3 what is genre? And name any 3 genre youlike the most?Q.4 what is meant by story format? Chapter 2Scriptwriting:Whatis scriptwriting?Once we have written the story the nextstep is to convert this story into a script that can be used to create ananimation/feature film, television production or a video game. A script is adetailed story written in a format that is easy to execute during theproduction of the film. A script divides the story into scenes and containssuch details as the description of the scene, whether it is daytime or nightwhen the scene is taking place, whether it taking place indoors or outdoors,how many characters are there in the scene, what are they doing in the scene,the dialogues between the characters and so on. The script also describes theemotional impact of the scene; whether the characters in the scene are happy orangry or sad…So we can say that a script is a film or a television productionwritten on paper with all the relevant details.The process of writing a script is known as scriptwriting, also known as screenplay writing and the one who writes a script isknown as the Script writer. AScriptwriter works with the Director of the film/television production whiledeveloping the script. To summarize, Script writing is the art andcraft of writing the story in a format that makes it easy to shoot it. HOW TO WRITE A SCRIPTBefore webegin to write a script, let’s have a look at a few guidelines -Divide your Story into Scenes: Broadlyspeaking, a Scene is any action taking place in a single location; if thelocation changes, the scene changes. For example, in our story there are twocharacters (characters refer to the Actors), Ravi and Smita and they aresitting in a room talking about their school home work- this in our script isreferred to as one Scene. Now, in our story the two characters go out in thegarden to play- this in our script will be referred to as Scene 2, because thelocation has been changed from inside of a room to outdoors in a garden. Know your audience: Keepin mind your target audience, so that you know the level of language to beused, the complexity to be developed, etc. Is the audience composed of youngsters,adults or a mixed age group, does it comprise a general or specializedaudience, etc. This will determine your language, the references used, theregional humour etc. Know your medium: Before you start writing your script, it isimportant to know the medium through which the script is going to be presented– whether it is being written for television or for gaming, or as an animation ora live action film. In this module, we shall focus on writing the script for ananimation film, so let’s take a look at the basic difference between a liveaction script and an animation film script.In ananimation script, the action is described in far more detail. You’veheard the saying, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” Well, the process isreversed for animation scriptwriters. In animation thousands of words are used todescribe a scene/picture. So that means clearly describing action sequences, visualgags, facial expressions, props and locations. That’s in addition to writingthe dialogue and indicating any special sound effects and music the sceneneeds.In liveaction film writing, details like the camera angles and shots are left to thedirector. But in an animated script, you have more freedom to suggestdramatic or cartoony visuals. Say a phone rings. You might call for aSLOW ZOOM or SMASH CUT to it. Maybe the receiver JIGGLES as the phoneRINGS. Or a loud ring might JOLT the receiver RIGHT OFF THE HOOK. Maybe to get someone’s attention, it might BONK him/her repeatedly overthe head. Note that animation writers often CAPITALIZE camera moves andimportant images, sound effects and music cues, and use lots ofexclamation marks to show the level of excitement the final product is going tohave: eg.A GIANT FLYING ROBOT zooms acrossthe sky! It EXPLODES! KA-BOOOOOM!!! DRAMATIC STING. -DIALOGUE- Write like you speak: This will make it easier for the targetaudience to relate to the script. Also, it makes the script more vibrant andinteractive, since it appears conversational. Remove the extra elements: Extra elements likeunnecessary detailing, going out of the story line, etc. should be removed, asthey detract from the main flow of the script. This also endangers the mainelements of the script; they might get lost in all the extra things introduced. Keep the script precise and concise. Flowery language should be avoided; itshould be kept direct as far as possible, unless the script demands otherwise.Active voice, implemented in a clear and brief manner should be preferred. Consistency: The characters’ language, mannerisms, bodylanguage should be consistent, unless the script requires otherwise. Add Humour to the story/script: Humour is an essential part of any animation film. Be innovativewith the story, use your imagination to create funny characters and humoroussituations, think out of the box. In animation, we are given the freedom toplay around with unrealistic characters and situations, make use of thisfreedom to come up with your strange and funny story line. Keep sentences short and witty: Witty dialogues between thecharacters help in creating humour in the given scene. Best is to keep the dialogues short butwitty and remove superfluous words and repetitions and break sentences into partswhenever possible.Effective use of silence: It is essential to put insilence between dialogue, so as to give listeners time to process the verbalcontent and to watch what’s on the screen. Brief pauses can be put into yourscript by indicating where the dialogue should stop for a moment. Silence orpauses also give you time to accommodate a transition to a new line of thought. https://www.bloopanimation.com/story-ideas/Elements of a ScriptA script consists of 3 main elements:· Location(Scene Heading)· Action· DialogueLocation(SceneHeading):At the beginning of each scene we must declare thelocation. We do this in the following format:(a) interior (INT.) or exterior(EXT.)? (b) a description of the location (c) is it day time of night time?INT. St. Xavier’s School Campus – DayLocation description (also known as Scene headings)are left aligned in the script. The Scene Heading tells the reader of thescript where the scene takes place. Are we indoors (INT.) or outdoors (EXT.)? Next we needto name the location, where the action takes place: school campus, living room,etc. Lastly it includes the time of day – night, day, dusk, dawn… all the informationneeded to “set the scene”. Here are a few more examples of Scene Headings:INT. Bedroom – morningEXT. Beach – sunsetINT. Office – night – continuous actionEXT. Highway – dawnAction:This isthe place to describe the action that precedes or follows the dialogue. It iswritten without indention below the description of the location. Actiondescribes what the characters are doing, what all ishappening on-screen. INT. St. Xavier’s School Campus – DayRAVI and SMITA enter the school campus withtwo kittens in their arms Dialogue:When any character speaks, his or her nameappears on the line preceding the dialogue. In screenplays, the name appears ina location approximately in the centre of the line.Indented to the center of the page, the name of the character would be writtenwith capitalletters and the lines of dialogue would be under it, indentedas well.INT. St. Xavier’s School Campus – DayRAVI and SMITA enter the school campus with twokittens in their arms RAVIAre we late?SMITANo, we are not, butwe are with the kittens!Directions for the Dialogue should be in parentheses andplaced before the desired line. Parentheses are the additional directions give inbrackets. INT. St. Xavier’s School Campus DayRAVI and SMITA enter the school campus with akitten in their arms RAVIAre we late?SMITA(Looking at thekittens)No, we are not, butwe are with the kittens!Besides these, let’s also take a look at a fewmore points that make up a Script Format:ExtensionExtensions are technical notes placeddirectly to the right of the Character name that denotes HOW the character’svoice is heard. For example, V. O. means ‘voiceover’.TransitionIt means the change of the scene where theaction seems to blur and refocus into another scene, and is generally used todenote a passage of time. Commonly used transitions are FADE-IN, FADE-OUT,CUT-TO etc.ShotA shot is whatever the camera sees. Forexample, a wide shot would mean that we see every character that appears in thescene, all at once. (refer to the chapter on)https://www.wikihow. com/Write-Movie-ScriptsAnswer thefollowing questions:Q1. What is meantby Script Writing?Q2.What are thebasic elements of a Script? Q3.How to write aScript? What is the format Scripts are written in?Q4. Explain anythree guidelines necessary to write a Script?Q5. Write a shortstory and convert it into a Script?Unit2Chapter 1What is Animation?Animation is a way ofmaking a movie from manystill images. The images areput together one after another, and then played at a fast speed to givethe illusion of movement.Animation is arelatively new art form, and though the concept of moving images has been atheme throughout ancient civilizations, it was not until late into the 19thcentury that experimental animation truly began. Today, the industry ofanimation is booming, making up a huge commercial enterprise. However, amongindividual artists, it remains a sacred and unique form of art. A person whomakes animations is called an animator.Types of Animation· 2D animation· 3D animation What is 2DAnimation? 2D animation is the process of generating in atwo-dimensional artistic space. 2D animation focuses on creating storyboards,characters, and backgrounds in two-dimensional environments. Usually thought ofas traditional animation, the figures can move up and down, left, and right.The 2D animation uses vector graphics and bitmap tocreate and edit the animated images and is created using the computers andsoftware programs, such as Adobe Photoshop, Flash and After Effects. 3D Animation 3D Animation is the process of generatingthree-dimensional moving images in the digital environment. It is a type ofanimation that uses computer generated images to create animated scenes. Manipulation of 3D models or objects is carried out within the 3D software forexporting image sequences giving them the illusion of movement and animation.However, this is entirely based on the technique used for manipulating theobjects. There is a difference between 3D and 2D animation.The procedure of generating 3D is sequentiallycategorized into three main sections, and these are modeling, layout andanimation and rendering. There are several software’s available for 3d animationlike Autodesk Maya, Autodesk Max etc. Modeling isthe phase that describes the procedure of generating 3D objects within acertain scene. Layout and Animation phasedescribes that the process followed for animating and positioning the objectswithin a certain scene. Rendering describedthe result or output of completed computer graphics. The process of productionis completed with the careful combination of the sections mentioned above andalso some other sub-sections. Difference between 3D and 2Danimation 2D ANIMATION 3D ANIMATION · 2D Animation means two dimensional movies. · 3d Animation means 3 dimensional movies. · 2D Animation is a flat animation and comprises of only X axis and Y axis. X and Y refer horizontal and vertical (X and Y) dimensions respectively. · 3D animation comprises of X axis, Y axis and Z axis. X, Y and Z refer to height, width and depth respectively. · 2D animation EVERYTHING is drawn · 3D objects, once modeled, can be treated almost as a physical object. Most of the work would be done in 3d application tools · “Moving the camera” in 2D means drawing everything from another angle. · “Moving the camera” in 3D is simply dragging it to another position to see if you like it better. · Adobe After Effects, Adobe Flash Professional, Motion, ToopBoom, and Anime Studio are some of commonly used software used to create 2D animation. · Autodesk 3Ds Max, Autodesk Maya, Cinema 4D, Houdini, ZBrush, and Blender are some of commonly used software used to create 3D animation. 2D Animation Examples: · The Jungle Book · Tom & Jerry · Little Krishna 3D Animation Examples: · Toy Story · Shrek · The Incredible · Jurassic Park (Dinosaurs) · The Transformers (Robots) Answer thefollowing questions:Q1. what is meant by animation?Q2. what is 2D Animation?Q3. What is 3D animation?Q4. Name any three differences between 2Dand 3D Animation?Q5. Name any two 3D applications/softwares?

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The American Indian Education KnowledgeBase is an online resource to aid education professionals in their efforts to improve the education of American Indian students and close the achievement gap American Indian students have faced in public, Bureau of Indian Education, and other schools. Purpose: To ensure educators, in support of American Indian students, understand the historical principles which guides the academic journey of these students, the challenges and barriers which impacts these efforts, and current trends and research which are the basis for Indian education programs today. American Indian tribes negotiated a multiplicity of treaties with the U.S. government, which then imposed upon them a number of laws and policies to promote the educational development of American Indian children. The federal government has responded to treaty provisions enacted between tribal governments and the United States which required educational support for American Indian children by developing and implementing educational programs in response to the federal trust responsibility of the U.S. Government. The following Tasks will outline that response to treaty obligations. Purpose: Educators will increase awareness and understanding of the breadth and scope of cultural diversity that exists among American Indian tribal communities, as well as shared values and traditions of American Indian people. Educators will understand: Educators will understand the process of federal recognition of tribes, tribal enrollment, and treaty making that has impacted American Indian tribal people since the founding of the United States. Educators will also learn about the structure and the importance of American Indian tribes, clans, bands, and extended families to American Indians. Educators will understand and respect the importance of cultural values and traditional concepts which help to shape the mindset of American Indian children and their families. Educators will understand the complex challenges faced by American Indian children in today’s classroom as a result of conflicting value systems. Guideline: Summarizing the data collection tasks accomplished under Activity 1 will give a measurement of a school's performance as it relates to the school's native students by comparing to juxtapose 2nd content and pedagogy. Educators should focus on: This tool is useful for recording the results of data collection with the goal of identifying the school's strengths and needs, and proposing the core goals. It is suggested that a different analysis sheet be completed for each focus area studied. Alternate format: PDF Buried Treasure: Developing a Management Guide From Mountains of School Data This document, Buried Treasure: Developing a Management Guide From Mountains of School Data, uses a story form to illustrate the use of a set of key indicators as a management guide for a fictional school board and superintendent. The story is provided as an illustrative example of using school data. The story is the result of work on how to structure and organize a group of key performance indicators as a management guide for local educators. It was developed by The Center on Reinventing Public Education at the University of Washington's Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs under a grant from the Wallace Foundation. *NEW* Education of Native Americans (2018) This April 2018 edition of 'Native Youth Magazine', explores the myriad of issues surrounding Native American Education. Recent statistics from the Bureau of Indian Affairs have noted that between 29% and 36% of all Native American students drop out of high school. They mostly drop out between the 7th and 12th grades. These numbers are even higher in areas where parents of Native American children complain of a major lack in understanding of native culture. In order to turn the tide on these statistics, a number of educational programs have been bolstered to provide even greater opportunities for Native American students. The federal government has created specialty internship and school scholarship programs that it hopes will help Native American youth succeed. Also, many schools have begun to take native culture more seriously *NEW* Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Native Education - NCES American Indian and Alaska Native students comprise approximately 1 percent of the total student population in the United States. Consequently, these students, and the schools and staff that serve them, are rarely represented in sufficient numbers in national education studies to permit reliable and valid generalizations about their characteristics. Additionally, because of tribal and linguistic diversity, geographic dispersion, and preponderence in remote rural areas, researchers have found it too costly to add supplemental samples of Indian schools and students to other data collection programs. However, during the 1990-91 and 1993-94 school years, the (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education added and Indian education supplement to the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) data collection program that enabled education researchers and policymakers to describe the schools, principals, and teachers serving Indian students. The data collected by SASS are both national in scope and comparable to data gathered concurrently on U.S. schools in general. *NEW* Graduation Rates & American Indian Education (2017) This May 2017 report states by today’s standards, about 7 in 10 of the American Indian students who start kindergarten will graduate from high school. In other words, the average freshman graduation rate for Native students who will complete public high school within 4 years of the first time they start 9th grade is 70 percent, compared to a national average of 82 percent, according to NCES (the National Center for Education Statistics, 2012-13 data). This excludes BIE (Bureau of Indian Education) schools, which are federally underfunded and produce the lowest educational attainment levels. US News reports that the national Native high school graduation rate is 69 percent across all types of schools – but the BIE school graduation rate is only 53 percent. BIE schools serve eight percent of Native American students, or 48,000 students in 24 states. *NEW* Native American Students Face Ongoing Crises in Education This September 2017 Indian Country Today article details the crisis Native American students face as racially and culturally insensitive and incompetent educators continue to be a problem. American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) graduation rates have been on a downward trend since 2008 and analysis of the socio-economic reasons driving it is ongoing. As The Nation recently found, “Punitive discipline, inadequate curriculum, and declining federal funding created an education crisis.” This is even more complicated when disabilities are involved. Some of the most troubling issues for misunderstood Native American students involve “Childhood and Developmental Disorders” including learning disabilities, Autism, and ADHD whether formally diagnosed or presumed on the part of educators due to entrenched ableist beliefs rooted in racist stereotypes about Native American students being “unintelligent.” The same institutional racism that sees disabilities in Natives underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed, drives Special Education being disproportionately used as a form of discipline against students of color, whether they are actually disabled or not, for “behavioral issues.” Despite this, Native American students are still disproportionately disciplined more than most other racial groups with a dropout rate twice the national average. They represent less than 1 percent of the student population, but 2 percent of out-of-school suspensions and 3 percent of expulsions. *NEW* The Miseducation of Native American Students This November 2016 Education Weekly article sheds lights on the thought that Autumn, the beginning of the school year, is the cruelest season for Native American students in the United States. Between sports games where entire crowds chant about "redskins" and other school mascots and the federal holiday of the Indian-killing mercenary Christopher Columbus, there is the misguided national celebration of "Thanksgiving" to mark the arrival of the religious Europeans, who set the stage for Native American genocide. As November's recognition of Native American Heritage Month ends, educators should resist the urge to regurgitate the usual narrative and instead discuss the reality of life, historical and current, for the more than 600,000 Native American students in our nation's K-12 public schools. The author wants educators to be aware of how these Native American stereotypes affect all children in schools today. Internalizing harmful images most acutely damages Native children, but absorbing racist and dehumanizing ideas about fellow classmates also diminishes the understanding and compassion of non-Native children, warping their conception of a history that often erases Native Americans altogether. While distortions and myths of Native American culture plague many schools, textbooks often fail to mention Native history after the 19th century. In a 2015 study, scholars Antonio Castro, Ryan Knowles, Sarah Shear, and Gregory Soden examined the state standards for teaching Native American history and culture in all 50 states and found that 87 percent of references to American Indians are in a pre-1900s context. (Washington is the only state in the union that uses the word "genocide" in its 5th grade U.S. history standards and teaching of Native peoples' history.) In short, existing Native nations and land bases aren't identified, and Native people are dealt with as historical figures, implying their extinction. *NEW* Voices of Native Youth Report This report is part of a yearly effort to provide current feedback from Native youth regarding challenges and successes in Indian Country. The purpose of the Voices of Native Youth Report series is to summarize and share what the Center for Native American Youth (CNAY) learns on an annual basis from Native American youth, thereby creating a platform to elevate the on the ground youth voices across tribal and urban Indian communities. Inviting youth to the table for dialogue guides CNAY’s efforts and ensures that the voices of Native youth are present at the national level in discussions with policymakers, federal and tribal partners, and new stakeholders. *NEW* Where American Indian Students Go to School: Enrollment in Seven Central Region States (2016) This 2016 report provides descriptive information about the location and native language use of schools in the REL Central Region with high enrollment of American Indian students, whether Bureau of Indian Education schools or non–Bureau of Indian Education high-density American Indian schools (schools with 25 percent or more American Indian student enrollment). Of the 208 schools with high American Indian student enrollment (33 BIE and 173 HDAI schools), 83% are located in the region’s rural areas. The schools located in counties with the highest concentration of Native North American language speakers are in South Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado. *NEW video* Native Education Groups Improving the Graduation Rates This September 2013 video states for many Native Americans, a higher education can seem an impossible goal, especially if they are struggling to overcome major obstacles like poverty or isolation. However, nonprofits like American Indian Student Support Services, at Arizona State University, help students find their way to college. The program has improved graduation rates at ASU, with nearly three-quarters of all program participants graduating and going on to successful careers. The program travels to Native American communities and encourages and supports young people with dreams of attaining a higher education. *NEW* 2018 Digest of Education Statistics (PG 51-240) Released in February of 2018, the Digest's purpose is to provide a compilation of statistical information covering the broad field of education from prekindergarten through graduate school. The Digest contains data on a variety of topics, including the number of schools and colleges, teachers, enrollments, and graduates, in addition to educational attainment, finances, and federal funds for education, libraries, and international comparisons. Refer to pages 51 through 240 for data on Native American Students, with multiple race/ethnicity by age table comparisons of Native American students and their peers from 1980 - 2016 on pages 67 - 240. *NEW* Bringing Visibility to the Needs and Interests of Indigenous Students: Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice With support from Lumina Foundation in 2017, the Association for the Study of Higher Education and the National Institute for Transformation and Equity are excited to launch a collection of national papers on critical underserved populations in postsecondary education. With photos from the University of Oklahoma American Indian Programs and Services, this report brings visibility to what is currently known about American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians in U.S. higher education. The authors made efforts in particular to highlight what is known that contributes to or hinders their postsecondary access and success. In the end, several recommendations for further research are provided for more equitable policy and practice. *NEW* Forgotten Students: American Indian Students' Narrative on College Going This 2004 UCLA Graduate Studies report by Amy Fann, prepared for the University of California Berkley Center for the Study of Higher Education, states there is an articulated need for higher education in Native American nations. American Indian students have the highest dropout rates, the lowest academic performance rates, and the lowest college mission and retention rates in the nation. As Tribal Nations cautiously look to colleges and universities to prepare tribal citizens for participating in nation building efforts that preserve the political and cultural integrity of their people, the college pipeline for American Indians has largely been unaddressed. *NEW* From Where the Sun Rises: Addressing the Educational Achievement of Native Americans in Washington State (2008) This extensive 2008 Native American Achievement Gap Study and Report submitted by The People in Washington State to the Washington Legislature may someday be remembered as one of the last plans that was published before sweeping changes were fully integrated into our educational systems to support all children. The outcomes, graduation rates, high achievement rates, truancy data and test scores: those are real outcomes too, and we do need to work to improve those outcomes for Native youth. But those outcomes literally mean nothing to the collective Native community if the child has no knowledge of Native language, culture, and history. This achievement gap is merely a symptom of an entire system that needs deep evolution. We all want this achievement gap to close. We all want to see consistencies among the variety of people and cultures in WASL scores, graduation rates and college graduations. But we will not make significant changes to these, 'concrete indicators', unless a much deeper system change occurs. *NEW* The characteristics and education outcomes of American Indian students in grades 6–12 in North Carolina (2016) The purpose of this November 2016 study was to compare American Indian students in grades 6–12 in North Carolina to all other students in the same grades both within the same schools and statewide on student demographics, school characteristics, and education outcomes. The North Carolina State Advisory Council on Indian Education (SACIE) requested this research based on a prior report identifying achievement gaps between American Indian students and White students. The primary source of quantitative data for this study is longitudinal administrative data provided to the Education Policy Initiative at Carolina by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (NCDPI). This data include student-level outcomes, which include state test scores, attendance, retention in grade, advanced course taking, graduation rates, and disciplinary referrals) are for all students in grades 6–12 in North Carolina public schools for the school years 2010/11 through 2013/14. *New Video* How A Struggling School for Native Americans Doubled Its Graduation Rate (2017) This 2017 video shares schools that serve Native American students have a history of failure. Fewer than a third of students scored above average on math and reading tests compared to peers nationwide, according to a study commissioned by the Bureau of Indian Education. In 2006, the Native American Community Academy (NACA) launched as a charter school in Albuquerque with the aim of increasing college enrollment in tribal communities, partly by incorporating Native culture into the curriculum. In 2016, over 90 percent of the graduating class was accepted into college. Now NACA founders are teaching others how to start charters with native leaders and curricula that reflect tribal cultures. The NACA-Inspired Schools Network (NISN) has opened six charters in New Mexico, including Kha'p'o Community School on the Santa Clara Reservation, a native community with failing schools and high crime rates. Native Youth Are More Than Statistics (Video) In this 2016 TEDx video, Elyssa (Sierra) Concha, who is Lakota, Ojibwa, Taos Pueblo, and a Education graduate of Black Hills State University, walks us through the most commonly told statistics that often are used to define Native American communities. She also describes her personal experiences that bring the statistics to life. Through her open and honest storytelling, Elyssa shares a message for Native Youth and shares the world that is full of hope and promise for the future generations. *NEW* A Native American Response: Why Do Colleges and Universities Fail the Minority Challenge? This October 2006 paper is meant to challenge colleges and universities to improve recruitment and graduation rates for Native American Indian (i.e. American Indian, Alaskan Native, and Native Hawaiian), students and to provide research and policy recommendations for state and federal programs. These students are the least likely to attend and complete a university education. *NEW* Alaska Is Failing Its Indigenous Students (2016) This November 2016 Education Weekly article, authored by an Alaskan Native high school dropout, focuses on the fact that Alaska Native students have a graduation rate just above 60 percent—and a majority of the dropouts are male. The author recalled hearing the following words from a school counselor, "You are more likely to end up dead or in jail by the time you are 25 years old than you are to finish high school as an Alaska Native male." It was 1989, we were 7th graders, many of us freshly relocated from isolated villages surrounding the interior settlement town of Fairbanks, Alaska. I was one of them, having just arrived from Vashraii K'oo (Arctic Village) with a thick village accent. School staff had pulled about 13 of us out of class to meet with a counselor. Those were his words to us as Alaska Native boys, part of a "scared straight"-type program. *NEW* Certificates and Degrees Conferred By Race/Ethnicity (2016) This report compares and contrasts the degrees conferred from 2005 to 2015. During this time, the number of degrees conferred increased across all degree levels for all racial/ethnic groups, except for American Indian/Alaska Native students. The number of bachelors, masters, and doctorate degrees awarded to American Indian/Alaska Native students fluctuated between 2004-05 and 2014-15. *NEW* PNPI Factsheets: Native American Students (2017) This September 2017 PNPI (Postsecondary National Policy Institute) website, a non-profit funded by Bill and Melissa Gates, presents this Factsheet about Native American Students. This factsheet explores that because Native Americans (both American Indians and Alaska Natives) comprise only 1% of the U.S. undergraduate population and less than 1% of the graduate population, these students are often left out of postsecondary research and data reporting due to small sample size. What data is available indicates that only 10% of Native Americans attain bachelor’s degrees and only 17% attain associate’s degrees, making the case for a system that is more responsive to the specific needs of these students. *NEW* Why Aren't We Talking About Native American Students? (2017) This February 2017 Education Weekly article authored by Ahniwake Rose, who is the Executive Director of the Washington-based Native Indian Education Association (NIEA), outlines the challenges facing Native students in America today are known, although hardly ever discussed outside of Native communities. According to national statistics, Native American students are more likely to be labeled as having special needs and experience higher rates of suspension and expulsion than white students. Just 67 percent of Native students graduate from high school—a figure well below the national average. To get there, we need committed partners who understand that traditional knowledge and culture-based education are key to producing engaged, successful learners. And we need partners who understand that tribes and Native communities must not only have a voice, they must lead the way. Cherokee Tony Dearman Testimony on Sequoya High School (2017) This report recounts the testimony given by Cherokee Tony Dearman, who was also the Director of the Bureau of Indian Education. Dearman states, "Today, Sequoyah High School is a first preference among Native students. In fact, more than 60 students who attended Sequoyah High School have gone on to receive Gates Millennium Scholarships over the past 15 years." Purpose: Assessing American Indian students’ academic performance and developing culturally-based education approaches in collaboration with local tribes, Indian organizations and Native communities are essential for improved educational opportunities. Educators should: Purpose: Research indicates that it is important to affirm students’ identity and one reason for the academic achievement gap that American Indian students face is that a one-size-fits-all national curriculum represented in textbooks fails to give positive recognition to American Indian histories and cultures. It is important for American Indian and Alaska Native students to have the standard state and national curriculums they are exposed to in school be supplemented with curriculum that reflects their background and the community that they live in. Too often, an English-only policy in American schools has suppressed American Indian languages and cultures. The Native American Languages Act passed by U.S. Congress, and signed by President George H. W. Bush in 1990, enforces United States Policy to support, preserve, and protect American Indian languages. Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act Act of 2006 The 2007 United Nation’s Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples has given further support to that goal. Today, Indigenous peoples are working through Indigenous language immersion schools to revitalize their languages and cultures. Purpose: Charter and immersion schools are offering American Indians more flexibility in working to improve the education of their children by affording American Indian communities more power to shape the schooling their children receive. Learn about charter and immersion schools and how they can provide alternatives to public, Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) schools, and tribally controlled schools, allowing American Indian communities to provide more culturally appropriate education for their children. The Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) and mainstream public schools have not been successful in bringing up the average test scores and graduation rates of American Indian students to national averages. Learn how Tribally Operated and Indian Charter Schools are providing alternatives that show promise in improving the academic and life success of American Indian students. Purpose: Research suggests one reason for the achievement gap faced by American Indian students is cultural conflicts between American Indian homes and schools. Accordingly, teachers should be prepared to meet the needs of American Indian and other Indigenous students, including using culturally responsive teaching methodologies that incorporate American Indian learning styles, avoiding biased teaching and stereotypes, and addressing the needs of gifted education and other special needs students. One-size-fits-all educational reforms, despite being somewhat “evidence based”, have left behind many American Indian students. Learn how adjusting teaching methods and materials to fit American Indian students’ cultural and experiential backgrounds can make them more engaged learners and improve their academic performance.

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Our Health Library information does not replace the advice of a doctor. Please be advised that this information is made available to assist our patients to learn more about their health. Our providers may not see and/or treat all topics found herein. Growth and Development, Ages 15 to 18 Years How do teenagers grow and develop during ages 15 to 18? The ages from 15 to 18 are an exciting time of life. But these years can be challenging for teens and their parents. Emotions can change quickly as teens learn to deal with school, their friends, and adult expectations. Teen self-esteem is affected by success in school, sports, and friendships. Teens tend to compare themselves with others, and they might form false ideas about their body image. The influence of TV, magazines, and the Internet can add to a teen's poor body image. For parents, the teen years are a time to get to know their teenager. While teens are maturing, they still need a parent's love and guidance. Most do just fine as they face the challenges of being a teen. But it is still important for teens to have good support from their parents so that they can get through these years with as few problems as possible. There are four basic areas of teenage development: - Physical development. Most teens enter puberty by age 15. Girls go through a time of rapid growth right before their first menstrual period. And by age 15, girls are near their adult height. Boys usually continue to grow taller and gain weight through their teen years. - Cognitive development. As they mature, teens are more able to think about and understand abstract ideas such as morality. They also begin to understand other people better. Even though they have a certain amount of empathy and can understand that others have different ideas, they often strongly believe that their own ideas are the most true. - Emotional and social development. Much of teens' emotional and social growth is about finding their place in the world. They are trying to figure out "Who am I?" and "How do I fit in?" So it is normal for their emotions to change from day to day. - Sensory and motor development. Boys continue to get stronger and more agile even after puberty. Girls tend to level out. Getting plenty of exercise helps improve strength and coordination in boys and girls. When are routine medical visits needed? A teenager should see his or her doctor for a routine checkup each year. The doctor will ask your teen questions about his or her life and activities. This helps the doctor check on your teen's mental and physical health. It's a good idea to give your teen some time alone with the doctor during these visits to talk in private. Your teen will also get the shots (immunizations) that are needed at each checkup. Teens should also see the dentist each year. Teens need an eye exam every 1 to 2 years. When should you call your doctor? Call your doctor if you have questions or concerns about your teen's physical or emotional health, such as: - Delayed growth. - Changes in appetite. - Body image problems. - Behavior changes. - Skipping school or other problems with school. - Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use. Also call your doctor if you notice changes in your teen's friendships or relationships or if you need help talking with your teen. How can you help your teenager during these years? Even though teens don't always welcome your help, they still need it. Your being available and involved in your teen's life can help your teen avoid risky behavior. It also helps your teen grow and develop into a healthy adult. Here are some things you can do: - Encourage your teen to get enough sleep. - Talk about body image and self worth. - Encourage your teen to eat healthy foods and be active. - Talk with your teen about drugs, tobacco, and alcohol. - Be ready to address your teen's concerns and problems. - Involve your teen in setting household rules and schedules. - Continue talking to your teen about dating and sex. - Encourage community involvement (volunteering). - Set rules about media use. Teens really want to know that they can talk honestly and openly with you about their feelings and actions. It is very important for teens to know that you love them no matter what. Health Tools help you make wise health decisions or take action to improve your health. What To Expect Teens grow and develop at different rates. But general teen growth and development patterns can be grouped into four main categories. - Physical development. By age 15, most teens have entered puberty. Most girls are close to their adult height and have completed the phase of rapid growth that precedes the first menstrual period. Boys often continue to grow taller and gain weight. The growth spurt in boys tends to start about 2 years after puberty begins and reaches its peak about 1½ years later. Also, gender characteristics continue to develop in both girls and boys. - Cognitive development, which is the ability to think, learn, reason, and remember. Teens gradually develop the ability to think in more sophisticated, abstract ways. They begin to perceive issues in shades of gray instead of black and white, as they gain a better understanding of concepts like morality, consequence, objectivity, and empathy. Although they may understand that people can see the same issue in different ways, they often are convinced their personal view is the one that is most correct. - Emotional and social development. Attempts to answer the questions "Who am I?" and "How do I fit in?" guide much of teens' emotional and social development. This can be a painful process full of anxiety. In response, teens may behave unpredictably as emotions fluctuate seemingly at random. At times teens may seem mature. Other times, they may act as if they are still in elementary school, especially with parents and other close family members. Socially, teens form new friendships, often with members of the opposite sex. - Sensory and motor development. After puberty, boys' strength and agility naturally continues to develop, while that of teen girls tends to level out. Both girls and boys can increase strength, coordination, and athletic skill through regular physical activity. Growth and development does not always occur evenly among different categories. For example, your teen may have a tremendous growth spurt and look almost like an adult but may seem socially and emotionally young for his or her age. Eventually, most teens mature in all areas of growth and development, especially if given the right tools and parental guidance. The word "teenager" to many people brings up an image of a wild and reckless young person whose main purpose in life is to rebel against his or her parents. Most teenagers do not fit this description. Of course, there are times when any teenager may be hard to deal with. But many teenagers are trying their best to please parents while they work toward some level of independence. Parents of teenagers ages 15 to 18 are often most concerned about whether their teens will be able to make good decisions. Parents know that the choices children make during the teen years can have an impact on much of their adult lives. It is normal to worry. But the chances are that he or she is going to be okay. Although your child may sometimes have lapses in judgment, know that you do have an effect on what your child decides, even if it doesn't always seem that way. Know that you are not alone in these types of concerns. For example, many parents worry about whether their teenager will: - Resist using alcohol, tobacco, and drugs (including misusing prescription drugs and supplements such as anabolic steroids). Many teens are exposed to these and other substances throughout their teen years. Offer strategies to avoid tobacco, drugs, and alcohol. Set firm, fair, and consistent limits for your teen. Talk about the immediate and long-lasting results of substance use, such as falling grades and poor health during adulthood. Help your teen practice how to respond when a harmful substance is offered, such as stating "No, thanks" and moving on to another subject. Look for community programs led by teens (peer education). And talk to your teen right away if you see signs of substance use. - Focus enough on doing well in school. Typically, teenagers have many distractions. Friends, clubs, sports, and jobs can all compete for time that could be spent completing homework. Show your teenager how to set goals. For example, talk about and write down a goal for the week, month, and year. Help your teen think about the steps that need to be taken to reach the goal. Work with your teen to make a schedule for when to do each step and set rewards for when the goal is achieved. - Drive safely. You can help teach your teen about safe driving. But what a teen does when parents are not around is the unknown. Remind your child often that driving is a huge responsibility that should not be taken lightly. - Feel pressured to have sex. Talk about dating and sex early, before the information is needed. Focus on what makes a relationship healthy, such as trust and respect for each other. Also, kids have easy access to many websites with sexual or pornographic content. Keep the computer in a shared area where you can see what your teen is doing online. - Find a career. Teens need to decide what they want to do as adults to support themselves. Before high school ends, some teens will have a good start on career plans. Most teens start focusing on career plans around age 17 and older. Help your teen find out what interests him or her. Find ways to help your teen talk to people in certain jobs or get experience by working or volunteering. Try to understand the issues your teen faces. Although you may remember some struggles from your own teen years, the issues your teen faces are likely quite different. Stay involved in your teen's life, such as by going to school events and encouraging your teen to bring friends to your house while you are home. You can better see the world from his or her perspective when you are familiar with it. Also, learn to recognize your teen's stress triggers and offer guidance on how to manage the anxiety they may cause. But be careful not to get too caught up in your teen's world. If you try to take too much control, it will likely only make things harder for him or her. Promoting Healthy Growth and Development You can help your teen between the ages of 15 and 18 years by using basic parenting strategies. These include offering open, positive communication while providing clear and fair rules and consistent guidance. Support your teen in developing healthy habits and attitudes, help him or her make wise choices, and offer guidance in how to balance responsibilities. The following are examples of ways to promote healthy growth and development in specific areas. But remember that many growth and development issues overlap. For example, having a healthy body image is important for physical development and emotional development. Use these ideas as a starting point to help your teen make good choices that will help him or her grow into a healthy and happy adult. Promote your teen's physical development by doing the following: - Be aware of changing sleep patterns. Rapidly growing and busy teens need a lot of sleep. The natural sleeping pattern for many teens is to go to bed later at night and sleep in. This can make it hard to get up for school. To help your teen get enough rest, discourage phone and computer use and TV watching after a certain evening hour. - Teach your teen how to take care of his or her skin. Most young people get at least mild acne. Help your teen manage acne with daily facial care and, if needed, medicines. Also have your teen avoid sunbathing and tanning salons. Sunburn can damage a child's skin for a lifetime and put him or her at risk for skin cancer. Studies suggest that UV rays from artificial sources such as tanning beds and sunlamps are just as dangerous as UV rays from the sun. For more information, see the topics Acne and Skin Cancer, Melanoma. - Talk about body image. What teens think about their bodies greatly affects their feelings of self-worth. Stress that healthy eating and exercise habits are most important for the short and long term. Help your teen recognize that television and other media often produce unrealistic images of the ideal body that are not healthy. For more information, see the topic Anorexia Nervosa, Binge Eating Disorder, or Depression in Children and Teens. - Help your teen choose healthy foods. By eating a wide variety of basic foods, your teen can get the nutrients he or she needs for normal growth. And he or she will be well-nourished. Help your teen choose healthy snacks, make wise food choices at fast food restaurants, and not skip meals, especially breakfast. Make a point to eat as many meals together at home as possible. A regular mealtime gives you and your family a chance to talk and relax together. It also helps you and your child to have a positive relationship with food. For more information, see the topic Healthy Eating for Children. - Offer strategies to avoid tobacco, drugs, and alcohol. Set firm, fair, and consistent limits for your child. Help him or her understand the immediate and long-lasting results of substance use, such as falling grades and poor health during adulthood. Practice how to respond when a harmful substance is offered, such as simply stating "No, thanks" and moving on to another subject. If you believe your teenager is using drugs, tobacco, or alcohol, it is important to talk about it. Discuss how he or she gets the alcohol, tobacco, or drugs and in what kind of setting it is used. Seek advice from a doctor if the behavior continues. For more information, see: Promote your teen's healthy emotional and social development by doing the following: - Address problems and concerns. Build trust gradually so your teen will feel safe talking with you about sensitive subjects. When you want to talk with your teen about problems or concerns, schedule a "date" in a private and quiet place. Knowing when and how to interfere in a teen's life is a major ongoing challenge of parenthood. Parents walk a fine line between respecting a teen's need for independence and privacy and making sure that teens do not make mistakes that have lifelong consequences. - Understand the confusion about sexual orientation and gender identity. Sexuality is a core aspect of identity. Hormones, cultural and peer pressures, and fear of being different can cause many teens to question themselves in many areas, including sexual orientation. It is normal during the teen years to have same-sex "crushes." Consider mentioning to your teen that having such an attraction does not mean that these feelings will last. But it is helpful to acknowledge that in some cases, these feelings grow stronger over time rather than fade. - Encourage community service. Both your teen and community members are helped when your teen volunteers. Your teen gets the chance to explore how he or she connects with others. While helping peers, adults, and other people, your teen can gain new skills and new ways of looking at things. He or she can also develop and express personal values and explore career options. Your teen can benefit most by thinking back on the service experience and figuring out what he or she learned from it. - Help your child build a strong sense of self-worth to help him or her act responsibly, cooperate well with others, and have the confidence to try new things. Promote your teen's mental (cognitive) development by doing the following: - Encourage mature ways of thinking. Involve your teen in setting household rules and schedules. Talk about current issues together, whether it be school projects or world affairs. Listen to your teen's opinions and thoughts. Brainstorm different ways to solve problems, and discuss their possible outcomes. Stress that these years provide many opportunities to reinvent and improve themselves. - Offer to help your teen set work and school priorities. Make sure your teen understands the need to schedule enough rest, carve out study time, eat nourishing foods, and get regular physical activity. - Be goal-oriented instead of style-oriented. Your teen may not complete a task the way you would. This is okay. What is important is that the task gets done. Let your teen decide how to complete work, and always assume that he or she wants to do a good job. - Continue to enjoy music, art, reading, and creative writing with your teen. For example, encourage your teen to listen to a variety of music, play a musical instrument, draw, or write a story. These types of activities can help teens learn to think and express themselves in new ways. Teens may discover a new or stronger interest, which may help their self-esteem. Remind your teen that he or she doesn't need to be an expert. Simply learning about and experimenting with art can help your teen think in more abstract ways and pull different concepts together. Promote your teen's sensory and motor development by doing the following: - Encourage daily exercise. Exercise can help your teen feel good, have a healthy heart, and stay at a healthy weight. Help your teen to build up an exercise routine slowly. For example, plan a short daily walk to start. Have your teen take breaks from computer, cell phone, and TV use and be active instead. Violence and teens - Prevent teen violence by being a good role model. It's important to model and talk to your child about healthy relationships, because dating abuse is common among teens. For example, talk calmly during a disagreement with someone else. Help your teen come up with ways to defuse potentially violent situations, such as making a joke or acknowledging another person's point of view. Praise him or her for avoiding a confrontation. You might say "I'm proud of you for staying calm." Also, to help your child limit exposure to violence, closely supervise the websites and computer games that he or she uses. For more information on teen violence, see the topics Bullying, Domestic Abuse, and/or Anger, Hostility, and Violent Behavior. - Reduce the risk of teen suicide and recognize the warning signs. If your teen shows signs of depression, such as withdrawing from others and being sad much of the time, try to get him or her to talk about it. Call your doctor if your teen ever mentions suicide or if you are concerned for his or her safety. When To Call Talk to your teen's doctor if you are concerned about your teen's health or other issues. For example, you may have concerns about your teen: - Having a significant delay in physical or sexual development, such as if sexual development has not begun by age 15. - Becoming sexually active. Teens who are sexually active need to be educated about birth control and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and screened for STIs. - Being overweight or underweight. - Having severe acne. - Having problems with attention or learning. Call the doctor or a mental health professional if your teen develops behavioral problems or signs of mental health problems. These may include: - Expressing a lack of self-worth or talking about suicide. - Acting physically aggressive. - Regularly experiencing severe mood swings, such as being happy and excited one minute and sad and depressed the next. - A significant change in appetite, weight, or eating behaviors. These may signal an eating disorder. - Dropping out of school or failing classes. - Having serious relationship problems with friends and family that affect home or school life. - Showing a lack of interest in normal activities and withdrawing from other people. - Seeking or having sex with multiple partners. It's important for your teen to continue to have routine checkups. These checkups allow the doctor to detect problems and to make sure your teen is growing and developing as expected. The doctor will do a physical exam and ask questions about your teen's social, academic, relationship, and mental health status. Your teen's immunization record will be reviewed, and needed immunizations should be given at this time. For more information on immunizations, see: Teens also need to have regular dental checkups and need to be encouraged to brush and floss regularly. For more information about dental checkups, see the topic Basic Dental Care. Teens need an eye exam every 1 to 2 years. Starting in the teen years, most doctors like to spend some time alone with your child during the visit. State laws vary about teens' rights to medical privacy. Most doctors will clarify expectations. Ideally, you will all agree that anything your teen discusses privately with the doctor will remain confidential, with few exceptions. This gives your teen an opportunity to talk to the doctor about any issue they may not feel comfortable sharing with you. - Body Piercing Problems - Date Rape Drugs - Energy and Sports Drinks - Family Life Cycle - Growth and Development, Ages 11 to 14 Years - Health Screening: Finding Health Problems Early - Helping Your Child Avoid Tobacco, Drugs, and Alcohol - Learning Disabilities - Normal Menstrual Cycle - Physical Activity for Children and Teens - Protecting Your Skin From the Sun - Stress Management - Suicidal Thoughts or Threats Current as of: September 20, 2021 Author: Healthwise Staff Susan C. Kim MD - Pediatrics John Pope MD - Pediatrics Kathleen Romito MD - Family Medicine To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org. © 1995-2022 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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Environmentalism or environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding concerns for environmental protection and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the impact of changes to the environment on humans, animals, plants and non-living matter. While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. Ecologism is more commonly used in continental European languages while ‘environmentalism’ is more commonly used in English but the words have slightly different connotations. Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and/or improvement of the natural environment, and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution or protect plant and animal diversity. For this reason, concepts such as a land ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology, and the biophilia hypothesis figure predominantly. At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of sustainability. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by the color green, but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries for the tactic known as greenwashing. Environmentalism is opposed by anti-environmentalism, which says that the Earth is less fragile than some environmentalists maintain, and portrays environmentalism as overreacting to the human contribution to climate change or opposing human advancement. Environmentalism denotes a social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and ecosystems. An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behavior. This may include supporting practices such as informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in renewable resources, improved efficiencies in the materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as Ecological economics and renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life. In various ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, throughout history. For example, in Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Earlier in the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s commanded his army to “Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire,” and “Slay not any of the enemy’s flock, save for your food.” Arabic medical treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, including pollution, were written by Al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Early environmental legislation At the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes (H. G. Wells 1918). The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain’s Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under supervision. In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations. During the Spanish Revolution, anarchist controlled territories undertook several environmental reforms which were possibly the largest in the world at the time. Daniel Guerin notes that anarchist territories would diversify crops, extend irrigation, initiate reforestation, start tree nurseries and helped establish nudist colonies. Once there was a link discovered between air pollution and tuberculosis, the CNT shut down several metal factories. It was, however, only under the impetus of the Great Smog of 1952 in London, which almost brought the city to a standstill and may have caused upward of 6,000 deaths that the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed and airborne pollution in the city was first tackled. Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives (such as installing gas fires), or for those who preferred, to burn coke instead (a byproduct of town gas production) which produces minimal smoke. ‘Smoke control areas’ were introduced in some towns and cities where only smokeless fuels could be burnt and power stations were relocated away from cities. The act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism, and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to people’s quality of life. The late 19th century also saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws. The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a ‘Close-time’ for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world. First environmental movements Early interest in the environment was a feature of the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. The poet William Wordsworth travelled extensively in the Lake District and wrote that it is a “sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy”. Systematic efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution. Starting with the formation of the Commons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation. Robert Hunter, solicitor for the society, worked with Hardwicke Rawnsley, Octavia Hill, and John Ruskin to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoilt valleys of Newlands and Ennerdale. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District). Peter Kropotkin wrote about ecology in economics, agricultural science, conservation, ethology, criminology, urban planning, geography, geology and biology. He observed in Swiss and Siberian glaciers that they had been slowly melting since the dawn of the industrial revolution, possibly making him one of the first predictors for climate change. He also observed the damage done from deforestation and hunting. Kropotkin’s writings would become influential in the 1970s and became a major inspiration for the intentional community movement as well as his ideas becoming the basis for the theory of social ecology. In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the “National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty” was formally inaugurated in 1894. The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation. and the bill was passed in August 1907. An early “Back-to-Nature” movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin, William Morris, George Bernard Shaw and Edward Carpenter, who were all against consumerism, pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world. The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed the rural life as a mythical Utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it… we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables… we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it. Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the “taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality”, were enthusiastically revived, including the Morris dance and the maypole. These ideas also inspired various environmental groups in the UK, such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, established in 1889 by Emily Williamson as a protest group to campaign for greater protection for the indigenous birds of the island. The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton. By 1900, public support for the organisation had grown, and it had over 25,000 members. The Garden city movement incorporated many environmental concerns into its urban planning manifesto; the Socialist League and The Clarion movement also began to advocate measures of nature conservation. The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples’ relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature’s inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism. In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the American bison. The death of the last passenger pigeon as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. In 1916 the National Park Service was founded by US President Woodrow Wilson. The Forestry Commission was set up in 1919 in Britain to increase the amount of woodland in Britain by buying land for afforestation and reforestation. The commission was also tasked with promoting forestry and the production of timber for trade. During the 1920s the Commission focused on acquiring land to begin planting out new forests; much of the land was previously used for agricultural purposes. By 1939 the Forestry Commission was the largest landowner in Britain. During the 1930s the Nazis had elements that were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife, and took several measures to ensure their protection. In 1933 the government created a stringent animal-protection law and in 1934, Das Reichsjagdgesetz (The Reich Hunting Law) was enacted which limited hunting. Several Nazis were environmentalists (notably Rudolf Hess), and species protection and animal welfare were significant issues in the regime. In 1935, the regime enacted the “Reich Nature Protection Act” (Reichsnaturschutzgesetz). The concept of the Dauerwald (best translated as the “perpetual forest”) which included concepts such as forest management and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curb air pollution. In 1949, A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold was published. It explained Leopold’s belief that humankind should have moral respect for the environment and that it is unethical to harm it. The book is sometimes called the most influential book on conservation. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and beyond, photography was used to enhance public awareness of the need for protecting land and recruiting members to environmental organizations. David Brower, Ansel Adams and Nancy Newhall created the Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series, which helped raise public environmental awareness and brought a rapidly increasing flood of new members to the Sierra Club and to the environmental movement in general. “This Is Dinosaur” edited by Wallace Stegner with photographs by Martin Litton and Philip Hyde prevented the building of dams within Dinosaur National Monument by becoming part of a new kind of activism called environmentalism that combined the conservationist ideals of Thoreau, Leopold and Muir with hard-hitting advertising, lobbying, book distribution, letter writing campaigns, and more. The powerful use of photography in addition to the written word for conservation dated back to the creation of Yosemite National Park, when photographs persuaded Abraham Lincoln to preserve the beautiful glacier carved landscape for all time. The Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series galvanized public opposition to building dams in the Grand Canyon and protected many other national treasures. The Sierra Club often led a coalition of many environmental groups including the Wilderness Society and many others. After a focus on preserving wilderness in the 1950s and 1960s, the Sierra Club and other groups broadened their focus to include such issues as air and water pollution, population concern, and curbing the exploitation of natural resources. In 1962, Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was published. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. The resulting public concern led to the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book’s legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth (US), as well as notable local organizations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council, which was founded in 1967. In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the counterculture movement. The world’s first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the United Tasmania Group Tasmania, Australia and the Values Party of New Zealand. The first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the Ecology Party, and then the Green Party. Protection of the environment also became important in the developing world; the Chipko movement was formed in India under the influence of Mohandas Gandhi and they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term “tree huggers”). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan “ecology is permanent economy” were very influential. Another milestone in the movement was the creation of an Earth Day. Earth Day was first observed in San Francisco and other cities on March 21, 1970, the first day of spring. It was created to give awareness to environmental issues. On March 21, 1971, United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of a spaceship Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the ecosystem services the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network, and is celebrated in more than 175 countries every year. The UN’s first major conference on international environmental issues, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference), was held on June 5–16, 1972. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics. By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The Back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. In 1979, James Lovelock, a British scientist, published Gaia: A new look at life on Earth, which put forth the Gaia hypothesis; it proposes that life on earth can be understood as a single organism. This became an important part of the Deep Green ideology. Throughout the rest of the history of environmentalism there has been debate and argument between more radical followers of this Deep Green ideology and more mainstream environmentalists. 21st century and beyond Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as global warming, overpopulation and genetic engineering. Research demonstrates a precipitous decline in the US public’s interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern. Americans are less likely be actively participating in an environmental movement or organization and more likely to identify as “unsympathetic” to an environmental movement than in 2000. This is likely a lingering factor of the Great Recession in 2008. Since 2005, the percentage of Americans agreeing that the environment should be given priority over economic growth has dropped 10 points, in contrast, those feeling that growth should be given priority “even if the environment suffers to some extent” has risen 12 percent. These numbers point to the growing complexity of environmentalism and its relationship to economics. New forms of ecoactivism Tree sitting is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter being Julia Butterfly Hill, who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest. Sit-in is a form of activism where one or any number of people occupy a place as a form of protest. The tactic can be used to encourage social change, such as the Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest. Before the Syrian Civil War, Rojava had been ecologically damaged by monoculture, oil extraction, damming of rivers, deforestation, drought, topsoil loss and general pollution. The DFNS launched a campaign titled ‘Make Rojava Green Again’ (a parody of Make America Great Again) which is attempting to provide renewable energy to communities (especially solar energy), reforestation, protecting water sources, planting gardens, promoting urban agriculture, creating wildlife reserves, water recycling, beekeeping, expanding public transportation and promoting environmental awareness within their communities. The Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities are firmly environmentalist and have stopped the extraction of oil, uranium, timber and metal from the Lacandon Jungle and stopped the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in farming. The CIPO-RFM has engaged in sabotage and direct action against wind farms, shrimp farms, eucalyptus plantations and the timber industry. They have also set up corn and coffee worker cooperatives and built schools and hospitals to help the local populations. They have also created a network of autonomous community radio stations to educate people about dangers to the environment and inform the surrounding communities about new industrial projects that would destroy more land. In 2001, the CIPO-RFM defeated the construction of a highway that was part of Plan Puebla Panama. The environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. Though the movement is represented by a range of organizations, because of the inclusion of environmentalism in the classroom curriculum, the environmental movement has a younger demographic than is common in other social movements (see green seniors). Environmentalism as a movement covers broad areas of institutional oppression, including for example: consumption of ecosystems and natural resources into waste, dumping waste into disadvantaged communities, air pollution, water pollution, weak infrastructure, exposure of organic life to toxins, mono-culture, anti-polythene drive (jhola movement) and various other focuses. Because of these divisions, the environmental movement can be categorized into these primary focuses: environmental science, environmental activism, environmental advocacy, and environmental justice. Free market environmentalism Free market environmentalism is a theory that argues that the free market, property rights, and tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health and sustainability of the environment. It considers environmental stewardship to be natural, as well as the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors through individual and class action. Evangelical environmentalism is an environmental movement in the United States of America in which some Evangelicals have emphasized biblical mandates concerning humanity’s role as steward and subsequent responsibility for the caretaking of Creation. While the movement has focused on different environmental issues, it is best known for its focus of addressing climate action from a biblically grounded theological perspective. This movement is controversial among some non-Christian environmentalists due to its rooting in a specific religion. Preservation and conservation Environmental preservation in the United States and other parts of the world, including Australia, is viewed as the setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing, often to replace them with new human activities such as tourism and recreation. Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources. Organizations and conferences Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private (NGO). Environmentalist activity exists in almost every country. Moreover, groups dedicated to community development and social justice also focus on environmental concerns. Some US environmental organizations, among them the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund, specialize in bringing lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly useful in that country). Other groups, such as the US-based National Wildlife Federation, the Nature Conservancy, and The Wilderness Society, and global groups like the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, disseminate information, participate in public hearings, lobby, stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for preservation. Statewide nonprofit organizations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council often collaborate with these national organizations and employ similar strategies. Smaller groups, including Wildlife Conservation International, conduct research on endangered species and ecosystems. More radical organizations, such as Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful. While Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a means of bearing witness to environmental wrongs and bringing issues into the public realm for debate, the underground Earth Liberation Front engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of caged or penned animals, and other criminal acts. Such tactics are regarded as unusual within the movement, however. On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (as part of NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In popular culture The popular media have been used to convey conservation messages in the U.S. For instance, the U.S. Forest Service created Smokey the Bear in 1944; he appeared in countless posters, radio and television programs, movies, press releases, and other guises to warn about forest fires. The comic strip Mark Trail, by environmentalist Ed Dodd, began in 1946; it still appears weekly in 175 newspapers. Another example is the children’s animated show Captain Planet and the Planeteers, created by Ted Turner and Barbara Pyle in 1989 to inform children about environmental issues. The show aired for six seasons and 113 episodes, in 100 countries worldwide from 1990 to 1996. In 1974, Spokane, State of Washington, became the smallest city ever to host a World’s Fair. From Saturday, May 4, to Sunday, November 3, 1974, Spokane hosted Expo 74, the first world’s fair to focus on the environment. The theme of Expo 74 was “Celebrating Tomorrow’s Fresh New Environment.” FernGully: The Last Rainforest is an animated motion picture released in 1992, which focuses exclusively on the environment. The movie is based on a book under the same title by Diana Young. In 1998, a sequel, FernGully 2: The Magical Rescue, was introduced. Miss Earth is one of the three largest international beauty pageants. (The other two are Miss Universe and Miss World.) Of these three, Miss Earth is the only beauty pageant that promotes Environmental Awareness. The reigning titleholders dedicate their year to promote specific projects and often address issues concerning the environment and other global issues through school tours, tree planting activities, street campaigns, coastal clean ups, speaking engagements, shopping mall tours, media guesting, environmental fair, storytelling programs, eco-fashion shows, and other environmental activities. The Miss Earth winner is the spokesperson for the Miss Earth Foundation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other environmental organizations. The Miss Earth Foundation also works with the environmental departments and ministries of participating countries, various private sectors and corporations, as well as Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF). Another area of environmentalism is to use art to raise awareness about misuse of the environment. One example is trashion, using trash to create clothes, jewelry, and other objects for the home. Marina DeBris is one trashion artist, who focuses on ocean and beach trash to design clothes and for fund raising, education. An alternative view Many environmentalists believe that human interference with ‘nature’ should be restricted or minimised as a matter of urgency (for the sake of life, or the planet, or just for the benefit of the human species), whereas environmental skeptics and anti-environmentalists do not believe that there is such a need. One can also regard oneself as an environmentalist and believe that human ‘interference’ with ‘nature’ should be increased. Nevertheless, there is a risk that the shift from emotional environmentalism into the technical management of natural resources and hazards could decrease the touch of humans with nature, leading to less concern with environment preservation. Source from Wikipedia

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Transitioning to Middle School In the Middle School, the fifth grade is a transitional year when students acclimate to departmentalized learning while enjoying the comfort and familiarity of a single classroom environment. Our program enables students to learn from content specialists as we ease students into a departmentalized structure, which is the norm of the Middle School program. Students in the fifth grade remain in a “home base” classroom throughout the day, but they enjoy the departmentalized experience of Middle School as different teachers who are content specialists visit their classroom to teach them throughout the day. Language Arts and Social Studies meet under an umbrella Humanities program, which enables the teachers of the two subjects to foster cross-curricular development goals. Similarly, for Hebrew, Science, and Chumash, students learn from subject specialists who come to the students in their home base classrooms. The math program is leveled based on skill, as determined by fourth grade teachers and results from the fourth grade Terra Nova standardized tests. General Studies Academic Programs In Middle School Language Arts, reading and writing are critical tools for understanding a wide range of experiences. An introduction to various literary genres and styles helps to cultivate curiosity, empathy, and understanding among our students. By delving into the disparate worlds reflected in our literary choices, our students safely explore the world of the “other” while gaining key skills related to comprehension, self-expression, grammar, and critical thinking. High interest reading along with classical literature selections help to develop a lifelong love of reading and learning among Middle School students. Throughout the grades, a scaffolded writing curriculum is embedded in each unit with the goal of cultivating increased independence and sophistication. Writing, paired with a targeted vocabulary program, allows students to hone their literary voice through various writing styles. In each grade, grammar topics are taught and reinforced in concert with writing instruction as well as through concentrated units to introduce new skills. In fifth grade, the overarching theme of assigned literature is empathy. As students transition to middle school, there are many social and emotional changes that take place. By putting themselves in the shoes of another, students learn to have an understanding of, and sensitivity towards, the feelings of others. Through the use of high-interest fiction and nonfiction selections, students begin to discover the pleasure of reading for enjoyment. Each unit focuses on specific grammar skills and uses vocabulary words directly from the literature. As the year progresses, students work towards gaining independence in the writing process, with a strong focus on outlining. Each unit culminates in a writing assignment that focuses on gaining an understanding of specific writing tools. The sixth grade Language Arts curriculum focuses on character development and features literary selections with similarly aged main characters. Despite the wide range of diverse experiences and challenges reflected in each piece of literature, for the students, each character moves from being remote to relatable through the identification of shared realities and perspectives. By noting these similarities, students gain a deep sense of empathy for the “other” as well as an ability to recognize point of view. Each unit includes both expository and creative writing focused on including explicit details, citing examples, choosing vivid vocabulary, and ultimately using textual evidence. Throughout the year, students work on both the form and function of their sentences and paragraphs, moving from single paragraph responses to multi-paragraph essays. Students practice self-expression and increase writing stamina through myriad writing assignments. Previously learned grammar topics, including parts of speech and types of sentences, are reviewed and new topics are introduced to shepherd the development of more sophisticated writing. The seventh grade Language Arts curriculum focuses on identifying theme and author’s purpose in literature. Through encounters with the challenging situations faced by the characters in each of the literary selections, the students evaluate the author’s perspective, the characters’ varied perspectives, and the student’s own unique assessment of the messages gleaned from the text. With an emphasis on integrating textual evidence and weaving direct citations into expository writing, the students draw on their mastery of outlining skills to organize well-articulated arguments and substantiate claims. Each unit includes both expository and creative writing focused on increasing sophistication and complexity of sentences, using quotations correctly and effectively, and adding smooth transitions between ideas to establish flow in the writing. Students continue to practice self-expression and develop writing stamina through myriad writing assignments. Previously learned grammar topics are reviewed and new topics are introduced to shepherd the development of more sophisticated writing. Throughout the year, students work on evaluating their own writing to check for effectiveness, improving their self-editing skills, and increasing independence in writing. The eighth grade Language Arts curriculum explores the human condition and the plight of "The Other"-- which is coupled with daily class discussions created specifically to inspire critical thinking and encourage positive methods of communication. As each student crafts increasingly complex written pieces throughout the year, his or her growing writer's portfolio becomes a testament to the immense intellectual, psychological, and emotional growth sustained in the eighth grade school year. Throughout the course of the year, students compose multiple, literature-based expository essays; engage in varied creative writing and project-based learning assignments; and receive individualized writing advice and feedback from their teacher as they continue to grow their skills as thinkers and writers. JKHA Middle School teachers seek to foster students’ appreciation of mathematics by building on previous concepts to ensure an in-depth understanding of all new material. We strive for our students to gain mastery of each topic, enabling them to model real-world applications and problem-solve by incorporating all previously acquired knowledge and skills. Upon advancement from middle school, students will have developed a strong foundation of their general math skills, as well as competence in using a variety of problem-solving techniques, determining the best strategies for solving word problems, estimating the reasonableness and effectiveness of solutions, and the skills needed to perform successfully on different types of formal and informal assessments. The fifth grade math curriculum lends itself to having students make sense of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems and persevere in solving them. After solving the problems, students are required to explain their reasoning. Real-world applications of problems are introduced throughout every lesson. They are taught that there are numerous ways to solve math problems and that they can use different tools to come to an answer. Estimation is introduced at the beginning of every chapter to infuse the sense that student’s actual answers can be compared to their estimated answer to check for reasonableness. Overall, students begin the year by understanding the place value system. They learn how to write and interpret numerical expressions and analyze patterns and relationships. Towards the middle of the year, students apply and extend their previous understanding of multiplication, division and fractions. In sixth grade, the curriculum focuses on encouraging persistence, critical thinking, and applying what is learned in the classroom to real-life problems. Specifically, the year begins with the properties of whole numbers and decimals, the order of operations, and all operations with decimals. Following this, are the very crucial components of number theory, including such topics as divisibility, prime factorization, least common multiple, and greatest common factor. These are the building blocks to all operations involving fractions, including simplifying, comparing, and converting fractions and decimals and vice versa. Pre-algebra is incorporated into the sixth-grade curriculum, with such topics as evaluating expressions, solving one/two-step equations, and simplifying algebraic expressions using the distributive property and combining like terms. Integers are also studied, to provide the framework for 7th grade, including comparing and ordering, opposites, absolute value, and the coordinate plane. The study of ratios and unit rates is followed by solving proportions. This leads to the concept of percent and many real-world applications such as discounts, tax, tip, and interest. Geometric concepts are also included in the curriculum. Topics covered are area and perimeter of triangles and parallelograms, the volume of three-dimensional figures such as prisms, cones are pyramids, measuring and creating angles, similarity, and congruence of figures. Throughout the year, in addition to simply computing solutions, we seek to encourage students to justify, explain, and defend their reasoning. Our goal is to promote number sense and build the ability to see the reasonableness of their results. Lastly, we model an environment where all mistakes are valued and just viewed as another experience in the learning process. The seventh grade math program concentrates on analyzing proportional relationships and further developing problem-solving skills in order to solve real-world situations. The application and extension of previous understandings of operations with fractions and rational numbers along with the recognition of relationships between fractions, decimals, and percents are covered as well. Students are instructed on how to draw, construct, and describe geometrical figures in addition to exploring the relationships between them. Measurement skills in the US Customary and Metric systems are advanced. Emphasis is given to working collaboratively in group situations as well as independently, taking responsibility and ownership of assignments in both cases. Specific concepts covered include integers, rational numbers, equations, inequalities, ratios, rates, proportions, percents, geometry, area including surface and volume, analysis of data, and probability. In Pre-Algebra and Algebra 1, the overarching goals are to recognize, interpret, communicate, and use different strategies when solving multi-step problems. Students continue to develop the necessary skills to employ the perseverance and patience necessary to solve these more complex problems and recognize how these situations can be applied to solving real-world situations. The skills taught in Pre-Algebra continue through Algebra 1, where students gain a deeper understanding of the following concepts. Throughout the course, students use algebraic transformations to solve multi-step equations and word problems involving integers and rational numbers, apply their understanding of ratios and proportions to solve percent problems, simplify algebraic expressions with positive, negative and zero exponents and simplify and solve square roots. In pre-algebra, students develop the skills needed to graph linear equations, including solving equations to graph points on a line and finding slope. Then in Algebra 1, students use these skills to solve systems of linear equations. Additionally, students discover how to add, subtract, multiply and factor polynomials. In terms of math enrichment at JKHA, we are proud of our students’ participation in many math competitions, including Mathematical Olympiads, New Jersey Math League Contest and Kushner's own, Math Masters Tournament. The fifth graders are learning science this year following a curriculum known as STC- Science and Technology Concepts, designed by Carolina Biological Company. The curriculum is designed to enhance critical thinking and scientific inquiry by conducting many experiments to reinforce the scientific knowledge students learn. They begin the year by covering a unit on Matter. This unit covers concepts such as density, chemistry and the water cycle. Students experiment with different objects to understand the relationship between mass and volume. Students conclude the unit with learning how matter can be changed by physical or chemical means. The next module covered is known as Ecology, which is when students get to build their own self-sustaining ecosystem with plants and living organisms. They then conduct experiments demonstrating the negative effects of pollution on their ecosystems. Students learn how one organism can directly impact the ecosystem in which it lives. Students complete the unit with extensive exposure to all the different types of ecosystems around the world, known as biomes. As a concluding assessment, students research and create a diorama depicting the specific biome which interests them. The last part of the year is spent on discovering the dark depths of space. Students learn the planets of our solar system, along with meteoroids, comets and stars. This unit bridges the scientific curriculum from fifth to sixth grade. The sixth-grade science curriculum focuses on space science, environmental science and Earth science. Students are introduced to the physics and the chemistry connected with space science. They explore Newton’s three laws of motion to figure out how things move. Students investigate small and large changes in different layers of Earth and discover how the disruptions affect the environment where we live. Specifically, students learn about plate tectonics, understanding how the shape and position of continents, earthquakes, and volcanoes explain the changes that are found in the Earth. As they learn about environmental science, they investigate the impact of humans on the environment and figure out solutions that could be applied at various levels that would impact individuals, homes and schools. Throughout each unit, students develop the following critical thinking and processing skills: making inferences, communicating using written expression, classification of information, experimenting, collecting and recording data, note taking, as well as problem solving. In the seventh grade, students begin the study of biology by learning about cells, the fundamental building blocks of unicellular and multicellular life. They discover just how incredible the cell is by studying many of its important functions including transport, respiration, photosynthesis, and cell division. Students become familiar with the microscope as they view onion, cheek cells, and unicellular organisms in pond water. Students are also introduced into the world of nutrition by studying just how the body uses organic compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Students gain an understanding of how cells use all different processes and work together to form tissues and organ systems, creating a complex living organism. Eighth-grade science focuses on the worlds of physics and chemistry. Students explore electricity, simple machines, mechanical advantage, work, hydraulics, atomic structure, chemical bonding, and solutions. Each unit culminates with a capstone project, which requires students to apply their learning in a real-life context. Eighth graders complete their year preparing for a science fair, through which they get to design their problem and solution using a “Design Thinking” approach. Middle Schoolers are endlessly fascinated by every aspect of identity. Our Social Studies program is designed to illuminate the connections between personal identity and the history of humankind, focusing on the developments have shaped and continue to influence people and civilizations. The goals of the Middle School Social Studies program include fostering a connection between past and present that is personally meaningful to the students, teaching students to recognize the influence of past civilizations, events, and leaders upon our modern lives, and encouraging students to analyze how decisions made today, like those of the past, may affect the generations to come. As the school’s mission emphasizes empowering students to “analyze, create, and seek out new intellectual challenges,” the Social Studies program provides students with the opportunity to analyze the past and its influence, create meaningful connections to the material, and seek new intellectual challenges in the form of research, projects, and formal assessments. The Social Studies curriculum for fifth grade is the first half of a two-year academic program that culminates in sixth grade. In fifth grade, the students embark upon a journey through Ancient Civilizations, in which they explore the beginning and legacies of the Fertile Crescent civilizations, Egypt, and Greece. Additionally, students examine geography, chronology, and the foundation of civilization dating back to the Prehistoric era. Using project-based learning, students engage deeply in the units covered. Additionally, there is a heavy emphasis upon skill development in the course, especially in the areas of writing, organization, test taking, listening, note-taking, and critical thinking. The year culminates in the Legacy Project where students embark upon a multifaceted research project. In sixth grade, students continue to study ancient civilizations, picking up on where they left off in fifth grade as they explore the civilizations of India, China, Greece and Rome over the course of their study. Wherever possible, Jewish history is incorporated into units to illustrate the simultaneity of Jewish history parallel to the ancient civilizations covered. Additionally, during the study of Rome, students learn about Christianity and the way in which it specifically impacted Judaea and the fall of the Second Temple. Over the course of the year, students complete multiple independent research projects and bi-monthly current events assignments to foster their growth as critical and analytical historians. Students are assessed based on written evaluations, class participation, homework assignments, and both individual and group projects. As the students embark on their middle school journey through history, so too do they begin to determine the role of geography on the progress of a civilization’s development as well as how to analyze critical events and people in a given ancient civilization and determine the extent of their legacy within and beyond that civilization. The seventh grade Social Studies curriculum encompasses the period of American colonization through the Civil War in American history, from 1591-1865. In this course, in addition to learning the factual information about the historical events, pivotal leaders, and accompanying terminology of the time periods covered, students learn to analyze the historical significance of individual events, people, and terms both contextually and in the present day. In addition, students draw connections between their work in sixth grade ancient civilizations and the seventh grade American history class. Students are assessed on their notes, written evaluations, group and individual projects, and research-based historical fiction papers. In seventh grade, students explore and sharpen their research skills, using both library databases and texts. Additionally, students examine critical events in American history and evaluate their broader historical significance over the course of American history, internationally, and currently. In the eighth grade, students investigate United States history from Reconstruction to the Cold War era and beyond. A thematic approach to the history of that century includes the study of industrialization, the Progressive Era, World War I and the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression and the New Deal, World War ll, and the Cold War and post-Cold War eras. The curriculum focuses heavily on academic writing skills in the form of Document Based Questions (DBQ) and analytical historical writing.The eighth grade academic year ends with a rigorous student-driven research project, through which students examine a current political issue, with their research focusing on how that issue impacts the contemporary American landscape. At JKHA Middle School, we believe that every student should understand technology and become adept at using it properly. To that end, teachers in both General and Judaic Studies alike strive to incorporate technology into at least one project each semester, encouraging students to master and use computer skills in real-life situations. Students working on papers for Language Arts or Social Studies, for example, must master Microsoft Word. As students explore research topics in their Social Studies classes, they learn how to utilize online databases as they embark on academic research. Assignments in math call for competency in Microsoft Excel, while projects in science require a keen understanding of PowerPoint. Keyboarding skills are essential in all classes, and especially to the composition of a Hebrew text for the eighth grade yearbook. Students graduate from eighth grade knowing how to use—and when to use—appropriate technology, as well as how to evaluate Internet sources and safely surf the Internet. In addition, the eighth grade students participate in a twelve-week computer applications module. The course asks students to own, operate, and market their own professional teams. Students create logos, design t-shirts, produce advertisements and more, using the Microsoft Office package including Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Publisher and Access, as they start up their new “teams.” As they create and market their teams, students use, improve and grow their computer skills and proficiency. Judaic Studies Academic Programs In Middle School, students divide their Tanach studies between Chumash and Navi. The goal of the overall program is for students to develop independent reading and comprehension skills while learning to value and appreciate the subject matter. To this end, the curriculum places a heavy emphasis on mastery of key vocabulary words and grammar skills, partnered with life lessons that emerge from the text. Students are encouraged to ask questions and think analytically, focusing on a multitude of classic commentaries with different literary styles. They do this as individuals, working on project creations and personal skill-building, and as learning teams, engaging in the text, asking each other questions and considering multiple perspectives. The Chumash curriculum builds on the skills and knowledge accumulated in Lower School. Starting with the study of Sefer Shemot in 5th grade, students embrace intensive study of the peshat, the simple meaning of the text, and build upon this understanding with multiple levels of commentary. The 6th grade curriculum introduces students to the first half of Sefer Bamidbar, inviting them to consider the challenges the Jewish people faced in the desert. The second half of Bamidbar and Sefer Devarim are the focus of the 7th and 8th grades. Each year, Middle School students focus on the study of a new book of Navi. The 5th grade studies Sefer Shoftim, considering the challenges of establishing a holy society. The 6th grade encounters the many models of Jewish leadership presented in Sefer Shmuel Aleph. Shmuel Bet and Melachim Aleph complete the 7th and 8th grade study, inviting students to study the infancy of the Jewish monarchy. • Students engage in a Middah K’neged Middah study of the Makkot, allowing them to research plagues on an in-depth level, to value the consequences of offenders’ actions, and to teach life lessons to peers. • Students prepare a Pesach Haggadah throughout the year as they learn Shemot to enhance their study of the Exodus story. • In Navi, students learn to study moments of history as Hashem’s responses to human action. Students ask the questions that our forefathers asked: How should our actions and attitudes change because of what happens in the world around us? • Fifth graders strengthen their connection to Eretz Yisrael through the Eretz Chemda Distance Learning Program. This interactive course teaches the mitzvot of the Land of Israel in a way that brings their theory and practice to life in an exciting, user-friendly and experiential format. • Like their ancestors in Sefer Bamidbar, students physically practice “traveling through the desert” in groups, utilizing the same commands that the Jews followed in the desert. • Students participate in class debates revolving around controversies that arise from the text. After researching multiple commentaries and considering different points of view, students master debate skills for in-class projects. • After learning about the mitzvah, 6th graders engage in a Hafrashat Challah project, learning how to bake their own challot and to make mitzvot meaningful at home. • Students act as on-site reporters, retelling the story of the death of Goliat from a personal perspective, offering students the chance to consider the lives of Navi characters in an up-close manner. Seventh and Eighth Grades • Students engage in debates and trials, closely evaluating Biblical characters and examining their personalities from multiple perspectives. • In an Aseret HaDibrot Self-Study, students research individual commandments, studying both the text of the Chumash as well as classic commentaries. After mastering their topics, students become the teachers of that commandment to the rest of their class. • Bilaam Project- Students work in groups to learn the passukim and commentaries describing Bilaam’s journey to curse Bnei Yisrael while thinking critically about Billam's motives and Hashem’s reaction. • Students create digital Navi Portfolios where they record and personalize the life lessons that can be gleaned from the Navi. • Students participated in a Mikdash Me’at program, through which they used the building of the Beit Hamikdash as a model for creating their own ideal shuls while considering the purpose of a shul and how we can make our shuls places that reflect that purpose. • The Chumash Vocabulary League presents vocabulary acquisition in a fun and engaging manner with competitive play throughout the grades. Middle School study of Torah She’be’al Peh seeks to enhance students’ Jewish identities as they study texts that are crucial to our heritage. As with Tanach, the Talmud curriculum places great focus on mastery of skills so that students can grow to become independent learners. In addition, the curriculum emphasizes comprehension of practical Jewish law found in the Talmud. Torah She’be’al Peh study often incorporates chavruta (partner) learning, in which students work in cooperative pairs to analyze the material during the first stages of a unit, answering questions, defining terms, and learning the content of the unit. In this form of cooperative learning, students are encouraged to attempt to parse texts independently; differences of opinion amongst the partners require students to present the viability of their respective opinions, leading to either a stronger understanding of the position or the abandonment of a failed approach. Considering and accepting new ideas is a key student skill. Study of Torah She’be’al Peh in the Middle School is divided into two parts. In the 5th and 6th grades, students focus on the study of the Mishnayot of Masechet Brachot. The Mishna curriculum places an emphasis on mastery of practical Jewish law that students encounter on a regular basis, while learning the style of Rabbinic writing and frequently-used terminology. This study is coupled with the historical background of the time period in which the Mishna was created. With Mishna skills fully developed, students then move on to the study of Gemara in 7th and 8th Grades. The Middle School curriculum offers students a glimpse into different areas of the vast Talmud corpus, alternating between the study of Masechet Berachot and Masechet Bava Metzia. These first years of Talmud study emphasize the mastery of key phrases and words, building a strong foundation for future independent learning. The curriculum also creates opportunities for students to explore greater religious issues and questions that arise from the text. • “From Mikra to Mishna” - Students track Jewish laws from the text of the Torah to practical application in modern times. • Students study biographies of the Mishnaic luminaries, focusing on what makes an upstanding Jewish individual. •Students apply their learning of the laws of Shema along with studying the meaning of the prayer to give extra meaning to their 5th-grade specific minyan. • At the conclusion of 6th grade, students participate in their first major siyum (celebration of completion), honoring two years of intensive study. Seventh and Eighth Grades • Students participate in a Shark Tank competition, devising ways to present answers to modern-day halachic questions based on the text of the Talmud. • Learning comes to life with the use of Torah Live, providing a digital visualization of the halachot students encounter. • The Gemara Vocabulary League invites seventh and eighth graders to compete with one another using key words and phrases from their Talmud study. • Through the use of visuals from Gemara Academy, students diagram the flow of the Gemara and use a concrete, organized method for encountering the abstract thinking of Gemara logic. • Use of the new and innovative Bright Beginnings Workbooks gives teachers multiple ways to express the ideas of the gemara in a "user friendly" and "kid friendly" manner. One of the goals of the JKHA Middle School is to create a community of Hebrew speakers who are able to converse in Ivrit, read Ivrit books, understand articles written in Israeli newspapers, develop a better understanding of Tanach and learn the culture of Israel. The NETA program, a curriculum initiative in Hebrew language and culture is helping students to attain these goals. JKHA Middle School has been working with the NETA program, established at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem to implement this innovative whole-language approach to instruction. The program enables students to enhance their reading, writing and conversational skills. Unlike more traditional programs that require memorizing grammar or “tachbier” rules, NETA focuses on conversational Hebrew as well as Hebrew literature and grammar. The NETA program is driven by the belief that the mastery of Hebrew will promote students’ understanding of their history, culture, and tradition. Every book in the scope of sequence presents a different theme of interest to middle school students. Topics range from computers and sports to friendship and dreams. Each theme is presented from the perspective of modern Israeli culture, Jewish tradition and general world knowledge. The curriculum includes art, science, mathematics, literature, Midrash, and philosophy. NETA is always intellectually challenging, engaging the students’ thought processes. NETA provides intensive on-going professional development, program assessment and teacher mentoring. Teachers participate in different seminars and workshops throughout the school year and every summer. The NETA program is very carefully monitored and assessed. Assignments, tests, and class work indicate that the program is working and that our students are learning and retaining more Ivrit language skills than ever before. Student evaluations show that they feel more confident replying to teachers in Ivrit and are able to converse with others. Students of NETA retain vocabulary words more readily and comprehend and respond appropriately to instructions given to them in Ivrit. And, test student writing skills have shown their improvement in mastering the language. The evidence of improvement is reflected in student scores on NETA tests. As we continue our work with the NETA program, we expect continued progress and success. Enrichment in Middle School In addition to a full day of engaging learning, students at the JKHA Middle School have many opportunities to engage in extracurricular activities, both during the school day and after hours. Extracurricular enrichment activities offer JKHA students the chance to explore new passions, to deepen their love for learning, to expand social groups and to promote school pride. The 5th Grade learns about artists and the elements of art through projects based lessons. They engage with projects by planning and sketching, and then have the opportunity to work with different types of materials. Students then begin creating their original work, implementing the directions and skills covered through the art program. JKHA Middle School participates in many local Yeshiva Day School leagues and tournaments throughout the year. In addition to sports clinics offered, Middle School teams include: -6th Grade Boys Basketball - 6th Grade Girls Basketball -5th/6th Grade Basketball Clinic Names Not Numbers Creative Writing Club Math Enrichment Program 8th Grade Yearbook NJ Math League JKHA Math Masters Tournament 7th grade E2K Enrichment 5th & 6th Grades Math Enrichment Math Lunch & Learn Parsha and Popcorn Lomdus and Lollipops Pirkei Avot Club

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main idea exercises. Main Idea Worksheets Multiple Choice with Answer Key. Both times are a part of history. by Hedvig updated on January 20, 2022 January 20, 2022 Leave a Comment on Topic Sentence And Main Idea Exercises. Write your main idea and details on this hamburger graphic organizer. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. However, Maxi always got the tricks mixed up. The details are small pieces of information that make the story more interesting. Here are a list of tutorials and practice exercises to help you improve your skills in "finding the MAIN IDEA". Click on the image to view or download the PDF version. 6Finally, make exercise a family activity. Main idea and details are important in all types of texts (literature and informational), as well as in writing. A main idea is the brief summary of the most important concept or concepts in a passage. As a result, answers that quote the passage verbatim are less likely to be correct. Adults tend to eat a lot of pre-made food, but it’s not always healthy. The main idea also called the central idea or main point is the primary concept of a passage. To comprehend text, students must first be able to understand the phonological components of language (that sounds are represented by letters), then they must be able to decode words and read fluently. Provide practice in writing inferred topic sentences to summarise text. main idea, critical thinking, inference, recalling details and sequencing; Has 60 vocabulary exercises in modified Cloze format; contains complete answer keys for comprehension and vocabulary exercises and Includes illustrations. CHAPTER 4 Main Ideas and Supporting Details in Writing 101 to do likewise. Is it well written? Again, it must be a complete sentence. Struggling readers might struggle one of these steps. At such times, many thought that the end of the world was at hand. Main Idea-Middle Grades Worksheet. What's the Main Idea? The main idea of a paragraph is what that paragraph is about. Includes other no prep, hands on main idea activities for third grade or fourth grade students. Use this map to write in the main idea of a paragraph and then give details to support the main idea. So, here is a main idea worksheet suitable for middle schoolers, high schoolers, or above. Students read seven original nonfiction passages and summarize the main idea of each passage. There are usually three basic elements: (1) a topic, (2) a topic sentence, and (3) supporting details. Learn strategies to help students with finding the main idea by asking this question: What is being said about the person, thing, or idea (the topic)?. Read all the passage and find the main idea for us. Our sentence appears to capture the point the author was making, so we have successfully created a main idea from a paragraph whose main idea was unstated. Try this amazing Main Idea Exercises quiz which has been attempted 1584 times by avid quiz takers. Main Idea Details Practice Page Reading Comprehension Lessons Topic Sentences Reading Comprehension Strategies. Designed for third and fourth graders, this main idea worksheet offers a useful framework as students practice reading to learn. Writing a Topic and Main Idea What is the difference between a topic and a main idea? Topic The topic is the general subject of a paragraph or essay. What is the main idea of the story? Events are things that happened in the past. Encourage students to explain their thinking for each correct answer. Fourth Grade Reading Writing Worksheets Identifying The Main Idea Details Main Idea Writing Worksheets Educational Technology Elementary. Main Idea Anchor Chart Free Worksheet Included Teaching Main Idea 4th Grade Reading Reading Main Idea. He supported Abraham Lincoln's freeing of slaves . Doctors recommend we exercise at least two times a week. Main Idea Grade 2: Grades 1-2 (practice make perfect) [Housel, Debra J] on Amazon. Guided Practice: Students are divided into two groups. These worksheets introduce students to identifying the main ideas of a text as well as the details that support those main ideas. The main idea of this passage is that. The main idea is the most important point that the author is making about the topic. Students will read short passages and identify the main idea of each. Synonyms and Antonyms Worksheets. Main idea and supporting details practice exercise. One hundred years ago is in the past. The following collection of worksheets gives students short reading passages and asks them to identify the main idea, central theme, and cause using context . Includes a main idea lesson – An animated PowerPoint slideshow explaining what main idea is and how one may go about identifying it. For each extract write down whether you . Main idea and supporting details practice exercise. Water dripped slowly from one clay pot into another. It not only controls weight, but it combats many . A main idea, main point or central point, is viewed as a general statement that is supported by other material in the paragraph. IXL will track your score, and the questions will automatically increase in difficulty as you improve!. Elizabeth has been involved with tutoring since high school and has a B. Stated Main Idea Practice. Ask them to point out the words that helped them identify main ideas. Identifying main ideas in a central idea worksheet can come easy to good readers as this usually involves a 2 or 3-step process. Pages 9-43 These pages offer practice in identifying main ideas and supporting details. Conclusion To efficiently identify the main idea in a piece of writing, students should first determine what the topic of the text is. (B) is both incorrect-the passage states 100 lbs. Also, students must think of a title for each passage that relates to the main idea of the text. 2005 MAIN IDEAS EXERCISES: Each paragraph is followed by four statements. You've probably heard of the NYSE and NASDAQ but what are their similarities and differences? Join us as we break things down. The class was excited about the pep rally. Main Idea Practice Paragraphs 1-6 Read and think about the following sample paragraphs, in which the main idea sentences are underlined. Free interactive exercises to practice online or. Grade 2 - Main Ideas & Details Worksheets. Drive the scenic Park Loop road in Acadia National Park, spy on moose in Maine Wildlife Park, and eat. Detail Example 2 Students can learn a lot if you review the finished practice pages with them on a regular basis. Reading Main Idea Practice Questions. The topic sentence states the main, or controlling, idea. This, of course, is not limited to just authors as it can apply to anybody wanting to convey the main point. A main idea worksheet about dolphins. The strategies explained in this section are:. They want to ride on the big fire truck. ~~~~~ The main idea of a story is what the whole story is mostly about. Finding the main idea of a paragraph or essay isn't as easy as it seems, especially if you're out of practice. Throughout history, a solar eclipse has been a fearful experience, especially in the days when its cause was not understood. They are given two minutes to explore the box and come up with the ‘main idea’ and ‘details’ of the box. Use this exercise to help you find the supporting ideas in a passage. Main Idea of Informational Text - The goal here is to master a nonfiction setting and find those facts or pieces of evidence that we can make our inferences from. 7Suggest that the whole family go hiking or camping together, take up early morning jogging, or join the Y at the group rate. The slideshow explains main idea and how to identify it in a text. People often refer to taxes in terms of their being much too high. 4 Main Ideas and Supporting Details in Writing. Children will read five short passages, then choose the main idea and highlight a supporting detail for each. Valentine's Day Main Idea and Details #2 Group sort. Thông tin: However, most people do not know how to exercise properly… Exercising the right way is important for people who are worried about their health . Learners will read the paragraph, then choose the main idea. You can mention it in the beginning of the paragraphs, and you can give it in the end of the paragraphs. Read the story and find the main idea. Make sure to bookmark this page because we will have many more for you shortly. You will have to engage them by using powerful and influential words. Often, the topic sentence is the first sentence, but sometimes you will find it in the middle or at . Main ideas/topic sentences are general sentences as opposed to specific ones. The main idea, also called the central idea or main point, is the primary concept of a passage. They are intended to exercise skills. Have students write short paragraph essays, about 100 to 200 words each, on 10 different topics including William Shakespeare, immigration, innocence and experience, nature, the right-to-life debate, social movements, novelist and short story writer Nathaniel Hawthorne, the digital divide, internet regulation, and classroom technology. Note, one sentence is the main idea, the other two sentences supporting details. Take our free Main Idea practice test questions to brush up. can also wave his paw to greet people. Multiple Choice: Choose the main idea of the paragraphs. John-Patrick Morarescu / Getty Images. 2)Give the students many opportunities to read texts and answer questions about main topic or main idea. Carefully read each paragraph and identify the narrowed topic. What is the main idea of the whole passage? a. Circle the sentence which describes what the short text is "mostly about". It states the purpose and sets the direction of the paragraph or passage. The rest of the sentences are details that support the main idea. The main idea contains the primary point or concept that an author wants to communicate to his readers. It will tell you how express your ideas to your readers. James Fisk did not have a long life, but that did not stop him from making a great deal of money. Here is a double-sided main idea worksheet. The first question asks students to identify the main idea, while the second question requires students to focus on supporting details. G2 G3 G4 G5 Reading February Holidays language arts main idea/details Valentines Day winter. The main idea is usually reinforced by a series of other points or details which support the premise of. Topic Sentence And Main Idea Exercises. Students will practice defining and identifying the main idea, topic, and supporting details. Finding the Main Idea Worksheets To Print: How to Determine It - We look at one of the classic science lessons in elementary school. These summarising worksheets and text passages help to teach children to separate the main idea/s from the supporting detail. Then select the author's sentence containing the main idea. The main idea of a paragraph is what the whole paragraph is mostly about. This concise presentation includes five practice problems after the lesson. Find the title before you read the passage. Comment on % (username)s's post “Finding the main idea is ”. This is another exercise where you have to identify the main idea. Order results: Most popular first Newest first. By studying history we can learn about what happened in the past and think about how to do things in the future! 1. LASSI Worksheet: Selecting Main Ideas (SMI) Name:. Search Printable 5th Grade Identifying the Main Idea Worksheets. Read the passage below and answer question 1. This article contains tips and strategies for approaching these questions. To start practicing, just click on any link. Free, printable main idea worksheets to develop strong reading comprehension skills. Summarising worksheets and text passages to encourage readers to evaluate information & separate the main idea/s from the supporting detail. Pick at least 3 resources to learn about Main Idea. This activity was created by a Quia Web subscriber. LASSI Worksheet: Selecting Main Ideas (SMI). Remember to make sure the main idea is covers the entire paragraph, not just one sentence. Different cultural values affect the way people perceive reality. Main Idea worksheets and online exercises. Identifying the Main Idea learners read the common abbreviations used in engineering drawings and then test their knowledge in three short exercises. The entire text of "Teaching Main Idea Practice Bundle: Nonfiction" with embedded questions aligned to Common Core and Depth of Knowledge (DOK) as well as . students how to identify the subject, main idea and details of a passage. The main idea is the importance of potatoes in America. If one of your major details talks about something else, you'll have to rethink the implied main idea so that it is supported by all of them. The main idea ties all of the sentences in the paragraph or article together. Also explore over 14 similar quizzes in this category. The supporting details describe the main idea. The structure of a paragraph is not complex. Identifying the main idea of the story: Reading Strategies. In a hurry? Browse our pre-made printable worksheets library with . These Reading comprehension worksheets are aimed towards providing an overview of Main Idea . ¾ Paragraph One It is often said that lightning never strikes twice in the same place, but this isn't true. Which of the following best represents the main idea of this passage? A. Immigrants have moved to Chicago. A speaker from each group presents the ‘main idea’ to the class. “Main idea” questions are not merely testing your ability to recognize words from the passage but require you to make a leap from concrete to abstract. Have students use the instructions on page 16 to play the game. Complete the Exit Ticket at the end of the playlist. Browse Scholastic printable worksheets on finding the main idea and details in a text. This slideshow covers main idea in a variety of ways: Having students think about what details would be included in different books based on a book title. Great for teaching writing with opening and closing sentences. The main idea is usually reinforced by a series of other points or details which support the premise of the main idea. Main Idea & Supporting Details. It’s a complete sentence that includes a whole idea. Writer River | Writing Techniques and English Exercises. Provide practice underlining explicit topic sentences when given. It represents the essential point that the author is trying to convey. To find the main idea, ask yourself, "What is it about?" Please choose the sentence that is the main idea of each paragraph. Matt wants to hold the big hose and spray water on the fires to put them out. Learn how to spot author main ideas and boost your reading test scores. Main idea – reading comprehension exercises for grade 2. Each group is given a box of related items to examine. Practice A parent or tutor should read along with the student, helping as needed. It is the central point that an author is trying to get across to the reader. The Main Idea worksheets are available for grade 3 to grade 8. o Pathologists identify four different stages of cancer in the body. by Richard on March 9, 2022 March 9, 2022 Leave a Comment on Topic Sentence And Main Idea Exercises. Good reading tool for all levels. The main idea is the central, or most important, idea in a paragraph or passage. The main idea of the paragraph is: a. Reading Main Idea Practice Questions. They will need to get their hands on real informational texts in book form to practice with, but they will also need many opportunities to use text that they can write and mark all ov. You will need to provide supporting details. Main Idea: Lesson for Kids - Quiz & Worksheet. In ACT reading, the main idea and generalization questions require looking at the passage as a whole. Teachers can use this general organizer template for main idea and details, pre-writing, word analysis, brain dumps, concept mapping, background knowledge collection, and more. The details are small pieces of information that make the paragraph more interesting. Summarising requires the reader to evaluate the information and determine what is most important. The main idea is the main or most important point the writer wants to make. The main idea is the sentence that makes the central point about the topic or subject of a paragraph. It never mentions Ireland or any Potato Revolution (A). Here is a double sided main idea worksheet. Finding the unstated main idea takes some practice. The main idea may be clearly stated as a sentence. Second Grade (Grade 2) Main Idea questions for your custom printable tests and worksheets. Identify the main ideas and supporting details of texts. Fish and birds have special methods for finding their way. Designed for third and fourth graders, this worksheet offers a helpful framework for learners. Written by | June 07, 2019 in Printables. I taught him lots of The main idea of this paragraph is: tricks. It's hard to imagine what things were like before there was money, but such a time did exist. Click the checkbox for the options to print and add to Assignments and Collections. Free interactive exercises to practice online or download as pdf to print. The first two worksheets ask students to identify the main idea of each paragraph of a text. As a rule main idea materializes . Theme Worksheets: Practice Identifying & Understanding. Main Idea Worksheet 1 Here is a double-sided main idea worksheet. Finding Main Idea Sentence (Please turn off the sound) Identify Main Idea 1. , not 50-and regardless of accuracy, is a detail, not the main idea. Main Idea & Supporting Details Worksheet. English Exercises: Main idea Main idea WHAT IS HISTORY? READ VERY CAREFULLY AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS History is anything that happened in the past. (Grade Level 6) There are 40 questions in this activity. Award winning educational materials designed to help kids succeed. Main Idea The main idea is a complete sentence; it includes the topic and what the author wants to say about it. Americans have always been interested in their Presidents' wives. Students are asked to identify the main ideas and supporting details of short texts. The other sentences are details. Choose your grade / topic: Grade 1 - Main Idea Worksheets Describe what the picture is "mostly about". List words: Examples of Main Ideas using List Words: o Emotional decisions can be divided into two main types. See below for more main idea worksheets and reading comprehension questions with printable PDFs for busy teachers or people just looking to boost their reading skills. Our main idea worksheets keep kids engaged with fun and interesting reading passages carefully selected for each grade. ~~~~~ As you read this story, think about what the whole story is mostly about. Directions: Write out the implied main idea for each paragraph; then click on the answer key. When teaching upper elementary students how to identify the theme in a particular story or book, it's important to provide opportunities to practice. Identify inferred main idea in a paragraph. Immigrants moved out of Pilsen. Here is an animated PowerPoint lesson on main idea. Some are good swimmers; others like to swing from trees by their tails. Ccss ela literacy ri 1 2 identify the main topic and retell key details of a text. A collection of downloadable worksheets, exercises and activities to teach Identifying the main idea, shared by English language teachers. Finding the main idea of the text is the best practice of learning how to write a moral based story. Topic sentences may be at the beginning, middle, or end of the paragraph, but are usuallyat the beginning. Name: _____ Finding the Main Idea Main Idea Read each paragraph and choose the main idea. Students read a paragraph,then write the main idea . PART TWO Topics, Main ideas, and Topic sentences. They knew that given time, the environment would take care of pollution they left behind and they relied on the "out of sight, out of mind" philosophy. There are several types of marketing methods that would be appropriate for this product. Constant solving such exercises can be done through some worksheets listed below. Some elephant trails have been used for hundreds of years. She stood when Lupita said roll over, and she rolled over when Lupita said stand. Main Idea Detail Detail Detail Example 1 I. It’s short and we can say it with just a word or simple phrase. Prefix Practice: Make A New Word. Finding the main idea or understanding what you read is one link in a chain of reading skills, and each skill relies on and supports one another. Reading: Finding the Main Idea. A general statement that covers all of the details in the paragraph. Main idea and supporting details practice exercise Main idea and supporting details practice exercise 1. Topic Sentence And Main Idea Exercises. The topic is the subject of the text. Each card has an engaging passage about a particular animal. Grade 3 - Main Idea & Supporting Details. Main idea and supporting details worksheets for grades 1-5. Finding the main idea is a key to understanding what you read. What is the main idea? answer choices. Identifying Stated Main Idea Exercise · Topic and Stated Main Idea Multiple Choice Exercise · Locating the Stated Main Idea . Students need to know what theme is and how to tell the difference between theme and main idea. Rangers who spend their summers as fire-fighters will tell you that. Immigrants built new lives in Pilsen. Comprehensive Exercises: Main Ideas or Supporting Details. Another added benefit to exercise is its mood boosting qualities. Print the PDF: Main idea worksheet No. Welcome to ESL Printables , the website where English Language teachers exchange resources: worksheets, lesson plans, activities, etc. Drive the scenic Park Loop road in Acadia National Park, spy on moose in Maine Wildlife Park, and eat a lobster roll each day. Find out about the many nutrients in oranges and how adding these fruits to your daily diet can improve your overall health and body function. Main Idea Exercises Basic Main Idea Game Mane Idea Quiz Summarizing Main Idea I Summarizing Main Idea II Finding Main Idea Sentence (Please turn off the sound) Identify Main Idea 1 Identify Main Idea 2 Intermediate Main Idea 1 Main Idea 2 Main Idea 3 Main Idea 4 Main Idea 5 Topic and Stated Main Idea Multiple-Choice Exercise Advanced. Identifying the main idea and the supporting details. This page features a collection of high-quality worksheets and a PowerPoint lesson! Many students have difficulties identifying main ideas in nonfiction texts. Main Idea Worksheets: Nonfiction (Grades 5-12) Main Idea Worksheets - Finding the main idea for nonfiction texts. The main idea is defined as the central point or big picture of a story or informational text. John and Matt want to be firemen. Listen to this Party in the USA Main Idea song! Watch this Main Idea Brain Pop video! Watch this Main Idea Detective Video! to play the Main Idea. Native Americans take longer than Anglos to get things done. Readers practice identifying the main idea in works of nonfiction in this two-page reading comprehension worksheet. Some of the worksheets for this concept are plants and food 6th grade nonfiction sixth grade grade 6 main idea work main idea summary and main idea work 1 main idea reading work main idea and details grade 6 reading practice test main ideas. Main / Central Idea Reading Passages. This is a good habit to get into. Edouard de Laboulaye, a French writer and law professor, admired the freedoms enjoyed in the United States. Main Idea Grade 2: Grades 1-2 . Main idea: understanding a paragraph or passage. Put the number of the sentence in the box: first, second, third, etc. If you have students who have difficulties in identifying main ideas in main idea and details worksheets, you might want to try using simpler resources and worksheets. Students are given supporting details and have to come up with the main idea. have access to the Internet and its extensive array of information, but other people do. Identify The Topic Sentence Writing Worksheet Topic Sentences Paragraph Writing Worksheets Writing Worksheets. Main Idea and Supporting Details Quiz. Main Idea In Three Sentences A quick and short one. The Main idea of the paragraph is: a. Here is a list of all of the skills that cover main idea! These skills are organized by grade, and you can move your mouse over any skill name to preview the skill. Main idea is definitely a tricky concept to teach, so I made these main idea task cards for members of The Measured Mom Plus. Language: English Subject: English language. This lesson also provides examples and offers an opportunity for practice. Scene summary: This video uses examples to model how to identify a paragraph's topic and main idea along with supporting details. The first is a worksheet you can print for distribution in your classroom or for personal use; no permissions are required. This is a pivotal skill at all levels. Native Americans treat time differently only in their languages. There are many types of exercise you can do to improve your health. For the ancient Romans, taking a bath was a very special occasion. It not only controls weight, but it combats many health conditions and diseases. These are very commonly found on many ELA tests. Human beings have always polluted their environment, but in the past it was easier for them to move on and live somewhere else. Main Idea Of Multiparagraph Text - These worksheets are the next step up from this page. Identify the main idea of each paragraph and the details that make it more interesting. A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a main thought, or idea, about a single topic. Students can learn to understand what they read by practicing with main idea worksheets. Main Idea Worksheet 1 Links Preview Edit. What is the main idea of the passage? a. In his pursuit of wealth, James Fisk never let law or morality stand in his way. Once you identify the main idea, everything else in the reading should click into place. Main Idea Main Idea Students will read short passages and identify the main idea of each. Main Idea / Summarising Worksheets. Main Idea Matching Game This is a 2 player center that includes 8 paragraph cards and 8 main idea cards. Being able to derive the main idea requires practice for a long period. Develop background knowledge Use graphic organiser as a prompt to show significant details and main idea. Bubble Map for Main Idea and details. These main idea worksheets come complete with two PDF files. Some questions on your official SAT Reading test will ask you about the main idea of a passage. The main idea is: How do migrating animals find their way? Migrating animals navigate in a variety of ways. Main idea practice - students have to decide on the best title for a given paragraph by thinking about the main idea. What is the main idea of the last paragraph? _____ TEACHER NOTES: Develop Students' Skills: Exercise Thinking These questions have not been validated, so decisions about student's achievement should not be made based on their responses. To prepare this center, copy the paragraph cards in one color and the main idea cards in a different color. From school-goers to college students, depending on the level, here are worksheets for all. There can be a main idea, sometimes called a central idea, in a paragraph or a section of a text as well. Some main ideas will introduce the major points that the paragraph will discuss. These worksheets gives more or less complete explanation how to define the main idea of the paragraph or a short passage. For instance, a Big Mac has 530 calories with 28 grams of fat and a large order of fries has 450 calories and 22 grams of fat. Conscious practice of this strategy will soon see it become second nature and the student will quickly become skilled in identifying the main idea even when it is not stated explicitly. There is also a practice activity at the end of the lesson with five practice problems. Select the statement that best expresses the main idea. Keep in mind that the main idea is often the first or last sentence of a paragraph. Recommended activities include: students. What is the best question to ask yourself when you are trying to find the main idea? answer choices. Students are given the main idea and have to come up with supporting details. Take a look at other fourth grade worksheets to practice additional comprehension skills. Students are given several related words and have to determine which word represents the main idea. Exercise does not necessarily need to be done in the gym; it can consist of an outdoor walk or bike ride. This card set gives students focused practice in one of the most important areas of reading comprehension—identifying the main idea. They make the main idea stronger and clearer. The main idea is what the author wants you to know about the topic. The Big Idea - Read the short story about Albert Einstein and identify the main idea on the lines. It’s the big takeaway that you learned from reading. Main Idea Styles Authors use diff erent styles to convey main ideas. Main Idea Worksheet 4 Directions: Read each passage and ask yourself, "What is the author doing in this paragraph?" Write your answer in the summary box and then think Of an appropriate title for the passage based on the main idea Of the passage. Matt wants to hold a fire hose. In the following paragraph about alcohol, the main idea is found in the topic sentence, the first sentence of this paragraph, which makes the point that alcohol . Other members of the group present one detail each. And today I’m sharing the file with you … for free! The file comes with 24 task cards. Instructions: Choose an answer and hit 'next'. When I tell him to, Boots will sit or lie down. *Click on Open button to open and print to worksheet. Identifying Main Idea And Supporting Details Practice. Cursive Handwriting: "J" Is For Jellyfish. Grade 2 - Main Ideas & Details Worksheets Circle the sentence which describes what the short text is "mostly about". If you're looking for main idea worksheets for high school students, here are topics about which students can write brief response essays. What is the main idea of the last paragraph? _____ TEACHER NOTES: Develop Students’ Skills: Exercise Thinking These questions have not been validated, so decisions about student’s achievement should not be made based on their responses. Finding the main idea is the most important reading comprehension skill kids will learn, and it requires lots of reinforcement. In paragraphs, a stated main idea is called the topic sentence. Comprehensive Exercises: Main Ideas or Supporting Details You will hear some extracts from four different lectures. Determine the Main Idea, Stated or Implied. Immigrants found jobs in Pilsen. In ancient Egypt, people used a water clock. Comparing Two Nonfiction Texts: The Influence Of The Sun. In an article, the stated main idea is called the thesis statement. Browse Printable Identifying the Main Idea Worksheets. You will receive your score and answers at the end. In this interactive object, learners read short paragraphs and then select the main idea of each selection. Topics are simple and are described with just a word or a phrase. ( 1 ) There are many different kinds of mice. Identifying the Main Idea By Mary Frings. As a teacher, for instance, you can ask your students to work on main idea worksheets to find the main idea of a passage of text. We transition from the sentence to paragraph level. 29 Comprehensive Main Idea Worksheets. Reading selection about history to find main idea. Readers already know French fries are made from potatoes (C), a detail the passage assumes. (If you'd like a version without lines, please click the lang/alt button below. She could roll over, and she could stand on her hind legs. We offer passages with comprehension questions, practice tests, . Big Jim Fisk liked pretty women a little too much for his own good. Students must match a paragraph card with its main idea card. Worksheets are Grade 8 reading practice test, Determining the central idea of an informative text, Identifying main idea and supporting details, Main idea reading work, Main idea details, Teks snapshot grade 8 reading, Main ideas, Main idea and details. Use this set of two worksheets when teaching your students about the main idea comprehension strategy. This sentence tells the main idea or topic of the passage. The details are those statements that support (go along with) the main idea. Exercise is crucial to our lives. Ask three key questions: What is the topic? What is listed about the topic? What do the major details have in common? Before clocks were made, people kept track of time by other means. Suggested reading level for this text: Grade 6-10. Basic Main Idea Game Mane Idea Quiz Summarizing Main Idea I Summarizing Main Idea II Finding Main Idea Sentence (Please turn off the sound) Identify Main . Use this exercise to help you find the main idea. Main Idea Exercise From Reading with Meaning by Ophelia Hancock Choose the option that best describes the main idea of each paragraph. John wants to climb ladders and rescue people from fires. Circle the letter of that statement. 1) Lupita's dog, Maxi, had trouble learning tricks. Main Idea Paragraph 8: Digital Divide The digital divide is an issue that sheds light on a pervasive social situation in the U. April Printables Math Ela Reading Main Idea Reading Classroom 3rd Grade Reading. Main idea worksheets and online activities. Grade 4 - Main Ideas, Details and Summaries. Stated main ideas will be in the topic sentence. Summary writing: Finding the main idea. Students practice main idea using a web graphic organizer in a variety of ways. A summary includes the main idea of each of the paragraphs in a story. Identify (choose) the main idea. The slideshow above is a great way to review different main idea and details skills with your 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students. PRACTICE 1 (MAIN IDEAS) Reading Comprehension Worksheet The main idea of a paragraph is what the whole paragraph is mostly about. Name: The ability to select main ideas will benefit you by: • Helping you feel less overwhelmed in lecture and . This quiz is incomplete! To play this quiz, please finish editing it. Main Idea and Supporting Details Practice Exercises Practice 1: A Musical Mouse Read the selection, and then answer the questions that follow. ideas and why some represent information in the passage but do not state the main idea. It does not include the details of the paragraphs. The main idea in a paragraph is the most important idea. What to do and what to watch for: The main idea tells what the whole passage is about. Writing helps us remember the past. You might like of these other main idea tips, ideas, and freebies. Identifying Main Idea and Details Practice Questions. Anglos are more impatient because they think time takes space. The title is written in BOLD at the top of the passage. Free Main Idea Multiple Choice printable Reading Writing worksheets for 3rd Grade students. Students read the paragraph and then write the main idea and two supporting ideas SEE MORE. Make sure to bookmark this page because we . Combining Sentences Worksheets. History is anything that has happened in the past.

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List of Terms All Labyrinth Investigation On Friday, the Labyrinth opens its classrooms for All Labyrinth Investigation. This gives students the opportunity to travel throughout all of the Labyrinth classrooms and freely investigate activities presented in each classroom. Students practice at making responsible social and play choices as they explore each other’s classrooms. Investigation time also provides an opportunity to rekindle old friendships and explore new ones across classrooms. All Labyrinth Meeting Once a week, the students meet together to discuss issues that are pertinent to our whole Labyrinth community. Playground and lunchtime are frequent agenda topics. When a student’s agenda item is discussed, that student facilitates the meeting with teacher support. Students practice listening in a large group, thinking of themselves and their role in their community, and sharing ideas that help create solutions. All School Meeting Class Reps from all grade levels meet in All School Meeting thirty minutes per week. Representatives serve a four meeting term and participate in discussions about issues that affect the entire school. Students set the agenda and issues are resolved by votes taken back to a daily Class Meeting. Early Elementary representatives bring a summary of meeting topics to each All Labyrinth meeting to help facilitate the sharing of school wide ideas. A teacher from each level (Early Elementary, 1-2s, and 3-4s and 5s) is present at each meeting to help provide counsel as needed. Early Elementary Program During Booklist, teachers use this time to work with readers individually on skills and comprehension. Students practice with “just right” reading books that offer them a chance to work on their reading goals set with teachers during conference time. Some common goals at this level are memorizing text and using a finger to match words on the page, building a bank of common sight words (the, have, because) and sharing details about the stories like personal connections to the texts or information about character, setting or plot. Students master the text in a book appropriate for their level, and not only read with teachers but also with friends. This helps to build their fluency and natural inflection and tone. Teachers help students to log books practiced on a Booklist Goal sheet to help track their progress and celebrate their reading success! Buddies (sometimes known as Truddies) are partnerships between classrooms at different levels throughout the school. Buddies/Truddies meet together several times during the year to read together and share activities, all school celebrations, assemblies, and field trips. Students between levels connect in small groupings or partnerships. The relationship promotes a sense of trust and well-being in the community and a sense of belonging in all areas of the school. Early Elementary Program Regular class meetings are dedicated for students to discuss classroom and school-wide issues. The students set the agenda and take turns facilitating the meeting. Teachers participate in class meetings as a member of the class but also provide support as needed to structure meetings, they model group process strategies and provide counsel. Time is set aside most days for students in each classroom to meet about classroom and school-wide issues. The students set the agenda and facilitate meetings. Class members take turns in the leadership positions. Teachers participate in class meetings as a member of the class but also provide support as needed to help structure meetings, model group process strategies and provide counsel. Each classroom also elects a Classroom Representative to attend All School Meetings. The Representative carries concerns, discussions, and decisions between class meetings and all school meetings. Coaching and Performance-Based Assessement Teachers use a variety of coaching techniques and informal “performance-based” assessment tools as they work with students every day. Ongoing assessment is key to constructing our curriculum and developing teaching techniques that meet the individual needs of our students. Classroom teachers carefully observe a student’s approach to a problem and ask probing questions to assess understanding and provide the next challenge. Teachers use these “real time” assessments to help the student stretch and at the same time, to set appropriate goals. Teachers coach children to use specific strategies, organizational tools, and resources that are best suited to achieve their goals. Continua: Benchmarks for Learning There is a UCDS continuum for Reading, for Writing, for Math and for Reflective Thinking. The continua serve as benchmarks for learning at each developmental stage and directly inform curriculum design and instruction at each level. Teachers use continua descriptors as a framework for communicating with parents/guardians and with each other about a child’s growth. Teachers mark the descriptors that exemplify exhibited learning behaviors to create a picture of each child as a learner. Students’ progress is marked on the continua in January and June. Each continua document has been created in house by the UCDS faculty over several years of development. Continua are reviewed and updated regularly by the UCDS faculty. UCDS encourages an individualized and multi-faceted approach to learning. Assessment at UCDS is authentic. Students also participate in standardized tests in order to practice more standard test-taking skills. The Educational Records Bureau (ERB) Comprehensive Testing Program is given annually to students in the third and fourth grades. This testing instrument is the one used by most established independent schools. The reasons for this choice are as follows: - The test is similar in format to the entrance examination that students will take for middle school admission. - The ERBs are the most challenging of the multiple-choice tests available for elementary school students. These tests simulate for our students many of the challenges involved in future test taking and, with teachers’ assistance, help them develop test-taking strategies. - Although no multiple-choice test can fully assess conceptual learning, the ERBs have thoughtful and interesting questions. - The ERBs reflect a somewhat conservative, but nevertheless widely accepted, sampling of skills elementary students need to assimilate for middle school success. The overall results and general trends of the tests allow the school to evaluate some of the elements within our own curriculum. This experience is the first exposure to such tests for many of our students. Tests are given on a practice basis; individual scores have only limited validity. In the fall fifth graders may practice test-taking skills to support them as they independently participate in middle school entrance exams Early Elementary Program Each day as students complete their work, they are invited to explore independent and collaborative projects. Teachers select games, puzzles, and other problem solving activities that may be new to children or not normally chosen during “Investigation” times. Some projects are designed for independent work while some are designed to explore with friends. Explorations reinforce and teach both critical and spatial thinking skills and encourage cooperative learning. Field trips enrich the Theme Study, build community, allow students to explore the arts and learn more about the world. It also gives students a chance to open their minds to the diverse environment around them. The Early Elementary uses a combination of Handwriting Without Tears and the D’Nealian system of handwriting. Teachers emphasize the development of fine motor skills through a variety of hands-on activities. We begin to explore correct letter formation and strategies for efficient handwriting practices. Stroke patterns are taught in a multi-sensory format. Cursive handwriting is taught at the elementary level. Stroke patterns are taught and practiced in a format that provides short, regular practice. Both in formal handwriting sessions and when working individually with students, teachers provide multiple strategies for practicing cursive handwriting. Home Learning and Thinking The goal of Home Learning and Thinking (H.L.T.) at UCDS is to empower students to become independent learners and self-advocates. H.L.T. helps children to develop personal responsibility, time management skills and to establish organizational routines and structures. H.L.T. gives students extra practice with skills and will help solidify understanding of a concept. The role of the parent/guardian in H.L.T. is to help the child to establish a routine (a time and place) for H.L.T., as well as an expectation that H.L.T. be completed daily. Parents/Guardians can instill confidence in their child by helping them to build and maintain ownership of the process. If a child is experiencing difficulty at home, parents/guardians can provide support by being a resource and by encouraging students to let the teacher know how it is going. Students will vary in their individual approaches to H.L.T.. Teachers check in regularly with students to discuss individual strategies and timelines that best support their success. UCDS teachers recognize that there will be times when outside influences (family events, celebrations, sports, and extracurricular activities) make it difficult for H.L.T. to be completed in the time allotted. Weekly H.L.T. schedules are created with individual students to support families in making decisions about when and where homework can be done. Having a flexible and responsive schedule promotes student organization, time management and communication skills. The goal of homework at UCDS is to empower students to see themselves as self-advocates and lifelong learners. Home Learning and Thinking (HLT) is an opportunity to solidify connections between home and school. It allows students to practice concepts and skills and supports classroom activities. HLT expectations grow throughout the year with each individual. HLT helps children to develop personal responsibility, time management skills and to establish organization routines and structures. The role of the parent/guardian in HLT is to help the child to establish a routine-a time and place for HLT, as well as an expectation that HLT be completed daily. Parents/Guardians can instill confidence in their child by helping them to maintain ownership of the process. Parents/Guardians can provide support by being a resource and continually reinforcing the importance that the students actively communicate with classroom teachers about the process. Students will vary in their individual approaches to HLT. For this reason, parents/guardians are encouraged to communicate with teachers for ideas on how best to coach their child to become independent about HLT routines and to become empowered as self-advocates. UCDS teachers recognize that there will be times when outside influences (family events, celebrations, sports, and extracurricular activities) make it difficult for HLT to be completed in the time allotted. On these occasions 3-4-5 students are expected to write a note that presents a plan for completion. The aim is to foster self-reliance and independent problem solving. The UCDS daily schedule allows for teaching flexibility and individualized instruction. Students are placed in small groups for their work in a variety of academic areas. These groups allow teachers to tailor learning opportunities for individual students, assess and clarify student understanding, and offer challenges. Early Elementary Program Investigation gives students an opportunity to work together and build friendships in the context of play. Each class meets to choose which activities are open. Teachers facilitate these meetings to ensure there’s a balance of activities. For example building, art, imaginative play, and sensory play are just some of the activities that are explored during Investigation. Teachers coach students to maintain friendships and collaborate together. 1-2 Investigation gives students opportunities to move through all the classrooms on the floor and freely investigate activities presented in each classroom. Students practice making responsible social and play choices as they explore each other’s classrooms. Often the activities are designed by the classroom hosts and/or are voted on during class meeting. At every level, UCDS students keep journals. Journals are places to record ideas through words and drawings, to plan and draft written pieces and to reflect. Students develop the habit of writing regularly as a way to document their thinking, revisit and expand on ideas and evaluate learning experiences. Teachers emphasize practicing reflective thinking skills. Keyboarding is introduced at the 3-4 level. Typing is introduced in an immersion setting, where students receive direct instruction regularly for a period of time. Following this immersion, teachers provide additional practice through assignments both in class and at home to continue to develop their skills. Early Elementary Program Language Group provides children with opportunities to explore a variety of language arts skills, such as letter recognition, vowel spelling rules, root words, or grammar conventions. Teachers introduce these skills to a small group of children that are working at a similar skill level. Games are often used to integrate visual, auditory, verbal and kinesthetic modes of learning. 1-2 & 3-4 Program Language groups are designed to practice reading, writing, spelling and oral communication in concert with one another. After careful assessment of each student’s language strengths and goals, teachers create and work with groups of 5-9 children on directed lessons tailored to the group’s needs and learning styles. Small groups allow for in depth and ongoing assessment that is used both to design subsequent activities and to create new groupings as children progress. The skills practiced in language groups are reinforced when students work with teachers in the classroom. To support writing and spelling development, activities such as word sorts, card games, and vocabulary games are tailored to the group’s level and designed to actively engage students in word study. Included are activities for practice as well as for review of skills. This approach is multi-sensory, offering students a variety of learning strategies. For example, students write, say, and hear the spelling patterns, in order to solidify understanding. Teachers may use this spelling practice time to check letter formation and to give extra handwriting practice. It is also an opportunity to teach and review grammar and punctuation rules. When appropriate, students generate spelling lists that focus on specific spelling patterns, spelling rules and generalizations, and irregular sight words. Included are “personal words”-words selected by the child from journal-writing and Writer’s Workshop projects. To support reading development, teachers select a piece of children’s literature and teach a lesson that reinforces particular skills including oral fluency, reading expression, vocabulary, word-attack skills and comprehension strategies. Students practice both reading aloud and silently during this time. When a group’s focus is on developing comprehension, guided discussions provide students with the opportunity to understand texts at a deeper level. As students read, examine and discuss a piece of literature as a group, the author’s use of language is often a focus that may launch into studies that support students’ own writing. Using real literature as a model, students may explore narrative descriptions, work to expand their use of interesting language through synonym study or focus on developing features of their own stories such as setting or character development. Early Elementary Program Literature Groups provide us with one more way to promote a love of reading and to study a variety of literary genres with Early Elementary students. It allows all children, regardless of their independent reading skills, to enjoy the same books, to share their thoughts and opinions and to discuss many of the “big” ideas and questions that books can cultivate. In addition, Literature Groups foster a meaningful connection between home and school; they offer a way for students to share a piece of their school day, and a way for parents/guardians to experience some of their child’s blossoming intellect and self-expression. Children bring books home to be read with a parent/guardian. We encourage using post-it notes to mark favorite pages or note a question or idea that can be shared when meeting with a small group at school. During Literature Groups, group process skills are emphasized, with children becoming proficient at taking turns, listening to others, expressing and supporting opinions and even leading the discussion independently. Literature Group book discussions make it possible for our students to consider ideas, problems and perspectives that have existed through time and across cultures. Students meet weekly to discuss books from a wide range of genres and reading levels. Teaching teams choose books that deepen student understanding of the year’s all school theme and support cultural awareness, geographical knowledge and social studies. Literature Groups are kept small in order to promote a language-rich experience that develops reading and comprehension skills, as well as speaking, listening and writing. Students practice following the ideas of others as well as expressing their own thoughts and opinions as they engage in lively discourse with peers and a teacher. At the 1-2 level, children examine literary elements, make connections and formulate questions for the group for discussion. Students take a literature book home each week, read it with a grown-up and return it to school the following week for dialogue with peers and a teacher. Teaching teams select books specifically for their literary themes. For this reason, some books may be difficult for students to decode. We have found that students often have better comprehension when adults and students read the book together and discuss the book as the plot unfolds. Children at these levels are generally asked to respond to the book by reviewing four Table Topic questions, talking about these ideas with adults, and preparing to discuss their ideas with their group. Adults are also encouraged to read the weekly Table Topic assignment and invite discussions on the topics involved. Supporting students to comprehend the themes in the books helps prepare them for discussions in school. Literature book discussions make it possible for our students to consider ideas that have existed through time and across cultures. Students meet weekly to discuss books from a wide range of genres and reading levels. Teaching teams choose books that deepen student understanding of the year’s all- school theme and support cultural awareness, geographical knowledge and social studies. Literature groups are kept small in order to promote an experience that develops reading and comprehension skills, as well as speaking, listening and writing. Students practice following the ideas of others and taking a leadership role as they engage in lively discourse with peers and a teacher. Teaching teams select books specifically for their literary themes. For this reason, some books may be difficult for students to decode. We have found that students often have better comprehension when parents/guardians and students take turns reading aloud and discuss the book as the plot unfolds. Parents/Guardians are also welcome to read the weekly written assignment and invite discussions on the topics involved. Students need to comprehend the themes in the books in order to be prepared for discussions in school. Literature homework is assigned weekly. We create assignments to promote thinking about specific literary elements such as character development, setting, historical context and literary devices. We ask students to plan time to read the assigned pages and to respond to questions through art and writing. Math Exploration and Skills Time Early Elementary Program Each day students are invited to explore independent and collaborative projects. Teachers select games, puzzles, and other problem solving activities that may be new to children or not normally chosen during “Investigation” times. Some projects are designed for independent work while some are designed to explore with friends. Explorations reinforce and teach both critical and spatial thinking skills and encourage cooperative learning. Time is set aside to introduce and reinforce skills from the UCDS Math Continuum. Manipulative materials are used to solidify students’ conceptual understandings as we teach the pencil and paper algorithms for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Teachers use a variety of resources to provide the practice to become comfortable with each operation. Teachers assess students on an ongoing basis, introducing new concepts and skills as students reach continuum benchmarks. Students also practice math facts for Home Learning and Thinking (H.L.T.). Students begin with addition and subtraction then move to multiplication and division facts for practice. It often takes children several years to become fluent with math facts and additional practice may be needed beyond the math homework. Flashcards, calculator games, dice games, math fact songs and chants, as well as online platforms such as Freckle, are tools used to reinforce repetition and are a few of the ways that help students commit math facts to memory. Teachers assess students on an ongoing basis and are able to see how well students can access facts when they solve the Math Vitamin. New concepts and skills are introduced as students demonstrate consistent, accurate application. Targeted math instruction introduces and reinforces skills from the UCDS Math Continuum. Teaching teams often introduce skills that students will need to solve the current Math Vitamins. For example, an activity to introduce measuring angles with protractors might be introduced prior to a Math Vitamin with a geometry focus. Teachers individualize math instruction and help students set appropriate goals. During math skills time, teachers work with both groups and individuals to help students develop facility with mathematical operations. Manipulative materials are often used to solidify student understanding as we teach algorithms for multi-digit addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Teachers use a variety of resources to provide students the practice that they need to become comfortable with each operation. We assess students on an ongoing basis during skills time and are able to see how well students can use skills when they solve the Math Vitamin. New concepts and skills are introduced as students reach continuum benchmarks. In addition to the math skills, children practice math facts at home to become fluent. Early Elementary Program Our students explore math concepts and demonstrate their understanding of mathematical operations and concepts through the daily Math Vitamin. Through the Math Vitamin, children experience math in a very real way by solving problems that are meaningful to them. Teachers create Math Vitamin story-problems that connect to the literature, science, and curricular projects of that level. Teachers also carefully design problems to challenge students at multiple levels of understanding and encourage skill development in the areas identified in the UCDS Math Continuum. Students have multiple entry points when solving a mathematical problem: build, draw, record. Teachers encourage students to approach a problem using their area of strength. They can develop and express their understanding by building with manipulatives, through drawings, charts or graphs, or recording their ideas numerically. Trying a variety of methods to solve a problem and exchanging ideas through collaboration with peers supports students to be flexible mathematical thinkers. In addition to Math Vitamin, math concepts are explored daily through literature, music, art, science, games and calendars. Our students explore math concepts and demonstrate their understanding of mathematical strands through Math Vitamins. Children experience math in a very real way by solving problems that are meaningful to them. Math Vitamins are story-problems that connect to literature, science, and curricular projects of that level. Teachers also carefully design problems to challenge students at multiple levels of understanding and to encourage skill development in the areas identified in the UCDS Math Continuum. Children practice math skills and make their thinking visible using a variety of tools, including manipulative materials, drawings, charts, graphs and equations. Students have the opportunity to approach a Math Vitamin from an area of strength while developing several strategies to arrive at a solution and prove their work. Our students explore math concepts and demonstrate their understanding of mathematical operations and patterns through Math Vitamins. Through Math Vitamins, children experience math in a very real way by solving problems that are meaningful to them. Teachers create Math Vitamin story problems that connect to the literature, science, and curricular projects of that level. Teachers also carefully design problems to challenge students at multiple levels of understanding and to encourage skill development in the areas identified in the UCDS Math Continuum. Students apply math skills using a variety of tools, including manipulative materials, drawings, charts, graphs and equations and to show/explain their thinking. Teachers encourage students to use an area of strength to initially approach a problem, to generate an algorithm that expresses their process, and to develop several strategies to arrive at a solution. Teachers also ask students to show their thinking in more than one way. 3-4-5 Math Vitamins may take several days to complete and teachers extend the problem each day based on the students’ responses. Expectations for recording the math vitamin process increase over time as students restate the problem, label drawings, create charts, record equations and explain their thinking. We expect students at this level to produce work that can be read and understood by others. Milk and Cookies Early Elementary Program Milk and Cookie Fridays occur monthly and bring students and their families together in the Discovery Area for a community sing-a-long. Together with our Music Specialists, each class gets an opportunity to compose and perform one song for our Labyrinth friends and grown-ups. After hearing from the class of the day and singing some other favorites, everyone returns to classrooms to share milk and cookies. See the all-school calendar for Milk and Cookie dates. Early Elementary Program Students begin each day with a morning note. This may be a Math Vitamin, journaling, or another morning activity. The child with their adults read the board at drop-off each day. If students need clarification, peers and teachers act as resources, helping to develop the students sense of belonging to a learning community. Students begin each day with a “morning board.” This written greeting may be a Math Vitamin, writing assignment, or other theme related activity. Parents/Guardians are welcome to join students in reading the morning board at drop-off. If students need clarification, peers and teachers act as resources, helping to develop the student’s sense of belonging to a learning community. As students become readers they are expected to read the board independently and begin to self initiate their morning work. New, Glue and Moving-On The 3-4-5 community is composed of the New (students who are in their first year at this level), the Glue (students who have had a year of experience at this level), and the 5th grade Moving-On students. We spend time throughout the year to support children to understand their individual contributions to the community of learners who share the 3-4-5 community and to find their own unique way to lead. Early Elementary Program Children practice non-fiction writing through News. The students are coached to recall and share personal experiences through drawing and writing. Teachers coach students to elaborate by considering the questions who, what, when, where, and why. Early illustrators are encouraged to use at least as many colors as they are old to express the many details for their personal stories. Teachers continue to individualize to each child’s writing abilities, taking dictation when necessary or working through the editing process with children writing multiple sentence entries. Each spring the 1-2 level travels to NatureBridge for a two-night overnight trip. NatureBridge is an ideal setting to introduce students to the flora and fauna of the Northwest. A community experience, it celebrates a year of learning and growing together. Students travel in mixed-aged hiking groups. The spring trip is another opportunity for students to see themselves as part of the larger 1-2 community. The 3-4-5 fall trip is an opportunity to solidify the new 3-4-5 learning community. Each fall the entire community travels to a local camp, where small groups of mixed-age students share cabins for two nights. Students learn, play and participate in team building experiences. The 3-4-5 spring trip varies in its location and rotates through major regions of Washington State. Connecting the historical, cultural, industrial, geological and geographical origins of Washington, the trip is a culminating event for the major curricular and thematic focus of the spring. Each spring, the 3-4-5 community unites in the study of the chosen geographical area. Third, fourth and fifth grade students combine to explore social studies and literature together. In preparation for the spring trip, groups of mixed-level students read and learn together in small groups. Each spring, our moving-on Kindergarten class works together as a group to plan an art project for the Early Elementary playground. This project provides a context for the kindergarten class to identify themselves as a group, encourages conversations about the upcoming transition to 1st grade as well as a way to reminisce and illustrate the highlights of their kindergarten year. The portions of the playground are repainted and left behind as a gift to the following year’s Labyrinth students. READ (Reflecting, Expanding, Analyzing, Discussing) The years between first and second grades are typically marked by a rapid acquisition of reading skills. A goal for children at this stage is to develop greater fluency and to begin to sustain independent reading for longer periods of time. At the 1-2 level, daily READ time provides students with opportunities to practice decoding, building vocabulary and growing comprehension skills. During this time teachers help students select books and set reading goals that are appropriate to individual reading levels, interests and abilities. Teachers also use this time to work one-on-one with readers to monitor progress, focus on specific strategies and assess the skills outlined in the UCDS Reading Continuum. In addition to the classroom “just right” reading selections, students are expected to read at home each day. Classroom teachers and our school librarians are excellent resources for students as they select books to support their growing skills. At the 3-4-5 level, readers make the important shift from “learning to read” to “reading to learn.” Daily independent reading time provides students the opportunity to practice their growing independence as readers. During this time teachers help students to select books and set reading goals that are appropriate to their individual reading levels, interests and abilities. Teachers use this time to work one-on-one with readers to monitor progress, focus on individual reading strategies and assess the skills outlined in the UCDS Reading Continuum. A goal at this stage is for students to broaden their reading selections to include choices from a variety of genres, including realistic fiction, historical fiction, science fiction/fantasy, non-fiction, biography, short stories and poetry. Students make record their reading and responses in a reading log kept in their journals. Throughout the day there are both formal and informal opportunities for students to share their thoughts about books with their peers and teachers. Independent reading, assigned reading and literature groups give students a sense of belonging to a community of readers. Our school librarian is an excellent resource for students as they select books to challenge their thinking and their reading abilities. Early Elementary Program Students spend time each day listening to a teacher read aloud to the class from a wide variety of genres that are connected to the theme. Read Aloud gives students an opportunity to increase listening comprehension, vocabulary and auditory language skills. Teachers use this opportunity to ask leading questions and model literary analysis and comprehension techniques. Children also have weekly opportunities to hear the librarian read aloud and tell stories. Students spend time each day listening to a teacher read aloud to the class from a wide variety of genres that are connected to the theme. Read-aloud gives students an opportunity to increase listening comprehension, vocabulary and auditory language skills. Teachers use this opportunity to ask leading questions and model literary analysis and comprehension techniques. Children also have weekly opportunities to hear the librarian read aloud and tell stories. Both the classroom teacher and the librarian are a good resource for books that can be read aloud at home. Teaching levels select a Read-Aloud book inspired by the Theme which often acts as a catalyst for curriculum design. Students spend time most days listening to a teacher read aloud to the class from a wide variety of genres that are connected to the theme. Read Aloud gives students an opportunity to increase listening comprehension, vocabulary and auditory language skills. Teachers use this opportunity to ask leading questions and model literary analysis and comprehension techniques. Children also have weekly opportunities to hear the librarian read aloud and tell stories. Both the classroom teacher and the librarian are good resources for books that can be read aloud at home. Rest and Read Early Elementary Program Time is set aside to promote a community of readers. Teachers use this time to work with readers individually on skills and comprehension. Students select books with their teachers that are appropriate to their individual reading levels, interests and abilities. Teachers talk with students about their book choices to help them become more independent and to broaden their reading selections. At the Early Elementary level, READis known as “Rest and Read.” We ask students throughout their UCDS experience to evaluate their own work, assess progress, and to set attainable goals. Every day, as part of the coaching process, teachers ask students to recognize and articulate challenges and to advocate for themselves. Teachers also make time for students to write about their educational experience. These written reflections are found in student journals and portfolios. Presentation portfolios are collections of student work culled from student journals, folders and other classroom work collected throughout the year. Students select some pieces on their own and others in collaboration with their classroom teachers. In the spring of each year students meet with parents/guardians at a school-wide Portfolio Share to share their insights and acknowledge both their challenges and accomplishments. The goal of the service learning program at UCDS is for fifth grade students to gain a deeper understanding of their academic and social/emotional strengths and to increase self and community awareness. This is accomplished through a yearlong Service Learning Project. As a member of a school committee, Moving On students identify a relevant need in the community and design a project to address that need. With their faculty mentors as guides, students establish goals, reflect on their experiences and evaluate their own performance. Students have multiple opportunities to share their goals, strengths and challenges with their fifth grade peers, the greater 3-4-5 community, and the faculty. Sign-in is part of the daily morning structure and routine. Students are asked to respond to a daily question that reflects some part of a curricular activity, a community event or is connected to a particular homework assignment. A daily sign-in question starts each day. Students read the question, read the responses of their peers, and compose a unique answer. The question may be in response to the previous night’s homework or a study the class is involved in, or it may require students to think on their feet. 3-4-5 students usually answer the sign-in question in a complete sentence, giving students valuable practice composing a response. The UCDS daily schedule allows for teaching flexibility and individualized instruction. Small groups are achieved when half of the students from a teaching team attend specialists, leaving half the group at work in the classroom. The remaining students may work together with all the teachers on the team, achieving a low student-teacher ratio in small, flexible groups or stay with their teachers for individualized instruction in their classroom. Small groups are utilized across the curriculum for math skills, reading, literature groups, writing and theme studies. Students in grades 3-4 participate in standardized tests in order to prepare for future test-taking scenarios. The Educational Records Bureau (ERB) Comprehensive Testing Program is given annually to students in the third and fourth grades. This testing instrument is the one used by most independent schools. The reasons for this choice are as follows: - The test is similar in format to entrance examinations that students will take for middle school admission. - The overall results and general trends of the tests allow the school to evaluate some of the elements within our own curriculum. This experience is the first exposure to such tests for many of our students. Tests are given as practice; individual scores have only limited validity. In the fall, fifth graders may practice test taking skills to support them as they independently participate in middle school entrance exams Each year, UCDS adopts a theme, or concept, which serves as a unifying thread for curriculum at all levels and opens the door to investigation across all subject areas. The yearlong theme is abstract, universal and timeless. It is purposefully broad to allow for emergent ideas and shifting dynamics. The theme provides the backbone for curricular decisions about everything from literature books to science explorations, social studies and field trips, with each teaching team determining how the theme will be explored. The UCDS Constitution is at the heart of all social interactions at the school. Each child signs the constitution each year and students live and learn by the words, “We Respect Ourselves. We Respect Each Other. We Respect the Environment.” Early Elementary Program Word is our creative writing program. Teachers encourage students to share their imaginative ideas through drawing and writing. Teachers coach each child through the process of representational drawing, letter recognition, sound-symbol correspondence, letter formation, and handwriting. Students develop word recognition skills by reading words that they have previously generated to the teacher and classmates. As children become more independent, they use best guess spelling to write phrases and sentences that express their central idea and are often able to move into writing stories and personal narratives. Children at this level work with a teacher to edit their stories with attention to vocabulary, punctuation and grammar. Teachers then guide students to revise by adding detail and checking to be sure the story makes sense. Children are expected, and are typically delighted, to share what they have written with classmates. The 1-2 students write daily across the content areas. Our students write to tell stories, express opinions, explore poetic forms and describe their theories and problem solving processes. At “Writer’s Workshop” students move through the stages of prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing on both topics of their own choosing and teacher-created writing prompts. Students at this stage are introduced to narrative, expository and creative writing styles. Teachers assess students as they work through the writing process and coach students individually to address the skills outlined in our Writing Continuum. 3-4-5 students write every day and are expected to use expository, narrative, and creative writing styles. For example, our students write to frame a question, to describe their problem solving process and to explain their conclusions in math and science. While in literature and in personal journals, our students write to respond both critically and reflectively. Teachers assess students as they work through the writing process and coach students individually to address the skills outlined in our Writing Continuum. We expect 3-4-5 students will become increasingly fluent with the writing process, able to use appropriate techniques at each stage of pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing, publishing, and sharing work with peers. Our students learn to evaluate a piece of writing at each stage of development. Students at these levels learn to edit their own work for spelling, grammar and punctuation and are expected to write in cursive or to type a final draft.

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Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) is a neurological childhood (pediatric) speech sound disorder in which the precision and consistency of movements underlying speech is impaired in the absence of neuromuscular deficits (e.g., abnormal reflexes, abnormal tone). CAS may occur due to known neurological impairment, in association with complex neurobehavioral disorders of known and unknown origin, or as an idiopathic neurogenic speech sound disorder. The core impairment in planning and spatiotemporal programming parameters of movement sequences results in errors in speech sound production and prosody. (ASHA, 2007b, Definitions of CAS section, para. 1). Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is an area of clinical practice that addresses the needs of individuals with significant and complex communication disorders characterized by impairments in speech-language production or comprehension, including spoken and written modes of communication (ASHA, 2020). AAC uses various techniques and tools, including picture communication boards, line drawings, speech-generating devices (SGDs), tangible objects, manual signs, gestures, and fingerspelling, to help the individual express thoughts and wants and needs feelings, and ideas. AAC is augmentative when used to supplement existing speech, and alternative when used in speech production that is absent or not functional (ASHA, 2020). AAC may be temporary, as when used by patients postoperatively in intensive care, or permanent, as when used by an individual who will require the use of some form of AAC throughout his or her lifetime (ASHA, 2020). Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and social interaction and the presence of restricted, repetitive behaviors. Social communication deficits present in various ways and can include impairments in joint attention and social reciprocity and challenges using verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors for social interaction. One might see restricted, repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities manifested by stereotyped, repetitive speech, motor movement, or use of objects; inflexible adherence to routines; limited interests; and hyper- or hypo-sensitivity sensory input. In cluttering, the breakdowns in clarity that accompany a perceived rapid and irregular speech rate are often characterized by deletion and/or collapsing of syllables (e.g., “I wanwatevision”) or omission of word endings (e.g., “Turn the televisoff”). The child may make many revisions and interject other words and put pauses in places in sentences not expected grammatically, such as “I will go to the/store and buy apples” (St. Louis & Schulte, 2011). Clutter can occur with other disorders.A condition that can be a consequence of cluttering is pragmatic disorder; individuals with cluttering may not attempt to repair breakdowns in communication, resulting in less than significant social interaction (Teigland, 1996) (ASHA, 2020). Early intervention (EI) is the process of providing services. It supports infants, toddlers, and their families when a child has or is at risk for a developmental delay, disability, or health condition that may affect typical development and learning. The goal of EI is to lessen the effects of a disability or delay by addressing the identified needs of young children across five developmental areas: - Cognitive development - Communication development - Physical development, including vision and hearing - Social or emotional development - Adaptive development (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], 2004) The earlier that services are delivered, the more likely children are to develop effective communication, language, and swallowing skills and achieve successful learning outcomes (Guralnick, 2011). The Program for Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities, also called Part C of IDEA, is a federal grant program that helps individual states operate comprehensive systems of interdisciplinary EI services for children ages birth to 3 with disabilities and their families/primary caregivers. EI services can also be provided outside of Part C programs in settings such as neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), pediatric rehabilitation hospitals or clinics, preschools, and private practices. Services in these settings may not be covered by federal or state dollars but can be billed to public or private insurance or the family. is the aspect of speech production that refers to continuity, smoothness, rate, and effort. Stuttering, the most common fluency disorder, is an interruption in the flow of speaking characterized by repetitions (sounds, syllables, words, phrases), sound prolongations, blocks, interjections, and revisions, which may affect the rate and rhythm of speech. These disfluencies may sometimes accompany physical tension, adverse reactions, secondary behaviors, and avoidance of sounds, words, or speaking situations (ASHA, 1993; Yaruss, 1998; Yaruss, 2004). Cluttering, another fluency disorder, is characterized by a perceived rapid and irregular speech rate, which results in breakdowns in speech clarity or fluency (St. Louis & Schulte, 2011)(ASHA, 2020). Functional speech sound disorders include those related to the motor production of speech sounds and those related to speech production’s linguistic aspects. Historically, these disorders are referred to as articulation disorders and phonological disorders, respectively. Articulation disorders focus on errors (e.g., distortions and substitutions) in the production of individual speech sounds. Phonological disorders focus on predictable, rule-based errors (e.g., fronting, stopping, and final consonant deletion) that affect more than one sound. It is often difficult to differentiate between articulation and phonological disorders; therefore, many researchers and clinicians prefer to use the broader term, “speech sound disorder,” when referring to speech errors of unknown cause. See Bernthal, Bankson, and Flipsen (2017) and Peña-Brooks and Hegde (2015) for relevant discussions. The definitions of intellectual disability (ID) and related terminology have evolved to reflect the legal and social gains made by individuals with such a disability and their families. See Changes in Services for Persons With Developmental Disabilities: Federal Laws and Philosophical and Perspectives and Federal Programs Supporting Research and Training in Intellectual Disability. These changes reflect the movement from institutionalization to inclusive practices, self-advocacy, and self-determination. There has also been the movement toward recognizing the fundamental communication rights of people with severe disabilities. A Communication Bill of Rights—initially developed by the National Joint Committee for the Communication Needs of Persons with Severe Disabilities (NJC) in 1992 and updated in 2016—recognizes the right of all people to effective communication (NJC, 1992; Brady et al., 2016) (ASHA, 2020). ID is characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning (e.g., reasoning, learning, and problem-solving); significant limitations in adaptive behavior (i.e., conceptual, social, and practical skills in everyday life); and onset in childhood (before the age of 18 years; American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [AAIDD, 2013]) (ASHA, 2020). This definition of ID balances limitations with an equal emphasis on skills. Consequently, language and philosophy concerning ID now focus on levels of support necessary to maximize an individual’s ability, rather than strictly on functioning (ASHA, 2020). There is general agreement that auditory perceptual abilities influence language development—particularly the pre-literacy skills—and that it can be challenging to separate aural and language skills concerning academic demands (Richard, 2012, 2013; Watson & Kidd, 2008). The act of processing speech is very complex and involves the engagement of auditory, cognitive, and language mechanisms, often simultaneously (Medwetsky, 2011). Richard’s (2013) continuum of processing includes both auditory processing and language processing. This continuum involves the following types of processing: Central auditory processing begins when the neural representation of acoustic signals is processed after they leave the cochlea and travel through the auditory nerve to the left and right hemispheres (Heschl’s gyri). Phonemic processing, during which acoustic features of the signal, is discriminated against utilizing phonemic skills such as sound discrimination, blending, and segmenting. Linguistic processing is where meaning is attached to the signal (begins at the level of Heschl’s gyrus, expands to Wernicke’s area, to the angular gyrus, and finally to the prefrontal and frontal cortex, in planned, organized, and mediated responses) (ASHA, 2020). Late language emergence (LLE) is a delay in language onset with no other diagnosed disabilities or developmental delays in other cognitive or motor domains. LLE is when language development trajectories are below age expectations. Toddlers who exhibit LLE are considered “late talkers” or “late language learners.” Late talkers may present with expressive language delays only or mixed expressive and receptive delays. Children with only expressive delays exhibit delayed vocabulary acquisition and often demonstrate slow development of sentence structure and articulation. Those with mixed expressive and receptive language delays indicate delays in language comprehension and oral language production. Some researchers distinguish a subset of children with LLE as “late bloomers.” Research also indicates that late bloomers are less likely to demonstrate concomitant language comprehension delays when compared with children who remain delayed (Thal et al., 1991) (ASHA, 2020). Organic speech sound disorders include those resulting from the motor/neurological disorders (e.g., childhood apraxia of speech and dysarthria), structural abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip/palate and other structural deficits or anomalies), and sensory/perceptual disorders (e.g., hearing impairment). Social communication is the use of language in social contexts. It encompasses social interaction, social cognition, pragmatics, and language processing. Social communication skills include the ability to vary speech style, take others’ perspectives, understand and appropriately use the rules for verbal and nonverbal communication, and use the structural aspects of language (e.g., vocabulary, syntax, and phonology) to accomplish these goals. For more details, see ASHA’s resources on components of social communication [PDF] and social communication benchmarks [PDF] (ASHA, 2020). Social communication, spoken language, and written language have an intricate relationship. Social communication plays a role in language expression and comprehension in both spoken and written modalities. Spoken and written language skills allow for effective communication in various social contexts and a variety of purposes (ASHA, 2020). Social communication, such as eye contact, facial expression, and body language, is sometimes influenced by sociocultural and individual factors (Curenton & Justice, 2004; Inglebret, Jones, & Pavel, 2008). There is a wide range of acceptable norms within and across individuals, families, and cultures. Social Communication Disorder Children with social communication disorder have difficulties with the use of verbal and nonverbal language for social purposes. Primary challenges are social interaction, social cognition, and pragmatics. Specific deficits are evident in the individual’s ability to communicate for social purposes - in ways that are appropriate for the particular social context - change communication to match the context or needs of the listener - follow the rules for conversation and storytelling - understand nonliterate or ambiguous language - understand what is not explicitly stated (ASHA, 2020) This definition is consistent with the diagnostic criteria for Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder detailed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013).A social communication disorder may be a distinct diagnosis or may co-occur with other conditions, such as: spoken language disorders; written language disorders; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); traumatic brain injury (pediatric and adult); In autism spectrum disorder (ASD), social communication problems are a defining feature, along with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior. Therefore, social communication disorder is diagnosed separately from ASD (AHSA, 2020). Speech sound disorders is an umbrella term referring to any difficulty or combination of problems with perception, motor production, or phonological representation of speech sounds and speech segments.Speech sound disorders can be organic or functional. Organic speech sound disorders result from an underlying motor/neurological, structural, or sensory/perceptual cause. Available speech sound disorders are idiopathic—they have no known reason (ASHA, 2020). A spoken language disorder (SLD), also known as an oral language disorder, represents a significant impairment in the acquisition and use of language across modalities due to deficits in comprehension or production across any of the five language domains (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics). Language disorders may persist across the lifespan, and symptoms may change over time. When SLD is a primary disability—not accompanied by intellectual disability, global developmental delay, hearing or other sensory impairment, motor dysfunction, or other mental disorder or medical condition—is considered a specific language impairment (SLI). An SLD may also occur in the presence of other conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disabilities (ID), developmental disabilities (DD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), traumatic brain injury (TBI), Stuttering typically has its origins in childhood. Most children who stutter begin to do so around 2 ½ years of age (e.g., Mansson, 2007; Yairi & Ambrose, 2005; Yaruss, LaSalle, & Conture, 1998). Approximately 95% of children who stutter start to do so before five years (Yairi & Ambrose, 2005). All speakers produce disfluencies, which may include hesitations, such as silent pauses and interjections of word fillers (e.g., “The color is like red”) and nonword fillers (e.g., “The color is uh red”). Other examples include whole-word repetitions (e.g., “But-but I don’t want to go”) and phrase repetitions or revisions (e.g., “This is a- this is a problem”). These speech behaviors are generally considered nonstuttered (typical) disfluencies (Ambrose & Yairi, 1999; Tumanova, Conture, Lambert, & Walden, 2014). When a child uses many nonstuttered (typical) disfluencies, differential diagnosis is critical to distinguish between stuttering, avoidance, and a language disorder.Less typical, stuttering-like disfluencies (Yairi, 2007) include part-word or sound/syllable repetitions (e.g., “Look at the b-b-baby”), prolongations (e.g., “Ssssssssometimes we stay home”), and blocks (i.e., inaudible or silent fixations or inability to initiate sounds). Compared with typical disfluencies, stuttering-like disfluencies are usually accompanied by more significant than average duration, effort, tension, or struggle. Aspects that factor into the perception of severity includes frequency and type of stuttering and stutters to communicate effectively. Some young children go through a period of excessive disfluency, which does not persist for many of these children. The terms clinical supervisor and clinical supervision are often used about student clinicians’ training and education, recognizing that supervision is part of the training and education process. Clinical supervisors do more than oversee the work of the student clinician. They teach specific skills, clarify concepts, assist with critical thinking, conduct performance evaluations, mentor, advise, and model professional behavior (Council of Academic Programs in Communication Sciences and Disorders [CAPCSD], 2013). Many professionals involved in the supervisory process suggest that clinical educators and clinical instructors more accurately reflect what the clinical supervisor does (CAPCSD, 2013). Telepractice is applying telecommunications technology to delivering speech-language pathology and professional audiology services at a distance by linking clinician to client or clinician to clinician for assessment, intervention, and consultation (ASHA, 2020). ASHA adopted the term telepractice rather than the frequently used terms telemedicine or telehealth to avoid the misperception that these services are used only in health care settings. Practitioners also use other terms such as teleaudiology, telespeech, and speech teletherapy in addition to telepractice. Services delivered by audiologists and speech-language pathologists (SLPs) include the broader generic term telerehabilitation (American Telemedicine Association, 2010). Use of telepractice must be equivalent to the quality of services provided in-person and consistent with adherence to the Code of Ethics (ASHA, 2016a), Scope of Practice in Audiology (ASHA, 2018), Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016b), state and federal laws (e.g., licensure, Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act [HIPAA; US Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.-c]), and ASHA policy (ASHA, 2020). Telepractice venues include schools, medical centers, rehabilitation hospitals, community health centers, outpatient clinics, universities, clients’ homes, residential health care facilities, child care centers, and corporate settings. There are no inherent limits where telepractice sites as long as the services comply with national, state, institutional, and professional regulations and policies. See ASHA State-by-State for state telepractice requirements (ASHA, 2020). Standard terms describing types of telepractice are as follows: Synchronous (client interactive)—services are conducted with interactive audio and video connection in real-time to create an in-person experience similar to that achieved in a traditional encounter. Synchronous services may connect a client or group of clients with a clinician or include consultation between a clinician and a specialist. Asynchronous (store-and-forward)—images or data are captured and transmitted (i.e., stored and forwarded) for viewing or interpretation by a professional. Examples include transmission of voice clips, audiologic testing results, or outcomes of independent client practice. Hybrid—applications of telepractice that include combinations of synchronous, asynchronous, and in-person services. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a form of nondegenerative acquired brain injury resulting from a bump, blow, or jolt to the head (or body) or a penetrating head injury that disrupts normal brain function (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2015). TBI can cause focal brain damage (e.g., gunshot wound), diffuse (e.g., shaken baby syndrome), or both. Symptoms can vary depending on the lesion’s site, extent of damage to the brain, and the child’s age or stage of development (ASHA, 2020). TBI’s functional impact in children can be different from in adults—deficits may not be immediately apparent because the pediatric brain is still developing. TBI in children is a chronic disease process rather than a one-time event, because symptoms may change and unfold over time (DePompei & Tyler, in press; Masel & DeWitt, 2010). Concussion, a form of TBI, is an injury to the brain characterized by TBI’s physical and cognitive sequelae. Concussion typically occurs due to a blow, bump, or jolt to the head, face, neck, or body that may or may not involve loss of consciousness (McCrory et al., 2013). Concussion has received more attention in recent years, particularly for sports injuries (ASHA, 2020). A disorder of written language involves a significant impairment in fluent word recognition (i.e., reading decoding and sight word recognition), reading comprehension, written spelling, or written expression (i.e., written composition; Ehri, 2000; Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Kamhi & Catts, 2012; Tunmer & Chapman, 2007, 2012). A word recognition disorder is also known as dyslexia. Written language disorders can involve any of the five language domains (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics). Problems can occur in the awareness, comprehension, and production of language at the sound, syllable, word, sentence, and discourse levels, as indicated in the table below (Nelson, 2014b; Nelson, Plante, Helm-Estabrooks, & Hotz, 2015). See ASHA’s resource, disorders of reading, and writing (ASHA, 2020).

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | - Main article: Language education Language education may take place as a general school subject or in a specialized language school. There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful insights. While sometimes confused, the terms "approach", "method" and "technique" are hierarchical concepts. An approach is a set of correlative assumptions about the nature of language and language learning, but does not involve procedure or provide any details about how such assumptions should translate into the classroom setting. Such can be related to second language acquisition theory. There are three principal views at this level: - The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar). - The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something. - The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s. A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system must be designed considering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students and the roles of teachers. A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from the controlling method, and less-directly, with the approach. - 1 Structural methods - 2 Functional methods - 3 Interactive methods - 4 Proprietary methods - 5 Other - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 External links - Main article: Grammar translation The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself. It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages, however it remains the most commonly practiced method of English teaching in Japan. At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible to all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course. That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each one to understand how the mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate its thought. - Main article: Audio-lingual method The audio-lingual method was developed in the USA around World War II when governments realized that they needed more people who could conduct conversations fluently in a variety of languages, work as interpreters, code-room assistants, and translators. However, since foreign language instruction in that country was heavily focused on reading instruction, no textbooks, other materials or courses existed at the time, so new methods and materials had to be devised. For example, the U.S. Army Specialized Training Program created intensive programs based on the techniques Leonard Bloomfield and other linguists devised for Native American languages, where students interacted intensively with native speakers and a linguist in guided conversations designed to decode its basic grammar and learn the vocabulary. This "informant method" had great success with its small class sizes and motivated learners. The U.S. Army Specialized Training Program only lasted a few years, but it gained a lot of attention from the popular press and the academic community. Charles Fries set up the first English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, to train English as a second or foreign language teachers. Similar programs were created later at Georgetown University, University of Texas among others based on the methods and techniques used by the military. The developing method had much in common with the British oral approach although the two developed independently. The main difference was the developing audio-lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on grammar and contrastive analysis to find differences between the student's native language and the target language in order to prepare specific materials to address potential problems. These materials strongly emphasized drill as a way to avoid or eliminate these problems. This first version of the method was originally called the oral method, the aural-oral method or the structural approach. The audio-lingual method truly began to take shape near the end of the 1950s, this time due government pressure resulting from the space race. Courses and techniques were redesigned to add insights from behaviorist psychology to the structural linguistics and constructive analysis already being used. Under this method, students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The idea is that by reinforcing 'correct' behaviors, students will make them into habits. The typical structure of a chapter employing the Audio-Lingual-Method (ALM—and there was even a textbook entitled ALM ) was usually standardized as follows: 1. First item was a dialog in the foreign language (FL) to be memorized by the student. The teacher would go over it the day before. 2. There were then questions in the FL about the dialog to be answered by the student(s) in the target language. 3. Often a brief introduction to the grammar of the chapter was next, including the verb(s) and conjugations. 4. The mainstay of the chapter was "pattern practice," which were drills expecting "automatic" responses from the student(s) as a noun, verb conjugation, or agreeing adjective was to be inserted in the blank in the text (or during the teacher's pause). The teacher could have the student use the book or not use it, relative to how homework was assigned. Depending on time, the class could respond as a chorus, or the teacher could pick individuals to respond. It was really a sort of "mimicry-memorization." And it was "Julian Dakin in 'The Language Laboratory and Language Learning' (Longman 1973) who coined the phrase 'meaningless drills' to describe pattern practice of the kind inspired by the above ideas." 5. There was a vocabulary list, sometimes with translations to the mother tongue. 6. The chapter usually ended with a short reading exercise. Due to weaknesses in performance, and more importantly because of Noam Chomsky's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, audio-lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today. However, elements of the method still survive in many textbooks. Proprioceptive language learning method - Main article: Proprioceptive language learning method The proprioceptive language learning method (commonly called the Feedback training method) emphasizes the simultaneous development of cognitive, motor, neurological, and hearing as all part of a comprehensive language learning process. Lesson development is as concerned with the training of the motor and neurological functions of speech as it is with cognitive (memory) functions. It further emphasizes that the training of each part of the speech process must be simultaneous. The proprioceptive method, therefore, emphasizes spoken language training and is primarily used by those wanting to perfect their speaking ability in a target language. The proprioceptive method bases its methodology on a speech pathology model. It stresses that mere vocabulary and grammar memory is not the sole requirement for spoken language fluency, but that the mind receives real-time feedback from both hearing and neurological receptors of the mouth and related organs in order to constantly regulate the store of vocabulary and grammar memory in the mind during the speech. For optimum effectiveness, it maintains that each of the components of second language acquisition must be encountered simultaneously. It therefore advocates that all memory functions, all motor functions and their neurological receptors, and all feedback from both the mouth and ears must occur at exactly the same moment in time of the instruction. Thus, according to the proprioceptive method, "all student participation must be done at full speaking volume". Further, in order to train memory, after initial acquaintance with the sentences being repeated, "all verbal language drills must be done as a response to the narrated sentences which the student must repeat (or answer) entirely apart from reading a text". The oral approach / situational language teaching The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. They were familiar with the Direct method as well as the work of 19th century applied linguists such as Otto Jesperson and Daniel Jones but attempted to formally develop a scientifically-founded approach to teaching English than was evidenced by the Direct Method. A number of large-scale investigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on reading skills in the 1920s led to the notion of "vocabulary control". It was discovered that languages have a core basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words that occurred frequently in written texts, and it was assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension. Parallel to this was the notion of "grammar control", emphasizing the sentence patterns most-commonly found in spoken conversation. Such patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students. The principle difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods devised under this approach would have theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of difficulty of exercises and the presentation of such material and exercises. The main proposed benefit was that such theoretically-based organization of content would result in a less-confusing sequence of learning events with better contextualization of the vocabulary and grammatical patterns presented. Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in "situations". Emphasis on this point led to the approach's second name. Proponent claim that this approach leads to students' acquiring good habits to be repeated in their corresponding situations. Teaching methods stress PPP (presentation (introduction of new material in context), practice (a controlled practice phase) and production (activities designed for less-controlled practice)). Although this approach is all but unknown among language teachers today, elements of it have had long-lasting effects on language teaching, being the basis of many widely-used English as a Second/Foreign Language textbooks as late as the 1980s and elements of it still appear in current texts. Many of the structural elements of this approach were called into question in the 1960s, causing modifications of this method that lead to Communicative language teaching. However, its emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns still finds widespread support among language teachers and remains popular in countries where foreign language syllabuses are still heavily based on grammar. Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by U.S. diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide a phrasebook-type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student's usage is accurate and precise. However, the student's choice of what to say is not flexible. The direct method - Main article: Direct method (education) The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and are best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé although neither claim originality and has been re-invented under other names. The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language - a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching. Such methods rely on directly representing an experience into a linguistic construct rather than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary. According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learners for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed word until he has good grasp of speech. Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner's first language. All the above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency. The method relies on a step-by-step progression based on question-and-answer sessions which begin with naming common objects such as doors, pencils, floors, etc. It provides a motivating start as the learner begins using a foreign language almost immediately. Lessons progress to verb forms and other grammatical structures with the goal of learning about thirty new words per lesson. The series method In the 19th century, Francois Gouin went to Hamburg to learn German. Based on his experience as a Latin teacher, he thought the best way to do this would be to memorize a German grammar book and a table of its 248 irregular verbs. However, when he went to the academy to test his new language skills, he was disappointed to find out that he could not understand anything. Trying again, he similarly memorized the 800 root words of the language as well as re-memorizing the grammar and verb forms. However, the results were the same. During this time, he had isolated himself from people around him, so he tried to learn by listening, imitating and conversing with the Germans around him, but found that his carefully constructed sentences often caused native German speakers to laugh. Again he tried a more classical approach, translation, and even memorizing the entire dictionary but had no better luck. When he returned home, he found that his three-year-old nephew had learned to speak French. He noticed the boy was very curious and upon his first visit to a mill, he wanted to see everything and be told the name of everything. After digesting the experience silently, he then reenacted his experiences in play, talking about what he learned to whoever would listen or to himself. Gouin decided that language learning was a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, using language to represent what one experiences. Language is not an arbitrary set of conventions but a way of thinking and representing the world to oneself. It is not a conditioning process, but one in which the learner actively organizes his perceptions into linguistics concepts. The series method is a variety of the direct method in that experiences are directly connected to the target language. Gouin felt that such direct "translation" of experience into words, makes for a "living language". (p59) Gouin also noticed that children organize concepts in succession of time, relating a sequence of concepts in the same order. Gouin suggested that students learn a language more quickly and retain it better if it is presented through a chronological sequence of events. Students learn sentences based on an action such as leaving a house in the order in which such would be performed. Gouin found that if the series of sentences are shuffled, their memorization becomes nearly impossible. For this, Gouin preceded the psycholinguistic theory of the 20th century. He found that people will memorize events in a logical sequence, even if they are not presented in that order. He also discovered a second insight into memory called "incubation". Linguistic concepts take time to settle in the memory. The learner must use the new concepts frequently after presentation, either by thinking or by speaking, in order to master them. His last crucial observation was that language was learned in sentences with the verb as the most crucial component. Gouin would write a series in two columns: one with the complete sentences and the other with only the verb. With only the verb elements visible, he would have students recite the sequence of actions in full sentences of no more than twenty-five sentences. Another exercise involved having the teacher solicit a sequence of sentences by basically ask him/her what s/he would do next. While Gouin believed that language was rule-governed, he did not believe it should be explicitly taught. His course was organized on elements of human society and the natural world. He estimated that a language could be learned with 800 to 900 hours of instruction over a series of 4000 exercises and no homework. The idea was that each of the exercises would force the student to think about the vocabulary in terms of its relationship with the natural world. While there is evidence that the method can work extremely well, it has some serious flaws. One of which is the teaching of subjective language, where the students must make judgments about what is experienced in the world (e.g. "bad" and "good") as such do not relate easily to one single common experience. However, the real weakness is that the method is entirely based on one experience of a three-year-old. Gouin did not observe the child's earlier language development such as naming (where only nouns are learned) or the role that stories have in human language development. What distinguishes the series method from the direct method is that vocabulary must be learned by translation from the native language, at least in the beginning. Communicative language teaching - Main article: Communicative language teaching Communicative language teaching(CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse. Although the 'Communicative Language Teaching' is not so much a method on its own as it is an approach. In recent years, task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction. Dogme language teaching shares a philosophy with TBL, although differs in approach. Dogme is a communicative approach, and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher. - Main article: Language immersion Language immersion in school contexts delivers academic content through the medium of a foreign language, providing support for L2 learning and first language maintenance. There are three main types of immersion education programs in the United States: foreign language immersion, dual immersion, and indigenous immersion. Foreign language immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English. In the early immersion model, for all or part of the school day elementary school children receive their content (academic) instruction through the medium of another language: Spanish, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, etc. In early total immersion models, children receive all the regular kindergarten and first-grade content through the medium of the immersion language; English reading is introduced later, often in the second grade. Most content (math, science, social studies, art, music) continues to be taught through the immersion language. In early partial immersion models, part of the school day (usually 50%) delivers content through the immersion language, and part delivers it through English. French-language immersion programs are common in Canada in the provincial school systems, as part of the drive towards bilingualism and are increasing in number in the United States in public school systems (Curtain & Dahlbert, 2004). Branaman & Rhodes (1998) report that between 1987 and 1997 the percentage of elementary programs offering foreign language education in the U.S. through immersion grew from 2% to 8% and Curtain & Dahlberg (2004) report 278 foreign language immersion programs in 29 states. Research by Swain and others (Genesee 1987) demonstrate much higher levels of proficiency achieved by children in foreign language immersion programs than in traditional foreign language education elementary school models. Dual immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English as well as for students whose home language is the immersion language (usually Spanish). The goal is bilingual students with mastery of both English and the immersion language. As in partial foreign language immersion academic content is delivered through the medium of the immersion language for part of the school day, and through English the rest of the school day. Indigenous immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for American Indian communities desiring to maintain the use of the native language by delivering elementary school content through the medium of that language. Hawaiian Immersion programs are the largest and most successful in this category. - Main article: Silent Way The Silent Way is a discovery learning approach, invented by Caleb Gattegno in the early 1970s. The teacher is usually silent, leaving room for the students to explore the language. They are responsible for their own learning and are encouraged to interact. The role of the teacher is to give clues, not to model the language. - Main article: Suggestopedia Suggestopedia was a method that experienced popularity, especially in past years, with both staunch supporters and very strong critics, some claiming it is based on pseudoscience. The natural approach is a language teaching method developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy D. Terrell. They emphasise the learner receiving large amounts of comprehensible input. The Natural Approach can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Total Physical Response - Main article: Total Physical Response In Total Physical Response (TPR), the instructor gives the students commands in the target language and the students act those commands out using whole-body responses. This can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling - Main article: Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPR Storytelling or TPRS) was developed by Blaine Ray, a language teacher in California, in the 1990s. At first it was an offshoot of Total Physical Response that also included storytelling, but it has evolved into a method in its own right and has gained a large following among teachers, particularly in the United States. TPR Storytelling can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Dogme language teaching - Main article: Dogme language teaching Dogme language teaching is considered to be both a methodology and a movement. Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher. It has its roots in an article by the language education author, Scott Thornbury. The Dogme approach is also referred to as “Dogme ELT”, which reflects its origins in the ELT (English language teaching) sector. Although Dogme language teaching gained its name from an analogy with the Dogme 95 film movement (initiated by Lars von Trier), the connection is not considered close. The following methods are tied to a particular company or school, and are not used in mainstream teaching. - Main article: Pimsleur language learning system Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. It involves recorded 30-minute lessons to be done daily, with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, revision, and new material. Students are asked to translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to lines spoken in the target language. The instruction starts in the student's language but gradually changes to the target language. Several all-audio programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method. The syllabus is the same in all languages. Michel Thomas Method - Main article: Michel Thomas Method Michel Thomas Method is an audio-based teaching system developed by Michel Thomas, a language teacher in the USA. It was originally done in person, although since his death it is done via recorded lessons. The instruction is done entirely in the student's own language, although the student's responses are always expected to be in the target language. The method focuses on constructing long sentences with correct grammar and building student confidence. There is no listening practice, and there is no reading or writing. The syllabus is ordered around the easiest and most useful features of the language, and as such is different for each language. There is a lot of language learning software using the multimedia capabilities of computers. Learning by teaching (LdL) - Main article: Learning by teaching Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany, developed by Jean-Pol Martin. The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. - Richards, Jack C.; Theodore S. Rodgers (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. - Universiteit Antwerpen James L. Barker lecture on November 8, 2001 at Brigham Young University, given by Wilfried Decoo. - Learning Spoken English, page 12-13. public domain. - Diller, Karl Conrad (1978). The Language Teaching Controversy, Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. - van Hattum, Ton (2006), The Communicative Approach Rethought - Language teaching development - Meddings, L and Thornbury, S (2009) Teaching Unplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching. Peaslake: Delta. - includeonly>Luke, Meddings. "Throw away your textbooks", The Guardian, 26 March 2004. Retrieved on 22 June 2009. - Michel Thomas: The Learning Revolution, by Jonathan Solity. - E. ter Horst and J. M. Pearce, “Foreign Languages and the Environment: A Collaborative Instructional Project”, The Language Educator, pp. 52-56, October, 2008. - J. M. Pearce and E. ter Horst “Appropedia and Sustainable Development for Improved Service Learning”, Proceedings of Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education 2008. - Joshua M. Pearce and Eleanor ter Horst, “Overcoming Language Challenges of Open Source Appropriate Technology for Sustainable Development in Africa”, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 11(3) pp.230-245, 2010. - Hergueta, Simón. The Natural Approach (Krashen). Youtube. URL accessed on April 16, 2011. A video explaining the Natural Approach and Krashen's SLA theories. Flash Video software or a web browser supporting H.264/MPEG-4 AVC is necessary to see this video. Language teaching methods fr:Didactique des langues

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The history of African music recording and archiving can be seen most clearly and compellingly by detailing the history of a few key individuals, who were pioneers in their field. At the turn of the 20th Century, a colonised Africa was viewed as backward and void of any real culture worth preserving, which is why these ethnomusicologists were not only groundbreaking in their ideas, but revolutionary. They understood, far before the rest of the Western world could even comprehend, that traditional African music – with its complexity of rhythms, flair for storytelling and historical richness – was worth preserving. Hugh Tracey 1903 – 1977 Arriving in Rhodesia – now Zimbabwe – in 1921 with his brother, who had been awarded land after his efforts in World War 1, the young man of only 18 years old had the foresight of a wise elder. He was surrounded by disdain for African culture from the Christian missionaries, who forbade the playing of the mbira, due to the pagan themes of ancestor worship and the insurrectional ideas gleaned from spirits that featured heavily in the songs. However, Tracey was able to see past the prejudice and ignorance. He was fascinated by the songs, which were sung by the Shona farmers, with whom he and his brother worked alongside on the tobacco fields. He was said to have been ‘bitten’ by Africa; ‘he got cultural malaria.’ Tracey, although very aware of the colonial oppression of African culture, or perhaps because of it, made it his life mission to record traditional African music; a mission which many others adopted after him. After making the first recording of indigenous Rhodesian music, being awarded the Carnegie Fellowship grant to study South Rhodesian music, with which he made over 600 recordings, and inspiring traditional English musicians, Ralph Vaughn Williams and Gustav Holst, at the Royal Academy of Music, who urged him to “discover every chord” of traditional African music, Tracey ran out of funding. He became a broadcaster, utilising every opportunity to promote African music. However, he could not stay away from Africa long, and in 1946 realised someone needed to fully dedicate their time to “appraising the social value” of traditional African music, otherwise it would disappear. Tracey would have to step up and be that someone, especially at a time when African radios wanted to broadcast in their own regional vernaculars but had no recordings of regional music to play. He was lucky enough to obtain funding from Eric Gallo, who owned a recording label in South Africa. They had a “gentlemen’s agreement” that any artists Tracey discovered who had commercial potential, he would forward to Gallo. He therefore started the career of some of Africa’s first popular musicians, such as Jean Bosco Mwenda. Masanga, by Mwenda, was one of the first truly popular songs in Africa. However, as Tracey’s particular concern was that the recordings he made were kept authentic and not manipulated for commercial use, he strayed from the popular African music he was helping to create, and continued to focus more on the traditional. He secured funding from various projects, after a lecturing tour in the UK, and set up The International Library of African music in 1954, where his 20000 recordings are today stored. The ILAM will be explored further in a later blog of this series. - There are a few of Hugh Tracey’s recordings available online on the British Library Sound Archive, under the David Rycroft South African Collection. However, to play these you need to be studying further or higher education to obtain access to these. - More Hugh Tracey, his Sounds of Africa and Music of Africa, can be found on the British Library Sound and Moving Image Catalogue – however, this simply confirms the existence of the recording. To listen to the recordings, one must make an appointment with the Listening Service to listen to the recordings on site at the British Library. - Michael Baird produced 21 CDs of Tracey’s work; Historical Recordings of Hugh Tracey series. These can be bought online at SWP Records and a review of most of the CDs can be found here. Michael Baird said “The sad conclusion after compiling this series is that so much music recorded by HT [Hugh Tracey] has since disappeared — within the space of fifty years. This is something HT foresaw and why he spent most of his life recording this music for posterity. It was not so much Tracey’s ‘knack’ of being at the right place at the right time, but his awareness and vision coupled with organisation and his tremendous energy which give us the opportunity to listen to the many exceptional musicians he recorded today. In this series we are able to present many of the foremost musicians of the 20th century from this part of Africa — and that is a gift. It is especially a gift to the peoples involved, for the legacy as played by their forebears belongs to them.” - ILAM has reissued, without modifications, on CD, Tracey’s Music of Africa Series - Several albums can be bought on iTunes Klaus Wachsmann 1907 – 1984 Wachsmann was a German born English ethnomusicologist, who travelled in Africa in 1937 as a missionary, serving in several offices in the Office of the Protestant Missions in Uganda. He was to do unpaid work with sacred music at Namirembe and with choral school choirs, before being promoted to more senior roles and then he was paid a salary. However, instead of quelling the African music culture – as those missionaries who Hugh Tracey encountered clearly did – Wachsmann lived for 20 years in Uganda working to preserve and archive it. During World War II, according to Peter Cooke in Ethnomusicology in East Africa: Perspectives from Uganda and Beyond, Wachsmann had his camera confiscated because he was regarded as a “friendly enemy alien”. This, coupled with the fact there was no running water at the Museum he was then to work in, explains why there are so few photographic records to go with his 1500 sound records. After his missionary work, he became Curator of the Uganda Museum and while there collected many musical instruments. He received a grant from the British Government in 1949 – demonstrating that even Government authorities began to realise how essential documenting traditional African music was – which enabled him to record these 1500 recordings with the help of a sound engineer, who was responsible for the fantastic quality of the recordings, which he kept at the Uganda Museum. Wachsmann left Africa, and his tapes, in 1957 and worked in London as the Scientific Officer in charge of Ethnological Collections at the Wellcome Foundation until 1963. It was then that he was invited to become a lecturer at UCLA and was reunited with his tapes at the university, as the Uganda Museum did not have the equipment to archive them adequately. However, disaster struck and the tapes were unfortunately destroyed by a flood of the UCLA basement, demonstrating the difficulties of archiving with an easily destructible medium like reel-to-reel tapes and the importance of now digitising these perishable recordings. The sound engineer who had recorded the music with Wachsmann kindly offered up the copies he had made a kept aside. Wachsmann went on to lecture at various universities and was awarded the bronze medal for “Devoted Service to Africa” from the Royal African Society in 1958. His legacy lives on as he gives his name to a prize for advanced and critical essays in organology, at The Society of Ethnomusicology. Moreover, the Klaus Wachsmann Music Archive at the Makerere University, Uganda, has recently been set up. There is a course in archiving at the university and archive at UCLA has been collaborating with Makerere University to provide up to date tools and skills, such as the digitisation of DAT and reel-to-reel tape. Dr Sylvia Nannyonga-Tamusuza from the university, in this article, sums up the importance of archiving “My hope is to create materials for secondary schools from the archive. In that way, (students) can be able to remember and to understand what was there before […] With the recordings, we can give (students) some background and some context; they would be able to understand and go find out more by themselves […] My thinking is that a culture that doesn’t have a history is a dead one.” - His recordings are available to play online, for anyone, in the Klaus Wachsmann Collection at the British Library. - Copies of his recordings can also be found at the UCLA archive, but cannot be streamed online. David Fanshawe 1942 – 2010 David Fanshawe recording the Luo Tribe, Kenya, 1973. Photo Judith Croasdell David Fanshawe did not limit himself to the confines of ethnomusicology and is described as an ‘internationally distinguished composer, ethno-musicologist, sound recordist, archivist, performer, dynamic and entertaining lecturer, record producer, photographer and author.’ As he was so broadly accomplished, he was involved in every aspect of the recording and archiving process of his music, which he gathered from across the world; beginning in the Middle East in 1966 and spreading through North and East African from 1969 till 1975. He later went on to record across the Pacific Ocean for ten years, from 1978. He is stated to have recorded hundreds of tribes and is commended for forming close relationships with them, which allowed him to gain permission to record their music. Mary K. Oyer, b. 1923 Mary Oyer graduated from Goshen College – a private Christian college, historically affiliated with the Mennonite Church – in 1945, but was soon to return as she was invited to teach the General Education course integrating the study of music and visual art. She continued to teach at Goshen College, when in 1968 Oyer applied to be sent to a US Government funded program for Black Studies, operated by the faculty of UCLA. She was accepted and spent the summer of 1968 at UCLA and then travelling to five Sub-Saharan countries, from Senegal to Kenya in the summer of 1969, with a stop off in Uganda on her way home. Here she encountered Evalisto Muyinda, an out of work court musician playing at the Kampala Museum. She was taken by the endingidi, the one-stringed fiddle he was playing; she made her first recording, using her friend’s recorder, and bought an endingidi from Muyinda. [Can be found in the search under ‘Working Title: Evalisto Muyinda at the Uganda National Museum’] My favourite part about the Mary K. Oyer African Music Archive is that when searching every track, it lists the accompanying commentary from Mary Oyer, so you can hear in her own words the description of the music and the story behind it. By the end of the summer, after initially deciding between a focus on music and art, Oyer knew she wanted to channel her efforts into indigenous music. As a teacher, ‘She saw the enriching possibilities for including cross-cultural music in her related arts courses at Goshen College’ and began to teach an annual African Arts course. Over 20 years, Oyer visited 22 countries as she was lucky enough to receive funding from various projects: Kenya National Archives, Kenya Conservatoire of Music, a teaching assignment Kenyatta University and she worked with Mennonite Central Committee and Peace Corp. She was able to use her role as teacher and lecturer to spread the importance and beauty of traditional African music to young school children in Indiana, up to university students across the US and Canada. Oyer’s legacy has been continued due to a few key individuals understanding the significance of her work. Professor Debra Brubaker began the archive, Solomon Fenton-Miller began digitising the tapes and creating an outline for an archive of the information found on those recordings and Lisa Horst Schrock completed the digitisation process and interviewed Oyer about her travels and field recordings. - All of Mary K. Oyer’s recordings can be found and listened to online in the Mary K. Oyer African Music Archive Database. You must email the Goshen College Music Department Office Coordinator (email address can be found on the website) to obtain a login and password to the database, who responded very quickly. There is a very useful Help page that makes it very easy to manoeuvre the archive. It is intended mostly for scholars, however, anyone expressing an interest will be granted access Peter Cooke, b. 1930 Another teacher, Peter Cooke, began recording traditional African music when he began teaching at the Makerere College School in 1964. He was bereft of recordings of local music, and, at this time, only had the recordings that Hugh Tracey had made a few decades before, which were from all over Africa. When asked about the importance of recording traditional African music, he states ‘It was crucial to me to be able to direct the attention of young Ugandans to their own musical traditions: so often at weekends my wife and I drove off with students from different parts of the country to sample the music of their own local village musicians.’ An impressive example of initiative that lead one man, and his wife, to create essential recordings, in order to inspire his students. He was then transferred to run the music department in the National Teachers’ College at Kyambogo, where his recording work ‘took on even more importance.’ However, when it came to the archiving of Uganda tribal music, Cooke faced a disappointing set back; ‘It was important to leave copies of materials behind for further use by the Ugandans and others that followed me after I left [Uganda] in 1968. Unfortunately the tape copies I left behind just vanished during the chaotic years of Amin’s rule.’ He then contrasts the situation in Uganda with the ease and quality of archiving in Scotland, where he next went on to work at the School of Scottish Studies, University of Edinburgh, highlighting the imperative need for a more sustainable system for archiving in Uganda. Cooke also noted the importance of dissemination, which is why his work is produced on CDs, with teaching booklets making use of well documented recordings, complete with transcriptions and texts. Cooke recording the Abasaasi, a team of drummers and singers outside the Kabaka’s country palace at Abamunanika in 1987 who had gathered to sing the praises of Prince Ronald Mutebi who had just returned from exile in London However, as Cooke’s aim is, and always has been, to make traditional Ugandan music available to Ugandans, he was determined to see his work accessible there and it is now available at the Makerere University, although it wasn’t a simple decision; ‘until I was assured that a well managed archive was being set up at Makerere I was loath to deposit my materials there, after what had happened at Kyambogo Teachers’ College. The Makerere archive eventually came about through the good works of Sylvia Nannyonga Tamusuza and her Norwegian partners, though I had approached the librarian at Makerere about such a possibility many years previously.’ He has also sent his recordings back to other places in Uganda, such as to the Batwa ‘through the good offices of Chris Kidd, a post-grad at the time who was working with the Batwa’ and the family of Benedicto Mubangizi, who Cooke describes as a ‘marvellous person – teacher, educator, choir trainer, composer and folklorist’. He had made copies of this musician’s work in the 1960s and 1980s and tries ‘as much as possible to get samples back to the individual musicians’ he works with, but states ‘This is not always possible.’ When asked about how he would like to change the way his materials are archived, Cooke’s concern, firstly at the Makerere University, is that the archive is not accessible to everyone; ‘I am also very concerned to see that the Makerere recordings are made available to more than simply the university staff and students in that institution. In other words I would like to see that listening facilities are afforded to any Ugandan who want to listen to recordings at the archive. At present I don’t know what the position is.’ In addition, he hopes that ‘one of the original aims of the Makerere archive is followed through – namely to create ‘out-stations’ where further copies of the material at Makerere are made available in different areas of Uganda.’ Soga ebigwala trumpet team at Nambote village 1994 His material is also available at the British Library, which is able to be accessed by everyone online. However, it is quite a difficult archive for novices to use, and, as highlighted by Cooke, ‘Alternative names are an example:- Ebigwala, bigwara , amagwara, magwara, amagwala etc. for the Soga gourd trumpets,’ that make searching on the British Archive, regarding East African music, often a tricky task. In addition, sometimes it is difficult to know, for those who are not experts, exactly how the East African words are spelt: Cooke suggests that ‘a “fuzzy” keyword search facility seems very necessary.’ Moreover, the British Library online archive is difficult to use for Ugandans, as they often experience power cuts, do not have the necessary bandwidth to stream the content and are unable to actually download the material for study. Cooke is well aware of the short falls when it comes to the availability and accessibility of his material, and calls for the improvement of the online facilities available to those who want to share their music. Finally, Cooke shared his thoughts on the future of archiving African Music, particularly in their country of origin. He gave frustrating examples of tapes being stored in terrible conditions, archives being so disorganised that, even with funding, it would take 20 years to archive properly and equipment being broken because it was not used according to instructions. However, there were examples that gave hope for the archiving of East African music, in Africa; ‘I visited the Ethiopian archives while stranded in Khartoum for four days (by Ethiopian Airways in 1988 I believe) and found […] local scholars, some of them trained in the UK, were doing good work with minimal resources and doing some fine fieldwork with video-cameras.’ He ends with ‘There are plenty of Ugandans who understand the value of a good archives. They need to be able to persuade their government to fund them properly. They also need to pull together.’ - Nearly all of Cooke’s material is available online at the Peter Cooke Uganda Collection, British Library - There is an archive of his work at the Makerere University in Uganda, which must be listened to onsite. The availability of this archive to the general public is unknown to Cooke (though his concern is that it should be available to everyone) - His personal website gives details of all published work he has done and where it can be found - He also has copies of his recordings at the Indiana Archive, Bloomington S. Nannyonga-Tamusuza, T. Solomon, 2012. ‘Ethnomusicology in East Africa: Perspectives from Uganda and Beyond’. Kampala: Fountain Publishers With thanks to everyone I interviewed and who kindly helped with any aspect of this article.

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When the Romans won wars, they brought home large numbers of enslaved foreign prisoners, to work the fields, mills and mines of the countryside, and to provide an enormous range of domestic services for wealthy city-dwellers. Slaves did the hard labour, but they were also essential for all the things that made a rich Roman’s life comfortable. Most of the work we would classify as part of the ‘service industry’ or the ‘entertainment industry’ was done by slaves. Bath attendants, cooks, baby-sitters, nurses, tutors, secretaries, prostitutes, weavers, dancers, hairdressers and waiters were all usually slaves; so, probably, were actors. It has been estimated that in the decades following the third and final Punic War, when Rome won its decisive victory over Carthage (146 BC), some 30 or 40 per cent of the population of Italy were slaves. Many slaves were literate, some of them very highly educated. Cicero’s beloved secretary, Tiro, inventor of the first known system of shorthand, is only the most famous example. But we have no first-person narrative by a slave about his or her experiences – no ancient equivalent of Olaudah Equiano or Harriet Jacobs. The Roman story of slavery is told from the perspective of the masters. Slavery made Roman cultural life possible, but Roman authors usually either ignored it, or made jokes about it. Roman comedy – the plays of Plautus (c.254-184 BC) and Terence (c.185-159 BC) – as well as the two comic novels, the Satyricon by Petronius (who lived a short, eventful life under Nero, c.27-66 AD) and the Golden Ass by the great orator, neo-Platonist philosopher, priest and magistrate Apuleius (c.123-180 AD), give us some of our best evidence as to how the dominant Romans felt about the slaves they lived with, needed, used and owned. The Golden Ass includes the most sustained narrative from the perspective of the enslaved. It tells the story of Lucius, whose curiosity leads him to steal a magic ointment from a witch, and rub it on himself in the hope of turning into an owl. Instead, he turns into a donkey, that most put-upon and slavish of animals, and endures a series of cruel and brutal humiliations – as well as having various interesting sexual experiences – before finally eating roses, which break the spell and turn him back into a man. The novel includes an inset narrative which mirrors the main story: the tale of Cupid and Psyche, in which the curiosity of Psyche leads to her own painful Odyssey of labours and wanderings as the slave-girl of the goddess Venus. But imagining the comic awfulness of being turned into a slave as punishment for an excessive interest in the lives of the lower orders is not quite the same as sympathising with real slaves. Moreover, the startling ending of the novel seems to undo whatever satirical impact the narrative might have had, by suggesting that the whole thing is a religious allegory: Lucius is saved from his metaphorically slavish desires by conversion to the cult of the goddess Isis. As Apuleius’ novel reminds us, the Romans were aware that they had to be careful even in how they imagined being a slave. Owning slaves is presumably possible, psychologically, only if one resists thinking too much about the slave’s humanity – and hence the potential equality or interchangeability of slave and master. In Rome, only foreigners (barbari – non-Latin-speakers) could be slaves; the slaves were deliberately ‘othered’, by both language and race. But, unlike in the case of American slavery, skin colour provided no clue to the difference between slave and owner. Slaves might talk differently from masters, but they looked disturbingly similar. One neat solution was provided by Aristotle, who claimed that some people are slaves because they have slavish souls. But in time of war, it might become awkwardly obvious that enslavement could happen to anybody. Plautus’ play The Captives seems to deal with precisely this issue: a master changes places with his slave, but both turn out to be of noble birth in their own countries. It is a comedy, so of course both characters are eventually set free, and get to marry the girls of their dreams. But Plautus plays with the possibility of imagining that even good people might be permanently enslaved, through no fault of their own. Slaves were considered part of the familia – the domestic household – and were often buried in the same grave as their masters; yet they were also human chattel, with no legal or civic rights. Comedy is the genre that most clearly articulates anxieties about these paradoxes, and about social hierarchies in general, showing us sons who refuse to obey their fathers, daughters who run off with the wrong men, wives who commit adultery and slaves who are far cleverer than their lustful, know-it-all or niggardly masters. These plays suggest a complex combination of guilt, fear, pride, cruelty and envy in the Roman master’s view of his slave. The attitude of the plays towards women is similarly complicated. Women in Plautus come in three main categories: the desirable, money-grubbing whore, the beautiful chaste princess (wife material), and the interfering old mother. Trouble arises because young men tend to get the first two categories confused, and find themselves raping the princesses and trying to marry the whores, to the rage of their domineering old fathers – until the wily slaves get it all sorted out for them. In Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, Freud compares jokes with dreams. ‘Joke-work’, like ‘dream-work’, uses techniques of displacement and condensation to transform and disguise the fears and desires that our conscious minds do not want to recognise. From a Freudian perspective, the prominence of the ‘clever slave’ in Roman comedy (the servus callidus) might be a symptom of an obvious fear on the part of slave-owners, of their slaves plotting against them, to cheat them out of their money or position of honour in the household. The plays also use the mediating figure of the slave to deal with the fear of sons rebelling against the paterfamilias. The slave often sides with the son against the father, and the rebellious slave may sometimes stand in for the even more threatening figure of the rebellious son. The patriarchal system, which allows for little or no autonomy on the part of the lower members of the household (sons, daughters, wives and slaves), is unstable, since any one of these parties may choose to stand up against the master; and it puts a peculiar kind of pressure on the master’s own imaginative world. For two thousand years the comedies of Plautus and Terence were seen as an essential element in the classical canon. Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors is based on Plautus’ Menaechmi; Molière’s Miser is a version of Plautus’ Aulularia. Perhaps an even more fundamental influence on later European literature was Terence’s dramatic technique of mixing together two or more Greek plays to create a complex or ‘double’ plot, which had an important impact on the multiple plots of Elizabethan drama and the modern novel. Roman comedy was not an obscure genre for any literate person between the 16th and the 19th century: it was part of every schoolboy’s education. Plautus’ long-assumed suitability as a school text is one reason so much of it is still extant: 21 plays, compared to only 11 by Aristophanes. Roman comedy does, of course, emerge from a particular historical moment. But enjoyment of it does not require any specific knowledge of history or politics. Somebody who reads Plautus without knowing anything about Rome’s wars with Carthage will not feel that he or she is missing the jokes. It is important from this perspective that all our extant Roman comedies are comoediae palliatae – comedies in Greek costume – as opposed to comoediae togatae, comedies in which the actors wore the Roman toga. The works of Plautus and Terence are set in a fantasy-land version of Greece, marked as an ‘elsewhere’ by the costumes and the Greek names; it is usually said to be Athens, but it could be anywhere. The Mediterranean of Shakespeare’s comedies provides a similar backdrop of unspecific exoticism. Moreover, these plays are all more or less U-rated: sex is discussed in very decorous terms, and there are no jokes about farting or shit. They are good clean family entertainment. But in the 20th century, Terence and Plautus were dropped from the syllabuses of many schools and universities. As an undergraduate at Oxford studying classics in the early 1990s, I was never asked to read any Roman comedy, and my tutors never made any mention of the genre. The Greek Old Comedy of Aristophanes, on the other hand, was a hot topic. It is not hard to see why Roman comedy should have fallen so dramatically from favour in the course of the last hundred years or so. Ancient slavery was not, of course, identical with domestic service in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. But one can see how the experience of living with servants could have made it easy to imagine what it was like for a Roman to cohabit with his slaves – people in the 19th century could continue to laugh at the servus callidus. But P.G. Wodehouse’s Jeeves marks the last hurrah of the comic clever servant, who can arrange and prevent love affairs for his foolish young master. In the later decades of the 20th century, for almost the first time in the Western tradition, most wealthy or middle-class people began to live without any domestic servants. These days, the slaves who provide our clothes and entertainment live outside our homes, often half a world away. Historical study begins where identification ends. The fall of the genre’s fortunes in the popular imagination coincides with a new wave of scholarly interest in Roman comedy in general, and in Plautus in particular. The modern discussion began with Eduard Fraenkel’s monumental study, the paradoxically-titled Plautinisches im Plautus (1922). This book has now, at long last, been translated into (clear, if somewhat Germanic) English, as Plautine Elements in Plautus. The translators, Tomas Drevikovsky and Frances Muecke, have included translations of all quotations from Latin and Greek, as well as an index rerum, an index locorum, and an up-to-date bibliography of Plautine studies. At the time Fraenkel was writing, the study of Greek New Comedy had recently been transformed by some of the most exciting discoveries in the history of classical scholarship. A papyrus codex was found in Egypt in 1905 which included large sections from several plays by one of the great lost authors of antiquity, Menander, the foremost writer of Greek New Comedy. The Old Comedy of Aristophanes was full of surrealist utopian fantasies, obscenity, slapstick and direct political satire. The plays of Menander, by contrast, included few political references, and apparently no ad hominem attacks. There are no choruses of animals or clouds, no gallivanting gods, no dirty jokes. In fact, you could say that there are no jokes of any kind. The plots revolve around a small set of stock elements: exposed children (who never die, and always turn out to be from good families); fathers, who try in vain to control their children’s love lives; beautiful courtesans whose looks ensnare lively and supposedly likeable young men; ‘parasites’, the young men’s hangers-on; wily slaves; fate, against which we struggle in vain; and moral character, which always triumphs. Roman literature is said to have begun with Livius Andronicus, who translated Greek tragedy into Latin. His Achilles, performed in 240 BC (immediately after Rome’s victory in the first Punic War), marked the beginning of Roman theatre. Plautus is the first Roman author whose work survives, and he too, in some sense, produced translations, from Menander and the other Greek comedians. The dependence of Roman literature on Greek models became a cliché. Horace famously declared that Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit (‘Captured Greece captured her fierce conqueror’). Rome won on the battlefield, but acknowledged the cultural and literary superiority of Athens. The humble nod to the Greek masters is in many cases a kind of back-handed boasting: Roman authors trumpet their own status by acknowledging their dependence on Hellenic models. Moreover, the Greekness of some Roman authors is often mixed with elements that are very obviously Roman. Plautus, for example, throws in plenty of anachronistic references to Roman customs, which destroy any illusion of realism about his Greek settings. The Prologue to the Menaechmi includes a characteristic nod to the Roman audience: ‘“It all takes place in Athens, folks,” is what they say,/So that way everything will seem more Greek to you./But I reveal the real locations when I speak to you’ (the translation is Erich Segal’s, in the Oxford World’s Classics selection of Four Comedies by Plautus, which provides a splendid introduction to the author for those without Latin). Fraenkel’s book might be expected to focus on the Roman or Italian elements in Plautus – the things he did not steal from Menander. Fraenkel does include some discussion of vernacular traditions, and argues strongly, for example, that one of the most important and influential features of the plays of Plautus (not present in Greek comedy), the cantica or songs with which he breaks up the dramatic action, probably grew from early Roman tragedy, rather than directly from Greek models. But in general, Fraenkel’s interest is less in Romanitas than in a much more limited quality, ‘Plautinity’. As a defence of the originality of Roman literature in general, and Plautus in particular, this is a deeply paradoxical book. Fraenkel’s central claim is that Plautus’ talent as a writer – oddly, since he wrote only plays – is defined by his ‘absolute inability to invent even the minutest fragment of dramatic action’. Plautus’ additions to his sources are all tangential doodles, which may make the plays far funnier than their originals, but add nothing to either character development or plot. Greek mythology in Plautus tends, as Fraenkel suggests, to be applied in bizarrely inappropriate contexts, as if to show up the difference between the lofty world of archaic Greece and the mundane domesticity of modern life. In Rudens (The Rope), one character remarks: ‘This horse will make an attack not on the citadel, but on the cash-box.’ We are in the comic, novelistic world of sex and money; those who try to act like heroes (like the ‘Braggart Soldier’ in Plautus’ play of that name) are usually figures of fun. Moreover, Fraenkel suggests that the addition of mythology often serves to emphasise Plautus’ lack of interest in his own plots. Without the frills and japes of his own bizarre comparisons and outlandish jokes, Plautus finds New Comedy pretty boring. From the perspective of contemporary Latin studies, Fraenkel’s total lack of interest in social history or cultural studies may look like a defect. His approach contrasts sharply with, for example, the exuberant and stimulating – if frequently unreadable – recent study (with facing translation) of Plautus’ Asinaria by John Henderson. Henderson explores, or dances around, Plautus’ representation of power relationships between sons, fathers, women and slaves. For Henderson, Plautus is both hilariously funny (‘it’s all a gas’: ridicula res est) and a biting social satirist, who understands the whole Roman ‘economy of pleasure’, and undermines the notion that the Roman father of the family could be anything other than a donkey. He takes nothing seriously, including his own comic tropes. Henderson is more amused than I am by all the jokes about whipping and humiliation. But he is aware that jokes are never just jokes; there is always a social subtext. By contrast, Fraenkel enjoys Plautus’ jokes, but has almost nothing to say about their social or cultural implications. Nor does he show much interest in Plautus’ historical context. Instead, he explains Plautine poetics entirely in terms of Plautus’ individual literary talent. For instance, he argues that Plautus ‘pushed the slave into the foreground’ in contrast to New Comedy; but he does not attempt any kind of political or social analysis of this new interest, suggesting instead that the figure of the slave offered attractive opportunities for Plautus’ favourite style of ‘buffoonery’. Some later scholars (such as Christopher Stace and Jean-Christian Dumont) have suggested that the slave already played a more important role in New Comedy than Fraenkel realised, partly on the basis of more passages of Menander that were discovered and published after Fraenkel’s death. Fraenkel does not write for the general reader, and even specialists may well feel overwhelmed by the mass of detail in the early chapters of Plautine Elements. You never get just one example when twenty will do. But for those who can struggle through the trees, the wood is a particularly interesting one. Fraenkel makes a cohesive and still convincing case for the idea that Plautus’ poetic vision is all about giving a voice to the inanimate and the voiceless. He demonstrates, with innumerable examples, that Plautus constantly resorts to motifs of personification and transformation: parts of the body and household objects are treated as if they were alive. In the Asinaria, for example, a slave says: ‘I do not want one of us slaves,/my mate the door, to get a beating’ (the translation is Henderson’s). Fraenkel reminds us, although he makes no explicit comment on the fact, that a large amount of the humour in Plautus hinges on the notion of the cowardly slave, who wants to avoid a beating. Fraenkel’s mass of evidence suggests that Plautine comedy systematically creates a grey area where we might think there could be no middle ground: between people and non-people. The humour may be seen as self-justificatory: if Plautus can imagine that slaves are just like doors, then there’s no harm in beating them up. But it may also seem symptomatic of a fear on the part of the slave-owning classes, that at least part of their property may be animate after all. If slaves have eyes, hands, organs and dimensions like their masters, then they also have a clear motive for revenge. It is also worth noting that the slaves in Plautus never actually get beaten, although they talk about it all the time. Segal once argued that Plautine comedy has close affinities with the Roman festival of the Saturnalia, when slaves were, for once, allowed to eat with their masters, and seem to have had much greater freedom of speech and action – at least for the duration of the festival. Comedy, too, depicts a magic world, in which the normal hierarchies are temporarily suspended – only to be reinforced, with a vengeance, at the end of the play or holiday time. From this perspective, the ‘carnivalesque’ license of slaves in Roman comedy can be seen as reinforcing a normative social hierarchy. The plays which show us clever slaves escaping punishment act as a reminder that in the real world the opposite is the case: slaves are stupid, and when they act up, they get beaten – or crucified. On the other hand, some readers see a more uneasy reminder in these plays that slaves may not be so different from their owners. Physical violence is upsetting as well as funny, for an audience that identified with the slave as well as with his master. Terence, who lived a generation later than Plautus, might be expected to offer a more sympathetic portrayal of the comic slave. His mother was, we are told, a slave, and the poet was brought to Rome from Carthage as a child. He was raised in the household of a rich Roman aristocrat called Terentius Lucanus, and then set free. This would explain his name, Terentius Afer: Terence the African. He became a comic poet, and produced six plays in the space of six years (166-160 BC). He then died young – supposedly in a shipwreck, while trying to transport a collection of Menander’s plays to Rome. The story of the death is too good to be likely, but the slavery may well have been real; after all, a pretty high proportion of Rome’s population were either slaves or freedmen. He may even have been black, or at least dark-skinned; we do not know. But Terence’s comedies will disappoint anybody looking for a direct indictment of Roman slavery from inside the mouth of the horse (or the ass). There is far less business about slaves, whipping and rebellion in Terence than in Plautus, and less frolicking, irrelevant donkey-play in general. The anachronisms, the metatheatrical doodling, the songs, the snooty clever slaves and stupid masters are all toned down in Terence, who is much less interested than Plautus in trying to make us laugh. The result is a new and intense focus on sexual relationships. These plays offer a fascinating and puzzling glimpse into Roman attitudes towards women as both objects and victims of male sexual desire. Instead of the servus callidus, the smart-alec slave, we get a new stereotype: the bona meretrix, the hooker with a heart of gold. The female characters in Terence – including prostitutes and even mothers and mothers-in-law – are almost all nice, admirable, thoughtful, victimised people. The men almost invariably behave abominably: they get drunk, squabble about money and girls, try (and fail) to trick one another, and rape women without thinking twice. But the plays always invite us to see things from a masculine point of view, and we are always asked, at the end, to applaud the marriage of yet another rich young rapist to yet another innocent, well-born, fertile girl. The plays are surprisingly brutal in their analysis of the institution of marriage. Terence’s second play, The Mother-in-Law, was apparently a flop in the theatre on two separate occasions (165 and 160 BC), because the audience was more interested in seeing the rival performances of acrobats and gladiators than in sitting through a sharp dissection of Roman sexual mores. The play provides an interesting variant on the usual theme. Pamphilus, our hero, has already been married for seven months. It was an arranged marriage, and Pamphilus remained besotted with his mistress, Bacchis, for the first few months after the wedding – so much so that he did not even sleep with his bride, and planned to send her back to her family untouched. But as the play opens, Pamphilus has just found that his feelings for his wife have changed. He is no longer attracted to his mistress, and decides he will keep his wife after all. The only problem is that she has been hidden away in the country by her mother. The big secret is that the wife is having a baby, who must, so Pamphilus believes, be another man’s child; such a blot on his honour can hardly be allowed to live. In fact, after various twists and turns, we learn that the child is the son of Pamphilus after all. Drunk on his way to visit Bacchis one night, he raped a girl – who now turns out to have been his own bride-to-be. A happy ending, of a kind: ‘All’s well that ends well. Just what two/ Young gentlemen of Verona might any day do,’ as Frederick Clayton comments in a brilliant modern epilogue to the play. As with Shakespeare’s bed tricks, it’s hard to know how much we are supposed to worry about the rapes in Terence. On the one hand, they are a useful plot device. The victim can remain relatively respectable and sympathetic in the eyes of the audience; the girl may still make a good wife. On the other, the wife in The Mother-in-Law is never seen on stage – so there is a limit to how much a theatre audience can care about what happened to her. Still, it is hard not to suspect that these plots play with anxiety as well as with self-satisfaction. Pamphilus never lets his father find out the whole story about the rape, and comments: ‘I think it’s best if this doesn’t turn out the way things do in comedies, where everyone finds out about everything.’ The truth is, of course, that this is a comedy, and the audience, at least, does know ‘everything’. But perhaps we, too, are better off not knowing, or not thinking too hard about what we know. Male promiscuity may threaten every marriage, and make every baby liable to be exposed or killed. The play points directly to an obvious double standard: Pamphilus’ infidelities – which will presumably continue – are more or less compatible with his role as a husband, whereas his wife may only be raped, and by her own spouse. And as in Romeo and Juliet, fidelity to one true love always means the betrayal of another, earlier love: Bacchis is abandoned when Pamphilus falls in love with his wife. Marriage may be the enemy of romance; but as members of society, we are still asked to clap for it. It is tempting to see Roman comedy (and Greek New Comedy) as the ancient equivalent of the modern feel-good romantic comedy. But these are Meg Ryan dramas without Meg Ryan. The female characters have no voice, and sometimes, as in The Mother-in-Law, the supposed heroine is not even a character in the play. A closer analogue might be found in films centred on non-Anglo-American cultures, which analyse the tensions between modern and traditional sexual norms: Ang Lee’s The Wedding Banquet, Mira Nair’s Monsoon Wedding or (perhaps the most Terentian, and most upsetting) Dover Koshashvili’s Late Marriage, a Georgian-Israeli movie about a man who finally reconciles himself to the abandonment of his beloved mistress and her child, in order to marry the woman his father has chosen. After all, as Pamphilus remarks, ‘I do love her. But family must come first./ Falsehood to family, of all sins, is the worst’ (the translation is Clayton’s). ‘Family’ means here, as in Terence, enslavement to a pair of savage masters: fathers and babies. Terence was known in antiquity for the ‘purity’ of his language. Schoolmasters in the 19th century often justified teaching these unedifying tales of sexual infidelity and filial impiety on the grounds of their beautiful language. A letter to the Times in 1847, quoted by Peter Brown in his introduction to his new Oxford translation of Terence, complains that ‘the cry of injury to morality is mere twaddle, and it would be a lamentable event if an old and useful stimulant to the study of one of the purest Latin authors were destroyed by such maudlin nonsense.’ Brown’s own version is serviceable English prose, which might well come to life in production. Brown also supplies useful notes, a bibliography and fine individual introductions to each play. But if I had to choose a recent translation of Terence, I would favour Clayton’s, in amazingly lively and readable rhyming couplets (it also has a good introduction by Matthew Leigh, but no notes or full bibliography). In Clayton’s version, the Don Juan-ish rhymes sometimes call the shots and the language is inevitably not much like modern spoken English. But at least he does not let you forget that Terence was a poet, a clear-minded, writerly writer. Sometimes Clayton’s Terence actually seems funny, even in our enlightened day and age. Inevitably, neither of these good translations is all that much like the Latin of Terence, and readers should choose for themselves. Here is a sample, from Terence’s last play, The Brothers, in which a kill-joy, moralistic old man called Demea comes into conflict with his cakes-and-ale brother, Micio, over the sexual antics of one of Demea’s sons. But the roles reverse in the final act. Here is Brown’s translation of Demea’s concluding speech: No one has ever done his sums so well in the account book of his life that events, time and experience don’t always bring him something new, something to learn from. The result is that you don’t know what you thought you knew, and experience teaches you to reject what you thought most important for yourself. That’s what has happened to me now: that harsh life that I have lived so far I now abandon when I have almost run its course. Why do I do that? Events themselves have taught me that nothing is better for a man than to be obliging and kind. This is a respectable, plain version, which tells you what the Latin is about. But Clayton does more. He reminds us that we can find in Terence an ancestor for English comic verse, ranging from Ralph Roister Doister through Pope to Bernard Shaw and Ogden Nash. Clayton’s Demea sounds like a strangely laid-back, Byronic version of Prospero at the end of the Tempest: His life’s account-books no man ever drew up So well but time, chance, change brings something new up, Some lesson. Your known laws become unknown; Things prized, when put to fresh proof, you disown. This is my fate. The hard life that I’ve led Till now I leave, my span of life nigh sped. And why? Because I’ve found, on fact’s own showing The best thing’s to be soft and easy-going. Demea’s choice – to see everything as fun and games, and let morality go hang – is one way to read or watch Roman comedy. Perhaps, in the end, it’s all just a laugh.

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Introduction To Teaching Strategies The following teaching and learning techniques fall at various points on a scale of completely directive to completely nondirective. Directive instruction is teacher-oriented and didactic, whereas nondirective instruction is student-oriented and facilitative. These are the two main categories of teaching styles, and most methods involve some combination of the two, the distribution of which is up to the educator’s discretion. Active Learning: An interactive (as opposed to passive) approach wherein the student is allowed to generate, rather than receive, information. In an active learning environment, the teacher assumes the role of facilitator. Examples include spontaneous group dialogue, cold calling, think-pair-share, and reciprocal peer questioning. Assessment and Feedback: By using assessment strategies that draw students into the assessment process, it is more likely that they learn more of the content that you want them to learn while getting the added benefits of learning skills that will be useful to them in the future. By deliberately using different Functions of Assessments at specific times during the learning process students, will have a clearer vision of what is expected of them and generally will be more positive about their course experiences. Blended Learning: A blended learning approach combines face-to-face classroom methods with computer-mediated activities to form an integrated instructional approach. In the past, digital materials have served a supplementary role, helping to support face-to-face instruction. For example, a blended approach to a traditional, face-to-face course might mean that the class meets once per week instead of the usual three-session format. Learning activities that otherwise would have taken place during classroom time can be moved online. This is the idea behind flipped classrooms. Brainstorming: In order to generate creative ideas, learners are asked to withhold judgment or criticism and produce a very large number of ways to do something, such as resolve a problem. For example, learners may be asked to think of as many they can for eliminating world hunger. Once a large number of ideas have been generated, they are subjected to inspection regarding their feasibility. Calibrated Peer Review: A web-based management tool that enables discipline-based writing with peer review in classes of any size. Students learn how to evaluate their peers’ documents by reviewing three carefully crafted sample texts, which include an exemplar and common student errors and misconceptions. Pre-written assignments by other instructors can be used or adapted to fit your needs. Citation credit is attributed to faculty authors whose writing assignments are modified. Campus-Based: Campus-based learning uses the campus buildings and grounds as teaching tools. Projects can provide hands-on, real-world experiences that link to service-learning and civic engagement programs, and can be accomplished without a field trip budget or transportation. Case Study- Based: An examination of a real or simulated problem, which is structured so that learning can take place or be reinforced. Also, a detailed analysis made of some specific, usually compelling event or series of related events so that learners will better understand its nature and what might be done about it. For example, learners in a technology lab might investigate the wear and tear of skate boarding on public works. Another class might look at cases of digital technologies and privacy. Centers of Interest and Displays: Collections and displays of materials are used to interest learners in themes or topics. For example, children may bring to school and display family belongings that reflect their ethnic heritage. The intention may be to interest the class in the notion of culture. Or, the teacher might arrange a display of different devices used in measurement to prompt interest in that topic. Classroom Response Systems: Sometimes known as audience polling technology (or even just “clickers”), classroom response systems promise numerous benefits in classes, including improved student engagement, enhanced formative feedback for instructors, easy quizzing tools, even a means to take attendance. Instructors can employ the systems to gather individual responses from students or to gather anonymous feedback. Reports are typically exported to Excel for upload to the instructor’s grade book. Cognitive: In contrast to the more direct method of learning-by-doing, cognitive apprenticeship encourages students to learn by observing before trying out a task themselves in order to reduce demands on the mental faculties. The four-step training regimen runs as follows: 1) acquiring information by observing a model’s actions, hearing their descriptions, and discerning their consequences; 2) emulating a model’s performance; 3) deliberately practicing in order to achieve automaticity of technique, thereby reducing the momentary demands on the cognitive processes; and 4) acquiring the self-regulation necessary to adapt their performance to changes in internal and external conditions. Collaborative: Students work in small groups to complete a specific task or work together over time to complete various assignments. The most productive collaborations involve a fair division of labor and relevant and complex projects that cannot be completed by an individual alone. Interdependence is required. Colloquia: A guest or guests are invited to class for the purpose of being interviewed in order to find out about the persons or activities in which they are involved. Thus, a guest musician might serve as a stimulus for arousing interest in music and musical performance. Competitive: An individualistic method that encourages scaled performance. In the sense of game-based learning, students compete with each other one to-one or team-to-team to determine which individual or group is superior at a given task such as “spelldowns,” anagrams, technology trivia, Odyssey of the Mind, or project competition. ConcepTests: Conceptual multiple-choice questions that focus on one key concept of an instructor’s learning goals for a lesson. When coupled with student interaction through peer instruction, ConcepTests represent a rapid method of formative assessment of student understanding. Contract: Written agreements entered into by students and teachers which describe academic work to be accomplished at a particular level over a particular period of time such as a week or month. Controversial Issues: An issues-based, teacher-directed method that focuses on controversies. Students are directed through a process that assists them in understanding how to deal with controversial and sensitive issues and clarifies these issues in a group context. Involves critical thinking and discourse analysis. Cooperative: Involves structuring classes around small groups that work together in such a way that each group member’s success is dependent on the group’s success. There are different kinds of groups for different situations, but they all balance some key elements that distinguish cooperative learning from competitive or individualistic learning. Culture Jamming: A method used to empower students to “speak back” to mass advertisements and media images that enforce stereotypes and select representations of individuals or groups. Empowers students to mock or “jam” images of popular culture. Debates (formal and informal): Similar to discussion but more structured. Traditionally involves choosing a topic that has a strong argument for and against it, and splitting the class / group with one side presenting the case for and the other presenting the case against. Debates can be very thought provoking and are great for developing students’ communication skills, but they are time consuming and staff skill is essential to facilitate the process. Debriefing: A method used to provide an environment or platform for the expression of feelings and the transfer of knowledge following an experience. Debriefing may come at the hands of a tragic event or may be used more generally following an intentionally educational experience. Debriefing relies on the skills of the facilitator to reframe an experience or event to appropriately channel emotions and knowledge toward understanding and transformation. Demonstration: A teaching method based predominantly on the modeling of knowledge and skills. A form of presentation whereby the teacher or learners show how something works or operates, or how something is done. For example, a teacher could demonstrate how to use a thesaurus, how to operate a power drill, how to scan an image, or what happens when oil is spilled on water as when an oil tanker leaks. Following that, students practice under teacher supervision. Finally, independent practice is done to the point of proficiency. Discussion: A group assembles to communicate with one another through speaking and listening about a topic or event of mutual interest. For example, a group of learners convenes to discuss what it has learned about global warming. Teachers can hold class-wide discussions or divide students into groups. Drill and Practice: A form of independent study whereby, after the teacher explains a task, learners practice it. After students are shown how to use Ohm’s Law, they are asked to make calculations of current, resistance and voltage. Experiential: Experiential learning is a process through which students develop knowledge, skills, and values from direct experiences outside a traditional academic setting. Experiential learning encompasses a variety of activities including internships, service learning, undergraduate research, study abroad, and other creative and professional work experiences. Well-planned, supervised, and assessed experiential learning programs can stimulate academic inquiry by promoting interdisciplinary learning, civic engagement, career development, cultural awareness, leadership, and other professional and intellectual skills. Field observation, fieldwork, field trip: Observations made or work carried on in a natural setting. Students visit the local museum of natural history to see displays about dinosaurs, or they begin and operate a small business to learn about production and marketing. The Gallery Walk: A discussion technique for active engagement. Students get out of their chairs and actively synthesize important concepts in consensus building, writing, and public speaking. Teams rotate around the classroom, composing answers to questions as well as reflecting upon the answers given by other groups. Questions are posted on charts or just pieces of paper located in different parts of the classroom. Each chart or “station” has its own question that relates to an important class concept. The technique closes with an oral presentation or “report out” in which each group synthesizes comments to a particular question. Gaming: Competitive activity based on course content. Moderate competition enhances performance. Often used for content reinforcement and skill practice. Can also be used to strengthen critical thinking in games where strategies must be developed to solve problems. In order to create a truly educational game, the instructor needs to make sure that learning the material is essential to scoring and winning. Graphic Organizers: Clarifying relationships with diagrams or graphs; clarifying processes with flow charts. To be used in lectures or as assignments. Individualized/Customized: Any of a number of teaching maneuvers whereby teaching and learning are tailored to meet a learner’s unique characteristics. Based on a student’s “proximal zone of development.” Immersive Environments: Students are placed within a setting or situation in which they exclude all else from their experiences. If they are immersed in a language, they speak, hear, write, and read only that language. If they are immersed in a work setting and assigned a role there, they become that role and their communications and actions comply with that role. Inquiry-Based: Also called discovery-based learning, a method used when students are encouraged to derive their own understanding or meaning for something. For example, students are asked to find out what insulation acts as the best barrier for cold or hot environments. Interactive: Interactive learning is a more hands-on, real-world process of relaying information in classrooms. Passive learning relies on listening to teachers lecture or rote memorization of information, figures, or equations. But with interactive learning, students are invited to participate in the conversation, through technology (online reading and math programs, for instance) or through role-playing group exercises in class. The Jigsaw Technique: In a jigsaw, the class is divided into several teams, with each team preparing separate but related assignments. When all team members are prepared, the class is re-divided into mixed groups, with one member from each team in each group. Each person in the group teaches the rest of the group what he/she knows, and the group then tackles an assignment together that pulls all of the pieces together to form the full picture, hence the name jigsaw. Just-in-Time: Just-in-Time Teaching focuses on improving student learning through the use of brief web-based questions (JiTT exercises) delivered before a class meeting. Students’ responses to JiTT exercises are reviewed by the instructor a few hours before class and are used to develop classroom activities addressing learning gaps revealed in the JiTT responses. JiTT exercises allow instructors to quickly gather information about student understanding of course concepts immediately prior to a class meeting and tailor activities to meet students’ actual learning needs. Learning-by-Observing: From a cognitive perspective, the dramatic effects of learning-by-observing can be explained in the following way: by allowing the student to focus her attention on a model’s behavior instead of attending to the cognitive processes and motor execution needed to do a new—possibly difficult— task, she becomes better able to absorb and handle the instruction she receives. There seems to be a degree of objectivity achieved by watching someone else perform a task that cannot be achieved— or at least maintained— while performing the task yourself. Learning-by-Teaching: Researches have found that “students will work harder, reason better, and ultimately understand more by learning to teach someone else—even a virtual “teachable agent”—than they will when learning for themselves.” In an ingenious program at the University of Pennsylvania, a “cascading mentoring program” engages college undergraduates to teach computer science to high school students, who in turn instruct middle school students on the topic. Lecture-Based: Active lectures blend 10-15 minute presentation segments with interactive experiences such as asking provocative questions and class or small group discussions. Using visual aids such as graphic organizers, video clips, or a few PowerPoint slides to emphasize main points and an engaging voice improve results. Literature Review: Students read and reflect on articles in the professional journals in order to become familiar with the current research. Mastery-Based: As a class, students are presented with information to be learned at a predetermined level of mastery. The class is then tested and individuals who do not obtain high enough scores are retaught and retested. Those who passed undertake enrichment study while classmates catch up. Memorizing: Also called rote learning, memorizing is a learning technique based on repetition and retention. This is the most widely tested form of learning. Metacognitive: Metacognition is a critically important yet often overlooked component of learning. Effective learning involves planning and goal-setting, monitoring one’s progress, and adapting as needed. All of these activities are metacognitive in nature. By teaching students these skills – all of which can be learned – we can improve student learning. There are three critical steps to teaching metacognition: Teaching students that their ability to learn is mutable; teaching planning and goal-setting; and giving students ample opportunities to practice monitoring their learning and adapting as necessary. Mobile (M-): Mobile learning, or “m-learning,” offers modern ways to support learning process through mobile devices, such as handheld and tablet computers, MP3 players, smartphones and mobile phones. It presents unique attributes compared to conventional e-learning: personal, portable, collaborative, interactive, contextual and situated, it emphasizes “just-in-time-learning” as instruction can be delivered anywhere and at anytime through it. Moreover, it is an aid to formal and informal learning and thus holds enormous potential to transform the delivery of education and training. Multimedia: Integrating varying formats such as lecture, text, graphics, audio, video, Web resources, projection devices, and interactive devices in a lesson. Increases motivation, alertness, and can improve the quality of student responses. Simultaneous presentation using multiple formats allows students to learn using multiple senses. Object-Based: In the arts and sciences, for example, using objects from museums and campus collections to enhance your lectures and seminars. Peer-Assisted: A student-to-student support network for both academic and personal development. Advanced students are trained to help beginning students, meeting regularly in small groups to help them improve their understanding of the subject matter, work through common problems, and further develop their learning strategies. Peer-to-Peer: Peer-to-Peer teaching is a method of instruction that involves students teaching other students. Students learn more and demonstrate mastery when they are able to comprehensively teach a subject. Vice versa, when a student is struggling, having someone who is on the same age level as them helps to create bridges in the learning gaps. A peer tutor can form examples and relate to a student on an entirely different level than an adult educator. Podcasting: Audio: Using mp3 compression to make audio files small enough to be broadcast, downloaded, or emailed by instructors and students. Files may include lectures or verbal feedback regarding assignments. Enhanced: Combining images, such as PowerPoint, and audio, such as instructor voice over, which are compressed and viewable on a computer or photo/video iPod. Video: Digital video, such as classroom lectures or interviews with experts, which are compressed and viewable on a computer or video iPod. Portfolio: Collecting, organizing, reflecting upon, and publishing a variety of student work including papers, presentations, videos, and images. Presentation: Individuals or groups of learners are given or choose topics. For example, each may be asked to find out about one planet in our solar system, or about solar powered vehicles. What they learn is shared with other class members by way of oral or written presentations. Problem-Based: An instructional strategy wherein the learning is centered on a problem that the students have to solve. It differs from traditional instruction in that the problem is given to the students before instruction, and is generally associated with collaborative learning because students are often put into groups where they work on the problem together. Programmed and automated instruction: A form of individualized instruction whereby information is learned in small, separate units either by way of reading programmed texts or using computer-based programs. Project-Based: Students work through a series of activities and problems culminating in the completion of something tangible (e.g. artifact, media, performance). A form of individualization whereby learners choose and work on projects and activities that facilitate and support the development of skills and knowledge. Often, learners not only choose topics but also the means of their conduct and production. Protocols: Learners study an original record or records of some important event and then try to understand the event or its consequences. They might watch a film depicting actual instances of discrimination and then consider its causes and effects. Recitation: Students are given information to study independently. They then recite what they have learned when questioned by the teacher. For example, students read about what causes pollution, and the teacher, through questioning, determines the extent and nature of their knowledge and understanding. Research-led: Wherein students learn about others’ research and conduct their own. Includes developing research skills and methods. Role Playing: A technique wherein students act out a situation (e.g. a public meeting to discuss the planning of a new supermarket). Role plays are good for developing opinions and encouraging students to look at a situation through a new perspective. Great for practicing communication skills, and provides an opportunity to assess learning. Scaffolding: A teaching method that enables a student to solve a problem, carry out a task, or achieve a goal through a gradual shedding of outside assistance. It enlists the instructor as an “activator” whose role is to facilitate the student’s incremental mastery of a concept. “Fading” is the process of gradually removing the scaffolding that was put into place for the student until he internalizes the information and becomes a self-regulated, independent learner. Self-Directed/Independent: In self-directed learning (SDL), the individual takes the initiative and the responsibility for what occurs in his or her education. Individuals select, manage, and assess their own learning activities, which can be pursued at any time, in any place, through any means, at any age. In schools, teachers can work toward SDL any stage at a time. Teaching emphasizes SDL skills, processes, and systems rather than content coverage and tests. For the individual, SDL involves initiating personal challenge activities and developing the personal qualities to pursue them successfully. Service: A flexible pedagogy that can make use of varied service opportunities, be used in a variety of classroom settings, and support numerous learning outcomes. Essential elements of effective service-learning practice include well-defined learning goals, meaningful service activities, and critical reflection activities which support both service and learning goals. As defined by the Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges, “Service-learning is an experiential teaching method that combines community service with academic instruction as it focuses on critical, reflective thinking, and civic responsibility. Service-learning programs involve students in organized community service that addresses local needs, while developing their academic skills, sense of civic responsibility and commitment to the community.” Simulation: Learners engage with something intended to give the appearance or have the effect of something else. Thus, students may engage in a simulation of the United Nations General Assembly in order to have a “first-hand experience” of how it works and what its delegates do. Socratic Questioning: Named for the early Greek philosopher/teacher Socrates, a Socratic approach to teaching is one in which the instructor poses thoughtful questions to help students learn and to promote critical thinking skills. One way of following the Socratic method recommends that teachers respond to all answers to questions with a further question (that calls upon the respondent to develop his/her thinking in a fuller and deeper way); seek to understand–where possible–the ultimate foundations for what is said or believed and follow the implications of those foundations through further questions; treat all assertions as a connecting point to further thoughts; treat all thoughts as in need of development; and stimulate students — through your questions — to pursue connections. Storytelling: Storytelling can be a powerful tool in the classroom. It usually begins with the teacher playing the role of storyteller, or by inviting a professional storyteller or guest speaker into the classroom. Students are then given the opportunity to tell stories to the rest of the class in a structured fashion. By listening to another person tell a story, students develop listening, concentration, and vocabulary skills and may become more motivated to read; by telling stories themselves students develop oral language, writing, and critical thinking skills. Synectics: The use of specific techniques to foster creativity in students. For example, the students may be asked to develop metaphors to describe mobility across different terrains. Task-Based: Usually used to teach language, task-based learning involves an activity in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects real life, and learners focus on meaning. They are free to use any language they want. Playing a game, solving a problem, or sharing information or experiences can all be considered relevant and authentic tasks. In TBL an activity in which students are given a list of words to use cannot be considered as a genuine task. Nor can a normal role play if it does not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach. In many role plays students simply act out their restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as company directors but must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit can be considered a genuine task in TBL. Values Clarification: Teachers lead students through a series of moral and ethical dilemmas, such as birth control or clear-cutting forestry practices, to assist them in clarifying their values and moral choices. Web-Based: Web based learning is often called online learning or e-learning because it includes online course content. Discussion forums via email, videoconferencing, and live lectures (videostreaming) are all possible through the web. Web based courses may also provide static pages such as printed course materials. One of the values of using the web to access course materials is that web pages may contain hyperlinks to other parts of the web, thus enabling access to a vast amount of web based information. A “virtual” learning environment (VLE) or managed learning environment (MLE) is an all-in-one teaching and learning software package. A VLE typically combines functions such as discussion boards, chat rooms, online assessment, tracking of students’ use of the web, and course administration. VLEs act as any other learning environment in that they distribute information to learners. VLEs can, for example, enable learners to collaborate on projects and share information. However, the focus of web based courses must always be on the learner—technology is not the issue, nor necessarily the answer. Whole Language: In the simplest terms, the “whole language approach” is a method of teaching children to read by recognizing words as whole pieces of language. Proponents of the whole language philosophy believe that language should not be broken down into letters and combinations of letters and “decoded.” Instead, they believe that language is a complete system of making meaning, with words functioning in relation to each other in context. It has drawn criticism by those who advocate “back to basics” pedagogy or reading instruction because whole language is based on a limited body of scientific research.

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Once upon a time, there was a grownup, a child, and a very good book. Goodnight cow jumping over the moon Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown is a beloved children’s bedtime story. Young children instantly relate to the struggle of the little bunny trying to get to sleep. Such stories are memorable because they move children and allow them to make personal connections that inspire them to think more deeply, to feel more wholeheartedly, and to become more curious listeners. Many of us can remember from our own experience the precious time spent sharing and talking about stories. We remember relating to the friendship between a little girl and a teddy bear named Corduroy in the book of the same name by Don Freeman. We also related to the friendship between a spider and her pig friend, Wilbur, in E.B. White’s Charlotte’s Web. We connected to the characters, their situations, or the settings in which the stories took place. Little did we know that when we were making such connections we were learning to think and act like good readers. Because reading aloud provides children with a model of confident and expert reading, many parents and teachers make it a vital part of their teaching practice. Helping children understand what they read This article praises the power of reading aloud and goes a step further to praise the power of thinking out loud while reading to children. It’s an easy way to highlight the strategies used by thoughtful readers. Katherine Paterson, author of Bridge to Terabithia, once told a seventh-grader, “A book is a cooperative venture. The writer can write a story down, but the book will never be complete until a reader, of whatever age, takes that book and brings to it his own story.” Developing into this kind of reader requires children to become conscious of the multiple comprehension strategies that allow them to deeply understand and engage with the material. This article focuses on three specific comprehension strategies: - Connecting books to children’s own life experience - Connecting the books children are reading to other literature they have read - Connecting what children are reading to universal concepts The first three sections of this article present current research and practices related to reading aloud. The last section shows how to apply this research to your work with children. We will discuss the important benefits of reading aloud; how to choose good books to read aloud; how to model or teach comprehension strategies as you read aloud; and examples of how to use these comprehension strategies with two sets of books. The benefits of reading aloud Reading aloud is the foundation for literacy development. It is the single most important activity for reading success (Bredekamp, Copple, & Neuman, 2000). It provides children with a demonstration of phrased, fluent reading (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). It reveals the rewards of reading, and develops the listener’s interest in books and desire to be a reader (Mooney, 1990). Listening to others read develops key understanding and skills, such as an appreciation for how a story is written and familiarity with book conventions, such as “once upon a time” and “happily ever after” (Bredekamp et al., 2000). Reading aloud demonstrates the relationship between the printed word and meaning children understand that print tells a story or conveys information and invites the listener into a conversation with the author. Children can listen on a higher language level than they can read, so reading aloud makes complex ideas more accessible and exposes children to vocabulary and language patterns that are not part of everyday speech. This, in turn, helps them understand the structure of books when they read independently (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). It exposes less able readers to the same rich and engaging books that fluent readers read on their own, and entices them to become better readers. Students of any age benefit from hearing an experienced reading of a wonderful book. Choosing good books Children need to be exposed to a wide range of stories and books. They need to see themselves as well as other people, cultures, communities, and issues in the books we read to them. They need to see how characters in books handle the same fears, interests, and concerns that they experience (Barton & Booth, 1990). Selecting a wide range of culturally diverse books will help all children find and make connections to their own life experiences, other books they have read, and universal concepts. (Dyson & Genishi, 1994). Children use real life to help them understand books, and books help children understand real life. Choose books that invite children to respond with enthusiasm and understanding. Look for books with rich language, meaningful plots, compelling characters, and engaging illustrations (Gambrell & Almasi, 1996). Keep two simple questions in mind: Is it a good story? Is it worth sharing with my student? Other ideas to consider when selecting good books include: - Is the book worthy of a reader’s and listener’s time? - Does the story sound good to the ear when read aloud? - Will it appeal to your audience? - Will children find the book relevant to their lives and culture? - Will the book spark conversation? - Will the book motivate deeper topical understanding? - Does the book inspire children to find or listen to another book on the same topic? By the same author? Written in the same genre? - Is the story memorable? - Will children want to hear the story again? "Think aloud" to model how to make connections By modeling how fluent readers think about the text and problem solve as they read, we make the invisible act of reading visible. Modeling encourages children to develop the “habits of mind” proficient readers employ. Helping children find and make connections to stories and books requires them to relate the unfamiliar text to their relevant prior knowledge. There are several comprehension strategies that help children become knowledgeable readers. Three are: - Connecting the book to their own life experience - Connecting the book to other literature they have read - Connecting what they are reading to universal concepts - (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997) Helping children discover these connections requires planning and modeling. Parents and teachers can encourage and support thinking, listening, and discussion, and model “think-alouds,” which reveal the inner conversation readers have with the text as they read (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Parents and teachers can point out connections between prior experiences and the story, similarities between books, and any relationship between the books and a larger concept. Here are some examples of “think-alouds”: - To make connections between the book and your own life, think aloud as you share. When you read the beginning of A River Dream by Allen Say, for example, you can comment, “This book reminds me of the time my father took me fishing. Have you ever been fishing?” - To make connections between related books with the same author or similar settings, characters, and concepts, say “Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters by John Steptoe is an African tale that is similar to the tale of Cinderella. Both stories are about sisters one kind and the other spiteful. Do you know any stories about nice and mean sisters or brothers? Let’s continue reading to find out other ways the stories are similar.” - To connect a book to a larger world or universal concept, you could say to your student, “Stellaluna by Janell Cannon helps me understand that we are all the same in many ways, but it’s our differences that make us special.” While fluent readers make these types of connections with ease, many readers do not. Children need to be shown this type of thinking and then asked to join in and participate in book conversations. This active involvement gives you, the teacher, a glimpse into each reader’s thinking. Putting it all together We found that many children’s books are based on classic or universal concepts that come up again and again: understanding ourselves, exploring relationships with families and friends, and investigating other communities, people, and ideas. These concepts help children better understand the social fabric that makes up our world. One way to begin training parents in how to use “think alouds” is to bring a selection of books with a universal theme, like friendship or family traditions, and have parents read them aloud to one another. Prompt parents to think about the comprehension strategies they are using and to make the same connections they want children to make. The following are two collections of books that lend themselves especially well to “think alouds.” Read aloud collection 1: We can be anything we want to be This sample set of books communicates the idea that we can be anything we want. As children develop their sense of self, they often doubt their own abilities. These stories allow children to share such doubts and they model how children can reach their goals. - Concept: We can be anything we want to be. - Anchor book: Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman - Companion book: The Wednesday Surprise by Eve Bunting - Companion book: City Green by DyAnne DiSalvo-Ryan - Age range: All Amazing Grace opens the conversation. Begin by asking an open-ended question to help the listener make a connection between the book and his or her own life experience. For example, “Grace loves to pretend to be characters from stories. When you pretend, who do you like to be?” The story then reveals that Grace wants to play Peter in her class’s production of Peter Pan, but the other kids tell her she cannot Peter’s neither African American nor a girl. Model thinking out loud with a connection such as, “This reminds me of the time I was told I couldn’t play soccer because I couldn’t run fast enough.” This helps draw the listener into the connection. Ask the listener to share his own experiences, and to predict what Grace might do next. Like many children, Grace turns to her family. Nana, Grace’s grandmother, takes her to see an African American ballerina performing Juliet from Romeo and Juliet. While this reference may be lost on some children, they will relate to the line from the story, “I can be anything I want?” Children will be eager to predict the ending of the story at the tryouts for the play, the class agrees that Grace is best and will relate to the last line of the book, “If Grace put her mind to it, she can do anything she wants.” In The Wednesday Surprise, Anna and Grandma work every Wednesday night on a surprise for Dad’s birthday. At the beginning of the story, ask your student to talk about hir or her experiences of attending surprise parties, being watched by a babysitter, having a grandparent who lives nearby, or simply reading books with someone including with you. As the story continues, model book-to-book connections. For example, “This story is about the relationship between a grandmother and her granddaughter. There were also a grandmother and granddaughter in Amazing Grace. Do you think these two stories will be alike? Let’s keep reading to find out.” Encourage your student to think about what reading every Wednesday night might have to do with the surprise. The story reveals that Anna is teaching her grandmother how to read. Although Dad thinks he has received all his presents, Grandma gives him the best one of all she reads aloud the stories that Anna has taught her. Draw out the book-to-book connection: “When I read that Anna’s grandmother wanted to be a reader, I think that the story is about how we can be anything we want to be. This reminds me of the story, Amazing Grace. Grace also believed she could be anything she wanted to be. Also, like that story, this one shows the relationship between a grandmother and a grandchild.” Then follow i[ with an open-ended question to your student, “How is Anna’s relationship with her grandmother different than Grace’s?” City Green is the last book in this set. Like the others, it is well written and supports the universal concept of self-determination. When a young girl and her elderly friend create a community garden, an empty lot in an urban neighborhood is transformed into a wonderful place filled with flowers and vegetables. While many children may not have had experiences with community gardens, they may connect to the city scene and the idea of wanting the place you live to be beautiful. By this time, your student might be eager to share her thoughts on book-to-book connections. All three stories depict a grandparent figure and a young girl. All three show how the two work together to get something done. In both Amazing Grace and City Green, the characters did not believe in something, but had a change of heart. Connections between books and universal concepts are made during the reading of each story, and deepen after the last story. You might model how all three stories support the idea that we can be anything we want. “Grace wanted to be Peter Pan. Anna’s grandmother wanted to be a reader. What did Marcy want to be in City Green? What would you like to be? Who will help you become what you want to be?” Read aloud collection 2: Being a newcomer This collection allows children to share their own stories of being new to a situation and to gain an awareness of the experiences of other newcomers. In addition, these stories allow you to discuss ideas about diversity and acceptance with your student. - Concept: Being a newcomer is filled with challenges and memories. - Anchor book: Painted Words/Spoken Memories by Aliki - Companion book: Going Home by Eve Bunting - Companion book: The Memory Coat by Elvira Woodruff - Companion book: My Freedom Trip by Frances Park and Ginger Park - Age range: Second grade and up Painted Words/Spoken Memories is the anchor book for this theme. It is a picture book that shows two aspects of the immigrant experience, both from a child’s perspective. The first story, “Painted Words,” follows Marianthe or Mari, who is new to the United States, and her mother on the dreaded first day of school. Some children have personal stories of being new to this country; others have stories of being new to a classroom, school, or neighborhood. These experiences will help relate what you read to the theme. Your conversations with your student may include topics such as moving to a new home, making new friends, or learning a new language. In the “Spoken Memories” section of the book, Mari shares her life story through art. Encourage your student to share parts of his life story by modeling how to do so. “My mother used to tell me stories about what it was like to leave her home in Jamaica. Has your family always lived in this area or did they move here from some place else?” Try to be sensitive if the child is not comfortable sharing. Your student will see herself as a storyteller and immediately relate to this aspect of the book. Like “Painted Words”, Going Home is about a family leaving one country to live in another. Ask your student to make this connection between the two books. This book also presents the idea that parents may call one place home, and their children, another. When Carlos and his family go to his parents’ village for Christmas, he realizes the sacrifices his parents have made so their children may have better lives. Pause to listen to your student’s thoughts about work, family values, and so on. Reread the lines from “Spoken Memories”: “People were leaving our poor village. They were going to a new land, hoping for a better life.” This line will emphasize the connection between the two books. Compared to the first two, the remaining books in this collection may be more abstract (for some children). The Memory Coat begins at the turn of the century in the characters’ native country and ends in the United States. The character, Grisha, who has lost his parents, will not give up the tattered coat his mother made him before her death. Unless your student has a personal experience with immigration, it will be the coat that he or she relates to. Your student will likely make a connection between a sentimental or favorite item he or she could not part with and the character’s need to hang onto the coat. My Freedom Trip is the last companion book in this collection. Unlike the other books, the characters in this book do not immigrate to the United States. They flee North Korea for a better life in South Korea. Your student may want to compare and contrast this story with the others for a richer understanding. Explore the idea that many people leave their countries or communities for a better life, and a better life does not necessarily have to take place in the United States. You can also ask, “What are the things that make life better?” Through this rich discussion, you can help your student make connections between the books and the main concept of the collection being a newcomer is filled with challenges and memories. Developing comprehension strategies through reading aloud requires planning and setting up an environment of thinking, listening, and discussion. You will soon learn how to follow your student’s lead: modeling connections, asking questions, encouraging discussion, and using literature to prompt personal storytelling. Become comfortable with slight diversions. Through conversations and diversions, children make meaning and share connections that are relevant to them. Reading aloud to children gives them the opportunity to try on the language and experience of others. It helps them make connections with their lives, and informs their view of themselves and others. Thinking aloud helps children learn how to use comprehension strategies that are important when reading independently. Sample read aloud collections to try Family traditions (Age range: all) - Chicken Sunday by Patricia Polacco - Dumpling Soup by Jama Kim Rattigan - Owl Moon by Jane Yolen Friendship (Age range: all) - Chester’s Way by Kevin Henkes - Henry Hikes to Fitchburg by D. B. Johnson - Matthew and Tilly by Rebecca C. Jones - Henry and Amy (Right-Way-Round and Upside-Down by Stephen Michael King - Ira Sleeps Over by Bernard Waber Immigration (Age range: second grade and up) - Painted Words/Spoken Memories by Aliki - Going Home by Eve Bunting - How Many Days to America? A Thanksgiving Story by Eve Bunting - My Freedom Trip by Frances Park and Ginger Park - The Memory Coat by Elvira Woodruff The wonders of literacy (Age range: second grade and up) - More Than Anything Else by Marie Bradby - Papa’s Stories by Dolores Johnson - Amber on the Mountain by Robert Johnston - Tomás and the Library Lady by Pat Mora - Thank You, Mr. Falker by Patricia Polacco Recommended by research Reading comprehension instruction has been recommended as a practice with solid research evidence of effectiveness for individuals with learning disabilities by the Council for Exceptional Children — the Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) and the Division for Research (DR). To learn more, please read A Focus on Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction .* *To view this file, you will need a copy of Acrobat Reader. If it is not already installed on your computer, click here to download.

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Louder than Words: A History of Wordless Storytelling The name seems to say it all—it is a book without text where the story is told solely through the art. Images tell the stories and they must be read as carefully as any text. Artists are literally “writing with pictures,” as so aptly phrased by Uri Shulevitz. While similar pictorial choices are made when illustrating books with and without text, in a wordless book the art requires a more intense visual focus on communicating the narrative. Artists create characters personalities through pictures alone, using facial expressions and body language to convey what they may be thinking or feeling. Emotion is also shown through the context of the pictures. The size of an image affects how the reader responds to a character, as does the size of the character within the image, and lighting and color amplify the emotional mood. The absence of words gives artists complete freedom to design the pages without having to leave space for blocks of text or word balloons. Pages can vary between single-page pictures, double-page spreads, or pages divided into multiple images. Multi-image pages can extend or compress time; a single page of many panels can show scenes across long periods of time, or they can expand a single short moment in incremental detail. The sequencing of the various page layouts creates a visually engaging reading experience. Borders and other design elements are used to visually guide readers through a story and can indicate shifts from reality to fantasy or differentiate between story spaces. The most radical decision an artist makes is to not use words. When artists remove text, they invite readers to decode the pictures for themselves, so every child reads the book in their own unique way and according to their own personal life experiences and backgrounds. A wordless picture book asks children to collaborate in the storytelling process—a very empowering request. Beginning in the mid-1960’s, wordless storytelling took hold in children’s publishing. Since that time picture books continue to be the most prolific and creative showcase for wordless stories. Although, with one exception, picture books were late to join the wordless genre. Stories told only through pictures have been present throughout our history, as evidenced by cave paintings, Greek and Roman pottery, and stained glass windows. These works are often comprised of multiple images working together to tell their stories. In 11th century England there was the Bayeux Tapestry and in 12th century Japan there were Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga (“Animal-person caricatures”), a set of four picture scrolls. Both these works present stories without text and that are read in one direction, showing a specific chronological order. Their images are in sequences that are not divided into individual segments or panels, but are composed in scenes that flow into each other. Wordless narratives are found in almost all art forms, from painting, printmaking, illustrated books, comics, and film—all forms that use images in sequence. The English painter and printmaker William Hogarth may be the only example of both a wordless and sequential storyteller in fine art until the 20th century. In 1731 Hogarth created a series of six paintings called A Harlot’s Progress in which the pictures are read in sequence from left to right. The images are dense with detail and must be examined closely to absorb all the nuances of the tale as the characters react to each other and to their surroundings. Hogarth, a skilled engraver, created sets of prints of his paintings to sell. The prints were so popular that he may have invented another concept—the sequel. A Rake’s Progress followed in 1733 and the two sets of prints were so successful that new copyright laws were created to combat the host of knockoffs that hit the market. In the 1800’s, several new visual narrative mediums developed that explored their forms without words. In Japan, a new form of sequential picture making called Manga (“impromptu drawing”) appeared from artists such as Santo Kyoden, Aikawa Minwa, and Katsushika Hokusai. Swiss teacher and author Rodolphe Topffer published “picture stories” that put words and pictures into sequential panels. Topffer’s stories paved the way for the modern comic strip. In the 1870s and 1880s, Randolph Caldecott in England coined the phrase “picture books” to describe the children’s books he created. He was the first to put pictures on every page, and made the images as integral to the story as the text. And motion pictures were invented. Initially movies were silent, not by choice, but because the technology had not been invented to include sound. They were not really silent either, as musical accompaniment was a part of the movie-viewing experience. And they were not strictly wordless, as directors used title cards to convey some of the dialogue. However, the main way the stories were conveyed was through visual imagery, and through the most radical part of filmmaking, editing. The juxtaposition of one shot in a film—or one picture in a book—next to another creates a narrative. The viewer or reader must mentally make the connection between the two. Editing is the essence of visual storytelling whether on screen or in a book. The limitation of working without recorded sound became the early movies’ greatest attribute. Filmmakers like Fritz Lang, F.W. Murnau, Charlie Chaplin, and Buster Keaton found extraordinary ways to tell stories visually. There are many, like Chaplin, who believed that the 1910’s and 1920’s produced the most visually inventive films ever made. Movies had a dramatic effect on many graphic artists who sought to capture on the page the movement and excitement of motion pictures. Nobel laureate author Thomas Mann claimed that Passionate Journey was the movie that impressed him the most. Yet Passionate Journey was not a movie; rather, it was a wordless novel published in 1919 by Belgian artist Frans Masereel. Masereel was a political cartoonist and printmaker who worked in a bold, expressionist style that lent itself perfectly to the woodcut prints he made to comment on social issues like the First World War and the industrialization of society. He decided to tell stories using his prints, in the form of books. And, in a stroke of genius, he chose not to include any text. Passionate Journey and Masereel’s other wordless books essentially birthed the genre of what we now call the graphic novel. In his lifetime, he published over fifty wordless books. Masereel inspired other artists to create their own wordless novels. In the late 1920s and early 30s, Otto Knuckel, Helena Bochorakova-Dittrichova, Giacomo Patri, and Lynd Ward all produced wordless books with woodcuts after seeing Masereel’s. In 1934 the German painter Max Ernst collaged illustrations from pulp novels and encyclopedias to create the surrealist wordless novel Un Semaine du Bonte. American Lynd Ward became the most well-known maker of wordless woodcut novels in the United States. His first publication, God’s Man (1929), was a success and he produced five more wordless novels over the next eight years. Several comic strip artists also made the leap into book length narrative via the wordless novel, using pen, brush, and ink rather than woodcut. William Gropper published Alay-oop in 1930 and Milt Gross lampooned the wordless novel genre with He Done Her Wrong, also in 1930. Myron Waldman, an animator for Max Fleischer’s studios, published his wordless novel Eve in 1943. Other artists stayed within the world of newspaper comics to produce wordless stories, although there are only a few examples. The most imaginative of these strips was Polly and Her Pals by Cliff Sterrett, which debuted in 1912. In the first half of the 20th century, Sunday comics such as Little Nemo, Krazy Kat, and Gasoline Alley took up an entire page of a newspaper, a remarkable showcase for their art. Like the others, Polly and Her Pals had a “topper” strip, which was a separate, shorter story that ran above the main comic. Sterrett’s top strip, Dot and Dash, about a pair of dogs, was always wordless. The rest of the page featured the adventures of Polly, which was regularly wordless. Sterrett used elements of cubism and surrealism, making his comic strip one of the most visually exciting. The other wordless strips were Otto Soglow’s The Little King, premiering in 1934, and Carl Thomas Anderson’s Henry, which began in 1932. All this wordless activity did not last. Sound entered movies in the late 1920’s and after the release and huge success of the “talkie” The Jazz Singer in 1927 there was no turning back. By 1930 almost all films included sound, although purist Charlie Chaplin held out until 1936 when he released his last silent film, Modern Times. Over the years there has been the occasional film made without dialogue, like The Thief in 1952, staring Ray Milland; Albert Lamorisse’s The Red Balloon in 1956; Chantal Ackerman’s Hotel Monterey in 1973; Michael Hazanavicius’s The Artist in 2011; and The Red Turtle, by Michael Dudok de Witt in 2016. But these are anomalies measured against the vast numbers of movies released each year. After their heyday in the early 1930s and early 40s, wordless graphic novels were produced only occasionally. While there were notable works by Laurence Hyde (Southern Cross), Eric Drooker (Flood! and Blood Song), Peter Kuper (The System), Jim Woodring (The Frank Book), and others, they are small in number within the graphic novel genre. In newspaper comic strips, Polly and Her Pals, The Little King, and Henry remained the only wordless examples up until they ceased publication, Polly in 1958 and the other two in the 1970s. Henry expanded into comic book form in the 1940s and dialogue was added, although the daily strip remained silent. There are scant few examples of wordless stories in the world of superhero comic books. This brings us to picture books. The 1930’s were, to quote historian Leonard Marcus, “when the American picture book came of age.” (I highly recommend Marcus’ essay for The Carle’s 2019 exhibition Out of the Box: The Graphic Novel Comes of Age, which dovetails with much of this essay). In 1931 Helen Sewall’s picture book, A Head for Happy, was published. It is not a wordless book, but it’s close. The text is minimal and many of its 64 pages are without words, including several double-page spreads. There is just enough text though that I don’t categorize it as a wordless book. In 1932 Macmillan published What Whiskers Did, a picture book by author and artist Ruth Carroll. Drawn in black crayon, it tells the story of Whiskers, a Scottish terrier that gets loose from a young girl and runs into the woods. There the dog encounters a rabbit and then a fox. Fleeing the fox, Whiskers and the rabbit escape down a rabbit hole. These scenes are rendered realistically, but in echoes of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, the trip through the rabbit hole changes the story from realism to fantasy as the animals become anthropomorphized. Whiskers dines at a table with the rabbit family and uses utensils. They play games, including blind man’s bluff. When it is time for Whiskers to leave, he bids the rabbits goodbye and returns to the little girl, who is thankful her dog has come home. This is the first completely wordless picture book published in the United States. Incredibly, it will be thirty years before there is another. That gap is still a mystery but, in contrast to comics, graphic novels, and film, once children’s publishers began producing more wordless picture books, they became the art form where wordless storytelling flourished like no other. What Whiskers Did appeared the same year as Lynd Ward’s wordless novel Wild Pilgrimage, the comic strip Henry launched in newspapers, and a year after Chaplin’s silent film, City Lights. Why did Ruth Carroll choose to make her book wordless? Was she inspired by the wordless stories in those other mediums? Louise Bechtel was editor of Macmillan’s children’s book department at the time and had published A Head for Happy a year before. She was an innovative and forward-thinking editor. Did she influence Carroll’s decision? Did she and/or Carroll look at A Head for Happy and think, “well, why use any text at all?” I haven’t yet found any research to shed light on the genesis of Whiskers, but given the amount of other wordless material in print at that time, it isn’t surprising there would be a wordless picture book too. The question is not why was there a wordless picture in 1932, but why, and for so long, was there only one? My own first introduction to wordless stories came from a Giant Golden Book my family owned, The Provensen Animal Book, published in 1952. It contains a wide range of material, from poems and short stories to visual puzzles. On one double-page spread the Provensens present three “stories without words.” They are very simple, only three to six panels each, but I can vividly recall how captivated I was by these little vignettes. In 1954, Max, by Pericle Luigi Giovannetti, was published. Giovannetti was a painter and illustrator who drew cartoons for the British satirical magazine Punch, where he created the character of Max, a marmot that engages in pantomime slapstick adventures. Macmillan compiled and published many of those drawings in book form in the U.S. Max was also published by others around the world. There is no through-line narrative; the book is essentially a collection of stand-alone cartoons that appeal to all ages. Other Max books followed in the next few years. In 1960 Alfred A. Knopf published I Am Andy, by Charlotte Steiner. It was marketed as a “You-Tell-A-Story Book.” Each double-page spread contains five or six vignettes, or panels, showing Andy involved in a particular activity. A preamble states, “You can tell the stories in your own words.” It’s too bad that each spread has a title such as Andy Plays the Trumpet and Andy and the Cat. Those titles are a bit of a deal breaker for me. There are no wordless picture books in 1961, but in 1962 Tomi Ungerer came out with Snail, Where Are You? This is a wonderful book made by a great artist who had already made great picture books with text. Snail is conceptually simple and elegant, with beautiful and witty drawings that incorporate the spiral of a snail shell into each picture. That’s it. Ungerer allows readers to see the relationship between shapes and objects. It is a book that asks us to look closely at the pictures and at the world around us. There is a line of text at the end, “Snail, where are you?” that is answered on the last page by the snail, “I am here.” That text is a funny little ending, but is in no way integral to what the pictures have done in the previous pages. To me, Ungerer’s book marks the date when wordless picture books begin to really take off. While in 1963 three more wordless books are published, it was the release of Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are that is perhaps more notable when it comes to wordless storytelling. Although not wordless, the book contains three consecutive wordless double-page spreads that encompass the Wild Rumpus and that exposed millions of readers to the idea of “wordlessness.” There are two more wordless picture books in 1964, including another by Tomi Ungerer, One, Two, Where’s My Shoe? There is one wordless picture book in 1965—What Whiskers Did. Yes, Ruth Carroll’s book again! Thirty-three years after the first edition, Carroll completely re-illustrated the book. Instead of the original Scottish terrier, it now stars a poodle and contains a single brown color overlaid on the drawings. I’m again curious about Carroll’s motivation. There were only a few other examples of wordless picture books, so why did she and the publisher think the world was ready for a second version of Whiskers? Perhaps they were right, since two years later Scholastic released a paperback edition of Whiskers and Carroll would publish five more wordless books in the late 1960s and 70s. The year 1966 saw one wordless book, but in 1967 there were six. In 1968 there are again six, and in 1969 there are fourteen. From there the numbers continue to rise to a peak of 67 books in 1986 before trending back down to twelve in 1991. Despite the dropping numbers, wordless picture books continued to be published thereafter, some to great popularity and others to great acclaim (and sometimes both), winning major prizes in the field. As the numbers of wordless picture books began to rise, many were one-time explorations by their author/artists. For others, the idea of text-free stories was something that resonated deeply and they created wordless books as a major part of their careers. Beginning in the late 1960s and early 70s, that latter group includes author/artists such as Mercer Mayer, with his popular Boy, Dog, and Frog series; Mitsumasa Anno and his remarkable Journey books; Fernando Krahn, who made over 20 very funny wordless books; and Tana Hoban, a photographer who created dozens of beautiful concept books that invite readers to look intensely at the world around them. In 1968 John S. Goodall created the first of many wordless picture books with The Adventures of Paddy Pork (which won the Boston Globe-Horn Book Award). Paddy Pork is a “moveable book,” a book that utilizes pull-tabs, flaps, and other interactives. Most of Goodall’s books contain an extra half page, or flap, in the middle of each double-page spread. When the book is open with the flap laying flat on the right-hand side, the reader sees a full double-page image. When the reader turns the flap, it reveals the same scene but with the characters in different positions. The flap acts as a form of animation, adding the element of time to the story. Lynd Ward, one of the founding fathers of adult wordless novels, also had a long career in children’s books, winning the 1953 Caldecott Medal for The Biggest Bear, a book he also wrote. In 1973, at the end of his career, he finally created a wordless picture book for children, The Silver Pony. In contrast to the woodcuts he used for his adult wordless novels, for The Silver Pony, Ward painted the pictures in black and shades of gray. In 1978 Peter Spier was awarded the Caldecott Medal for Noah’s Ark, the first wordless book to win the medal. Spier created several other wordless books, including Rain (1982), a book that, like Noah’s Ark, uses a wide range of page designs: full-page images, double-page spreads, and pages divided into multiple panels. The effect creates a wonderfully varied reading experience and is anything but static. Raymond Briggs took a similar approach to page design in The Snowman, published in 1978. The Snowman is one of the best-known wordless picture books, helped in part by its popular 30-minute animated film adaptation released in 1982. Briggs’ design of The Snowman served as inspiration for artist Shaun Tan when he created his epic wordless book, The Arrival (2007). Like Briggs and Spier before him, Tan uses multi-panel designs to tell his story, although he goes much farther. Some pages have four or five panels, while others have as many as sixty. With so many panels Tan shows complex actions in great detail. Year after year picture books artists continued to be drawn to wordless storytelling. Peter Spier moved back and forth between books with text and books without, as have many other artists including Emily Arnold McCully, Tomie dePaola, Jeannie Baker, Peter Sis, Suzy Lee, and myself. Most, but not all, of Arthur Geisert’s books are wordless. Barbara Lehman and Aaron Becker work exclusively in the wordless realm. In innovative, yet unique ways, Jorg Muller, Istvan Banyai, and Laetitia Devernay expanded the definition of design in their wordless books. Donald Crews and Christian Robinson use flat graphic images, while Eric Rohmann and Marla Frazee illustrate rich and lush images. Molly Bang creates mystery through the use of positive and negative spaces, and Raul Colon changes his artistic style to move in and out of fantasy. Issa Watanabe and Henry Cole have made intensely emotional wordless books, while JiHyeon Lee’s and Stephen Savage’s books are whimsical and funny. Molly Idle continues John S. Goodall’s tradition of moveable wordless books with her ingenious use of flaps in Flora and the Flamingo (2013). I’ve focused mainly on publishing in the United States, but wordless picture books are a global phenomenon. Referred to as silent books in some other parts of the world, they are extraordinary and deserve an exhibition of their own. A great resource for these books can be found on the website of the International Board on Books for Young People (IBBY). There is so much more to explore regarding wordless picture books: the role of editors in the decision to take a wordless approach to a story; the reluctance of many adults to buy wordless picture books for fear of not knowing how to read them to their children; the fascinating research showing how wordless picture books generate expansive use of vocabulary during parent child reading; and the inspiring ways teachers use wordless picture books to release the imaginations of all students, and to help those struggling with English as a second language, dyslexia, and other learning issues. For now, let’s just focus on the art. What we see in this exhibition is how artists have created remarkable visual reading experiences. By making the decision to remove words, the artists pare their books down to the essence of their art—the pictures—and leave those pictures open to interpretation. In doing so the artists invite children to make the stories their own.

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Dark rides have been entertaining visitors since the beginning of the 20th century. Back then however, the concept of the ‘dark ride’ as we know it today was hardly developed. In fact, the first rides appearing all over the world that we would now call ‘dark rides’ were more like pioneering prototypes. The years around 1900 saw a wide range of technological developments, which in combination with the emergence of large-scale public entertainment led to the invention of various amusement rides. The world’s first dark rides were just a small part of this wide ongoing chain of inventions, where different inventions built upon one another to create the world’s first dark rides. To understand the origin of this chain of inventions and developments, we need to go even further back in time. Already in the 18th century, two types of entertainment existed which included elements that would later be essential for the experience of the dark ride. One of these experiences was the Panorama: a large painting created on the inside of a cylindrical platform, giving visitors standing in the middle of the cylinder a 360° view of a specific site. In their nature, panoramas were the first experiences meant to immerse visitors into another world. This concept is still one of the basic elements of a dark ride, which intent to immerse visitors into a controlled environment and transport them to another place and/or time. The second type of 18th century entertainment that could be regarded as a predecessor of the dark ride is the phantasmagoria or ‘ghost show’. These shows appeared on traveling fairgrounds, using the technique of the magic lantern (a primitive type of projector) to create a frightful and supernatural experience inside a dark indoor environment. “The phantasmagoria was a dynamic and exciting media format, in which the audience wasn’t moved physically but images were scaled and moved around them to great vertiginous effect” (Zika, 2021, p.56). Over time, the advent of electricity afforded safe and more controllable ways of illuminating such indoor experiences. The control over illumination and the atmosphere created by artificial light is one of the key elements that allowed for the development of the dark ride, and still is a major part in dark ride design. The first inventions leading to the world’s first dark rides would emerge by the end of the 19th century, partly based on the panoramas and phantasmagorias that already existed. The era in which the dark ride emerged was characterised by a major change in public entertainment in general, as large centralised entertainment venues started to appear from the second half of the 19th century. This was the era of urbanisation, when more and more people came to live in cities that soon became crowded. In these densely populated places, the idea of a park as a recreational place to step out of the busy city life gained popularity. This applied not only to traditional urban parks which were constructed in these years, with New York’s Central Park (1871) as major example, but also for venues including a higher degree of entertainment. With the large amount of people living in one single place, the potential market for entertainment sparked new, and larger, types of entertainment venues. Eventually, these were the locations where the first dark rides would emerge. Before the rise of the first amusement parks, the most extravagant public entertainment areas were the World’s Fairs. Starting with the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, world fairs were held over irregular intervals in cities throughout the world. These fairs provided a showcase for state-of-the-art technologies and inventions from around the globe, drawing millions of visitors to their grounds for both education and entertainment. Especially interesting for the development of the amusement industry was the Chicago World’s Fair (also named Columbian Exposition) in 1893, which became known as the first expo to separate the area of amusement from the exhibition halls. The term ‘Midway’ was introduced for this area, which included several shows and rides, among them the world’s very first Ferris wheel. For future World’s Fairs, this idea of a midway remained (such as the San Francisco fair in 1894, launching the world’s first Haunted Swing) and the word Midway is commonplace in the amusement industry up to this day. The rise of the Amusement Park Though highly popular, these world fairs were expensive undertakings, requiring a major investment for a venue that only lasted one operating season. The success of these fairs inevitably sparked the rise of the amusement park as a permanent location to house similar attractions, with the midway of Chicago’s fair becoming the last step towards the creation of the first real amusement parks. The best-known examples of newly emerging amusement parks are Blackpool Pleasure Beach (U.K., 1896) and the series of amusement parks at Coney Island, New York (U.S.A., from 1895). Especially in the U.S.A., establishments similar to the widely popular parks at Coney Island were imitated in various locations to offer the newest kind of entertainment for visitors across the country. In some cases, especially in Europe, amusement parks continued on the already existing venues: historical ‘pleasure gardens’, parks packed with entertainment that were generally found in European capitals, went along in the rise of the new phenomenon of the amusement park. Places like Prater (Vienna, Austria) and Tivoli Gardens (Copenhagen, Denmark) started adding amusement rides to their grounds, thus becoming true amusement parks as we would define them today. The world’s first ‘dark ride’ The concept of the dark ride as we know today however, in all its complexity, did not pop up at once. It took a few steps by eager inventors to bring the first true dark ride to life. This process, in which inventions followed each other quickly, happened around 1900, along with the rapid development in the amusement industry in general. The limits of technology In those days however, technology was a major limiting factor in offering experiences that would eventually be called a dark ride. Already in the 1880’s, amusement rides emerged that offered a dark experience by driving a train through a mysterious tunnel. These cave train rides did not differ that much from regular trains, which in those days were driven by steam locomotives. The combination of a steam engine and an indoor ride was not a very convenient one, and it was not until the rise of the electrical engine that such experiences seriously took flight. The first electric motors enabled such trains to be propelled by clean electrical power, without filling the indoor sections with smoke. The technique of these engines however was not yet as advanced to be utilised for individual vehicles. This meant that a dark ride experience as we often see nowadays, with individual vehicles transporting a few people at a time through a building offering a degree of intimacy and mystery, was still out of reach. An alternative way to drive individual vehicles along a specified route was invented in 1891, when Arthur Pickard patented the invention of the ‘serpentine sluiceway’. Pickard operated his invention as an outdoor amusement ride in London. He did not use a track system, which required an engine for each vehicle: instead, he constructed a canal and invented a way to propel the water flow, which would take individual boats along the entire ride. The patent shows that the invention enabled a single engine to propel the water and create a continuous flow throughout the canal. This sluiceway was the first installation that could offer an individual experience for riders of a single vehicle, though Pickard only used the installation as an outdoor boat ride. Coney Island’s ‘dark ride’ The ride by Arthur Pickard caught the attention of Paul Boyton, a showman at Coney Island, New York. Coney Island might be described as the birthplace of the amusement park: its seaside environment and good train connections to the city functioned as a major draw for visitors from the rapidly growing city of New York. The first amusement rides had emerged here since the 1870s, but the heydays of Coney Island were the years around 1900, when new developments and exciting rides were emerging every year to thrill the visitors. This started when Paul Boyton opened Sea Lion Park in 1895. Instead of operating some rides and charging admission for each of them, he fenced off his terrain and started charging an admission fee for the grounds. His park was a great success, with his famous shoot-the-chute-ride as major draw. However, the tumultuous economy at Coney Island rapidly saw the addition of a competing fenced-off park: In 1897, entrepreneur George Tilyou opened Steeplechase Park. The fierce competition brought Boyton in trouble: eventually, Sea Lion Park, the spark of the heydays of Coney Island, would only exist from 1895 to 1902. In its brief existence however, the park saw the introduction of the first indoor boat ride, inspired by Pickard’s invention. Instead of a quiet outdoor boat ride, like the original, Boyton built his installation indoors. This added a completely new element to the ride: pitch darkness. The ride was literally the first dark ride in the world. Riders were taken through a dark passage in two-passenger boats, which created an intimate atmosphere. The ride quickly became popular with young couples: in a time when physical contact between boys and girls was considered highly inappropriate, the ride offered a way to cling to one another in a public location without being seen. The name of this ride at Sea Lion Park is not known, but thanks to the nature of the ride it sparked the name Tunnel of Love for these kinds of attractions. The name is still used for old-fashioned scenic boat dark rides, which would quickly start to emerge based on the popular installation at Coney Island. The Austrian cave ride While the first dark rides emerged in America as boat rides, elsewhere in the world other inventions also led to the emergence of a specific type of dark ride. In Austria, a showman called Hugo Pilz continued on the idea of the cave train rides, and developed such a ride with an electrical powered train that took riders along scenic parts. In other words: he created (probably) the world’s first dark ride, considering the DRdb-definition that a dark ride should include scenes. The location of his ride was Prater in the Austrian capital Vienna, one of the old ‘pleasure gardens’ which has been opened since 1766. Just like in Coney Island, the turn-of-the-century era was a heyday for Prater. In 1897 the Giant Vienna Wheel opened, inspired by the Ferris Wheel at the Chicago World’s Fair and currently the oldest existing Ferris wheel in the world. Only one year after the opening of the wheel, in 1898, showman Hugo Pilz opened his brand new ride: Grottenbahn ‘Zum Walfisch’. The ride was built adjacent to Pilz’ restaurant Zum Walfisch (At the Whale), and consisted of a train riding through grottoes depicting different themes. The word ‘grottenbahn’ could be translated as ‘cave railway’, obviously referring to the cave-like setting in which the scenes (or grottoes) were presented. With its opening year in 1898, Grottenbahn ‘Zum Walfisch’ is probably the earliest true dark ride in the world, though sources on the actual opening dates of these historic rides often contradict one another. The ride consisted of a 600 metre long track, where electrically powered trains passed through 18 grottoes. These themed grottoes included depictions of the North Pole, the ‘witch kitchen’ and the ‘electrical wondercave’. Apart from the ride through the grottoes, a major draw of the attraction was its magnificent concert organ, playing excerpts from opera as supporting music along the ride. Reports from those days speak of many people, sometimes a hundred at a time, gathering around the ride to listen to the wonderful organ music. Inspired by the Grottenbahn The popularity of the Grottenbahn did not go unnoticed for the other showmen around the Prater grounds. One year after the opening of Pilz’ ride, the showmen Ludwig and Karl Pretscher opened their Grottenbahn ‘Zum Lindwurm’ (referring to a dragon-like creature from German mythology). This ride was rethemed in 1907, but unfortunately burned down in a major fire during the Vienna offensive in 1945. As for the Grottenbahn ‘Zum Walfisch’, no sources confirm that the ride has been demolished, rethemed or rebuilt anytime since 1898. The currently existing ‘Alt Wiener Grottenbahn’ is mentioned to be the park’s oldest Grottenbahn, which means it is probably the same ride as Hugo Pilz opened over a century ago. Unfortunately no clear confirmation is given, not even by the park itself, that this existing ride is indeed over 100 years old, leaving the fate of the original Grottenbahn ‘Zum Wahlfisch’ a mystery. The influence of the Grottenbahn stretched even beyond Prater. Another installation opened in Linz, also in Austria. This ride, called Turmbahn am Pöstlingberg (Tower railway at Pöstling Hill), opened in 1906. It was located inside one of the defence towers of Fort Pöstlingsberg, a disused fortress on top of a hill a few kilometres from the city centre. It is unknown whether the ride included scenes, but we do know that a ride with the Turmbahn consisted of four laps: during the first three laps, the cave was lit in different colours for each lap. The most exciting part was the last lap, which took place in pitch darkness… almost pitch darkness, that is, since some light shone from a sign saying ‘no kissing’. Just like in Coney Island, where the darkness was an attraction on its own, informal contact between boys and girls was undesirable in Austria in those days. The Turmbahn saw the same fate as Grottenbahn ‘Zum Lindwurm‘, being destroyed in 1945 after a bombing. Since 1948, guests can enjoy a new grottenbahn at the top of Pöstling Hill, which is still operational and depicts scenes from fairy tales. An immersive trip to the moon Back on the American side of the Atlantic, a one-of-a-kind experience appeared. In those days, the primitive dark rides mainly consisted of slow rides along scenes: entertaining, but not yet as immersive as we know the dark rides nowadays. However, in 1901, two men pioneered a ride that would be ground-breaking thanks to its immersive approach. These two men were Frederic Thompson and Elmer ‘Skip’ Dundy. Thompson was the creative mind of the two: trained as an architect, he ended up at the 1893 Chicago World Fair working several jobs. From there, he got into the business of expositions and entertainment, presenting the moving diorama ‘Darkness and Dawn’ at the 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition in Omaha. Though already highly spectacular, that attraction was nothing close to his eventual masterpiece. Dundy, on the other hand, was a showman with a feeling for business. He was well-educated and had great aptitude for financial matters, but his love for show business drove him into expositions as well. He created and ran two attractions for the 1898 expo In Omaha, but these turned out to be less popular than the other rides, especially the ‘Darkness and Dawn’-installation by Thompson. For the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, Dundy proposed his pirated version of Darkness and Dawn, using his business skills to outmanoeuvre Thompson. Eventually, Thompson and Dundy struck a deal for the 1901 expo, becoming business partners and sharing the profits of the four rides they ran together. World’s first narrative-based amusement ride Three out of these four rides would be similar to rides that either of the two had already presented at previous fairs, among them a version of Darkness and Dawn. The fourth ride was called A Trip to the Moon, and this was a truly special one. Thompson wanted to provide the visitors of his ride with an escape from everyday life, and was inspired by Jules Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon and by HG Wells’ The First Men in the Moon. He took a narrative approach like showmen had taken before, creating the idea to let the visitors board an airship and fly all the way to the moon. In those days, when flying already seemed like science-fiction to the people, the experience of a flight to the moon was nothing less than mind-blowing. Thompson used a combination of mechanical effects, electric lights and projections to create an experience that no-one had ever seen before. He based his ride on the old technique of the panorama, the immersive paintings that were designed to completely surround the public. But instead of letting people watch the panorama at their own pace, Thompson designed a ride vehicle in the middle of the room. This ‘airship’, which was called Luna, was suspended from the ceiling by a few central steel cables, permitting the ship to rock and swing lightly. Riders would enter the immense room over a ramp, leading to the ride vehicle that was floating in the space. The vessel had the shape of a row boat, but was equipped with large wings at the place where oars would regularly have been, just below where the riders sat. Once riders took their seats, with a maximum of 30 per ride, the panorama surrounding the vessel would come to life: it was a giant cyclorama, operating as a gigantic scroll passing around the riders. In combination with the movement of the cyclorama, fans would create wind and the vessel would start to shake and heave, creating a convincing feeling of movement. As the scroll went by, people would initially see Niagara Falls, then the city of Buffalo seen from the sky, and eventually the earth’s surface, as if they had truly taken off for a flight in outer space. Moreover, Thompson installed a series of stereopticons both above and below the visitors, out of sight thanks to the ship’s large wings. Stereopticons were projectors that were able to fade between projected images, which allowed Thompson to project clouds as if they were gliding past. All stereopticons together allowed for a 360° projection on the panorama, which Thompson used in combination with light effects for the creation of, for example, a thunderstorm. Eventually, riders would reach the moon, leave the vessel and walk into a lunar cavern made out of plaster, where employees dressed like inhabitants of the moon (which Thompson called Selenites) sold souvenirs and special food. From here, riders would enter the palace of the Man in the Moon for a final dance show, and eventually leave the experience. A Trip to the Moon was completely different from other experiences in these days, by way of its focus on conjuring up very specific atmospheric illusions. Thompson used a range of techniques, all of which were already known, and deployed them in such a way that they created new spectacles. Combining these illusions enabled Thompson to create a convincing experience of a trip to the moon, an approach that no other showman had taken at that point. Technically speaking, A Trip to the Moon is not exactly a dark ride. In fact, it is a show ride: it is the world’s first motion simulator, in some way the predecessor of the immersive tunnel. But the way in which the combination of scenery, effects and a moving vehicle was used to create a coherent narrative-based experience also characterises the experience of a dark ride. That is why A Trip to the Moon can definitely be regarded as a major step in the development of the first dark rides in the world. The success of Thompson and Dundy A Trip to the Moon was a ride of a scale that had never been seen before. Thompson and Dundy spent a staggering $84.000 to build the ride, over $2M in today’s money. Riders were eager to pay $0,50 (around $16 nowadays) to experience the flight to the moon themselves, twice the price of other rides at the expo. The ride required 20 employees to operate and another 200 actors for the show and to play the Selenites. Despite the large investment and operational costs, the ride was very profitable, partly thanks to the merchandise sold in the moon cavern. A Trip to the Moon was not only the first truly immersive amusement ride, it also paved the way for merchandising in amusement parks. Dundy’s feeling for business clearly did not let him down on this occasion. The success of A Trip to the Moon did not go unnoticed for George Tilyou, the entrepreneur who opened Steeplechase Park at Coney Island. In his fierce competition with Sea Lion Park, he was always looking for new experiences to draw visitors. Tilyou invited Thompson and Dundy to transport their attraction to his park, enabling them to continue the profitable operation of the ride after the fair had ended. A few changes were made: the aerial views of Buffalo were replaced with Manhattan and the vessel was adapted to allow for higher capacity, after which it was renamed ‘Luna III’. The ride operated in Steeplechase Park during 1902, but the duo were unhappy with the amount of profit they had to share with Tilyou. Thompson and Dundy planned to move the ride away after the season and bought the plot of Sea Lion Park from Paul Boyton, constructing a brand new park on the site and moving A Trip to the Moon to the new location for the 1903 season. They decided to name the park after their spaceship: ‘Luna Park’. Many parks throughout history have been named after this famous amusement park, which indirectly means that the world’s very first narrative-based ride is still honoured in amusement park names around the globe. After the death of Dundy in 1907, Thompson filed for bankruptcy in 1912 and was forced to hand over Luna Park to his creditors. It is not known whether A Trip to the Moon was still operational during this time. Nevertheless, the ride made history since it was ground-breaking in its scale, immersiveness and commercial exploitation, which would not be seen again to this extent for more than fifty years. The scenic boat ride The location where A Trip to the Moon spent its last years was the same as the location of the world’s first ‘dark ride’, as was mentioned earlier. This Tunnel of Love already proved a success, but it was not until such rides were extended with scenes that the dark boat ride truly took off. The ride type that emerged, which would be called Tunnel of Love, Old Mill or River Caves, was the first type of dark ride that spread around the globe. From a one-of-a-kind spectacle, the dark ride was rapidly evolving into a format. This created room for parks to adapt the dark ride to their own purpose and tailor them to their own public, starting an “evolution of different styles of the ride” as Joel Zika (2021) calls it. The Old Mill The first adaption of the Tunnel of Love opened in the same year as A Trip to the Moon in Kennywood, recently opened amusement park just outside Pittsburgh, PA. Just like Coney Island, Kennywood is a so-called ‘trolley park’: a park located at the end of a tramway which allowed easy access for people from the nearby city. Kennywood opened in 1899 and rapidly expanded by adding amusement rides, The Old Mill being the first major ride in 1901 (their first roller coaster would open just one year later). The design of the Old Mill took the ride system from the Tunnel of Love at Coney Island. For creating the water current in the canal, Kennywood’s Old Mill used a large paddle wheel, an idea inspired by the many water mills that could be found in the area in which the park is located. Continuing on the concept of the water mill, the park built the whole ride building as if it was a dilapidated sawmill. Moreover, the boats were originally shaped like logs, representing the actual logs transported over the river towards the real sawmills just around the corner. The idea of shaping boats after floating logs seems obvious nowadays, but in 1901 the creation of a coherent narrative which explained the looks of the ride system (paddle wheel), vehicles (logs) and show building (old mill) was truly unique. Moreover, the park derived the idea of the theme from its own surroundings, an example of a tailor-made version of the ride created to suit the public and the city where it was located. This way of thinking was yet another step towards creating immersively themed rides, where every part of the ride is meant to contribute to a coherent story. Little is known about the exact interior of the Old Mill in its very first operating years. Reports state that the ride featured “gorgeous grottoes or musical caves”, all of which were lit by state-of-the-art electric lights. The ride consisted probably of both indoor and outdoor sections, leading around and through the Old Mill building. Ever since first opening, the ride has seen no less than 11 rethemes, of which the first occurred just five years into operation. Apart from rethemes, the ride suffered from a major fire in 1911. The continuous development of the ride makes it hard to trace back the original components and those that were added later. In the beginning of the 1920s, the ride lost one of its key storytelling elements when new boats were installed that were no longer log-themed (as shown in the picture). Regardless of all changes, the ride is still operational today: better still, Kennywood recently rethemed the ride once more to honour the original Old Mill. This latest version, logically called The Old Mill, has been entertaining visitors since 2020. Boat ride to Hell The scenic boat ride soon developed into a format which parks adapted for their own public, and it would not take too long before an installation opened at Coney Island. This ‘Hell Gate’ was one of the most notorious installations of a scenic boat ride. The ride could be found in Dreamland, the third amusement park at Coney Island (beside Steeplechase Park and Luna Park) that opened in 1904. Hell Gate was the star attraction of Dreamland’s second season, opening in 1905. The ride constituted a large investment and was the ultimate effort to one-up Luna Park and its immersive experiences. Visitors of Dreamland could hardly miss Hell Gate, a large building topped by none other than Satan himself looming over the park. Underneath the statue, a large open room showed the first section of the ride. Guests could watch riders boarding open boats and then descending along an ever-narrowing 20-metre whirlpool swirling toward the centre. The contents of the rest of the ride have been well-described by Theodore Waters in the July 8, 1905 issue of Harper’s Weekly: “The ‘pool’ is merely a spiral trough made of wood and iron, through which the water carries the boats to the centre, where the slope suddenly dips and allows them to slip beneath the outer rims of the spiral into a subterranean channel which follows a tortuous course under the building. There are scenes… intended to corroborate the popular conception of the Earth’s interior. […] By the time the spectators above are beginning to wonder what has happened to the boat, the passengers have had a surfeit of subterranean horrors, and are shot up through one side of the pool to the surface.” Hell Gate stands out not only for its crowd-drawing whirlpool, adding an element of thrill and mystery to the ride, but also for its theme. Around 1900, in the era of technological developments that enabled people to travel further and more easily than ever before, most dark rides based their theme on the idea of travel. For both Prater’s Grottenbahn and Kennywood’s Old Mill, early scenes are known to have depicted famous places on earth. The narrative of A Trip to the Moon took the idea of travelling even one level higher – literally. Hell Gate, however, based its theme on the religious concept of Hell. Interestingly enough, this idea was partly based on economic considerations since in New York only parks including ‘religious entertainment’ were allowed to open on Sundays. Sadly the renowned ride only lasted six years: in 1911 Hell Gate was destroyed in a huge fire, which fortunately did not result in any casualties. Ironically such a giant Inferno was probably the most appropriate way to destroy the boat ride to Hell. The English River Caves An adaptation of the dark boat ride that has had a significantly longer life than the Hell Gate can still be found at Blackpool Pleasure Beach. This famous park could be referred to as the English Coney Island, being an amusement park with a successful start around the turn of the century and having a significant impact on the rise of the amusement park industry in general. Just like at Coney Island, the location on the seashore and at the end of a railway line started to draw lots of tourists to the town of Blackpool, which inevitably inspired entrepreneurs to establish entertainment venues to take their share of visitors. Two of these were William George Bean and John Outhwaite, business partners who in 1896 bought a plot of land at the very end of the already famous Blackpool Boardwalk and established Blackpool Pleasure Beach. Even today, the park is still owned by the family of Bean, with the current managing director being his great-granddaughter Amanda Thompson. Although Blackpool Pleasure Beach was founded in 1896, the first major amusement ride did not appear until 1904 when ‘Sir Hiram Maxim’s Captive Flying Machine’ opened, a swing ride designed by the British inventor of the same name, which is still the oldest operating ride in the park. One year later, the park opened The River Caves of the World: an immense dark boat ride in the same vein as the Old Mill in Kennywood. Riders would board a boat and be transported into a fake mountain, which was visible from most of the park’s grounds. After their tour through the mysterious River Caves, riders would exit the mountain with a splash. The theme of the River Caves has been very consistent throughout its existence: even though changes to the ride’s interior were made, the narrative has always centred on journeys to far flung lands, just like in the majority of other rides of the same era. Rides like the River Caves created a format for experiencing travel to other countries through a singular location based attraction, making the experience of such travels available to a larger public. In 1977 park director Geoffrey Thompson described a similar idea behind his addition of a replica of the temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia to the ride: “The temples are no longer on view to the Western World since the Khmer Rouge took over Cambodia so you could say that we are offering people the only chance they will get to see them” (Quoted in Zika, 2021). Just like the Old Mill, the River Caves served the public desire to travel through 360-degree environments and have the feeling of being transported somewhere else, somewhere out of their everyday life. In that sense, these dark rides are still inspired by the same idea that sparked the creation of the panorama paintings in the 18th Century, which marked the start of our story. The dark ride at the brink of the First World War The River Caves at Blackpool Pleasure Beach would definitely not be the last installation of an Old Mill-type of ride. In the following years, similar rides appeared in (amongst others) Rocky Glen Park (PA, U.S.A.), Luna Park at Coney Island and Pleasureland Southport (U.K.). Clearly, the dark ride has risen to a ride format in the 10 years since Paul Boyton launched his Tunnel of Love. In particular, the Tunnel of Love/Old Mill-rides rapidly spread around the world, taking on different forms in each park to match the local desires. Within Austria, the Grottenbahn saw a similar development, becoming a ride format which was copied multiple times. The development of this ride format occurred over a rather short period of time from 1890 to 1905. This development was built upon inventions that had their roots in early entertainment, like panoramas and phantasmagorias. Some inventions, like the serpentine sluiceway, would cause a chain of rides to continue on its idea, while others would be so ground-breaking that no-one was capable of building a similar experience (A Trip to the Moon). But let us not forget that this series of inventions took place in a time when amusement rides in all kinds of formats were developed rapidly. The amusement industry grew astonishingly fast in those days, and dark rides were just one product of that. Some developments which initially strived for a similar experience would take another path and become a whole different type of ride – such as the gravity powered ‘Scenic Railway’, which originally included scenes, but turned into a scene-less version of the roller coaster. Just as quickly as the development of the dark ride had started, so rapidly did it demise after 1905. Technology was still a problematic limiting factor in the creation of individual indoor experiences. With the train ride, the canal ride and the gravity ride being developed as a way to transport visitors along scenes, most of the possibilities were investigated. By the time of the outbreak of the First World War, no new inventions were made regarding dark rides, though new installations of Old Mill-rides kept popping up. It would take until the late 1920’s before the world of dark rides was shaken up again, when technology finally allowed for electrically driven individual cars. But that is a story for another time. © Dark Ride Database Article by Luc Research by Alan and Luc We would like to thank Joel Zika (The Dark Ride Project) for his advice on this article Barber, X. (1989). “Phantasmagorical Wonders: The Magic Lantern Ghost Show in Nineteenth-Century America” Film History, 3(2), 73-86 Dark Attraction & Funhouse Enthusiasts: http://www.dafe.org/articles/darkrides/darkSideOfKennywood.html Defunctland: The History of Coney Island: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7C5kxkBPhpE DÖW (Dokumentationsarchiv des Österreichischen Widerstandes). Archived letter by Franz West, dated February 1934. https://www.doew.at/erinnern/biographien/erzaehlte-geschichte/februar-1934/franz-west-jetzt-muss-man-was-machen Kwaitek, B. (1995) The Dark Ride, published thesis (MSc), Western Kentucky University Nye, R.B. (1981) “Eight Ways of Looking at an Amusement Park” The Journal of Popular Culture 15 (1) pp. 63-75 Silverman, S.M. (2019) The Amusement Park: 900 years of thrills and spills, and the dreamers and schemers who built them, New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Theme Park Insider: https://www.themeparkinsider.com/flume/201302/3378/ Wien Geschichte Wiki: https://www.geschichtewiki.wien.gv.at/Grottenbahn Zika, J. (2021) The Historic Dark Ride: Reimagined for virtual experience, PHD research, Swinburne University

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Writing Terms Glossary A statement usally made at the end of an introduction that the writer will support throughout the analysis. The thesis is the idea that the writer focuses on and re-enforces in each paragraph and evidence. Depending on the prompt, the thesis should include the author’s name and a theme/thematic term. The first sentence of a body paragraph that develops a single idea. The topic sentence clearly supports the thesis and is then broken down through reasoning, evidence, and explication throughout the paragraph. Strong topic sentences help keep the organization of an analysis clear and the writer on track. The first paragraph of an essay or literary analysis. Introductions are commonly started with a broad idea and then get narrowed down. They generally give background info to help the reader understand your argument. Oftentimes, the writer will provide a short summary of the literary work and a brief definition of the theme. The last sentence of an introduction is usually the thesis statement. The body paragraphs of your essay are the areas where you will support your thesis, and proving your point. The body paragraphs should illustrate close reading, and a firm understanding of the text. Evidence and interpretation belong in the body paragraphs. · Evidence- the quotes that support the claim made in the thesis. Evidence is commonly illustrated through direct quotes. Evidence should not be too long but should be purposeful. · Interpretation- the breakdown of evidence. Interpretation follows the evidence, but does not simply summarize it. This is where the writers the text and explain how the evidence operates to support the writers' interpretation. It reflects their own thoughts appropriately. where ideas from throughout the essay are unified. The conclusion is not simply a summary of the entire analysis, but the paragraph that will leave the reader in a state of enlightenment. The conclusion should reinforce the thesis in different words. In our website, we also refer to the concept of pre-writing as “inventing.” Pre-writing is the process one takes before beginning formally drafting an essay, or other written work, to help generate ideas. This process is critical as you begin to work on a paper because it allows writers to make a game-plan, so to speak, of how they’ll accomplish their task. Some forms of pre-writing could include practices like free writing, creating thought webs or Venn diagrams, or composing an outline of key ideas. For literary analysis, this often involves comparing your prompt with the piece of literature you’re analyzing, and brainstorming ideas on what you can draw from the text to fulfill the assignment’s expectations. For more information on what it means to pre-write, click here to discover the “inventing” section of our website. Making pre-writing work for you is all about understanding what you personally need to get a good start on your writing process. This doesn’t mean that you have to complete a specific regimen, or follow particular steps, but it does mean that you use strategies that will beneficial for your personally, and for that specific writing assignment, to get started. For me, many times this means that I’m just making an outline of key ideas to discuss, or maybe listing some of the most important concepts from the piece I might want delve into more deeply. Depending on the nature of my assignment, that format will change. If I’m doing a comparative piece, I may make a Venn diagram to get the basic ideas onto paper, and then later maybe outline them. For understanding how certain literary elements contribute to theme, I may list each important element I find in the text, and then categorize particular examples under each type in a list-format. This would help me later to find my supporting evidence for my argument. Understanding the kind of work you’re doing, and then working to make that process as simple, and as effective as possible is the basis of figuring out how to pre-write effectively. Once you understand the information you need, it should be easier to gather examples from the text that support that. For some literary analysis assignments, it can be helpful to journal as you work to both collect your thoughts, and to set goals for your writing process. For literary analysis, completing double entry journals while you read can be hugely beneficial once you start writing. In this process, you include a quotation that you find intriguing (whether for diction, characterization, theme, or other factors you may write about later) on one side of the page, and a short analysis of that quote on the other. This will help you later when you’re beginning to draft and collect evidence to support your argument. Gathering this information as you read rather than after the fact can help make the writing process much smoother and less painful. You can also journal to log your process on a particular assignment to track your habits as a writer, and keep up with your progress toward specific goals. Analysis can be a tricky concept for some students because it describes not only the type of work you’re writing, but also a specific process within the writing that lends itself to critical consideration of the text. Literary analysis is carefully considering the text both to discern meaning, and to understand the function of a given literary device used in the text. Analysis of a specific quotation from a text can entail looking closely at the writer’s word choice, tone, and looking for specific literary devices like simile, metaphor, personification, and others. While these parts of the text are important, true analysis is discussing how and why the author included those pieces in the text as a whole. Overall, as literary critics and analyzers, we are interested in the function and the “so what?” aspect of the quotation. To craft a quality literary analysis, we have to look past the obvious, and think critically to explore the reasoning for its existence in the first place. You truly can’t write any sort of paper, whether it’s a persuasive piece, an analysis, or even creative work, without having some form of supporting evidence to give your argument, or your idea, legs. In terms of writing about literature, supporting evidence is usually direct quotations or paraphrase from within the passage you’re working with. Supporting evidence is how you back yourself up, and show your reader you know what you’re talking about. For example, if I wanted to write a paper on why I think cats are the greatest pets in the world, my readers, especially my dog-loving ones, wouldn’t be satisfied simply with that statement. They expect me to give some sort of valid reasoning to support the claim I made. Even though this example seems silly and trivial, it translates directly into writing about literature. You can’t just write “Harper Lee, in her acclaimed novel, To Kill A Mockingbird, uses foreshadowing and imagery to illustrate the theme that prejudice and racism can create grievous consequences for those who practice them,” without giving some sort of textual evidence to back you up. In a thesis statement like that one, you would need to have several examples of both imagery and foreshadowing that demonstrated this connection to the theme you’ve decided to touch on. Without these examples, it just seems to readers that you’re pulling opinions out of thin air. The evidence helps you solidify your points as factual and fact-based. One of the hardest parts of finding evidence for a particular writing prompt is going back and looking after the fact, especially if you haven’t annotated as you read. To prevent difficulties and issues in this process, make sure to practice good note-taking practices, through things like journaling, or just plain annotating, as you go. Free-writing is a part of the brainstorming/pre-paper-writing process that can help you feel more on-track and ready to begin drafting. Free-writing is just the part of the process when the writer sits down and puts words and ideas on a page with very little specific organization. The goal here is to simply generate ideas, and provide yourself with the raw material for moving forward and starting to outline or even draft your paper. For some people, this can be very neat and structured, with ideas carefully arranged into categories; for others though, this part of the process is just a good ol’ word vomit onto either a blank piece of paper, or onto a clean word document. Essentially, the only rule is that you should come out of this period with more ideas and more physical material than you started with. This is a great way to figure out what specific ideas of a text you’re most interested in working with or researching, or even understanding what you may already know the most about. The best thing about this process is that you, as the writer, can make it whatever you want or need it to be for your own routine. In this phase of the process, just do you! Revising is a critical part of the paper-writing process for writers at all levels. Following peer-review, or even a one-on-one conference with your teacher or professor, you will probably have some notes about content to add, remove, or reorganize so that your paper flows more nicely. Making these important content changes, as well as those you may identify through your own reviewing, is the process of revising. As you work to correct and change key content pieces of your work, like bulking up a quotation analysis, or choosing new supporting evidence (quotations, paraphrase, or summary) from your text, you ultimately get your paper closer to your final copy. Taking time to review your work and go through this process is the best way for writers to ensure that their papers are both organized, and focused. Going through revisions allows writers to revisit tricky points, and to even catch errors you may not have noticed while writing. Before submitting any paper, always make sure to at least look over your work yourself so you can smooth these things over. Sometimes, revisions can happen on the computer screen before you print your first big draft, but it can often be helpful, once you have a completed draft, to print it off and scan with a bright-colored ink pen. I find that reading on paper after staring at a screen for hours at a time can help me think about my work more critically, and more carefully. For more in-depth explanations of how to carry out the revision process on your own paper, and to get more tips on completing this process effectively, click here. Conferencing is an extremely valuable tool for writers as in the process of polishing their work for submission. This process involves bringing your paper, in whatever state it’s in, to a meeting between you as the writer, and your teacher or professor for discussion. Since conferencing can occur at different stages of the writing process, what happens at the meeting depends on what you need at that moment. For example, I’ve scheduled conferences with my professors before when I had very little work done on my paper outside of a rough outline. At this stage, conferencing can be helpful for gaining ideas on how to move forward in your work; it could be about finding supporting evidence for your claims, figuring out what to do with the evidence you’ve accumulated, or building a quality thesis statement. In later stages of the process, such as drafting, conferencing is beneficial for getting feedback on what you’ve already written (before you have to turn it in for a grade), and to make sure you’re on the right track. This is important, especially if you have questions or confusions about the assignment because your teacher can help provide important clarifications for what they want you to include moving forward. Conferencing at the final stage of the writing process can bring writers a level of direction for revising and editing—a professor or teacher may notice small, harder to identify errors, like those of organization or flow, which you as the writer may not. Having an extremely experienced set of eyes on your work at this point can help with the polishing and perfecting process. While conferencing can be a great tool for writers, it does require you to do a little extra leg-work to make it the most of both yours, and your professor’s time. To make the most of the experience, make sure to come into the meeting with specific questions or points of concern about your paper. If you’re vague in your questions, or unsure of what you need help with, your professor can’t help you as well. Providing them with an idea of where you feel you’re struggling can give them a sense of direction as they’re reading and reviewing, and can help them give you useful advice. You should also make sure you have copies of your work (at whatever stage it’s in) for both you and your professor. While you could send it in electronically if you’re professor/teacher agrees, I recommend having a paper copy. This can help you both see things you may miss on the computer screen, and is a great note-taking tool for you as you go back and revise and edit after the conference. Like conferencing, peer-review is all about meeting up with someone else, who has fresh eyes about the work, to get feedback. In this case, however, you would meet with a classmate, student tutor, or other peer to get guidance for moving forward in the writing process. Peer-review can take place at any stage of writing, and is a discussion about what you may need at that point. If you’re in the planning stage, and maybe just have a general idea, or an outline of your tentative plan, peer-review can be a time to bounce ideas off of each other, or textual evidence to support your claims, or even work toward building a strong thesis statement. Later on, once you have an outline, or even a draft, peer review can be a time to assess the level of the analysis you’ve already completed, and make sure you’re on the right track for moving forward. Once the draft is mostly completed, peer-review is a great way to get revisions and edits for your paper—your peer can help you work through the nitty-gritty of establishing good organization and clear flow, and even help correct small, grammatical or typing errors throughout the work. Overall, peer-review can be helpful because it allows you the opportunity to talk through your ideas and thoughts about the paper with someone who 1) is not grading you, and therefore, is free of pressure, and 2) to get the perspective and opinion of someone who is a little removed from the process. After working hard on writing your paper, you may not be in the place to comb over your work again and again to catch small errors. Someone who has not had these ideas on their mind for several days at a time will be better able to help you sift through the small stuff. After reading an essay prompt, or maybe a rubric, you may have noticed a section titled “organization,” and felt confused about what that means. Thankfully, the concept of organization in a paper-writing standpoint is quite straight-forward: for a paper to be organized, it’s sentences, paragraphs, and ultimately, the work as a whole fit together, and are ordered in a way that makes sense for the reader, and helps them to get from point A to point B effectively. To ensure you’re creating a well-organized paper, you should start your writing process by creating an outline, and framing the rest of your work under sections of the outline where they seem to fit best. This structure creates the general backbone of your work, and helps give you a format to follow. Once you’ve broken your ideas into sections, or eventual paragraphs, on the outline form, you’ll want to construct a thesis statement that presents your ideas in the same order that they appear on the outline. Building a thesis around these ideas helps your readers know what to expect as they begin to read your paper, and thus, increase your organization. Once you’ve built your thesis statement and know what each paragraph to follow will be about, organization has to happen within those paragraphs to continue the flow you’ve established. Within paragraphs, creating clear, explicit topic sentences, following them with supporting evidence from the text, analysis of that evidence, and then a clear concluding sentence that ties back to the topic sentence will help to achieve that. You’ll follow this pattern for all of your paragraphs, and conclude the paper by tying all the ideas back together, and back to your thesis. By always making sure to connect each smaller part to the larger ideas you present in your thesis, you’ll create an argument that is effectively organized, and structured in a way that will improve your argument. Audience, in writing literary analysis, can mean two things: 1) the author of the literature’s audience, or 2) your audience as a writer of analysis. It’s important to consider the author’s audience because that can determine both the words the author uses, and the message they’re trying to convey. For example, the meaning of Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” drastically changes if you as a reader understand Swift’s audience—the piece is a satire discussing how to effectively combat famine and malnourishment in Ireland: by eating babies. Not understanding his target demographic at the time, the English people who don’t seem to care, readers may think he’s completely serious, and seriously disturbed. This is not the case, though, because he uses his audience and their beliefs, and crafts a satire around that to shift their perspective on the issue he raises. Identifying and understanding the audience, with literature, can take a little bit of research and investigative work on your part—however, it’s worth it for understanding all of the author’s nuances and ideas within the piece. You can also approach audience from the standpoint of you as a writer, doing literary analysis. In any paper you write, whether you realize it or not, you consider audience. You wouldn’t use informal, slang-filled language in writing a literary analysis because you realize that your professor or teacher wouldn’t like that very much. Deciding who you’re trying to target, and what you’re trying to accomplish in targeting them is the key to deciding what sort of tone to take, what words to use, and how to structure and frame your argument. If I was writing a literary analysis, I would make sure to create a structured, well-organized argument that uses professional, formal language and strong diction. However, if I was writing a personal essay or an informal letter, I may soften up, and use less rigid language and form. Knowing who you’re talking to, and what they would be more receptive of based on the circumstances, is a key part of addressing your audience effectively in any piece of writing. If organization is all about structuring your paper in a way that makes everything fit together nicely, unity is the result of that. Though unity can mean several things, you’ll encounter it most often in your writing in terms of how your individual sentences, and then paragraphs fit together. A good, unified paragraph has a specific topic sentence, and then all subsequent sentences work to prove that point. In a unified paragraph, there would be no extra, stray sentences without a home. They all fit together to prove your point. In ensuring you build unity in your paragraphs, you can model your paragraphs around your supporting evidence. When I write a paper, I decide on a key idea, make that into a topic sentence, and then choose textual evidence to back those ideas up. Then, once I have those pieces, I add the analysis, which creates the “so what” of my argument. To finish up the paragraph and make sure it’s polished, go back and add transitional phrases to make sure the ideas flow together in a way that makes sense, and add a conclusion sentence that wraps everything up nicely. Writing your entire paper, then, follows this same procedure, just on a larger scale. Think of your intro paragraph as one big topic sentence, and then your body paragraphs as three opportunities to support those ideas. Then, you tie it all up with a bow in the conclusion, and remind your audience how it all comes together. Incorporating strong topic sentences and a strong thesis, and then tapering through this process in each paragraph helps to establish unity, and helps make sure every sentence in every paragraph is always supporting the same goal: to prove your thesis. These bare-bones and ideas are critical in creating a unified argument, but to put the finishing touches on the paper, you’ll also need to make sure to add in transitions and concluding statements (whether sentences, or a paragraph, depending on the context). These features help create a flow in your argument, and make sure everything connects effectively. Purpose is applicable both to your writing, and to the works you’re reading. An author’s purpose when writing is, essentially, the goals they hope to accomplish through their work. No matter what you read, whether its literature, an advertisement, or even your favorite internet meme, everything has a purpose. For advertisements, the goal may be to get you to buy a specific product, or to believe in a certain idea. In the case of memes and other similar media, the author’s purpose may have been not only to entertain, but also to make the readers/viewers think about a social issue, or other big-picture idea. Though you could probably pick any text and decide whether the author’s purpose was to inform, entertain, or question readers on a given idea, it’s more important to get to the bigger goal. What specifically was the author hoping to achieve, and what features and devices did they use to communicate that? For example, with the novel The Great Gatsby, I could assume that it’s just a story meant to entertain me with tales about riches and romance. However, more than that, F. Scott Fitzgerald’s larger purpose in Gatsby could be to explore the realm of the rich and successful from an outsider’s perspective, and offer insights to explain the lives of those who live within it. Knowing how to talk about purpose is important for understanding what your teachers might want as you begin the preliminary process of analyzing a text. Understanding the message, or messages, they’re trying to convey through their work can change your perspective on the reading, and enhance your understanding overall. In your own writing, your purpose is essentially to prove your thesis throughout the paper. Think of the thesis statement as a purpose statement, and work throughout your paper, with textual evidence and analysis, to support your claims as plausible and valid. Making your Writing Process Work for You "Personally, I find the hardest part of writing is knowing how and where to start. Using this glossary, I hope you'll gain a better understanding, not only of the mechanics of these concepts, but of how to make them effective for you in your own writing. Sitting down and getting a draft started doesn't have to be scary or painful--using these techniques, and incorporating them effectively into your practice, you'll be able to breeze through every part of the writing process from start to finish." -Allie

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Designing Afro-Latino Curriculum for Self-Determination During the 2015 Afrolatino Festival of New York in a panel discussion on the contextualization of blackness, William Garcia briefly mentioned working to implement Afro-Latino curriculum in schools, which greatly intrigued us. Thus, we reached out to him to learn more. His amazingly detailed and extensive response, published below, recommends “looking for solidarity between oppressed people in the United States but also involves questioning African American and Latino nomenclature”. Prior to beginning, it is noteworthy that William Garcia describes these topics as “difficult conversations”. Thus, we encourage critical analysis, respect, and “productive dialogues with parents, students, communities, family members, and friends”, perhaps along with cultural resources from our People of African Descent in Latin America unit. Designing Afro-Latino Pedagogy for Self-Determination (by William Garcia) American Negro must remake his past in order to make his future (Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, 1874-1938) With an increased media attention to police violence there is an emergence of educators utilizing Black Lives Matter as a movement to create and develop curriculums of social justice (Rethinking Schools 2015). The recent article “Black Students’ Lives Matter: Building the school-to-justice pipeline” (2015) posits: For the past decade, social justice educators have decried the school-to-prison pipeline: a series of interlocking policies—whitewashed, often scripted curriculum that neglects the contributions and struggles of people of color; zero tolerance and racist suspension and expulsion policies; and high-stakes tests—that funnel kids from the classroom to the cellblock. But, with the recent high-profile deaths of young African Americans, a “school-to-grave pipeline” is coming into focus. But yet what does it mean to be black in the United States? Am I as an Afro-Latino allowed to call myself Black? Who gets to be African American? Some recommendations from the article include: - Provide a social justice, anti-racist curriculum that gives students the historical grounding, literacy skills, and space to explore the emotional intensity of feelings around the murder of Black youth by police - Support students who want to have conversations about the Black Lives Matter movement outside the classroom, in school forums or school clubs - Raise the Black Lives Matter movement with other teachers at our schools These recommendations do not mention the growing Hispanic population that is also comprised of Afro-Latinos. Afro-Latinos are people of African descent in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, and by extension those of African descent in the United States whose origins are in Latin America and the Caribbean (Flores & Jimenez, 2010). According to a recent poll ‘Hispanics’ will be the overwhelming majority in the U.S., yet there is little knowledge of how race, ethnicity, gender and national identity functions under a nomenclature of Latinidad in the U.S. For many, Latinos are all composed of one race and have little differences between us. The one-size-fits-all approach to Latino students is the approach many educators act upon when educating and interacting with their Latino population. When one considers the census categories, Latinos are denied access into two races —Black Non-Hispanic and white Non-Hispanic— and then categorized as an ethnicity. A diverse Afro-descended student population mainly from Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America has complicated the topic on what it is to be black in the United States. If all Black Lives Matter, then is being black synonymous with being African American? Can Afro-Cubans or Afro-Colombians be black? Fixed categories of blackness do not allow Afro-Latinos to identify and explore their identities, which creates an invisibility of how policy, especially in the realm of education, has not been developed to attend to their academic needs. There is a need to redefine what it means to be black in this country [Editor’s Note: See Soulville Census: Learning about the Nuances of Blackness]. Essentialist forms of blackness in the U.S. make it difficult for students to relate to the way that we can understand race critically and politically as well as teaching in ways that are culturally relevant for them. When it comes to the social-emotional condition of Afro-Latino students in the classroom it is clear that they are culturally and racially misunderstood which seems to lead to higher levels of depression in these students. For example, in 2003 an academic article titled: “Dual Ethnicity and Depressive Systems: Implications on Being Black and Latino in the United States” indicated that Afro-Latino females tended to exhibit higher levels of depressive symptoms than adolescent males and older adolescents tended to show higher levels of depression than younger adolescents. - Empirical research on the social and psychological adjustment of Latinos of African decent is virtually non-existent. - Many adolescents comment were: “People were unfriendly to me”, “I felt that people disliked me”. - Many Afro-Latinos are faced with a number of stressors associated with their unique dual ethnicity and double minority status. - Afro-Latinos in therapy mentioned also having distress due to having problems fitting in and gaining acceptance from peers at a time when that is a high priority. Another article that sheds light on how schools in the United States fail to create curriculums for Afro-Latino students is Ramos-Zayas’ “Learning Affect, Embodying Race: Youth, Blackness, and Neoliberal Emotions in Latino Newark” (2011) which concluded in his transnational study that: In Newark and Belo Horizonte (Brazil) only two students identified as black and deployed Afro-Brazilian pride and solidarity language. As a result, their friends challenged their Black self-identification and simply did not feel these students looked Black and accused the students from Belo Horizonte of identifying as black because it was trendy particularly in light of affirmative actions discussions happening at the times. In this study, there was also a Puerto Rican student from Santurce, an urban city in Puerto Rico who felt that Blackness was based on spatial terms, following a “Rastafari” identity or living in Piñones, areas associated with Afro-Caribbean arts and folklore though not with explicit struggles of racial justice and empowerment. Meaning, even when Afro-Latinos identify with their blackness, other students policed and defended established notions of identity. Afro-Latino Racial Literacy in order to Denounce Racism According to Ladson Billings (1995) culturally relevant pedagogy is characterized as teaching that empowers students intellectually, emotionally, socially and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes. This teaching helps black students develop different ways of being black and Latino in a way that helps the students understand themselves and strive for academic excellence. Howard Stevenson’s Promoting Racial Literacy in Schools (2014) defines the goals of racial literacy as: Strategic deconstruction of racial information and knowledge, the building of healthy, cross-and-same racial relationships, the flexible reconstruction of racial identity, the willful, choosing of racial styles and self-expression, and the assertive countering of racial stereotypes. Afro-Latino students need to master micro-aggressions from Latinos, which is an understudied topic. Much research is needed in order to understand how Latinos reproduce racist experiences through racial interactions. Racist forms of racial socializations remain a taboo discussion topic in Latino communities, which can be extremely complicated, what Derald Wing Sue calls Race Talk and The Conspiracy of Silence (2015), a type of silence which he believes harms society and does not allow productive dialogues with parents, students, communities, family members, and friends. Afro-Latinos in the U.S. have what Juan Flores called a ‘triple consciousness’, a term borrowed from W.E.B. Du Bois in order to define Afro-Latinos as black, Latino and U.S. American. Afro-Latino students need to be trained to confront racial blindness in Latino communities in the U.S. by first knowing that comments such as: “I’m not racist, my grandfather’s black”, “There’s no racism between Latinos”, “I’m not white, I’m light skin”, “We’re both black because we’re both in the U.S.”, “I’m not racist because we’re all mixed”, “The Civil Rights Movement is moreno history”, “You’re not that black”, “You don’t look Puerto Rican, you sure you’re not Dominican?”, are all good examples of day-to-day experiences of micro-aggressions that Afro-Latinos youth have to confront. This is a good time to explore the genealogy of spoken word and explore Willie Perdomo’s “N****r-Reecan Blues”, Tato Laviera’s “El Arrabal: Nuevo Rumbón” and “Ode to the Diasporican (pa’ mi gente)” by María Teresa (Mariposa) Fernández, who all explore their blackness and Latinidad in the U.S., can be easily added to a curriculum in poetry. Students can then discuss these poems in connection to their own lives as early as upper elementary schools. Storytelling is a great way to help Afro-Latinos relieve the stress they confront on a day-to-day basis. This lack of culturally relevant pedagogy for Afro-Latino students is reinforced with the proliferation of white and light-skin actors across media. As discussed above, Latino media produces racial stress, self-hatred, depression and at times racial violence especially by Telemundo and Univisión selling a world of whiteness. Blackface entertainment, which is still a common form of entertainment in Latin American media, can also have devastating and traumatic effects on Afro-Latino students, especially if family members think it is funny and enjoyable. Because of these shortcomings in Afro-Latino education, anti-black racism and white supremacy in the Latino media has to be confronted by engaging with these difficult conversations in schools and with the rest of the community. Proyecto Más Color is an awareness campaign started by Sophia and Victoria Arzu, two young Honduran-American women of Garifuna descent. Their project promotes the representation of Afro-Latinos and other minorities in Latino media and campaigns for more diverse depiction on Spanish-language television that includes Afro-Latinos and beyond. Furthermore, Victoria Arzu expresses the fundamental and insightful criticism that is disregarded in the Latin@ community: “People need to remember that Latino is not a race”. Proyecto Más Color They have written a plethora of letters to Telemundo and Univisión television networks requesting the presence of Afro-Latin@s and other minorities. Telemundo responded to them by saying that they were unable to fulfill the request because it would compromise ratings and because they were based in Mexico. As a response, they founded Proyecto Más Color, which has a created a petition against Telemundo and has accumulated numerous signatures and continues to raise consciousness. In another video posted, “What Am I? (Afro-Latino)”, the Arzua sisters discuss what it is to be Afro-Latinos and confront the assertion that all black people are African Americans. As young students they are an inspiration for other Afro-Latino students who seek visibility and agency. These initiatives have successfully had an impact on a political level. In September 2014, during Spanish Heritage month, the AfroLatin@ Forum organized a roundtable discussion in New York City to appeal to the U.S. Census Bureau to re-analyze the account of their numbers and recognize Afro-Latino identities. Afro-Latinos Need Historical Literacy Recent research by Harvey Graff (Graff, Mackinnon, & Sandin, 2009) suggests a multimodal approach to historical studies of literacy with an emphasis on: - Multiple literacies and multi-media context (including multilingual) - History of emotions - Political culture/political action - Connecting past, present and future - Gender, social class, race, ethnicity, generation However, the question to be posed is: How can we cultivate multilayered and nuanced understanding of subject matter through subtle transactions between teachers and learners? According to Sonia Nieto: Modifying instruction to be more culturally appropriate is an important skill for teachers who work with students of diverse backgrounds, yet few prospective teachers learn about cultural differences or the type of strategies that can help more students or about how culture may influence their learning. (Nieto, 2002). Nieto’s useful adaptations to curriculum fosters community-based learning [Editor’s Note: See also Fabian Villegas’ recommendations on community-based learning in Fabian Villegas: Descolonización, más allá de la estética], critical perspectives which can be enhanced by doing research on students’ ethnic, racial, and linguistic background, inviting guests from various Afro-Latino countries from Latin America or the U.S. to visit the classroom, either family members of the classroom or not, preparing students for understanding the history and geography of those countries while relating them to the topic of identity. Socio-political contextualization takes into account the larger societal and political forces in a particular society and the impact they may have on student learning. This framework is concerned with issues of power and includes discussions of structural inequality based on stratifications due to race, social class, gender, ethnicity and so forth. I also believe that multimodalities are approaches that will ensure that students and teachers have shared understandings of teaching and learning in the classroom (Casey, 2012). This is a good opportunity to mention to students that the conceptual understanding of Afro-Latinidad is not recent. In fact, the notion of being black and from Latin America has been existent for many years. Piri Thomas’s famous book Down These Mean Streets (1967) changed the way we look at race and Latino identity. Piri disagrees with his brother José who is a white Puerto Rican (light skin): José: “Poppa’s the same as you… Indian.” Piri: “What kinda Indian?..Caribe? Or maybe Borinquén?” Piri: “Say, José, didn’t you know the Negro made the scene in Puerto Rico way back? And when the Spanish spics ran outta Indian coolies, they brought them big blacks from you know where. Poppa’s got moyeto blood.” The novel Down These Mean Streets (1967) argues with his brother by questioning racial democracy in Puerto Rican culture and identity. The fact that Down These Mean Streets, one of the most cherished books of Puerto Rican diaspora literature, questions racial democracy and mestizaje reminds us of the importance of viewing Puerto Rican notions of racial mestizaje with a critical lens. The reality is that it is impossible to understand Afro-Latino identity without having historical understanding of African American/Latino history in the United Sates. Texts such as Down These Mean Streets can be compared with texts such as To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) by Harper Lee, which was published only seven years before Thomas’ masterpiece. The prominent literature of the African American experience and Black freedom struggles overlaps with what today is known as Latino and American Asian Movements. Many recent studies within Puerto Rican history have explored the development within Black politics (Lee, Flores). However, after the Civil Rights movement, white backlash and internal class and identity divisions broke such coalitions, remaking “Hispanicity” as an ethnic identity that was mutually exclusive from “Blackness”. “Latino” became politicized as both a race and an ethnicity, which erased the long history of Arturo Schomburg, Jesús Colón, Celia Cruz and Carlos Cooks. African Americans, Afro-Latino and Latinos were pivotal actors within the racialization of “blackness” and “Puerto Rican-ness”. Given the centrality of this issue, Sonia Lee’s Building a Latino Civil Rights Movement (2014) posits that: Evelina Antonetty a Puerto Rican had been training Puerto Rican and African American mothers to fight for their children’s education in New York City schools since 1965. Standing at the forefront of the bilingual education movement for Spanish-speaking children, she was at the peak of her political activism. Crucially, she was forging national networks with African American, Native American, and Mexican American parents interested in the community control of education. Although Antonetty took the middle ground and there is confirmatory evidence of Puerto Rican, African American and Afro-Latino coalitions, identity politics has separated the stories of brave activists, as was the case with Antonetty. As Lee argues, “narratives of white backlash are important, but they do not explain how grassroots leaders of color themselves experienced the overall failure of the movement. Closer attention to class divisions within communities of color (and I would suggest identity politics) in the 1970s indicates that professionals and politicians of color played a vital role in dismantling the coalition of grassroots leaders had helped build” (Lee, 2014). For the sake of discussion, I do not think that Antonetty is less important than Rosa Parks or any other activist that fought for racial and social justice during the Civil rights movement, brave warriors, who dismantled the oppressive nature of white supremacy and inequality during the 1960s. Therefore, historical literacy involves looking for solidarity between oppressed people in the United States but also involves questioning African American and Latino nomenclature. We need to include Afro-Latinos/Latinos when teaching about the Harlem Renaissance, Black Power movements, The Civil Rights Movement, hip-hop music and Rosa Clemente’s leadership in the more current Black Lives Matter movement. For that to occur, Afro-Latino educators have to design curriculum that can meet the Common Core Standards. Recommendations for Developing Successful Afro-Latino Curriculums I encourage educators to design Afro-Latino curriculum that manifests cultural sensitivity, varying perspectives, the complex reality of controversial topics, which can be addressed proactively by teachers clarifying any biases in African American/U.S Latino history that excludes Afro-Latinos. The following list represents considerations when designing effective Afro-Latino centered curriculums: - Legitimizes Afro-Latin American forms of knowledge through shared experiences with African Americans and other Afro-descendants (e.g. Civil Rights, Hip-Hop, U.S. imperialism) - Scaffolds cultural practices that are part of their identities and communities - Extends and builds their native languages (including Garifuna, Spanish, Spanglish) - Reinforces community ties with one’s race, nation, gender and experiences in the U.S. - Promotes positive social relationships with other Afro-descendants in the U.S. in ways that encompass unity through difference - Creates an Afro-Latino self-determination and self-worth (socio-emotional) - Promotes cultural and critical consciousness In closing, I propose a rich theoretical understanding on Afro-Latino student development based on critical race theory, culturally responsive pedagogy and practice. Addressing racial disparities is about engaging students thereby making their lives better. I believe that creating Afro-Latino pedagogy will create a community of practice in which inquiry is a cornerstone of continuous student self-redefinition through improvement in culturally responsive systems. We need educators to get involved with Afro-Latino students, our history and the way we occupy space in the Americas in order to address this gap in education. - Anthony Neil, M. (1998). What the Music Said: Black Popular Music and Black Public Culture. Routledge. - Black Students’ Lives Matter: Building the school-to-justice pipeline. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/29_03/edit293.shtml - Braxton Peterson, J. (2014). The Hip-Hop Underground and African American Culture: Beneath the Surface. Palgrave Macmillan. - Dzidzienyo, A., & Oboler, S. (2005). Neither Enemies Nor Friends: Latinos, Blacks, Afrolatinos. Palgrave Macmillan. - Eric Dyson, M. (2010). Know What I Mean?: Reflections on Hip-Hop. Basic Civitas Books; First Trade Paper Edition. - Guiner, L. (2005). From Racial Liberalism to Racial Literacy: Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Divergence Dilemma. Journal of American History, 91. - Ramos-Zaya, A. Y. (2011). Learning Affects, Embodying Race: Youth, Blackness, and Neo-Liberal Emotions in Latino Newark. American Anthropological Association, 19(2), 86–104. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-7466.2011.01134.x - Ramos, B., Jaccard, J., & Guilamo-Ramos, V. (2003). Dual Ethnicity and Depressive Systems: Implications on Being Black and Latino. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 25, 147–173. http://doi.org/http://hjb.sagepub.com/content/25/2/147.full.pdf+html - Lee, H. (1960). To Kill a Mockingbird 1st Edition Book Club. J B LIPPINCOTT & CO. - Song-Ha Lee, S. (2014). Building a Civil Rights Movement: Puerto Ricans, African Americans, and the Pursuit of Racial Justice in New York City. University of North Carolina Press. - Thomas, P. (1967). Down These Mean Streets. Vintage. - Stevenson, H. C. (2014). Promoting Racial Literacy In Schools: Differences That Makes a Difference. Teachers College.

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Feminism in New Zealand |Part of a series on| Feminism in New Zealand began in 1840, when the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi created New Zealand as part of the British Empire under Queen Victoria. The British government passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 which granted limited-self rule, an estimated three-quarters of the adult male European population in New Zealand had the right to vote in the first elections in 1853. Māori first voted in 1868 and women voted in 1893. In New Zealand there was a distinct history of settler capitalism and homogeneity from subsequent migrant flows, thus the feminist challenges primarily arose from Maori women. Feminists began to emerge throughout the 1960s. Unlike feminism that regarded race, or post colonialism, New Zealand feminism was connected with the existing progressive political organizations. By the 1970s the 1st ‘women’s liberation’ groups began to appear, many of whom were middle class Pakeha women. New Zealand was the first country in the world in which the five highest offices of power were held by women, which occurred between March 2005 and August 2006, with the Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II of New Zealand, Governor-General Silvia Cartwright, Prime Minister Helen Clark, Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives Margaret Wilson and Chief Justice Sian Elias. - 1 Pre-colonisation - 2 History - 3 Issues - 4 Important Changes and Initiatives - 5 Families and households - 6 Opposition to Change - 7 Māori Feminism - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 Further reading - 11 External links Prior to European settlement of New Zealand, kinship systems in Māori tribes were often arranged matrilineally. Diplomacy and rituals of exchange between Māori tribes were also often arranged according to the concept of mana wahine, the prestige and political power held by a woman or the women of a tribe. Today, numerous Māori iwi and hapu descended from such women insist on identifying themselves as being "the people of" that particular female ancestor. For example, on the East Coast of the North Island a prominent iwi group is Ngāti Kahungunu, eponymous of the male ancestor Kahungunu. However within the Mahia area of that region, there is a local preference for the name Ngāti Rongomaiwahine; Rongomaiwahine being known as the more prestigious ancestor of the people there. Similar insistence is made by members of Ngāti Hinemoa and Ngāti Hinemanu. Recent scholarship has challenged the popular notion that pre-colonial Māori societies were strictly patriarchal; some Māori scholars have suggested that the solidification of a patriarchal structure in Māori societies was shaped by colonial contact, largely through the expectations and prejudices of European settler-traders and Christian missionaries. - 1860: married women's Property Perfection Act, allows women to keep their earning and belongings if deserted. - 1864: Heni Pore, fought for the King movement and distinguished herself at Gate Pa. Later, became the Secretary to the Māori Women's Christian Temperance Union, and later became known as an expert on Māori land title. - 1867: The Municipal Corporations Act and The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act was created and enforced - 1873: Employment of Females Act enforced - 1884: Married Women's Property Act - 1893: Pākehā and Māori women won the right to vote in general elections due to the Electoral Act, and Elizabeth Yates became New Zealand's first woman mayor in the British Empire - 1895: the first women's hockey team was established, and Minnie Dean, was the only New Zealand woman to hang - 1896: National Council of Women of New Zealand was created, Emily Siedeberg became the first woman doctor to graduate,and Mary Ann Bacon became the country's first woman stockbroker - 1897 Ethel Benjamin became the first woman to be admitted as a barrister and solicitor. - 1898: The Divorce Act of 1898 allowed the dissolution of marriage virtually equal for women and men. - 1933: Elizabeth McCombs becomes the first woman elected to Parliament - 1938: Catherine Stewart becomes the first woman elected to Parliament not via Widow's succession - 1946: Two women appointed to the Legislative Council; Mary Anderson and Mary Dreaver. - 1947: Mabel Howard, who was elected to Parliament in 1943 becomes New Zealand's first Woman Cabinet Minister. - 1949: Iriaka Rātana becomes the first Māori woman elected to Parliament - 1951: Māori Women's Welfare League founded with Dame Whina Cooper as president - 1975: Marilyn Waring at age 23, becomes the youngest member of the Parliament of New Zealand - 1983: Catherine Tizard becomes the first woman Mayor of Auckland City - 1984: Ann Hercus appointed first Minister for Women's Affairs - 1988: Lowell Goddard and Sian Elias become the first women appointed as Queen's Counsel of New Zealand - 1989: Catherine Tizard becomes the first woman Governor-General of New Zealand - 1997: Jenny Shipley becomes first woman Prime Minister of New Zealand - 1999: Helen Clark becomes first elected woman Prime Minister of New Zealand - 1999: Sian Elias becomes the first woman Chief Justice of New Zealand - 2005: Margaret Wilson becomes the first woman Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives. As a result, all five of the most senior positions of state are simultaneously held by women, as Wilson served with Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of New Zealand, Silvia Cartwright as Governor-General of New Zealand, Sian Elias as Chief Justice of New Zealand, and Helen Clark as Prime Minister of New Zealand. In the 1870s the government initiated a campaign to encourage more women to move to New Zealand. They did this by giving them the prospect of working with more pay than being at home. By 1916 and 1941 the inequality issue began to dissipate, and the gender differences were about equal. By 1971 the gender shift began and women began to outnumber the men. By 2001 there were 104 women to every 100 men.The female population is soon to outrank the male population by 2051, because of the high mortality rate among men aged 15–24, and the female life expectancy is expected to increase much faster than males. The average age for the people of New Zealand is 36 with 12.6% being over the age of 65 and 21.5% under the age of 25. Yet, for the Māori people the average age is 23 years old with 4.1% aged over 65 and 35.4% aged under 15. In 2001 the gender differences in New Zealand were exponential having 63,000 more women than men. According to current census records, this trend is expected to continue. There are other anticipated key issues expected to occur in the lives of the New Zealand women including: - a decline in the birth and fertility rates in the younger women, and childbearing in later years - the family structure has changed with the decline in marriage rates, increase in divorce rates, and increase in reconstituted families - women's incomes are still below men - continuous segregation in occupations as women still make up more than 90% of the secretarial, nursing, and maid positions while men are often carpenters, joiners, mechanics, fitters, and heavy truck drivers. - there are more younger Maori women than older Maori women. - There is a higher fertility and childbearing rate among the younger Maori women than the non-Maori women - There are higher mortality rates among the Maori women, especially the very young and middle-aged - the younger women are more qualified educationally in all ethnic groups than the older women. Important Changes and Initiatives - Increase in the number of women in self-employment - increase in organisations/networks such as WISE, Women into Self-Employment. - development of gender analysis methodology - increase in "out of school" care offered to low income communities - increase in government cooaporation to overcome gender bias in employment towards the Maori, Pacific Island, rural and urban women. - more attention to child care provision and paid parent leave, thus allowing more women to participate in employment - renewed look on retirement income, especially those of Maori women. - increase in participation of women in local governmental affairs, including taking office such as mayors. - improvements on the anti-domestic violence legislation (1995) - national breast screening programme - Free visits to medical practitioners for children under 6 years old - In 2000 the Property (Relationships) Bill was introduced which allows women to have access to property and earnings following a marriage or de facto relationship break down. This law also applies to same sex couples, given they have lived together for three years. Families and households From 1971 and 2001 some differences have occurred in how new Zealand families. In 1971 the family was commonly a legally married husband and a wife with about 3 children. The men were the ones that went out to get the money for the household, while the women stayed at home and raised the children. over the past 30 years this idea has changed due to bringing in different cultural ideals, family patterns, and contributions. Māori women are less likely to marry and more likely to live in extended family situations. Opposition to Change Though the past century has brought about many gains in women's rights and feminism and they continue to effect levels of attainment for the women in New Zealand.There are women in power positions available to be seen for the public eye, but for the average New Zealand women there is still a constant reminder of male domination in matters of decision making, occupation and income, retirement provision, home ownership, and family responsibility. The government favors the state initiatives for the sake of strengthening the economic base and communities. The Right-Wing governments have also taken a hold of the neo-liberalism reform that subverts the gender compromise grasping the metropolitan welfare system. It also undermines the progress in sex-reform that include anti-discrimination provisions, child care services, etc. Mana Wāhine/Māori Feminist discourses Arguably, Māori women have been involved with New Zealand feminism since 1840, when at least three Māori women were included in the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi which created New Zealand. This was significant at a time when women generally did not hold power within the British Empire. It is reported that these women were allowed to sign the treaty after the Māori women had expressed their anger at being excluded. The New Zealand suffragette movement included Māori women who also lobbied to be allowed to vote. In particular, there were Māori women who were landowners and they argued that they should not be barred from political representation. Māori first voted in 1868 and women (both Māori and Pākehā) voted in 1893. A major focus of the early women's movements was the development of bicultural relations between Māori and Pākehā. Political advances were made when Iriaka Ratana was the first Māori woman MP, who was elected in 1949. The development of the Māori Women's Welfare League or Te Rōpū Wāhine Māori Toko I te Ora in 1951 in Wellington, provided an avenue for Māori women to be represented in the New Zealand government. While the original goal of the League was to preserve Māori culture and to promote fellowship and cooperation between various women's organisations, it became heavily involved in housing, health and education issues and was instrumental in making te reo Māori part of the country's official languages. In 1970, women's liberation groups were formed in New Zealand and included Māori women in decision-making. However, within a few years, Māori women began to separate from these groups to focus on their own issues. Many of the feminist organisations dominated by white, middle-class women were delivering health and legal services but these were not reaching many Māori women whose main concerns were economic. Background of Mana Wāhine To understand the key issues for Māori feminists, it is necessary to understand mana wāhine. In te reo Māori, the Māori language, what may be termed “feminist discourses” are often referred to as ‘mana wāhine’. Mana wāhine discourses allows for the extension of Kaupapa Māori, Māori practice and principles, to the intersection of Māori and female identities, and makes said intersection visible. Kaupapa Māori locates itself within a worldview different to that stereotypical of the west, allowing for the generation of new solutions. As a result, mana wāhine is, in contrast to the broader projects of ‘feminism’, a self-deterministic approach that gives effect to the intersections of female and Māori identities. Visibility and validation of this intersection in-turn validates mātauranga wāhine, Māori women's knowledge. For some, preference for the term ‘mana wāhine’, in contrast to ‘feminist’, is a direct result of the preconceptions attached to said title of ‘feminist’, particularly in Pākehā culture. Multiple theories of Māori feminism (mana wāhine) exist concurrently due to the diversity of iwi, ‘tribes’, across Aotearoa/New Zealand. Māori, regardless of iwi, share great disruptions that occurred as a direct result of the processes of ‘colonization’. There are, therefore, great differences between the Māori and Pākehā feminist projects. In order to encompass a wide-view of issues facing women of Māori heritage, many argue that te reo Māori me ona tikanga (Maori Language and Culture) are necessary inclusions in mana wāhine, and this epitomises the differences between mana wāhine and Pākehā feminism. Biculturalism, therefore, is often campaigned for by Māori feminism, allowing for a simultaneous campaign for Indigenous rights; a campaign bypassed completely by multiculturalism. Mana wāhine, therefore, acts as a tool which allows Māori women to take control over their history and future. That is, mana wāhine, by necessity, takes into account sexism, racism, colonialism and class and overlaps with the political aspirations for self-determination. This is why mana wāhine is an important area of discourse. Mana wāhine allows for the provision of analysis unique to the position held by those lying in the intersections of Māori and women. The unique world-view of the Māori population is vital in the understanding of pre-colonial Māori society. Sources such as Māori society, both te ao hou and te ao tawhito (the present and past); te reo Māori; Māori women's histories; and nga tikanga Māori, Māori customary practices, are important in development of these discourses. Indeed, these sources give great importance to Māori sovereignty. Kaupapa Māori conjointly working with mana wāhine locates Māori women in intersections of oppression from colonization and the racism resulting therefrom, in addition to sexism. The effect of colonization was devastating, the estrangement of wahanu, community, and the enforcement of the ‘nuclear’ family were particularly harmful. Colonization also resulted in the enforcement of traditional, western, religious ideas of the status of women and this resulted in a dramatic shift of power away from women in Māori culture. Mana Wāhine Current Issues Biculturalism continues to be a key emphasis for mana wāhine as it informs wider debates about colonization and decolonialism, ethnicities and politics. Biculturalism emphasises the important position of Māori culture, whereas in a multicultural nation Māori would be just one culture among many. This could then remove their sovereignty and the relationship Māori have with their land. Colonization significantly disrupted all of Māori society but, the disruption was on multiple levels for women. As a result, Māori women have needed to reassert their positions and status, not just in the broad society but also in their own communities. They have needed to find their own voices. However, this discussion does not always resonate with Pākehā women as they believe that Western feminism is for everyone. Māori women emphasise the need to be visible in their differences as those differences count. Of importance is the need to highlight that unless the ‘multiple forces of subjugation’ resulting from colonization are taken into account, feminism cannot fully account for the realities of Māori women. Historically, as Māori collectivism gave way to Christian individualism, Māori have increasingly been forced into the Pākehā model of the nuclear family. This has meant that Māori women have become increasingly vulnerable as their dependence on their husbands has increased and as they have become increasingly isolated from their broader community. In addition, Māori women often end up with the jobs that Pākehā women do not want. It can therefore seem that Māori women end up with the ‘scraps’ from Pākehā women. There are critical differences between Māori women and men in relation to health, education, employment, and family structure and support. Critically, lifestyle options and opportunities for Māori women have been restricted. However, even when it is identified that there are specific issues impacting Māori women, they are often not included in the forums for resolution. And if they are, their voices may be shut down. One of the goals of mana wāhine is to ensure that Māori women can make sense of their different realities and identities, and to celebrate the strength and resilience of Māori women. As a result, mana wāhine stories and theories have been diverse rather than homogenous. This includes differing views on how to best achieve equity and reminding others, including Māori men, about who they are and where they have come from. Many Māori today have been disconnected from their traditional cultures which have been reinterpreted through post-colonial eyes, resulting in some Māori men using this to deny women power and a voice. When this is combined with Pākehā feminist priorities, many Māori women feel they are ignored when both gender and colonisation issues and impacts are discussed i.e. they are seen as lesser. However, it is important that Māori women are not viewed as passive victims waiting to be rescued by Pākehā women. Some Māori academics have asserted that the term ‘lesbian’ is one with a western history and with western connotations, a term that may contradict some Māori cultural histories. Sexuality, however, remains an important area of intersectional discourse for mana wāhine and Māori feminist projects, with many prominent figures working in this field, including activist Ngahuia Te Awekotuku. Mana Wahine and in visual art and performance The art of Maori women often confronts issues that have been underscored as relating to mana wāhine. The materials used in the preparation and production of artworks, are not simply a means to an end; they are integral to the work and possess important meaning. The forms which artworks and objects take are diverse, ranging from sound and performance to painting, jewellery, and fashion; these forms are not simply the vehicle or vessel of artistic expression - they embody inherently the message of the work. Artists’ use of the body and space interrogates various issues, discourses and sites of contention including (but not confined to): the gendered cultural practices of Pākehā colonisation; the tensions between urban life and traditional spirituality; the restoration of cultural memory – cultural narratives (oral histories); and modern situational cultural and geographic isolation caused by dispossession. Importantly, ‘Feminist art’ tends to be viewed by many Maori women as Pākehā contrived and therefore irrelevant. The continuous, ageless dynamism of mana wāhine is rather a more applicable term for this discussion. Additionally, because mana wāhine envelops these works within its matrices, they speak with a richer prescience than a work that is simply an expression of art in and of itself and necessarily gives way to a more expansive function and understanding of art, as such. Catriona Moore, speaking of feminist art more broadly, notes the multiplicities of purposes, directions, and outcomes that are characteristics of feminist art and aesthetics – these make the artworld a dynamic space for discussion, development and advancement. Art characterised or described within a mana wāhine context operates similarly. However, artists who identify with and engage in exploring mana wāhine through their artistic practices do not necessarily identify as feminists, or label their art as such. Diverse works such as those by the Mata Aho Collective and the performance art of Rosanna Raymond, announce and powerfully realise reconnection and reclamation, two important tenants that situate women in mana wāhine and characterise activism in this space. Dr Maureen Lander's fibre and installation art and Shona Rapira Davies’ use of textile and object making practices delineate the strength of Maori women and the subtle yet poignant processes of restoration and affirmation achieved through their commitment to investing in and working with traditional materials. Similarly the artistic practices of Nova Paul, Lisa Reihana, and interdisciplinary artist and archivist Tuafale Tanoa'i aka Linda T, expend notions of conventional image making and cinematic art. These artists and their works are reminiscent of and carry on the practice of Merita Mata, which continue to challenge colonial narratives imbued with rejections of systemic Pākehā patriarchal models of power, knowledge and ownership. The central place of exploring Maori mythologies through themes such as mourning, life, death, sovereignty, place and the spaces women occupy are interrogated in works by artists such as Alisa L. Smith and Robyn Kahukiwa. 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"Pākehā Women and Māori Protocol: The Politics of Criticising Other Cultures". Australian Journal of Political Science. 46 (3): 375–388. - Bach, L; Luh, K; Schult, U (2011). "'The samenesses and the differences': Representations of Māori femininities and sexualities in Ngahuia Te Awekotuku's short story collections Tahuri (1989) and Ruahine – Mythic women (2003)". Women's Studies Journal. 25 (2): 26–42. - Barton, C (1994). "Making a difference: Suffrage Year Celebrations and the visual arts in New Zealand". Artlink. 14 (1): 62–67. - Davis, B (2018). "Beginning Visible: Women's Art Archive Interview Project 1984". Reading Room: a Journal of Art and Culture: Politics in Denial (8): 168–177. - Kirker, A (1994). "Re-orientating Feminism in Aotearoa". Artlink. 14 (1): 65–67. - Moore, C (2013). "The more things change… feminist aesthetics, now and then". Artlink. 33 (3). - Dunn, M (2016). "Swimming pools and waves". Art News New Zealand. Summer: 80–85. - O'Neill, R (2017–18). "A pathway to the guts: Mata Aho Collective at Documenta 14". Art New Zealand. 164: 80–84.CS1 maint: Date format (link) - "About: Mata Aho Collective". Mata Aho Collective. 2018. Retrieved October 9, 2018. - Tyler, L (2016). "Setting bodies in motion". ART News New Zealand. Autumn 2016: 66–68. - Caron, W (2017). "Challenging colonial narratives through Pacific tales of life and death". Summit: Honolulu Biennale Foundation. Retrieved October 9, 2018. - "Maureen Lander". Auckland Art Gallery| Toi O Tamaki. 2018. Retrieved October 9, 2018. - "From the Shore". Te Uru Waitakere Contemporary Gallery. 2018. Retrieved October 9, 2018. - Jefferson, D (2018). "Lisa Reihana: a monumental, immersive new artwork reanimates the story of Captain Cook and first contact". ABC Arts (News). Retrieved October 9, 2018. - "Storytelling As Koha: Tuafale Tanoa'i AKA Linda T." Tautai: Guiding Pacific Arts. Retrieved October 9, 2018. - Tonga, A (2018). "Sissy that Walk: A short history of the Pacific Sisters". Art New Zealand. 165: 48–52.

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In just a few weeks, the Ruth Corkin Theatre will be filled with students, parents, and alumni as we are transported back to New York City in 1899. While we will most certainly tap our feet and clap our hands to the music and feel amazed by the intricate set design and incredible choreography, it is also important to note that this year’s U.S. Musical,Newsies, offers an important history lesson to the cast and crew and those who watch the show. Much like Hamilton: An American Musical helped to tell a historical story through song and dance, Newsies provides an opportunity to learn more about a segment of American History. Through its retelling of the 1899 Newsboys Strike, Newsies focuses on how society treated low-income children during this time period. Through dialogue and lyrics, we are given a glimpse of what it was like to be a child before protective labor laws. While early 20th-century America would shift its view on child labor laws, the United States did not ratify a change until 1938 when Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act. Newsies is just one example of the importance that the arts and humanities hold in education. Theater engages audiences through storytelling and song, draws people into the story, and creates a connection to the characters. Angela Modany describes the process in a February 2012 Smithsonian article as “embodying empathy.” By creating connections to characters, either as an actor or observer, you empathize with their experience, gaining a deeper understanding of the historical context. The concept of embodying empathy is not a foreign one to Brimmer classrooms. Whether it is through special programming like Model UN, the Chinese Temple Fair, Winterim, and community service days, or in-classroom mock trials, debates, skits, and Harkness discussions, the Humanities and Creative Arts departments create experiences for students to build connections with people, characters, or events. This year we have discussed the meaning of empathy and its etymology in detail. To be empathic means to be “in suffering” or to feel the feelings of another. In Dr. Helen Riess’ book, The Empathy Effect, she shares that we naturally connect to those with whom we share common experiences or traits. The concept of embodying empathy works seamlessly with Riess’ research. When students share experiences, they are both learning important topics and developing a profound connection that creates stronger empathic responses. I look forward to seeing you at one of the performances of Newsies in March, and if you would like to learn more about the 1899 News Boys Strike in New York City, here is a link to resources produced by the New York City Public Library. “No Condition is Permanent” was the title and central theme of this week’s Bissell Grogan Humanities Symposium keynote speech by Dr. Rajesh Panjabi. Dr. Panjabi captivated the audience as he shared his personal experience of escaping Liberia during the onset of civil war as a child, resettling in North Carolina, and eventually co-founding the non-profit, Last Mile Health. By embracing the mantra, “no condition is permanent,” Panjabi and his team have set out to change the way people in developing countries access health care by creating networks of support that could save up to thirty million lives. The idea that no condition is permanent resonates as we head into Martin Luther King Jr. Day. Next week we will take time to recognize and honor the work of Dr. King and those who followed him. King also believed that no condition is permanent. He worked tirelessly as a non-violent civil rights activist in the fight for racial equity, a cause which ultimately cost him his life. In his final speech, “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop,” he whole-heartedly embraced this mantra when he famously said, “Well, I don’t know what will happen now. We’ve got some difficult days ahead. But it really doesn’t matter with me now, because I’ve been to the mountaintop…And I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land.” People like Dr. Martin Luther King and Dr. Rajesh Panjabi are inspirational, but we don’t want students to be daunted by the scope of their impact. We asked students to think about the conditions that exist in their lives that they can work towards changing and how might they react to changes that are not within their control. How might they approach improving their work as a student, becoming involved in a cause that they connect with, or trying a new activity or extracurricular to move out of their comfort zone? We asked the 12th graders to think about the legacy they want to leave on the School and what they hope to accomplish during their final months as Brimmer students. Some of the goals that members of the Class of 2019 shared were: “I want to build an even more supportive community by going to more community events”; “I want to help the community know more about traditional Chinese culture”; “I want to help my friends who will be CAP leaders next year develop their voice as leaders”; and “I want to promote the idea of what it means to be a student-athlete and a leader among the community and becoming mindful of the impact (negative & positive) that we have on each other.” As our students continue to figure out their place in the world, I hope that they will carry with them the idea that no condition is permanent. It has not been due to a lack of effort, but I have never been able to get into yoga. Hearing about all the positives that are associated with it, both of mind and body, I was eager to try it. After a 10-week session a number of years ago, I enjoyed the physical aspect of yoga, but was never able to connect effectively with the mindfulness piece. Over the last 5-7 years, the efforts to improve wellness programs and include mindfulness exercises has been a national trend in schools. At Brimmer, we continue to evaluate our programming, tweak existing options, and provide new opportunities. This has included inviting Will Slotnick from the Wellness Collaborative to talk with students about managing stress and anxiety and the risks involved in using alcohol, drugs, and, more recently, e-cigarettes. Slotnick addresses the subject from the perspective of managing stress and incorporates meditation and mindfulness into the program. After sessions, students report feeling more connected to their thoughts and feeling more relaxed. In addition to being armed with important information, they can physically be seen carrying their shoulders lower as much of the stress has melted away during the sessions. In a 2011 article (full publication can be found here)from the American Psychological Association journal, Psychotherapy, Dr. Daphne Davis and Dr. Jeffrey Hayes share “empirically supported benefits of mindfulness.” The list of benefits is one that we would all want for our students and children: stress reduction, boosts to working memory, improved focus, and more flexibility in challenging situations. In 2013, in an article published by the National Institute of Health in Social Cognative and Affective Neuroscience, research on the use of meditation was reported to improve emotional stability, supporting and building upon the documented research of its benefits. This was further supported by neuroscience research that showed increased serotonin levels in those that practiced meditation. So, while incorporating mindfulness as skill has been a trend, it is also very much supported by nationally recognized research. Knowing this, I have continued to listen and research what experts are saying, often trying out techniques to improve my own mindfulness. Slotnick has recommended phone apps like Meditation Studioto our students. Dr. Helen Riess, who spoke recently at Brimmer about her book, The Empathy Effect, suggested HeadSpace, and those with an Apple Watch or Fitbit are likely familiar with the built in mindfulness activities focused on controlled breathing and reducing one’s heartrate. I know that I have found these to be useful from time to time, but more importantly, many students have incorporated them into their daily routines to help manage stress. I fear that when we talk about meditation and mindfulness we often lose people once we use those terms. For some people, meditation and breathing exercises do not work. What do we tell those who cannot connect in this way? During Thanksgiving preparation last week, while I was preparing my apple pie, peeling apples, slicing them, and rolling out the dough, I found myself experiencing a heightened awareness of my own senses. During that process, I recognized that I was experiencing what I was missing during those yoga exercises. It turns out that baking, and also sports activity, that requires intense focus and mimics the effects of meditation. Pyschology Today writes that mindfulness is “a state of active, open attention on the present. When we are mindful we carefully observe our thoughts and feelings without judging them as good or bad.” As we continue to venture into a world that moves quickly and we encounter incredible amounts of information at unprecedented speeds, we are going to find mindfulness activities will grow in importance. Whether it be through meditation, breathing exercises, baking, or shooting free throws on the basketball court, it is important that we help our students and children develop these skills. As a community we continue to engage on our school theme for the year Empathy and Ethical Thinking. Whether it is through professional development for faculty and staff, programming with students, a more intentional focus in classes, or presentations to our parent community, it has been a tremendous experience so far this year. Over the first few months, one theme that consistently comes up is the difference between Empathy and Sympathy. In a recent Upper School Morning Meeting, I showed the following video by Brené Brown. The video vividly points out the differences between sympathy and empathy. This past week, the Parent’s Association welcomed Dr. Helen Riess, Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and Director of Empathy Research and Training in Psychotherapy Research group at Mass General Hospital, to talk about her research in Empathetics. Near the beginning of her talk (click here for an earlier version at a TEDx Event), she highlighted the Greek etymology difference of “sympathy” and “empathy”. Sympathy coming from “sym” “pathos”, meaning with suffering, and empathy coming from “em” “pathos, meaning in suffering. If we start with the most basic definition of these words, the difference is so clear. To have empathy literally means to be in the same feelings as the other person. This idea means a person has developed a deeper connection to friend, family member, colleague, or stranger by being in that moment with them, with those feelings. In addition to this clear definition, Dr. Riess highlighted that compassion is the action that we take when displaying empathy. She differentiated that the empathy was the internal feelings you have, while compassion is the action you take towards a person. As teachers and school administrators, the question becomes what does this mean to our students? What are the ways that students may develop empathetic responses towards their classmates? And how do we guide students towards learning with empathy? The first comes through the regular conversations we have on an individual basis, in small groups, and as a community. What does it mean for a child if they see a friend looking sad or more reserved? We are trying to help students understand that these are times to engage with their friends and not avoid them. In many ways, this has been something that Brimmer students have regularly displayed. Often, listening to their friends and helping them when possible. The more complicated situations for students come when a person’s actions may be hurtful. The automatic human response, especially adolescents, is to rebuke the person. With teenagers, this can often have impacts on social circles which just furthers any divide that may be created between each other. What if instead, we were able to help the members of the community to have an empathetic response? Our hope, through this year’s theme, is to help students move past the hurt and work to understand what the other person may have been feeling. Perhaps someone is not hanging out on the weekends, because they have a family member that was recently diagnosed with a serious medical condition. Or could someone that is carrying a lot of anger, be carrying guilt for a decision they made at a different time. In our classes, we are highlighting the importance of empathy as well. This takes a front row seat in Humanities and Creative Arts classes, where the foci of these classes is the human experience. Just imagine the last book you read or show you watched and the connection you developed with the characters. In history, teachers are helping students see history through more than one lens. This fall US History students have debated George Washington’s decision to maintain the status quo on slavery and recently discussed the question- should we celebrate Christopher Columbus or think about Thanksgiving in a different way based on the experiences of people that were colonized by Europeans?” In our design classes, students regularly are working to understand the user as they developed their ideas. As a parent recently mentioned to me, “empathy is one of the pillars of design.” This comes to life in classes like Problem Solving for Design and Architecture, as students spend significant amounts of time learning about the needs of the users and important cultural information. I would invite you to explore more at the BrimmerID portfolio page. Regardless of where students may end up falling on these debates, breaks from the normal routine provide an opportunity to pause and reflect. Whether the time-off means time with family and friends, volunteering, or just a slower pace, I hope that students can use the time to connect in a deep, meaningful, and empathetic way. After a night of celebration and excitement with the Red Sox winning the World Series, Mr. Vallely and I want to take a moment to reflect on two more solemn things from this weekend. I want to start by taking a moment to reflect on the antisemitism this weekend that resulted in the murder of 11 members of the Tree of Life Congregation in Squirrel Hill, PA. I can still remember the smell of smoke and charred wood from when I was 13. Just a few weeks before my Bar Mitzvah, a man had come into my synagogue in Albany, NY, dousing the pulpit and ark with gasoline, and setting it on fire in order to destroy the holiest part of the building. The person came into the synagogue for no other reason, other than it was a Jewish building. Thankfully no one was hurt and though the damage was extensive, it would eventually be repaired. For me, this was not my first nor would it be my last experience with antisemitism. There had been and would be more swastikas painted and engraved on walls, derogatory comments directed at friends, and pennies thrown at me as I walked to my synagogue. Yet, despite these experiences, like most, within the walls of my place of faith there was a sense of safety. However, something has changed over the past few years. We have seen people feel emboldened to use hateful speech. We have seen words of hate and bigotry turn into more deadly actions. Targeting specific faith base communities because of their beliefs or the way they appear. A shooting at the Sikh Temple in Wisconsin in 2012, the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church of Charleston, SC in 2015, and The Islamic Center of Quebec in 2017 are just the first ones that come to mind. Hate-filled people searching out those that had a different skin color or held a different faith. Then. This weekend. This weekend we experienced a person filled with such vitriol go into the Tree of Life Congregation in Pittsburgh, PA with the intention of killing as many Jewish people as possible. Another example of unchecked hate that has taken the lives of at least 11 people. Mothers, fathers, grandparents, sisters, brothers, daughters, and sons. Words are so powerful. They have the ability to build people up or to cut them down. They have the ability to build deep, deep, profound connections or to develop deep misunderstandings that lead to inhumane beliefs. While this inexcusable tragedy has left many with more questions than answers, out of darkness there comes light. The days after this tragedy have shown an outpouring of support- the Pittsburgh Penguins canceling a Halloween Party and hosting a blood drive instead; church communities offering to line the entrances to synagogues to show solidarity and provide safety in numbers; Muslim organizations raising tens of thousands of dollars to support the victims’ families; and an outpouring of love and kindness. We only need to look at the overwhelming response of support across the country to understand that our world is not as broken as it sometimes feels. When my childhood synagogue completed rebuilding the damaged area, it included a thirty foot stained glass window of the tree of life. In Squirrel Hill, PA, The Tree of Life synagogue’s namesake is a symbol in western faiths of peace and tranquility. Amidst the turmoil and chaos of our world, this symbol serves as a reminder to lead with kindness and love. To honor the victims of this tragedy, let the words you use be a beacon for building people up, creating understanding, and bringing about peace. By doing this you can be a part of the light that pierces through the darkness. A version of this statement was shared at Morning Meeting on Monday, October 29, 2018. It has been edited for this format. In addition, thoughts were shared by Carl Vallely on the internment of Matthew Shepard. Last weekend I had the opportunity to see the historical musical narrative Hamilton at the Boston Opera House. As a lover of musicals and American History, I, along with my family, have been enjoying the soundtrack for the past two and a half years. While historians will point out some of the artistic liberties taken in the telling of the story, there is little doubt that the musical has reshaped the way in which an entire generation of Americans will view the Founding Fathers. For many young people, the musical has been a source of inspiration to find ways to lead. While Hamilton the musical did not share this specific quote, in 1784 Hamilton, under his pseudonym, Phocion, wrote, “A share in the sovereignty of the state, which is exercised by the citizens at large, in voting at elections is one of the most important rights of the subject, and in a republic ought to stand foremost in the estimation of the law.” Over the past eight months the country has seen an uptick in student civic engagement, which has been focused on elections and voter participation. In the spirit of Alexander Hamilton and this national civic engagement, students at Brimmer led a Voter Registration Drive on Thursday during lunch. Regardless of their political beliefs, students were given the opportunity to register to vote if they were 18 years old or pre-register to vote if they were 16 years old. I am proud to know that our students are thinking about the power they either hold or will hold as voters. I love going to the movies, and when a friend asked if I wanted to see Mission: Impossible, I could not resist the offer. So, there I was sitting in the movie theater enjoying some popcorn and ready to escape to the fictional world, when right at the start of the movie, within the first five minutes, Tom Cruise’s character, Ethan Hunt, was faced with a critical decision. Should he protect the plutonium that could be used by the bad guys to create a nuclear weapon or save his teammate and close friend? Here right in front of me, Ethan Hunt was at the intersection of empathy and ethical thinking, living out our theme for the year. And I was left wondering, how does one make this type of decision? As you heard from Mrs. Guild and Mr. R-V, at the heart of empathy is being an authentic listener and working to understand and share the feelings of others. Ethan Hunt knew what his friend was feeling and wanted to help him, even if his friend was telling him not to worry and to save the world. At that moment Ethan Hunt had to make a choice–to save his friend or to save the world? What is the correct decision? Now, I do not want to share a spoiler, but I know we cannot all be super spies and manage to both make the empathetic choice, while also saving the world from disaster. However, I have seen plenty of evidence of your classmates being engaged at the intersection of empathy and ethical thinking. Last year the Middle School and Upper Schools came together to fundraise for hurricane relief. With three devastating hurricanes, Harvey, Irma, and Maria having ravaged Houston, St. Thomas, Puerto Rico, and other Caribbean Islands, a group wanted to help as many people as possible. However, they were faced with a decision on how to best direct the resources. Was there a right way? Is there always a right decision? The second example from 2017-2018 was the emergence of a new community service effort–the Prison Book Program. In this program, students volunteered on weekends to send books to incarcerated people. Again, at the crossroad of empathy and ethics. Should someone in prison receive our help? In both cases, students found ways to connect with the people impacted and made informed decisions. Whether it was finding an organization to distribute the funds efficiently or learning that by sending books to people in prison and supporting their development, it helps reduce the likelihood of them returning to prison, students used the research and critical thinking skills they learn in class to collect the necessary information to make an empathetic, ethical decision. So, this year when you continue to volunteer at organizations such as Greater Boston Food Bank, Community Servings, Wingate Senior Center, the Charles River Clean-up, or by identifying organizations on your own, you are attempting to feel and understand what another person is going through and choosing to find a way to help those people. This intersection of empathy and ethical thinking does not just live in the realm of social justice. It lives in our classes and hallways as well. As Mr. R-V just said, this is the purpose of the humanities is to challenge our understanding of the world through a different medium, to feel the story of another human, and to engage intellectually about the decisions confronted in the text. When you combine empathy and ethics, you get real life. Every day, you face these moments–a friend upset about something that was said about them, looking at the ethics of gene manipulation in science, or learning about another culture through our global programs. But, I also want to challenge you today, as we start a new year. How can we as individuals and as a community do better? How can we understand what a classmate or colleague is going through and how can we better help them? Can we lead with kindness? Can we work towards having more in-person interactions and fewer online, where words can be misinterpreted and are often hurtful? The world around us is modeling something different, but let’s be better. Let’s be a model for empathy and kindness. As anthropologist Jane Goodall said, “Young people, when informed and empowered, when they realize that what they do truly makes a difference, can indeed change the world.” “You cannot get through a single day without having an impact on the world [and people] around you. What you do makes a difference, and you have to decide what kind of difference you want to make.” What do you want your story to be this year? You do not need to be a super spy named Ethan Hunt. Let your story be one where you choose your path, listen and feel for those around you, and make choices that will better our community and thus our world. During the Brimmer and May Commencement we work to honor the accomplishments of the graduating class. During the primary graduation speech, we read vignettes about each graduate highlighting their time at Brimmer and May. To view the full graduation or watch the vignettes, you can click here for a replay of the Commencement Ceremony. The individual stories start at the 23:00 minute mark. I had the opportunity to speak to our 12th grade students and families the night before Commencement and then to give concluding remarks at the Commencement ceremony. Here are my remarks about Brimmer and May’s incredible graduate, the Class of 2017. Senior Dinner Speech, May 31, 2018 Thank you to all the students and families for joining us this evening to celebrate the Class of 2018. I want to share a story I heard earlier this year. In 1989 Hurricane Hugo came through the Caribbean and left a path of destruction. It made landfall in Charleston, South Carolina and at the time, it was the most devastating hurricane on record. After the Hurricane had moved on there was a reporter along the shoreline looking at a row of houses. Among the destruction only one house remained standing. The reporter found the owner of the house that survived and ask the woman, “why did your 150 year old house survive while the other houses were washed away by the sea?” The woman answered, “When they built my house first they laid the big field stones, then they added smaller rocks, sand, and dirt. Then they repeated this layer after layer after layer until they were done.” The reporter said “I see, I see, but how did your house survive? The woman repeated, “First they put down the large field stones, then smaller rocks, then they filled in with sand and dirt. Layer after layer until the foundation was complete.” Again the reporter said, “Yes, yes, I understand, but WHY is your house still standing. All the other houses were washed away.” The woman repeated again, “It is because of the foundation. They put down layer after layer until they had built a strong foundation.” Again the reporter said “I get it, they put down all the rocks to make the foundation, but you have not told me why your house is the only one still standing?” The woman finally just responded, “It must have been an act of G-d” and she walked away. As individuals and a group you have each helped to strengthen our School’s foundation. You brought your unique talents and views to Brimmer. This school is built upon the foundation of all those that come through and each of you has helped to put down a new layer, fill in the gaps, and strengthened the foundation. You have engaged in profound discussions in class, raised awareness of important issues, brought joy to audiences through performances, raised championship banners in the gym, and brought a new level of creativity to the school. Your class has left a strong base for those that follow you. At the same time each of you have been building your own personal foundations. Layer by layer, grade by grade, each year, strengthening the base that you will build upon in the years to come. The field stones of knowledge, rocks of extracurricular activities, and the sands of experience. As you move on from Brimmer, remember your foundation. You will experience all the highs and successes of life, but will also be faced with the storms that life often brings. The house that you begin building in the coming year and will continuously work on during your life, will sit upon your Brimmer experiences and can bring you stability throughout your life. And to help you with the small fixes that may come up, I hope that the toolkits you’ll find in your bags will remind you of your Brimmer foundation and help you make any adjustments along the way. It has been a true pleasure getting to know each of you over the past two years. And I cannot wait to hear about all your successes in the years to come. Congratulations. Commencement Concluding Remarks, June 1, 2018 I present to you the Brimmer and May Class of 2018! As we near the end of Commencement, I wanted to take one last moment to address this year’s graduates. In front of us you sit. 37 unique individuals with your own talents, ideas, and futures. We just heard of your stories, your passions, and your strengths. How you have left an indelible mark on the school, one which the classes that come after you will build upon as they work towards their future. Today we focused on all the success that you had individually and the great things you accomplished as a grade. However, for every success there were failures, skinned knees, stumbles, disagreements, and mistakes. Self doubt has most definitely crept in at times. Maya Angelou in an interview once said “We may encounter defeats, but we must not be defeated. It may even be necessary to encounter the defeat, so that we can know who we are. So that we can see, oh, that happened, and I rose. I did get knocked down flat in front of the whole world, and I rose. I didn’t run away – I rose right where I’d been knocked down.” As you, the Class of 2018, move forward in life, you will be faced with great successes but also more defeats than you will be able to count. Each day we are faced with choices. Not every decision you make will work out. Let your defeats, your failures, be opportunities to grow and learn. Let those be the moments where you rise back up and allow them to be defined as moments of growth instead of failure. Along the way, do not forget your Brimmer foundation. Hold tight to the lessons you learned here and use them to guide you through all the failures. As Abby Wombach recently said at the 2018 Barnard Commencement: Failure is fuel and fuel is power. I say, may your failures fuel you in the path ahead and lead to all the successes you each deserve. Congratulations to each of you and to your families. At Opening Convocation in September, I shared a quote from Golda Meir. She said, “Make the most of yourself by fanning the tiny, inner sparks of possibility into flames of achievement.” As we near the end of the school year, it seemed apropos to look back at some recent observations that show the depth of achievement our students have made this year. One such example of students transforming the sparks of possibility into flames of achievement comes from the success of our spring sports teams. All of our teams should be proud of their seasons, including the Varsity Baseball team, which won the League Championship, but I want to highlight the Girls’ Varsity Tennis and Girls’ Varsity Lacrosse teams. Both of these teams have generally flown under the radar during the spring, but this year, they made Brimmer history by each winning their team’s first league championship. Two teams that came into the year with modest definitions of success, both saw those sparks catch fire. In the classroom, it seems like it was not that long ago that the Class of 2018 was starting Upper School. Over the past few weeks, teachers and administrators have been busy listening and watching our twelfth grade students present their culminating humanities project. Each student dived deep into the works of an author and produced a scholarly paper and presentation on their research. The students wowed their teachers with their interpretations of the text and the personal connections they made to their work. A final example comes from the tremendous creativity that filled our School this week at the All-School Arts Celebration. I often find myself, and others, pausing in front of displays in awe of the way students have transformed their medium to create such wonderful artwork. The list of personal and grade level achievements goes on and on. The students should be proud of their accomplishments this year! Billows of smoke have filled our hallways, from the sparks of possibility that have turned into their flames of achievement. Congratulations to everyone!

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The 1815 volcanic eruption of Mount Tambora changed history. The year following the eruption, 1816 was known in England as the “Year without a Summer,” in New England as “18-hundred-and-froze-to-death”, and “L’annee de la misere” or “Das Hungerhjar” in Switzerland. Germans dubbed 1817 as “the year of the beggar.” The Chinese and Indians had no name for it but the years following the massive eruption were remembered as ones of intense and widespread suffering. Scientists are, only today, uncovering the historical impacts of this ecological disaster. Suddenly we have climatic data which have reshaped our understanding of the events of 1815 and the years that followed. Now it is historians’ job to explore the social, political, and cultural influence of this catastrophic event. All this and more today as we explore the eruption of Mount Tambora in April 1815. Listen, download, watch on YouTube, or scroll down for the transcript. Other Episodes of Interest: Transcript of Mount Tambora and the Year Without a Summer Researched and written by Marissa Rhodes Produced by Marissa Rhodes and Averill Earls, PhD Marissa: In 2004, Icelandic volcanologist Haraldur Sigurdsson was visiting Sumbawa, a medium-sized island in the Indonesian archipelago. The Sumbawa savannahs are ideally suited to the breeding of horses and cows. Its population, around 1.4 million people, work primarily in agriculture and mining. One of Sigurdsson’s local guides informed him of a small gully where locals had found old pottery and other goods. They called it “museum gully” and knew nothing more of it. They might have been surprised when Sigurdsson enthusiastically asked them to take him there. Averill: The guides took Sigurdsson to museum gully. Using ground-penetrating radar, he and his team from the University of Rhode Island, uncovered the remains of a 19th century village frozen in time. They excavated one structure, a home which contained the carbonized remains of two people. The woman brandished a utility knife as if she was in the course of preparing a meal or performing an ordinary task around the house. The couple was surrounded by their belongings: furniture, iron tools, bronze bowls and pottery. Sigurdsson knew that this site had been preserved by history’s deadliest volcano, Mount Tambora, whose 1815 eruption changed history. Marissa: The locals on Sumbawa knew little of this event which had occurred only 200 years ago on the island they call home. This is not, of course, because they were uneducated or disinterested. They knew nothing of the eruption because few who lived on the island, and no one who lived on the mountain at the time survived to tell the story. The Tambora people and their Rajah lived closest to the volcano before the eruption. One April evening, their culture, their language, and their lifestyle, became extinct within a matter of hours. The rest of the world was oblivious to the eruption for months. Even after news of the event reached the rest of the globe, they had no idea that they were already weathering its impact. The year following the eruption, 1816 was known in England as the “Year without a Summer,” in New England as 18-hundred-and-froze-to-death, and “L’annee de la misere” or “Das Hungerhjar” in Switzerland. Germans dubbed 1817 as “the year of the beggar.” The Chinese and Indians had no name for it but the years following the massive eruption were remembered as ones of intense and widespread suffering. Scientists are, only today, uncovering the historical impacts of this ecological disaster. Suddenly we have climatic data which have reshaped our understanding of the events of 1815 and the years that followed. Now it is historians’ job to explore the social, political, and cultural influence of this catastrophic event. All this and more today as we explore the eruption of Mount Tambora in April 1815. I’m Marissa Rhodes And I’m Averill Earls And we are your historians for this episode of Dig. Averill: In the beginning of the 19th century, Mount Tambora had been considered extinct. No one alive at the time knew of any Tambora eruptions since the start of recorded history. We know now that before 1815, Mount Tambora had not erupted for over 5,000 years. Starting sometime in 1812, the villagers living on the mountain’s terraces and at its foot reported hearing occasional rumbling and seeing small eruptions of steam. These developments were interesting to the inhabitants of the mountain who spoke a now-extinct language related to Khmer, the language of Cambodia. They probably discussed it amongst themselves and with the traders and guides from the British and Dutch East India Companies who occasionally docked in Sumbawa’s primary port, called Bima. No one seemed particularly worried about Tambora’s awakening. Marissa: This was, until April 5, 1815. A loud explosion was heard up to 620 miles away (1,000 km). A 15 mile-high column of hot ash and smoke shot out of the massive volcano. Over 10,000 residents were killed immediately in this initial eruption. Two entire principalities, Tambora, and Pekat had been vaporized. Others close by choked on poisonous gases or were buried in ash and pumice, where they stayed until American students began excavating their resting places 200 years later. On April 10, the volcano erupted again, this time the column of ash and fire thrown from the volcano reached 25 miles high. This second explosion was heard over 1,500 miles away in Sumatra. The entire top of the mountain, totaling about a mile high, was blown off entirely, changing Mount Tambora’s appearance forever. Much of the archipelago and its adjacent seas were plunged into darkness for days. Volcanic ash reached as far as 620 miles away from the site. Averill: The Rajah of Sangarr, a small principality on Sumbawa survived the disaster and described the site of the eruption for posterity: “[T]hree distinct columns of flame burst forth, near the top of Tomboro [sic] Mountain, all of them apparently within the verge of the crater; and after ascending separately to a very great height, their tops united in the air in a troubled confused manner. In a short time the whole mountain next [to] Saugar [sic] appeared like a body of liquid fire extending itself in every direction… Between nine and ten p.m. ashes began to fall, and soon after a violent whirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly every house in the village of Saugar, carrying the tops and light parts along with it… In the part of Saugar adjoining [Mount Tambora] its effects were much more violent, tearing up by the roots the largest trees and carrying them into the air together with men, houses, cattle, and whatever else came within its influence. This will account for the immense number of floating trees seen at sea… The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to be before, and completely spoiled the only small spots of rice lands in Saugar, sweeping away houses and every thing within its reach.” Marissa: The Sumbawa people who did not die in either eruption suffered in the following weeks. They endured transplantation or homelessness as hot rivers of lava flowed over their villages. Thousands drowned in resultant tsunamis or suffered fatal injuries in volcanic wind gales. Tens of thousands died from thirst, hunger, disease or malnutrition over the following months because their rice crops and infrastructure were destroyed. Their water supply was also poisoned by ash, pyroclastic flows and the aerosolized gases it absorbed. Two weeks after the eruption, Lieutenant Owen Phillips was charged with delivering rice and drinking water to the island from stores on Java. He encountered a horrible scene. Few recognizable built structures still existed on the island and both land and sea were littered with uprooted trees and rotting corpses. [Philips was actually the person who recorded the Rajah’s eyewitness account we just read] Averill: An estimated 117,000 people died as a direct result of the two April eruptions. Survivors who lived on the farther reaches of the island appeared to have emigrated en masse in the eruption’s aftermath. The islanders reached such depths of desperation that they started selling themselves as slaves to Sulawesi [SU-la-WEY-see] pirates as a survival strategy. Within a year of the event, half of Sumbawa’s population were dead or departed. Only years later did new groups arrive to repopulate and rebuild the island. Nearly all of Sumbawa’s buildings date to after 1815. At least two small kingdoms were lost entirely and we know very little about them. The Dutch and British East India companies, whose activities generated most if the documents we have about 19th-century Indonesia, knew little of the Tambora or Pekat people. Neither company had been successful at regulating trade in Sumbawa and other small islands in the archipelago by that time. Marissa: The Dutch had been in Indonesia since 1603 but focused their efforts on Java which was closer to the mainland. Sailors had used Mount Tambora as a landmark and guide in their journeys but their contact with the people on Sumbawa was minimal compared to interactions in the bustling ports of Java. The nearby islands of Lombok, Bali and East Java suffered considerable crop damage after the eruption but news of their struggles did not travel far. Unlike the explosion of Krakatoa in the 1880s, this eruption went largely unreported. The telegraph had not yet been invented and the volcano’s immediate damage was confined to the lesser colonized islands which were still comparatively insular. Averill: What’s more is that until the eruption of Krakatoa (70 years later), scientists were unsure of the climatic impact of volcanic eruptions. For this reason, studies on Tambora and its impacts are all fairly recent. First-hand documentation of its 1815 eruption are incredibly rare so its death toll, and its immediate consequences went undetermined for decades. Most of the accounts we have from the time are the recorded observations of British and Dutch sailors in the area. In the last few years, scientists are beginning to understand that the deposits of ash, pumice and solidified lava flows have completely reshaped the island’s topography. The Mount Tambora eruption has long since been identified as the cause of the “Year without a Summer” but in 1816, few people had any idea that such a cataclysmic event had passed and no one knew that it would wreak havoc all over the world for the next three years. Marissa: First I want to make sure we give our listeners an idea of the scale of this eruption. Krakatoa, which is often used as an example of the quintessential natural disaster, flung 4.5 cubic miles of pumice, rock, ash and other debris into the atmosphere, no small amount. But when Mount Tambora erupted, it expelled 36 cubic miles of debris into the atmosphere. There’s no comparison. Those of us who have seen Dante’s Peak, starring Pierce Brosnan and Linda Hamilton, might remember it was about the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helen’s in Washington state. Tambora’s eruption was 100 times the size of the eruption of Mount St. Helen’s. It’s nearly impossible to imagine the scale of this disaster, really. When something is so massive and devastating, it almost starts to mean nothing… just numbers, right? Averill: One way we can measure Tambora’s destructiveness is by exploring its impact over the rest of the world in the following years. But keep in mind, at the time, no one knew that this eruption was to blame for the events that followed. The ash thrown up into the atmosphere by the violent explosion settled over the entire archipelago, blotting out the light for days after the event. This consequence was obviously perceived by people who were living at the time but what they could not have known was that the volcano had emitted 80 megatons (80 million metric tons) of sulphur dioxide which rose into the stratosphere, creating a band around the tropics. There, they oxidized into sulphate aerosol particles which were distributed globally over the next year. These aerosols were deposited on the ice covering both of the Earth’s poles, and these deposits continued for two years. Tambora’s emissions were preserved in ice, appearing as they did in the months after the eruption, and studied in ice cores extracted in 2009. Marissa: These sulphate particles refract and absorb the sun’s light in such a way that it leads to a cooling effect on the ground. The world’s temperatures plummeted for the next 3 years. This, in addition to other weather anomalies triggered by the eruption, disrupted ecosystems all over the planet. I think we talked about proxies in the Little Ice Age episode? But a quick refresh: proxies are records of historical temperatures that still exist today. Scientists have used ice cores as we mentioned earlier, historical documentation by cultures all over the world, as well as dendrochronology — the reading of tree rings– to determine temperature patterns after the eruption. Being historians, we’re most interested in the document proxies, and to be honest, we’re hardly qualified to talk about the other more scientific ways of studying this phenomenon. You need to go over to Lady Science Pod for that. Averill: In North America and Europe, 19th-century people had a nerdy habit of recording the temperature and other meteorological data every day. Thomas Jefferson was one of these nerds. Scholars have been able to use his records to prove Tambora’s impact on global temperatures. For example, on May 17, 1816, Jefferson wrote: “[T]he spring has been unusually dry and cold. our average morning cold for the month of May in other years has been 63° of Farenheit. in the present month it has been to this day an average of 53° and one morning as low as 43°. repeated frosts have killed the early fruits and the crops of tobacco and wheat will be poor.” [Jefferson to David Baillie Warden, May 17, 1816, in PTJ:RS, 10:65.] Two months later, New England experienced a summer snow storm that dropped 10 inches of snow on unsuspecting villages. Now just one document like this doesn’t mean much, but added to hundreds of other documents where people similarly record plummeting temperatures, they act as evidence that Tambora’s impact was far-reaching. Marissa: The gazettes in Qing China reported the daily weather in enough detail that scholars have been able to measure Tambora’s impact on China’s weather between 1815 and 1819. They have also been able to use people’s personal diaries, etc to corroborate temperatures. During these years, China suffered from unseasonably cool and wet weather. Summer frosts and snow falls destroyed rice and buckwheat crops on such a scale that some areas, such as the southwestern Yunnan province, suffered severe famine. The Great Yunnan famine was the result of 3 successive crop failures. It was so severe that people were reportedly selling their children, committing murder-suicides, and eating clay in desperation. Averill: Starvation and desperation in Yunnan killed many people. The survivors of the Yunnan famine were understandably scarred and resentful, and they sought ways to protect themselves from another such disaster. One way they did this was by turning to cash crops, specifically poppy. Poppy plants, used to produce opium, were hardy enough to withstand the temperature fluctuations resulting from Tambora. Even though they didn’t provide sustenance to those who grew them, they brought in cash which solved Yunnan’s food insecurity crisis at least temporarily. Farmers weren’t the only ones benefiting from this transition to cash crops. The state benefited as well because it was able to tax the lucrative crop and extract impressive revenue. Marissa: What seemed like an innovative solution to famine at the time ended up having grave consequences. The famine contributed to the decline of the Qing dynasty and unfortunately coincided with the arrival of Western gun boats. Great Britain launched a strategy of gunboat diplomacy where it used intimidation in Chinese ports to force trade deals which unilaterally benefited them. Meanwhile, the opium problem worsened. Neither the farmers nor the state had any monetary incentive to stop growing poppy. Eventually the Yunnan province was entirely dedicated to the cultivation of poppy and was forced to import all of its grain from southeast Asia. So Yunnan was not producing any food at all… so much for increased food security! The opium-dependent population living in China’s ports bought foreign opium supplies in massive quantities which drained China of its silver (triggering the first and second Opium wars with Britain). It also created generations of Chinese people who struggled their entire lives with opium addiction. The Chinese state recognized widespread opium addiction as a national crisis as early as the 1830s. Averill: This course of events is known in Chinese history as the Daoguang Depression. It was crucial to shaping China’s interactions with the West. In centuries past, China had enjoyed economic stability, population growth and competent, widespread political influence. Tambora’s impact on the climate made the Chinese vulnerable to Western exploitation and interference. This set China on a path toward deterioration: the decline of the Qing, the Opium Wars, and the Taiping Rebellion followed. Marissa: Some of the modern world’s most dangerous pathogens also owe their strength to Tambora’s eruption. India’s monsoons were delayed in 1816 and 1817 by Tambora’s sulphate gases. The dramatic alteration in moisture content in Indian towns and cities resulted in a mutation to the cholera bacterium. This mutation triggered the deadliest cholera epidemic in history, known as the Bengal Cholera. In November 1817, this mutated cholera killed 5,000 people in 5 days. The disease quickly spread and became a pandemic lasting, in Asia, until 1821. Death tolls are staggeringly high and a total has never been calculated. We know 10,000 British soldiers stationed in India died of cholera but estimates of Indian deaths are projected to be in the hundreds of thousands. The bacterium did not become any less deadly as it traveled across Asia. Bangkok, for example, reported 30,000 cholera deaths. By 1823, the mutated strain reached Europe, and then North America shortly after. Worldwide, experts estimate that the cholera pandemic triggered by Tambora’s gases killed millions. Averill: For centuries India has been regarded as the “Homeland of Cholera.” Public health officials and sometimes even historians accused the Indian government of neglecting sanitation, and the Indian people of unhygienic practices which transformed the country into a vector of the highly contagious disease. The British Empire used India’s susceptibility to cholera to justify their colonial activities there. The British were able to frame India as a third-world country incapable of ruling itself and Britain as the modern, civilized world power willing to influence the Indian state for the better. (Gandhi disagrees lol) The impact of British colonialism in India is still being felt today. Studies of Tambora’s impact have rectified this myth somewhat. There was little that India could have done to prevent the mutation and spread of the cholera bacteria in light of the monsoon failures they endured. Marissa: Another indirect impact of Tambora are the riots that ensued across the globe in response to widespread famine and disease. In most modern societies, it’s not as easy to see the connections between agricultural output and food security. But at the time of Tambora’s eruption, the vast majority of the world was still engaged in subsistence agriculture. So variations in agricultural output had direct impacts on how much food made it to the table. One crop failure was serious. Two crop failures in a row was dire. Most regions would have used any food stores to supplement the first failure. Three crop failures in a row, as we saw with Hunnan province in China, was an emergency. Gillen D’Arcy Wood, author on a new book about Tambora, put it well: “For three years following Tambora’s explosion, to be alive, almost anywhere in the world, meant to be hungry.” In many areas, food scarcity led to riots and other unrest, especially in Europe which was struggling with the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars during the Year without a Summer. Averill: In 1816 Ireland, for example, it rained four times more than was typical. Crop failure was so severe that many were forced to sell their clothes and hair for food. Wearing rags in the cold and wet weather made the Irish susceptible to typhus, which added to their misery. Ireland’s Chief Secretary Charles Grant wrote: “In the years 1816 and 1817, the state of the weather was so moist and wet, that the lower orders in Ireland were almost deprived of fuel werewith to dry themselves, and of food whereon to subsist. They were obliged to feed on esculent plants such as mustard seeds, nettles, potato-tops, and potato-stalks- a diet which brought on a debility of body and encouraged the disease more than anything else could have done.” In Ballina (County Mayo), protests ensued over the export of oatmeal. The riot became so violent that the military was deployed to protect the town. Three rioters were killed and many more were seriously wounded. Marissa: Bavarian towns such as Augsburg and Memmingen were in turmoil for similar reasons. Rumors were circulating that authorities were exporting corn to Switzerland. The local newspapers illustrate the levels of desperation felt by Bavarian villagers. They reported that: “thousands of men and women, [were] ripping chunks out of a living chestnut mare… They’re sending our corn out to Switzerland.” The rumors of export sparked several riots that shut down the small cities. In England, the East Midlands also experienced unrest related to food insecurity. Villagers in Pentrich, Derbyshire suffered high grain prices, and post-war unemployment on a large-scale. They amassed weapons and marched on the village, killing one servant whose master refused to join the rising. A spy in their midst informed on them and so magistrates were able to neutralize the uprising fairly quickly but dozens of men were indicted on treason. Three of them were executed publicly to dissuade other hungry and disaffected groups from doing the same. Averill: Many of these riots revolved around the export of food in towns where the local populations were near starvation. In the Bavarian cases Marissa mentioned, magistrates were trying to provide relief to Switzerland, where Tambora’s impact was particularly severe. There, the price of grain quadrupled between 1815 and 1817. As in other parts of the world, cold weather led to unripened crops and wet weather caused the rest to rot in the fields. Snow fell in record amounts for the two winters following the eruption and there was 80% more rainfall than in an average year. Residents reported having to heat their homes throughout the summer months. Unseasonably cold weather in the summer of 1816 prevented the annual melting of the Alpine ice caps so that when the cooling subsided in 1817, there was more ice than usual and the Swiss experienced unprecedented flooding. Switzerland may have been unequally affected by Tambora but it’s also the best-studied area because it was the setting of an important cultural milestone for English literature. Marissa: England’s youngest and most promising authors gathered at Lake Geneva in the Summer of 1816. Among them were Lord Byron, Percy Shelley, and Mary Godwin (soon to be Mary Shelley), the novelist and daughter of the badass feminist Mary Wollstonecraft. Lord Byron was escaping crushing debts and rumors of incest in England. [I just listened to the History Chicks episode on Ada Lovelace, who was Lord Byron’s daughter– so I have this family on my mind] But anyway, Byron was living in a villa on Lake Geneva. Mary, Percy, and Mary’s sister Claire visited Byron, intending to escape London’s dreary weather with a tour of Europe. But they were obviously unaware of Tambora’s impact on Europe’s climate. After witnessing the wet and wintry bleakness of a post-Tambora Swiss summer, Mary wrote “Never was a scene more awfully desolate.” The group holed up in a villa and challenged each other to pass the time by telling the best ghost stories. It was the only activity that seemed appropriate given the dreary weather. Several notable literary works emerged from this friendly storytelling competition. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Lord Byron’s poem Darkness, and the seeds of a novel about a blood-sucking man, which was used later by John William Polidori to write The Vampyre. Averill: This story might have been dramatized somewhat. But only in recent decades have scholars connected the Tambora eruption to this semi-mythical origin story for the Gothic movement in art and literature. But English literature was not the only cultural consequence of Tambora’s climatic impact. In the Chinese province of Yunnan which we discussed earlier, a new genre called famine poetry developed among the residents of the province. One poet, Li Yuyang, was forced to return home to save his parents from bankruptcy during the famine. He watched his neighbors commit beastly acts such as infanticide, child sales and murder in hungry desperation. He barely survived himself. Suffering from malnutrition and mental illness after the famine, Li died ten years later at the age of 42. Here is an excerpt from one of his poems, translated into English: “People rush from falling houses in their thousands … (It) is worse than the work of thieves. Bricks crack. Walls fall. In an instant, the house is gone. My child catches my coat And cries out. I am running in the muddy road, then Back to rescue my money and grains from the ruins. What else to do? My loved ones must eat. He writes of parents selling their children for food. Still they know the price of a son Is not enough to pay for their hunger. And yet to watch him die is worse … The little ones don’t understand, how could they? But the older boys keep close, weeping.” Marissa: Art historians have successfully correlated the post-Tambora optical aerosol depth with the 1816-1817 painting Greifswald in Moonlight by German painter Caspar David Friedrich. So we know with confidence that his painting would have been entirely different if it weren’t for Tambora’s eruption. English painter William Turner developed his painting style after observing the unique and spectacular sunsets of the Year Without a Summer. Ironically, his 1817 painting Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius is the best example of this influence even though Turner had no idea that he was witnessing volcanic skies himself. Averill: Several inventions have also been connected to Tambora’s climatic impact. In 1817 German inventor Karl Drais patented the “walking machine” which is a walking bicycle.. so basically a bicycle without pedals. Drais perceived a need for alternate modes of transportation when the Year without a Summer made grain so expensive that few people could afford to feed horses anymore. During the heights of famine, many horses died of starvation or were killed for meat by their owners. People were in need of a device that would help them travel faster but one that they would not need to feed. Marissa: This is interesting to me because it tells us that Drais, and his peers had no idea that this was going to pass. They might have thought this was the new normal… because they had no way of knowing that this was a temporary effect of a volcanic eruption. I wonder how many people felt that way in Europe… that it was dark times and that it wasn’t going to improve. This mindset might have precipitated mass migration to America. The beginning of the first 19th-century wave of immigration to America coincides exactly with the eruption. And most people who came to America cited civil unrest and famine as their motivating factors for leaving Europe. The Irish and Swiss, and Germans made up a majority of this immigrant wave and those were areas that were particularly influenced by volcanic climate change. Averill: There was also a lot of migration within North America. Land was becoming more scarce on the east coast and the crop failures following the Mount Tambora eruption sent settlers from the Eastern seaboard into the frontier in search of fertile land and resources. This westward movement triggered violent interactions with indigenous peoples which came to characterize the Wild West. So basically… without Tambora we would not have had Manifest Destiny and absolutely zero Spaghetti Westerns…. Just kidding… but really, this sequence of events illustrates how fragile our ecosystems really are. And that our ecosystems are interwoven with human systems in ways that we never realized in the past. Marissa: We should mention that there was SOME idea that volcanic eruptions were related to weather patterns early on. Benjamin Franklin, for example, posited a correlation between volcanic emissions and weather anomalies. Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger was born a few years after Tambora erupted but in the 1830s he studied botany at the University of Geneva and became interested in volcanology. Ever since the Year without a Summer, Swiss scientists had suspected a correlation between the Tambora eruption and the following years’ weather anomalies. In the 1840s, Zollinger moved to Java and spent time studying Tambora. In 1847 he made a detailed drawing of the Tambora caldera and spoke with locals on the island, though he found it to still be depopulated. According to his report, Sumbawa communities were still recovering from the disaster even though it had been 30 years. Averill: The Swiss never made any definitive connections between volcanic activity and climatic change but by the time of the Krakatoa eruption in 1883, the science community was eager to find such proof. This time, they were backed by a horrified and fascinated international press which turned the eruption into a global event. It helped that the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable had just been laid 17 years earlier. In 1815, it took 6 months for news of the Tambora eruption to reach Britain. When Krakatoa erupted, the entire world was notified within hours. Popular interest in the eruption encouraged geological studies and a public scientific discourse which led to the discovery of how volcanoes function and how they impact the atmosphere. Marissa: It’s interesting to think of more subtle ways that inclement weather might have impacted culture. Were people generally more depressed for those few years? Was there an increase in mental illness? Vitamin D deficiency? Or even criminality and domestic violence? Does it have anything to do with the enthusiastic reception of Marxism decades later? Sources and Further Reading: Brönnimann, Stefan, and Daniel Krämer. Tambora and the “Year Without a Summer” of 1816: A Persepctive on Earth and Human Systems Science. 2016. Broad, William J. “A Summer Without Sun.” New York Times April 25, 2015, D1. Cao, Shuji, Yushang Li, and Bin Yang. 2012. “Mt. Tambora, Climatic Changes, and China’s Decline in the Nineteenth Century”. Journal of World History. 23, no. 3: 587-607. Gao, Chaochao, Yujuan Gao, Qian Zhang, and Chunming Shi. 2017. “Climatic Aftermath of the 1815 Tambora Eruption in China”. Journal of Meteorological Research. 31, no. 1: 28-38. Dennis, Matthew, and Munger, Michael. 1816: “The Mighty Operations of Nature”: An Environmental History of the Year Without a Summer. 1816: “The Mighty Operations of Nature”: An Environmental History of the Year Without a Summer. University of Oregon, n.d. <http://hdl.handle.net/1794/12417>. Harington, Charles Richard. The Year Without a Summer? World Climate in 1816. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature, 1992. Lebowitz, Rachel. Year of No Summer. Biblioasis, 2018. Roach, John. “‘Lost Kingdom’ Discovered on Volcanic Island in Indonesia.” National Geographic News. February 27, 2006, Sullivan, Michael. “Mount Tambora Eruption Hardly Known.” NPR. October 27, 2007. “The Tambora Eruption and ‘The Year Without Summer’,” History in an Hour, http://www.historyinanhour.com/2012/11/16/tambora-eruption-1815/

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Guide Prepared by Michael J. Cummings...© is an epic about the adventures and character development of a young king endowed with superhuman powers. It is similar to later epics such as Homer's and Odyssey in several ways. For example, Gilgamesh and the Iliad each center on a hero with extraordinary physical prowess. (In the Iliad, the superman is Achilles). Moreover, in Gilgamesh and the Odyssey, each main character fights monsters, crosses seas, and visits mysterious lands. In all three epics, mythological gods play a major role, but the settings are in real lands—Gilgamesh in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Iliad in and just outside the walled city of Troy (in present-day Turkey), and the Odyssey in countries and islands in the Mediterranean unlike the Iliad and the Odyssey—as well as many other epics—Gilgamesh does not begin with an invocation of goddesses called Muses. Instead, it begins with a prologue that briefly provides background information and introduces Gilgamesh as a powerful ruler. Also, unlike literary epics such as Dante's Comedy and Milton's Paradise Lost, Gilgamesh is not the product of a single author who relied primarily on his imagination and poetic skills to create his narration. indicates that Gilgamesh was a real-life king of Uruk, a city-state in Mesopotamia, in about 2700 BC. (For geographical information about Uruk and Mesopotamia, see Setting, above.) After his death, unidentified authors and storytellers presented accounts of his life that grew into legends that greatly exaggerated his powers—so much so that he was described as two-thirds divine and one-third human. Over the centuries, these accounts remained highly popular. Between 2100 BC and 1600 BC, scribes etched the accounts into clay tablets in wedge-shaped characters that made up a writing system called cuneiform, used to record information in various languages in Mesopotamia. Most of the information about Gilgamesh was in verse stories in the Akkadian language (which derives its name from Akkad, a region in southern Mesopotamia). Additional information appeared in five poems in the Sumerian language (which derives its name from Sumer, also in southern Mesopotamia). 1400 and 1200 BC, an author of the priestly caste read the tablets about Gilgamesh and compiled the stories about him, taken mostly from the Akkadian accounts, into a single work. His name was Sin-leqi-unninni. Although he retained much of the wording on the clay tablets, he made some revisions and introduced original wording of his own. Sin-leqi-unninni's account disappeared from later history but resurfaced in the 1840s, when British-led archeolgical excavations near the present-day city of Mosul, Iraq, turned up the ruins of the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh, as well as the library maintained there by one of Assyria's greatest rulers, Ashurbanipal, who ruled Assyria (in northern Mesopotamia) from 668 to 627 BC. (Mosul is about 225 miles northwest of Baghdad.) In the ruins of the library on this site were the Gilgamesh tablets—which had been damaged—along with thousands of other tablets on subjects unrelated to Gilgamesh. These tablets were sent to the British Museum in London. the second half of the nineteenth century, scholars deciphered the cuneiform symbols on these tablets, symbols that represented syllables or entire words. Through further research and detective work, they linked the cuneiform symbols on the Nineveh tablets to two major languages, Sumerian and Akkadian, as well as to dialects of these languages. In the 1870s, Sin-leqi-unninni's account of the Gilgamesh story began to emerge. Because of the damaged cuneiform tablets that Sin-leqi-unninni used for his Akkadian account of the deeds of Gilgamesh, gaps existed in the story. But there was enough information in his account to form the basis of The Gilgamesh Epic that we know today. Since the nineteenth century, writers and scholars have used Sin-leqi-unninni's account, along with new research and additional Gilgamesh tablets found at various archeological sites, to piece together their own versions of the Gilgamesh story. time is circa 2700 BC in Mesopotamia, a region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf incorporating much of present-day Iraq and portions of southeastern Turkey, eastern Syria, and southwestern Iran. The action takes place in the Mesopotamian city-state of Uruk, just east of the Euphrates River and north of the Persian Gulf; in forests and plains; on waterways; and in the domain of mythological gods. The modern town of Tall al-Warka', about 155 miles southeast of Baghdad, is on the site of ancient Uruk. In the Bible, Uruk is referred to as Erech (Genesis 10:10). For detailed information on Mesopotamia, king of ancient Uruq (in present-day Iraq) in 2700 BC. Over the centuries, legends grew about this king (probably a real historical figure) that attributed to him superhuman powers. He was said to be two-thirds divine and one-third human. However, he was regarded as a man and thus was told he had to suffer the ultimate fate of all men, death. The young Gilgamesh of the epic is a headstrong ruler who takes advantage of his subjects and itches for challenges and adventures to prove his prowess and enhance his reputation. In this respect, he may be compared with military leaders of later centuries who sought glory on the battlefield, such as Alexander the Great, Napoleon Bonaparte, and General George Patton. He may also be compared with present-day presidents, prime ministers, and dictators who recklessly wage war to demonstrate their resolve and win popular approval. Eventually, Gilgamesh tames his wilder instincts and achieves a measure of wisdom after undergoing deep depression and suffering prompted by the death of his friend, Enkindu, another hero with superhuman powers. Powerful hero created by the gods to offset the unbridled power of Gligamesh. He first lives in the wilds grazing among the animals, for he has no knowledge of man and his ways. After a prostitute named Shamhat from the temple of the goddess of love seduces him, he begins to learn the ways of man with the help of Shamhat, and the animals reject him. Believing himself superior to Gilgamesh, he travels to Uruk to confront him. The two clash in a raging struggle but end up becoming inseparable friends. After Gilgamesh and Enkindu kill the monstrous guardian of the cedar forests, Humbaba, and slay the Bull of Heaven, the angry gods decree that one of the men must die--Enkidu. Anu: Father of the gods. He is the personification of heaven. Aruru: Goddess of creation. She fashions Enkidu from clay. Ninsun: Goddess and mother of Gilgamesh. king of Uruk and father of Gilgamesh. Ishtar: Goddess of love. Gilgamesh refuses her proposal that they marry. Enlil: God of the winds and earth. It was he who made Humbaba guardian of the cedar forest. Tammuz: God of fertility and vegetation. He is one of the many lovers of Ishtar whom she punished Ninurta: God of war. Trapper: Man who traps animals in the wilds occupied by Enkidu. in Ishtar's temple who seduces Enkidu. that guards the cedar forest. Shamash: Sun god. He approves Gilgamesh's plan to enter the cedar forest and kill Humbaba. Scorpion Man: A half-man and half-scorpion. He guards the cedar forest. Scorpion Man's Mate Utnapishtim the Faraway: Survivor of the Great Flood upon whom the gods conferred immortality. Gilgamesh hopes to learn from him the secret to eternal life. Wife of Utnapishtim: She also received the gift of immortality after surviving the Great Flood. She pities Gilgamesh and implores her husband to tell him about a secret plant that immortalizes those who eat of it. of the gods. She lives in a beautiful garden near the sea. Although she advises Gilgamesh that his quest for eternal life will fail, she provides him directions to the abode of Utnapishtim, the one man who may be able to provide Gilgamesh the answers he is seeking. who ferries Gilgamesh to Utnapishtim's abode. Ea: God of wisdom Gilgamesh Epic opens with a short introduction (or prologue) in first-person point of view that attests to the great deeds of Gilgamesh. The main story is in omniscient third-person point of view. The narrator remains impartial during the main story, although he praises Gilgamesh in the introduction. main story is a flashback that presents the details of the story outlined in the introduction. Michael J. Cummings..© the gods created Gilgamesh, they made him two-thirds divine and one-third human and endowed him with extraordinary size, strength, and good looks. Like his father before him, Lugulbanda, he became king of Uruk, a city-state between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (in present-day Iraq). Thirsty for adventure, he crossed seas and roamed many lands. When he returned to Uruk, he carved into stone the story of his adventures. was renowned as a the greatest of kings and as the builder of Uruk's temples and the city's gigantic walls. Here is his story. the young king of Uruk, Gilgamesh is the protector of his people. But in time he takes advantage of his powers, oppressing the people and freely using any woman to satisfy his desires. His subjects complain to the heavens. In response, the mother goddess Aruru makes a new creature, Enkidu, who rivals Gilgamesh in size and good looks. Ninurta, the god of war, gives him the gift of great strength. With no knowledge of earth and its creatures, Enkidu grazes with gazelles and other wild animals and drinks with them at water holes. He protects the beasts, freeing them from snares set by a trapper. His enormous size terrifies the trapper. trapper’s father advises his son to go to Uruk to seek the help of Gilgamesh. In particular, he tells his son to ask Gilgamesh for a sultry harlot from the temple of Ishtar, the goddess of love, to tempt the wild man away from the animals. The trapper will then be able to resume his livelihood. After he goes to Uruk and states his request, Gilgamesh provides him a woman called Shamhat.. the trapper returns to the wilds with her, she displays herself to Enkidu. So enchanted is he that he spends a week at her side before he can tear himself away and return to the animals. But the animals reject him now, for they realize he is not really one of them. He is a human. When he returns to the woman, she invites him to go with her to Uruk to meet Gilgamesh, the mightiest of men. Enkidu agrees to the proposal, for he wants to make the acquaintance of someone like himself, a comrade. And he wants to prove that he is superior to Gilgamesh. Uruk, Gilgamesh has a dream that alerts him to the coming of Enkidu. His mother, the goddess Ninsun, interprets the dream for him, describing Enkidu and telling Gilgamesh that he and Enkidu will become inseparable companions. on their way to Uruk, the harlot takes Enkidu to shepherds, who provide him bread and wine. He lives with them for a time and improves their lot by killing lions and wolves that prey on their herds. Enkidu arrives in Uruk, the people gather around to admire him, remarking that he is certainly the equal of Gilgamesh. At this time, Gilgamesh is planning to invade the bed of a new bride even before her husband has a chance to be with her for the first time. At night, as she waits for her husband, Gilgamesh approaches the house. However, Enkidu sees him in the street and, eager to prove himself, blocks his access to the gate of the house. They fight like to raging animals. The posts of doors break as they struggle for advantage. Walls shake. Finally, Gilgamesh throws Enkidu to the ground. But rather than continuing to fight, Enkidu compliments Gilgamesh on his strength, saying there is no other like him on earth. They embrace and become the best of friends. time, Enkidu languishes for lack of activity to maintain his strength. So Gilgamesh proposes that they go into the vast cedar forest and kill Humbaba, the giant whom the god of the winds and earth, Enlil, had made protector of the trees. But Enkidu tells Gilgamesh that he is wary of the scheme. Having lived in the wilds, he well knows that Humbaba has incredible strength. Even the breath he exhales is a windstorm. But Gilgamesh says they must live life to the fullest, not letting fear stand in the way of their exploits. Even if Humbaba kills him, Gilgamesh says, his name will live on in history for having had the courage to fight the monster. petitions the sun god, Shamash, for permission to undertake his and Enkidu’s adventure, promising to erect in the forest a monument to the gods. If he returns safely, he says, he will offer gifts to Shamash and glorify his name. Shamash grants the request. In addition, he orders great winds to assist the two friends in their struggle. Then Gilgamesh directs armorers to fashion huge axes, bows and arrows, and swords for them. counselors of Uruk warn him against fighting the terrible Humbaba, Gilgamesh ignores their advice. The counselors then give him their blessing and implore Shamash to protect the adventurers. just a few days, Gilgamesh and Enkidu walk a distance that would take ordinary men six weeks to traverse. After entering the forest of Humbaba, Gilgamesh cuts down one of the tall cedars. Far off in the forest, Humbaba—who never sleeps—hears the tree strike the ground. Enkidu is afraid and wants to turn back, but Gilgamesh heartens him with brave words. When Humbaba approaches, Gilgamesh calls upon Shamash for assistance, and the sun god sends the winds—eight of them in all, some blazing hot, some icy cold. They close in on Humbaba from different directions and prevent him from moving. Humbaba pleads for his life. Gilgamesh feels pity for him and is ready to release him, but Enkidu goads him on. Gilgamesh then drives his sword into Humbaba’s neck, and Enkidu strikes a second blow. After they finish him, Enlil curses Gilgamesh and Enkidu return in glory, the goddess of love, Ishtar, proposes marriage to Gilgamesh. If he consents, she will shower him with many gifts, including a wondrous golden chariot studded with lapus lazuli, and will cause the mightiest rulers to kneel at his feet and pay him homage. But Gilgamesh refuses the proposal, telling her that he could not abide the infidelity for which she is famous. He recites for her a list of the lovers she enticed and then rejected. She turned one of them into a mole, another into a wolf. Deeply insulted, she petitions her father, the god Anu, to loose the great Bull of Heaven against Gilgamesh. Though Anu is well aware of his daughter’s wanton ways, he gives in to her request after she threatens to break into hell and release the dead to work havoc among the living. Anu sends down the Bull of Heaven, Ishtar leads it to Uruk. When it snorts, it opens a gaping fissure in the earth into which a hundred men fall. When it snorts again, it opens another fissure. Two hundred men fall into it. With a third snort, it knocks down Enkidu, but he recovers and mounts it, grasping it by its horns. Gilgamesh then drives his sword into it and kills it. The two comrades remove its heart as a gift for Shamash, and they take its horns as a trophy. In the palace of Gilgamesh, they celebrate their victory with a great feast. the night, Enkidu dreams that the gods convene and, against the protest of Shamash, decide to avenge the deaths of Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. One of the heroes must die—Enkidu. After telling Gilgamesh of his dream, Enkidu falls ill and suffers for many days as the sickness drains his strength and, finally, stops his heart. sorrow for the loss of his beloved companion overwhelms Gilgamesh. Moreover, Enkidu’s death awakens a fear of death in Gilgamesh. His terrible sorrow and his new fear linger on and on; he can find no relief from them. At length, he decides to set out for the land of Utnapishtim the Faraway, who survived the Great Flood with his wife. (Although some researchers conjecture that this was the same flood that prompted the bibilical Noah to build his ark, evidence is lacking to prove this theory or to make a claim that the biblical account was a retelling of the Gilgamesh account.) They were the only mortals to whom the gods granted immortality. Surely, Utnapishtim will know the secret to eternal life, Gilgamesh believes. travels through the wild and across waters and vast plains. At night while sleeping, he awakens to find lions closing in. With his axe and sword, he kills several and drives the rest off. He sets out again and eventually arrives at the foot of a great mountain, Mashu, with two peaks. The sun rises on one side and sets on the other. Between the two peaks is a vast plain of darkness leading to Utnapishtim’s abode. At a gate opening into the plain are a scorpion man and his mate. The scorpion man can kill with the mere glare of his eyes. He greets Gilgamesh and asks him why he has come to this place. Gilgamesh, who is able to withstand the deadly gaze, tells the gatekeeper about Enkidu's death and explains why he wishes to speak with Utnapishtim. The gatekeeper lets him pass. travels through twelve leagues (about thirty-six miles) of total darkness until light returns and he enters a wondrous garden in which the plants bear pearls, carnelian, lapis lazuli, and other precious gems. It is the garden of the gods. In a vineyard near the sea is a veiled woman, Siduri, who makes the wine of the gods. After Gilgamesh tells her his story, she warns him that he cannot find eternal life on earth. Immortality is reserved for the gods alone. She advises him to go back and make the most of his limited life with feasting and merriment and with a wife and children. When Gilgamesh tells her he is determined to press on, she directs him to a ferryman, Urshanabi, who takes Gilgamesh across a sea and the waters of death to the abode of Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh recounts his tale of woe. Utnapishtim then tells him that houses are not made to stand forever. Nor is man. The gods have decreed that man is mortal, but the day of his death they keep secret. Then why is it, asks Gilgamesh, that Utnapishtim—himself a man—will live forever? ago, Utnapishtim says, the world abounded with human life. As men went about their activities, they made a great noise that rose to the heavens and disturbed the sleep of the gods. At the instigation of Enlil, they approved a plan to annihilate humankind. However, the god Ea warned Utnapishtim of the impending doom, telling him to construct a gigantic boat that would carry him through a great flood. Marshaling his family, relatives, and shipbuilders, Utnapishtim built the vessel and took aboard all of his loved ones and the workers. In addition, as instructed by Ea, he took with him a variety of animals, wild and tame. After the waters came and swept over civilization, Utnapishtim’s boat road the waters safely until coming to rest on the mountain of Nisir. There it remained grounded for seven days. Then Utnapishtim released a dove. If it did not return, he would know that it had found land. But it returned. He next released a swallow. It too returned. Finally, he released a raven. It did not return. Heartened, Utnapishtim made sacrifices to the gods. In turn, they recanted their condemnation of humankind and spared the boat and its cargo. Utnapishtim and his wife then tells Gilgamesh that he must undergo a trial to prove himself worthy of eternal life: Through seven nights, he must remain fully awake. But Gilgamesh fails the test. At the prompting of Utnapishtim's wife, who pities Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim gives the king a second chance, telling him about a prickly underwater plant that confers youthfulness on its bearer. Gilgamesh dives into the sea and finds it in the depths. But he does not eat of it immediately. Instead, he decides to take it back to Uruk to let an elder of Uruk eat of it first. (It is not clear here whether he wants to protect himself against possible ill effects or whether he wants to share his good fortune with his people.) Unfortunately, after stopping to bathe on his way back to Uruk, he sets the plant aside and a snake slithers off with it, eats of it, molts, and becomes young again. thus returns to Uruk without having gained eternal life. But he is wiser now by far than when he left the city. He accepts the inevitability of death and takes comfort in the fact that the city he built and his other great achievements will immortalize his name. And, as the information in the prologue pointed out at the beginning of the epic, he became a great king to his people. The plot summary was compiled from a version of The Gilgamesh Epic provided online by the Assyrian International News Agency. he is a demigod with extraordinary strength and good looks, King Gilgamesh lacks maturity when the story begins. He abuses his people. He is boastful and reckless. With Enkidu, he kills the guardian of the cedar forest, Humbaba, simply because he craves adventure and seeks to enhance his reputation. However, the death of Enkidu profoundly changes him. It makes him realize that he, like the common lot that he rules, is vulnerable to suffering and eventually death. After his quest for immortality fails, he returns to Uruk and, as the prologue has already told us, becomes the benefactor and protector of his people—a man who accepts his mortality but takes comfort in the fact that the walls of Uruk and his other mighty works will live on after him. and Enkidu become inseparable friends. The friendship teaches Gilgamesh that he is not an island unto himself but needs others to complement his life. Whether he and Enkidu succumb to a deviant sexual relationship is debatable. Passages in the text leave open this possibility. welcomes adventure and derring-do—partly for the pleasure of it, partly for the glory he will reap. His desire to strike out—to cross seas, to enter forbidden lands, to fight battles—are in keeping with the ideals of ancient civilization. He goes wrong, however, when he becomes unduly proud and rash. boasts of his heroic deeds and recklessly challenges Humbaba to enhance his reputation. As in later Greek tragedies, he pays a price for his pride: the death of Enkidu, as decreed by the angry gods. Desire for Immortality yearns for immortality. Through his heroic deeds, his construction of the wall of Uruk, and other works, he does achieve everlasting fame. But the one thing he most desires, eternal life on earth, he cannot have. In this respect, he is like all of us human beings. We want to live forever on earth, and we go to great lengths to prolong our mortal life as long as possible. In the end, though, only the record of our achievements survives. Respect for Nature Gilgamesh Epic, respect for nature seems to be part of the Mesopotamian worldview. Note, for example, that Humbaba keeps watch over the great cedar trees in a forest forbidden to men and that a scorpion man and his mate stand guard at the gate to the twin-peaked mountain, Mashu, that protects the rising and setting sun. Siduri, the winemaker of the gods, keeps a close watch on her vineyards and bolts a door against Gilgamesh when he first approaches her.. experiences both external and internal conflicts. The external ones include conflicts with the gods, Humbaba, and the Bull of Heaven. The internal ones include his difficulty coping with the loss of Enkidu and overcoming the fear of death. climax of the epic occurs when Enkidu dies. His death is a turning point in the life of Gilgamesh; it sends him on a quest that educates and matures writing in The Gilgamesh Epic is succinct, plain, and fast-paced, English translations of Sin-leqi-unninni's version (see Sources and Authorship, above) of the epic indicate. Concrete similes and metaphors abound, comparing Gilgamesh to a bull, for example, and Enkidu to a star. But the predominant figure of speech, certainly, is hyperbole. The entire story is a gross exaggeration of the deeds of an idealized king, but it is a magnificent exaggeration. Oddly, though, the writing does not sensationalize or titillate. To be sure, it candidly tells of the encounter between Enkidu and the temple prostitute, but it omits lurid details. Passages describing violence are suspenseful, but gore and carnage are not part of them. Another important writing device in this epic is repetition. Many key narrations and descriptions are repeated word for word, suggesting that the Gilgamesh story had an oral tradition before it was committed to clay tablets. The following is an example of a passage that contains repetition (which is highlighted in blue). "Why should you [Enkidu] roam the wilderness and live like an animal? Let me take you to great-walled Uruk, to the temple of Ishtar, to the palace of Gilgamesh the mighty king, who in his arrogance oppresses the people, trampling upon them like a wild bull." She finished, and Enkidu nodded his head. Deep in his heart he felt something stir, a longing he had never known before, the longing for a true friend. Enkidu said, "I will go, Shamhat. Take me with you to great-walled Uruk, to the temple of Ishtar, to the palace of Gilgamesh the mighty king. I will challenge him." (Mitchell)Repetition helped listeners to absorb the details of the story. After all, they had no books from which they could reread passages; they had only ears to hear the story told and another noticeable writing device is the use of the epithet, such as great-walled Uruk in the above passage or the term Utnapishtim the Faraway to refer to the survivor of the Great Flood. Mitchell, Stephen. Gilgamesh: a New English Version. New York: Free Press, 2004. Page 80. Study Questions and Essay an essay that compares and contrasts Gilgamesh and Enkidu. quality of Gilgamesh does the story emphasize more, physical strength or was the attitude of the Mesopotamians toward nature and its resources? an essay that compares and contrasts Gilgamesh with the hero of another epic, such as the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Aeneid, did the Mesopotamians, as well as people of other ancient cultures, believe in so many gods?

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American poetry, the poetry of the United States, arose first as efforts by colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the thirteen colonies (although before this unification, a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry existed among Native American societies). Unsurprisingly, most of the early colonists' work relied on contemporary British models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, a distinctive American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, when Walt Whitman was winning an enthusiastic audience abroad, poets from the United States had begun to take their place at the forefront of the English-language avant-garde. The history of American poetry is not easy to know. Much of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era. The received narrative of Modernism proposes that Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot were perhaps the most influential modernist English-language poets in the period during World War I. But this narrative leaves out African American and women poets who were published and read widely in the first half of the twentieth century. By the 1960s, the young poets of the British Poetry Revival looked to their American contemporaries and predecessors as models for the kind of poetry they wanted to write. Toward the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chicanos and other cultural groupings. Poetry in the colonies As England's contact with the Americas increased after the 1490s, explorers sometimes included verse with their descriptions of the "New World" up through 1650, the year of Anne Bradstreet's "The Tenth Muse", which was written in America, most likely in Ipswich, Massachusetts or North Andover, Massachusetts) and printed/distributed in London, England by her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge. There are 14 such writers whom we might on that basis call American poets (they had actually been to America and to different degrees, written poems or verses about the place). Early examples include a 1616 "testimonial poem" on the sterling warlike character of Captain John Smith (in Barbour, ed. "Works") and Rev. William Morrell's 1625 "Nova Anglia" or "New England," which is a rhymed catalog of everything from American weather to glimpses of Native women, framed with a thin poetic "conceit" or "fiction" characterizing the country as a "sad and forlorn" female pining for English domination. Then in May 1627 Thomas Morton of Merrymount – an English West Country outdoorsman, attorney at law, man of letters and colonial adventurer – raised a Maypole to celebrate and foster more success at this fur-trading plantation and nailed up a "Poem" and "Song" (one a densely literary manifesto on how English and Native people came together there and must keep doing so for a successful America; the other a light "drinking song" also full of deeper American implications). These were published in book form along with other examples of Morton's American poetry in "New English Canaan" (1637); and based on the criteria of "First," "American" and Poetry," they make Morton (and not Anne Bradstreet) America's first poet in English. (See Jack Dempsey, ed., "New English Canaan by Thomas Morton of 'Merrymount'" and his biography "Thomas Morton: The Life & Renaissance of an Early American Poet" Scituate MA: Digital Scanning 2000). One of the first recorded poets of the British colonies was Anne Bradstreet (1612 – 1672), who remains one of the earliest known women poets who wrote in English. The poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, many of which remained unpublished until the 20th century. This narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the poetry written in the colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest "secular" poetry published in New England was by Samuel Danforth in his "almanacks" for 1647–1649, published at Cambridge; these included "puzzle poems" as well as poems on caterpillars, pigeons, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, Danforth never ventured far from a spiritual message. A distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral," was published in 1773. She was one of the best-known poets of her day, at least in the colonies, and her poems were typical of New England culture at the time, meditating on religious and classical ideas. The 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America itself as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752–1832), who is also notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans shown in his writings, sometimes reflective of a skepticism toward Anglo-American culture and civilization. However, as might be expected from what was essentially provincial writing, this late colonial poetry is generally somewhat old-fashioned in form and syntax, deploying the means and methods of Pope and Gray in the era of Blake and Burns. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), although quite old, still apply to life in today's world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, but also the nature of humans. On the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place. As the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative, to say the least. This can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London. The first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), whose great contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies and forests. However, the first internationally acclaimed poet was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) who nearly surpassed Alfred, Lord Tennyson in international popularity, and, alongside William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., formed the Fireside Poets (also known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets) were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England. The name "Fireside Poets" is derived from that popularity: their general adherence to poetic convention (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) made their body of work particularly suitable for memorization and recitation in school and also at home, where it was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire. The poets' primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved. Other notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), and James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916). As might be expected, the works of all these writers are united by a common search for a distinctive American voice to distinguish them from their British counterparts. To this end, they explored the landscape and traditions of their native country as materials for their poetry. The most significant example of this tendency may be The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow. This poem uses Native American tales collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who was superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan from 1836 to 1841. Longfellow also imitated the meter of the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, possibly to avoid British models. The resulting poem, while a popular success, did not provide a model for future U.S. poets. As time went on the influence of the transcendentalism of the poet/philosophers Emerson and Thoreau increasingly influenced American poetry. Transcendentalism was the distinctly American strain of English Romanticism that began with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Emerson, arguably one of the founders of transcendentalism, had visited England as a young man to meet these two English poets, as well as Thomas Carlyle. While Romanticism transitioned into Victorianism in post-reform England, it grew more energetic in America from the 1830s through to the Civil War. Edgar Allan Poe was a unique poet during this time, brooding over themes of the macabre and dark, connecting his poetry and aesthetic vision to his philosophical, psychological, moral, and cosmological theories. Diverse authors in France, Sweden and Russia were heavily influenced by his works, and his poem "The Raven" swept across Europe, translated into many languages. However, as a poet he declined in popularity, and alienated himself from his contemporaries by publicly accusing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism, though Longfellow never responded. In the twentieth century the American poet William Carlos Williams said of Poe that he is the only solid ground on which American poetry is anchored. Whitman and Dickinson The final emergence of a truly indigenous English-language poetry in the United States was the work of two poets, Walt Whitman (1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886). On the surface, these two poets could not have been less alike. Whitman's long lines, derived from the metric of the King James Version of the Bible, and his democratic inclusiveness stand in stark contrast with Dickinson's concentrated phrases and short lines and stanzas, derived from Protestant hymnals. What links them is their common connection to Emerson (a passage from whom Whitman printed on the second edition of Leaves of Grass), and the daring originality of their visions. These two poets can be said to represent the birth of two major American poetic idioms—the free metric and direct emotional expression of Whitman, and the gnomic obscurity and irony of Dickinson—both of which would profoundly stamp the American poetry of the 20th century. The development of these idioms, as well as more conservative reactions against them, can be traced through the works of poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), Stephen Crane (1871–1900), Robert Frost (1874–1963) and Carl Sandburg (1878–1967). Frost, in particular, is a commanding figure, who aligned strict poetic meter, particularly blank verse and terser lyrical forms, with a "vurry Amur'k'n" (as Pound put it) idiom. He successfully revitalized a rural tradition with many English antecedents from his beloved Golden Treasury and produced an oeuvre of major importance, rivaling or even excelling in achievement that of the key modernists and making him, within the full sweep of more traditional modern English-language verse, a peer of Hardy and Yeats. But from Whitman and Dickinson the outlines of a distinctively new organic poetic tradition, less indebted to English formalism than Frost's work, were clear to see, and they would come to full fruition in the 1910s and '20s. Modernism and after This new idiom, combined with a study of 19th-century French poetry, formed the basis of American input into 20th-century English-language poetic modernism. Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and T. S. Eliot (1888–1965) were the leading figures at the time, with their rejection of traditional poetic form and meter and of Victorian diction. Both steered American poetry toward greater density, difficulty, and opacity, with an emphasis on techniques such as fragmentation, ellipsis, allusion, juxtaposition, ironic and shifting personae, and mythic parallelism. Pound, in particular, opened up American poetry to diverse influences, including the traditional poetries of China and Japan. Numerous other poets made important contributions at this revolutionary juncture, including Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) (1886–1961), Marianne Moore (1887–1972), E. E. Cummings (1894–1962), and Hart Crane (1899–1932). The cerebral and skeptical Romantic Stevens helped revive the philosophical lyric, and Williams was to become exemplary for many later poets because he, more than any of his peers, contrived to marry spoken American English with free verse rhythms. Cummings remains notable for his experiments with typography and evocation of a spontaneous, childlike vision of reality. Whereas these poets were unambiguously aligned with high modernism, other poets active in the United States in the first third of the 20th century were not. Among the most important of the latter were those who were associated with what came to be known as the New Criticism. These included John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974), Allen Tate (1899–1979), and Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989). Other poets of the era, such as Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982), experimented with modernist techniques but were also drawn towards more traditional modes of writing. Still others, such as Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), adopted Modernist freedom while remaining aloof from Modernist factions and programs. In addition, there were still other, early 20th Century poets who maintained or were forced to maintain a peripheral relationship to high modernism, likely due to the racially charged themes of their work. They include Countee Cullen (1903–1946), Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875–1935), Gwendolyn Bennett (1902–1981), Langston Hughes (1902–1967), Claude McKay (1889–1948), Jean Toomer (1894–1967) and other African American poets of the Harlem Renaissance. The modernist torch was carried in the 1930s mainly by the group of poets known as the Objectivists. These included Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976), George Oppen (1908–1984), Carl Rakosi (1903–2004) and, later, Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970). Kenneth Rexroth, who was published in the Objectivist Anthology, was, along with Madeline Gleason (1909–1973), a forerunner of the San Francisco Renaissance. Many of the Objectivists came from urban communities of new immigrants, and this new vein of experience and language enriched the growing American idiom. World War II and after Archibald Macleish called John Gillespie Magee, Jr. "the first poet of the war". World War II saw the emergence of a new generation of poets, many of whom were influenced by Wallace Stevens and Richard Eberhart (1904–2005). Karl Shapiro (1913–2000), Randall Jarrell (1914–1965) and James Dickey (1923–1997) all wrote poetry that sprang from experience of active service. Together with Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979), Theodor Seuss Geisel ('Dr. Seuss') (1904-1991), Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) and Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966), they formed a generation of poets that in contrast to the preceding generation often wrote in traditional verse forms. After the war, a number of new poets and poetic movements emerged. John Berryman (1914–1972) and Robert Lowell (1917–1977) were the leading lights in what was to become known as the Confessional movement, which was to have a strong influence on later poets like Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) and Anne Sexton (1928–1974). Though both Berryman and Lowell were closely acquainted with Modernism, they were mainly interested in exploring their own experiences as subject matter and a style that Lowell referred to as "cooked" – that is, consciously and carefully crafted. In contrast, the Beat poets, who included such figures as Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Gregory Corso (1930–2001), Joanne Kyger (born 1934), Gary Snyder (born 1930), Diane Di Prima (born 1934), Amiri Baraka (born 1934) and Lawrence Ferlinghetti (born 1919), were distinctly raw. Reflecting, sometimes in an extreme form, the more open, relaxed and searching society of the 1950s and 1960s, the Beats pushed the boundaries of the American idiom in the direction of demotic speech perhaps further than any other group. Around the same time, the Black Mountain poets, under the leadership of Charles Olson (1910–1970), were working at Black Mountain College. These poets were exploring the possibilities of open form but in a much more programmatic way than the Beats. The main poets involved were Robert Creeley (1926–2005), Robert Duncan (1919–1988), Denise Levertov (1923–1997), Ed Dorn (1929–1999), Paul Blackburn (1926–1971), Hilda Morley (1916–1998), John Wieners (1934–2002), and Larry Eigner (1927–1996). They based their approach to poetry on Olson's 1950 essay Projective Verse, in which he called for a form based on the line, a line based on human breath and a mode of writing based on perceptions juxtaposed so that one perception leads directly to another. Other poets often associated with the Black Mountain are Cid Corman (1924–2004) and Theodore Enslin (born 1925), though they are perhaps more correctly viewed as direct descendants of the Objectivists. And one-time Black Mountain College resident, composer John Cage (1912–1992), along with Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004), wrote poetry based on chance or aleatory techniques. Inspired by Zen, Dada and scientific theories of indeterminacy, they were to prove to be important influences on the 1970s U.S avant-garde. The Beats and some of the Black Mountain poets are often considered to have been responsible for the San Francisco Renaissance. However, as previously noted, San Francisco had become a hub of experimental activity from the 1930s thanks to Kenneth Rexroth and Gleason. Other poets involved in this scene included Charles Bukowski (1920–1994) and Jack Spicer (1925–1965). These poets sought to combine a contemporary spoken idiom with inventive formal experiment. Jerome Rothenberg (born 1931) is well known for his work in ethnopoetics, but he was also the coiner of the term "deep image", which he used to describe the work of poets like Robert Kelly (born 1935), Diane Wakoski (born 1937) and Clayton Eshleman (born 1935). Deep Image poetry was inspired by the symbolist theory of correspondences, in particular the work of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The term was later taken up and popularized by Robert Bly. The Deep Image movement was also the most international, accompanied by a flood of new translations from Latin American and European poets such as Pablo Neruda, César Vallejo and Tomas Tranströmer. Some of the poets who became associated with Deep Image are Galway Kinnell, James Wright, Mark Strand and W. S. Merwin. Both Merwin and California poet Gary Snyder would also become known for their interest in environmental and ecological concerns. The Small Press poets (sometimes called the mimeograph movement) are another influential and eclectic group of poets who also surfaced in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1950s and are still active today. Fiercely independent editors, who were also poets, edited and published low-budget periodicals and chapbooks of emerging poets who might otherwise have gone unnoticed. This work ranged from formal to experimental. Gene Fowler, A. D. Winans, Hugh Fox, street poet and activist Jack Hirschman, Paul Foreman, Jim Cohn, John Bennett, and F. A. Nettelbeck are among the many poets who are still actively continuing the Small Press Poets tradition. Many have turned to the new medium of the Web for its distribution capabilities. Los Angeles poets: Leland Hickman (1934–1991), Holly Prado ( born 1938), Harry Northup (born 1940), Wanda Coleman (born 1946), Michael C. Ford (born 1939), Kate Braverman (born 1950), Eloise Klein Healy, Bill Mohr, Laurel Ann Bogen, met at Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, in Venice, California. They are lyric poets, heavily autobiographical; some are practitioners of the experimental long poem. Mavericks all, their L.A. predecessors are Ann Stanford (1916–1987), Thomas McGrath (1916–1990), Jack Hirschman (born 1933). Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, created by George Drury Smith in 1968, is the central literary arts center in the Los Angeles area. Just as the West Coast had the San Francisco Renaissance and the Small Press Movement, the East Coast produced the New York School. This group aimed to write poetry that spoke directly of everyday experience in everyday language and produced a poetry of urbane wit and elegance that contrasts with the work of their Beat contemporaries (though in other ways, including their mutual respect for American slang and disdain for academic or "cooked" poetry, they were similar). Leading members of the group include John Ashbery (born in 1927), Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), Kenneth Koch (1925–2002), James Schuyler (1923–1991), Barbara Guest (1920–2006), Ted Berrigan (1934–1983), Anne Waldman (born in 1945) and Bernadette Mayer (born in 1945). Of this group, John Ashbery, in particular, has emerged as a defining force in recent poetics, and he is regarded by many as the most important American poet since World War II. American poetry today The last forty years of poetry in the United States have seen the emergence of a number of groups, schools, and trends, whose lasting importance has, necessarily, yet to be demonstrated. The 1970s saw a revival of interest in surrealism, with the most prominent poets working in this field being Andrei Codrescu (born in 1946), Russell Edson (born in 1935) and Maxine Chernoff (born in 1952). Performance poetry also emerged from the Beat and hippie happenings, the talk-poems of David Antin (born in 1932), and ritual events performed by Rothenberg, to become a serious poetic stance which embraces multiculturalism and a range of poets from a multiplicity of cultures, including Puerto Rican born poets Giannina Braschi (born in 1953) and Julia de Burgos (born in 1914) who lived and wrote in New York City about the plight of the Hispanic-American immigrants. This mirrored a general growth of interest in poetry by African Americans including Gwendolyn Brooks (born in 1917), Maya Angelou (born in 1928), Ishmael Reed (born in 1938), Nikki Giovanni (born in 1943), and Detrick Hughes (born in 1966). Another group of poets, the Language school (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, after the magazine that bears that name), have continued and extended the Modernist and Objectivist traditions of the 1930s. Some poets associated with the group are Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, Bob Perelman and Leslie Scalapino. Their poems—fragmentary, purposefully ungrammatical, sometimes mixing texts from different sources and idioms—can be by turns abstract, lyrical, and highly comic. The Language school includes a high proportion of women, which mirrors another general trend—the rediscovery and promotion of poetry written both by earlier and contemporary women poets. A number of the most prominent African American poets to emerge are women, and other prominent women writers include Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), Jean Valentine (born in 1934) and Amy Gerstler (born in 1956). Although poetry in traditional classical forms had mostly fallen out of fashion by the 1960s, the practice was kept alive by poets of great formal virtuosity like James Merrill (1926–1995), author of the epic poem The Changing Light at Sandover, Richard Wilbur, and British-born San Francisco poet Thom Gunn. The 1980s and 1990s saw a re-emergent interest in traditional form, sometimes dubbed New Formalism or Neoformalism. These include poets such as Molly Peacock, Brad Leithauser, Dana Gioia, Donna J. Stone, Timothy Steele, and Marilyn Hacker. Some of the more outspoken New Formalists have declared that the return to rhyme and more fixed meters to be the new avant-garde. Their critics sometimes associate this traditionalism with the conservative politics of the Reagan era, noting the recent appointment of Gioia as Chair of the National Endowment for the Arts. More recent examples of New Formalism, however, have sometimes crossed over into the more experimental territory of Language poetry, suggesting that both schools are being gradually absorbed into the poetic mainstream. Haiku has also attracted a community of American poets dedicated to its development as a serious poetic genre in English. The extremely terse Japanese haiku first influenced the work of Pound and the Imagists, and post-war poets such as Kerouac and Richard Wright wrote substantial bodies of original haiku in English. Other poets such as Ginsberg, Snyder, Wilbur, Merwin, and many others have at least dabbled with haiku, often simply as a syllabic form. Starting in 1963, with the founding of the journal American Haiku, poets such as Cor van den Heuvel, Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, John Wills, Anita Virgil, Gary Hotham, Marlene Mountain, Wally Swist, Peggy Willis Lyles, George Swede, Jim Kacian, and others have created significant oeuvres of haiku poetry, evincing continuities with both Transcendentalism and Imagism and often maintaining an anti-anthropocentric environmental focus on nature during an unparalleled age of habitat destruction and human alienation. The last two decades have also seen a revival of the Beat poetry spoken word tradition, in the form of the poetry slam, which was born of the Nuyorican movement led by New York–based Puerto Rican poets Pedro Pietri, Giannina Braschi, and Miguel Piñero. Chicago construction worker Marc Smith turned urban poetry performance into audience-judged competitions in 1984. Poetry slams emphasize a style of writing that is topical, provocative and easily understood. Poetry slam opened the door for a new generation of writers and spoken word performers, including Alix Olson, Apollo Poetry, Taylor Mali, and Saul Williams, and inspired hundreds of open mics across the country. Poetry has also become a significant presence on the Web, with a number of new online journals, 'zines, blogs and other websites. An example of the fluid nature of web-based poetry communities is, "thisisbyus, now defunct, yet this community of writers continues and expands on Facebook and has allowed both novice and professional poets to explore writing styles. During the contemporary time frame there were also major independent voices who defied links to well-known American poetic movements and forms such as poet and literary critic Robert Peters, greatly influenced by the Victorian English poet Robert Browning’s poetic monologues, became reputable for executing his monologic personae like his Mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria into popular one-man performances. Events, like the 9/11 attacks, influenced both content of poems and the public's attention to poetry. Robert Pinsky has a special place in American poetry as he was the Poet Laureate of the United States for three terms. No other poet has been so honored. His "Favorite Poem Project" is unique, inviting all citizens to share their all-time favorite poetic composition and why they love it. He is a professor at Boston University and the poetry editor at Slate. "Poems to Read" is only one demonstration of his masterful poetic vision, joining the word and the common man. In general, poetry in the contemporary era has been moving out of the mainstream and onto the college and university campus. The growth in the popularity of graduate creative writing programs has given poets the opportunity to make a living as teachers. This increased professionalization of poetry, combined with the reluctance of most major book and magazine presses to publish poetry, has meant that, for the foreseeable future at least, poetry may have found its new home in the academy and in small independent journals. - Academy of American Poets - Biker Poetry - Chicano poetry - Cowboy poetry - Haiku in English - List of national poetries - List of poets from the United States - Einhorn, Lois J. The Native American Oral Tradition: Voices of the Spirit and Soul (ISBN 0-275-95790-X) - Cary Nelson, Repression and Recovery (University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 9-10 - Aldridge, John (1958). After the Lost Generation: A Critical Study of the Writers of Two Wars. Noonday Press. Original from the University of Michigan Digitized Mar 31, 2006. - Moulton, Charles (1901). The Library of Literary Criticism of English and American Authors. The Moulton Publishing Company. Original from the New York Public Library Digitized Oct 27, 2006.Anne Bradstreet: "our earliest woman poet" - Davis, Virginia (1997). The Tayloring Shop: Essays on the Poetry of Edward Taylor. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-623-7. - ""Samuel Danforth's Almanack Poems and Chronological Tables 1647-1649" by Samuel Danforth and Paul Royster (transcriber & editor)". Digitalcommons.unl.edu. 2006-06-27. Retrieved 2014-08-27. - Williams, George (1882). History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880. G.P. Putnam's Sons. Original from Harvard University Digitized Aug 18, 2006. - Gregson, Susan (2002). Phillis Wheatley. Capstone Press. ISBN 0-7368-1033-1. - Lubbers, Klaus (1994). Born for the Shade: Stereotypes of the Native American in United States Literature and the Visual Arts, 1776–1894. Rodopi. ISBN 90-5183-628-7. - Heymann, C. David. American Aristocracy: The Lives and Times of James Russell, Amy, and Robert Lowell. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1980: 91. ISBN 0-396-07608-4 - "A Brief Guide to the Fireside Poets" at Poets.org. Accessed 03-22-2009 - Lucy Larcom: Landscape in American Poetry (1879). - Quinn 1998, p. 455 - Untermeyer, Louis (1921). Modern American Poetry. Harcourt, Brace and Company. Original from the New York Public Library Digitized Oct 6, 2006. - "High Flier". The “Quote... Unquote” Newsletter. April 1992. Retrieved 7 October 2010. - "Robert Peters: Ludwig of Bavaria". Capa.conncoll.edu. Retrieved 2014-08-27. - http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/09/911-poetry_n_954492.html. Accessed 15 January 2015 - "Robert Pinsky". poets.org. Retrieved 7 October 2010. - Shipman, J. S. 2005. "Calling on You" In: A Surrender to the Moon. International Library of Poetry. Watermark Press. Owings Mills, Maryland. p. 3. - Baym, Nina, et al. (eds.): The Norton Anthology of American Literature (Shorter sixth edition, 2003). ISBN 0-393-97969-5 - Cavitch, Max, American Elegy: The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman (University of Minnesota Press, 2007). ISBN 0-8166-4893-X - Hoover, Paul (ed): Postmodern American Poetry - A Norton Anthology (1994). ISBN 0-393-31090-6 - Moore, Geoffrey (ed): The Penguin Book of American Verse (Revised edition 1983) ISBN 0-14-042313-3 - Shipman, J. S. 2005. "Calling on You"In: Surrender to the Moon. International Library of Poetry. Watermark Press. Owings Mills, MD . P 3. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Poetry of the United States.| - Cary Nelson, Ed. (1999–2002) Poet biographies at Modern American Poetry. Retrieved December 5, 2004 - Poet biographies at the Academy of American Poets Captured December 10, 2004 - Poet biographies at the Electronic Poetry Centre Captured December 10, 2004 - Various anthologies of American verse at Bartleby.com Captured December 10, 2004 - Poetry Resource a website for students of poetry

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Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain that have become dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries. This includes sensory substitution, e.g., in vision. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between neural systems and computer chips. This work is part of a wider research field called brain-computer interfaces. (Brain-computer interface research also includes technology such as EEG arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.) Brain implants electrically stimulate, block or record (or both record and stimulate simultaneously) signals from single neurons or groups of neurons (biological neural networks) in the brain. The blocking technique is called intra-abdominal vagal blocking. This can only be done where the functional associations of these neurons are approximately known. Because of the complexity of neural processing and the lack of access to action potential related signals using neuroimaging techniques, the application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in neurophysiology and computer processing power. Research and applications Research in sensory substitution has made significant progress since 1970. Especially in vision, due to the knowledge of the working of the visual system, eye implants (often involving some brain implants or monitoring) have been applied with demonstrated success. For hearing, cochlear implants are used to stimulate the auditory nerve directly. The vestibulocochlear nerve is part of the peripheral nervous system, but the interface is similar to that of true brain implants. Multiple projects have demonstrated success at recording from the brains of animals for long periods of time. As early as 1976, researchers at the NIH led by Edward Schmidt made action potential recordings of signals from rhesus monkey motor cortexes using immovable "hatpin" electrodes, including recording from single neurons for over 30 days, and consistent recordings for greater than three years from the best electrodes. The "hatpin" electrodes were made of pure iridium and insulated with Parylene-c, materials that are currently used in the Cyberkinetics implementation of the Utah array. These same electrodes, or derivations thereof using the same biocompatible electrode materials, are currently used in visual prosthetics laboratories, laboratories studying the neural basis of learning, and motor prosthetics approaches other than the Cyberkinetics probes. Breakthroughs include studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination, control of physical devices by rat brains, monkeys over robotic arms, remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and humans, remote control over the movements of roaches, electronic-based neuron transistors for leeches, the first reported use of the Utah Array in a human for bidirectional signalling. Currently a number of groups are conducting preliminary motor prosthetic implants in humans. These studies are presently limited to several months by the longevity of the implants. The array now forms the sensor component of the Braingate. Much research is also being done on the surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the function of the implant. Another type of neural implant that is being experimented on is Prosthetic Neuronal Memory Silicon Chips, which imitate the signal processing done by functioning neurons that allows peoples' brains to create long-term memories. In 2016, scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign announced development of tiny brain sensors for use postoperative monitoring, which melt away when they are no longer needed. DARPA has announced its interest in developing "cyborg insects" to transmit data from sensors implanted into the insect during the pupal stage. The insect's motion would be controlled from a Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) and could conceivably survey an environment or detect explosives and gas. Similarly, DARPA is developing a neural implant to remotely control the movement of sharks. The shark's unique senses would then be exploited to provide data feedback in relation to enemy ship movement or underwater explosives. In 2006, researchers at Cornell University invented a new surgical procedure to implant artificial structures into insects during their metamorphic development. The first insect cyborgs, moths with integrated electronics in their thorax, were demonstrated by the same researchers. The initial success of the techniques has resulted in increased research and the creation of a program called Hybrid-Insect-MEMS, HI-MEMS. Its goal, according to DARPA's Microsystems Technology Office, is to develop "tightly coupled machine-insect interfaces by placing micro-mechanical systems inside the insects during the early stages of metamorphosis". The use of neural implants has recently been attempted, with success, on cockroaches. Surgically applied electrodes were put on the insect, which were remotely controlled by a human. The results, although sometimes different, basically showed that the cockroach could be controlled by the impulses it received through the electrodes. DARPA is now funding this research because of its obvious beneficial applications to the military and other areas In 2009 at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Micro-electronic mechanical systems (MEMS) conference in Italy, researchers demonstrated the first "wireless" flying-beetle cyborg. Engineers at the University of California at Berkeley have pioneered the design of a "remote controlled beetle", funded by the DARPA HI-MEMS Program. Filmed evidence of this can be viewed here. This was followed later that year by the demonstration of wireless control of a "lift-assisted" moth-cyborg. Eventually researchers plan to develop HI-MEMS for dragonflies, bees, rats and pigeons. For the HI-MEMS cybernetic bug to be considered a success, it must fly 100 metres (330 ft) from a starting point, guided via computer into a controlled landing within 5 metres (16 ft) of a specific end point. Once landed, the cybernetic bug must remain in place. In 2015 it was reported that scientists from the Perception and Recognition Neuro-technologies Laboratory at the Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-Don suggested using rats with microchips planted in their brains to detect explosive devices. In 2016 it was reported that American engineers are developing a system that would transform locusts into "remote controlled explosive detectors" with electrodes in their brains beaming information about dangerous substances back to their operators. Current brain implants are made from a variety of materials such as tungsten, silicon, platinum-iridium, or even stainless steel. Future brain implants may make use of more exotic materials such as nanoscale carbon fibers (nanotubes), and polycarbonate urethane. In 1870, Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the brains of dogs could produce movements. Robert Bartholow showed the same to be true for humans in 1874. By the start of the 20th century, Fedor Krause began to systematically map human brain areas, using patients that had undergone brain surgery. Prominent research was conducted in the 1950s. Robert G. Heath experimented with aggressive mental patients, aiming to influence his subjects' moods through electrical stimulation. Yale University physiologist Jose Delgado demonstrated limited control of animal and human subjects' behaviours using electronic stimulation. He invented the stimoceiver or transdermal stimulator, a device implanted in the brain to transmit electrical impulses that modify basic behaviours such as aggression or sensations of pleasure. Delgado was later to write a popular book on mind control, called Physical Control of the Mind, where he stated: "the feasibility of remote control of activities in several species of animals has been demonstrated [...] The ultimate objective of this research is to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved in the directional control of animals and to provide practical systems suitable for human application." In the 1950s, the CIA also funded research into mind control techniques, through programs such as MKULTRA. Perhaps because he received funding for some research through the US Office of Naval Research, it has been suggested (but not proven) that Delgado also received backing through the CIA. He denied this claim in a 2005 article in Scientific American describing it only as a speculation by conspiracy-theorists. He stated that his research was only progressively scientifically motivated to understand how the brain works. Concerns and ethical considerations Ethical questions raised include who are good candidates to receive neural implants and what are good and bad uses of neural implants. Whilst deep brain stimulation is increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease, there may be some behavioural side effects. Reports in the literature describe the possibility of apathy, hallucinations, compulsive gambling, hypersexuality, cognitive dysfunction, and depression. However, these may be temporary and related to correct placement and calibration of the stimulator and so are potentially reversible. Some transhumanists, such as Raymond Kurzweil and Kevin Warwick, see brain implants as part of a next step for humans in progress and evolution, whereas others, especially bioconservatives, view them as unnatural, with humankind losing essential human qualities. It raises controversy similar to other forms of human enhancement. For instance, it is argued that implants would technically change people into cybernetic organisms (cyborgs). It's also expected that all research will comply to the Declaration of Helsinki. Yet further, the usual legal duties apply such as information to the person wearing implants and that the implants are voluntary, with (very) few exceptions. Sadja states that "one's private thoughts are important to protect" and doesn't considers it a good idea to just charge the government or any company to protect them. Walter Glannon, a neuroethicist of the University of Calgary notes that "there is a risk of the microchips being hacked by third parties" and that "this could interfere with the user's intention to perform actions, violate privacy by extracting information from the chip". In fiction and philosophy Brain implants are now part of modern culture but there were early philosophical references of relevance as far back as René Descartes. In his 1641 Meditations, Descartes argued that it would be impossible to tell if all one's apparently real experiences were in fact being produced by an evil demon intent on deception. A modern twist on Descartes' argument is provided by the "brain in a vat" thought experiment, which imagines a brain, sustained apart from its body in a vat of nutrients, and hooked up to a computer which is capable of stimulating it in such a way as to produce the illusion that everything is normal. Popular science fiction discussing brain implants and mind control became widespread in the 20th century, often with a dystopian outlook. Literature in the 1970s delved into the topic, including The Terminal Man by Michael Crichton, where a man suffering from brain damage receives an experimental surgical brain implant designed to prevent seizures, which he abuses by triggering for pleasure. Another example is Larry Niven's science fiction writing of wire-heads in his "Known Space" stories. Fear that the technology will be misused by the government and military is an early theme. In the 1981 BBC serial The Nightmare Man the pilot of a high-tech mini submarine is linked to his craft via a brain implant but becomes a savage killer after ripping out the implant. Perhaps the most influential novel exploring the world of brain implants was William Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. This was the first novel in a genre that came to be known as "cyberpunk". It follows a computer hacker through a world where mercenaries are augmented with brain implants to enhance strength, vision, memory, etc. Gibson coins the term "matrix" and introduces the concept of "jacking in" with head electrodes or direct implants. He also explores possible entertainment applications of brain implants such as the "simstim" (simulated stimulation) which is a device used to record and playback experiences. Another example is "The Alliance ", in which a society is controlled by implants. Gibson's work led to an explosion in popular culture references to brain implants. Its influences are felt, for example, in the 1989 roleplaying game Shadowrun, which borrowed his term "datajack" to describe a brain-computer interface. The implants in Gibson's novels and short stories formed the template for the 1995 film Johnny Mnemonic and later, The Matrix Trilogy. - The Gap Cycle (The Gap into): In Stephen R. Donaldson's series of novels, the use (and misuse) of "zone implant" technology is key to several plotlines. - Ghost in the Shell anime and manga franchise: Cyberbrain neural augmentation technology is the focus. Implants of powerful computers provide vastly increased memory capacity, total recall, as well as the ability to view his or her own memories on an external viewing device. Users can also initiate a telepathic conversation with other cyberbrain users, the downsides being cyberbrain hacking, malicious memory alteration, and the deliberate distortion of subjective reality and experience. - In Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's Oath of Fealty (1981) an arcology with high surveillance and feudal-like society is built by a private company due to riots around Los Angeles. Its systems are run by MILLIE, an advanced computer system, with some high-level executives being able to communicate directly with it and given omniscience of the arcology's workings via expensive implants in their brains. - Brainstorm (1983): The military tries to take control over a new technology that can record and transfer thoughts, feelings, and sensations. - RoboCop (1987) Science fiction action film. Police officer Alex Murphy is murdered and revived as a superhuman cyborg law enforcer. - Johnny Mnemonic (1995): The main character acts as a "mnemonic courier" by way of a storage implant in his brain, allowing him to carry sensitive information undetected between parties. - The Manchurian Candidate (2004): For a means of mind control, the presidential hopeful Raymond Shaw unknowingly has a chip implanted in his head by Manchurian Global, a fictional geopolitical organization aimed at making parts of the government sleeper cells, or puppets for their monetary advancement. - Hardwired (2009): A corporation attempting to bring marketing to the next level implants a chip into main character's brain. - Terminator Salvation (2009): A character named Marcus Wright discovers he is a Cyborg and must choose to fight for humans or an evil Artificial intelligence. - The Happiness Cage (1972) A German scientist works on a way of quelling overly aggressive soldiers by developing implants that directly stimulate the pleasure centers of the brain. Also known as The Mind Snatchers. - Six Million Dollar Man (1974 to 1978) Steve Austin suffers an accident and is rebuilt as a cyborg. - The Bionic Woman (1976 to 1978) Jaime Sommers suffers an accident and is rebuilt as a cyborg. - Blake's 7: Olag Gan, a character, has a brain implant which is supposed to prevent future aggression after being convicted of killing an officer from the oppressive Federation. - Dark Angel: The notorious Red Series use neuro-implants pushed into their brain stem at the base of their skull to amp them up and hyper-adrenalize them and make them almost unstoppable. Unfortunately the effects of the implant burn out their system after six months to a year and kill them. - The X-Files (episode:Duane Barry, relevant to the overreaching mytharc of the series.): FBI Agent Dana Scully discovers an implant set under the skin at the back of her neck which can read her every thought and change memory through electrical signals that alter the brain chemistry. - Star Trek franchise: Members of the Borg collective are equipped with brain implants which connect them to the Borg collective consciousness. - Stargate SG-1 franchise: Advanced replicators, the Asuran interface with humans by inserting their hand into the brain of humans. - Fringe: The Observers use a needle like, self-guided implant which allows them to read the minds of others at the expense of emotion. The implant also allows for short range teleportation and increases intelligence. - Person of Interest, Season 4. Episode 81 or 13. Title "M.I.A" "One of many innocent people who Samaritan operatives are experimenting on with neural implants." - In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the episode named Straight and Narrow (The Outer Limits). Students are forced to have brain implants and are controlled by them. - In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the episode named The Message (The Outer Limits). A character named Jennifer Winter receives a brain implant to hear. - In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the episode named "Living Hell", season 1 episode 9. A character named Ben Kohler receives a brain implant to save his life. - In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the episode named Judgment Day (The Outer Limits), A character who is judged a criminal has a chip implanted on the medulla oblongata of the lower brainstem . The forcibly implanted chip induces overwhelming pain and disorientation by a remote control within range. - In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the episode named "Awakening", season three, episode 10, a neurologically impaired woman receives a brain implant to help her become more like a typical human. - Black Mirror, a British science fiction television anthology series, has several episodes in which characters have implants on their head or in their brain or eyes, providing video recording and playback, augmented reality, and communication. - Earth: Final Conflict, in season 1, episode 12, named "Sandoval's Run", the character named Sandoval experiences the breakdown of his brain implant. - Earth: Final Conflict, in season 4, episode 12, named "The Summit", the character named Liam is implanted with a neural surveillance device. - In the video games PlanetSide and Chrome, players can use implants to improve their aim, run faster, and see better, along with other enhancements. - The Deus Ex video game series addresses the nature and impact of human enhancement with regard to a wide variety of prosthesis and brain implants. Deus Ex: Human Revolution, set in 2027, details the impact on society of human augmentation and the controversy it could generate. Several characters in the game have implanted neurochips to aid their professions (or their whims). Examples are of a helicopter pilot with implanted chips to better pilot her aircraft and analyse flight paths, velocity and spatial awareness, as well as a hacker with a brain-computer interface that allows direct access to computer networks and also to act as a 'human proxy' to allow an individual in a remote location to control his actions. - The game raises the question of the downsides of this kind of augmentation as those who cannot afford the enhancements (or object to getting them) rapidly find themselves at a serious disadvantage against people with artificial enhancement of their abilities. The spectre of being forced to have mechanical or electronic enhancements just to get a job is explored as well. The storyline addresses the effect of implant rejection by use of the fictional drug 'Neuropozyne' which breaks down glial tissue and is also fiercely addictive, leaving people who have augmentations little choice but to continue buying the drug from biotech corporations who control the price of it. Without the drug, augmented people experience rejection of implants, crippling pain and possible death. - Krucoff, Max O.; Rahimpour, Shervin; Slutzky, Marc W.; Edgerton, V. Reggie; Turner, Dennis A. (2016-01-01). "Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 584. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00584. ISSN 1662-4548. PMC 5186786 . PMID 28082858. - "Implantable Device that Blocks Brain Signals Shows Promise in Obesity". Medscape. Retrieved 2013-08-25. - Patrick Mahoney (June 21, 2007). "Wireless is getting under our skin". Machine Design. Archived from the original on 2008-06-04. Retrieved 2011-08-14. - Schmidt, E.M.; Bak, M.J.; McIntosh, J.S. (1976). "Long-term chronic recording from cortical neurons". Experimental Neurology. 52 (3): 496–506. doi:10.1016/0014-4886(76)90220-X. PMID 821770. - http://www.cyberkineticsinc.com/pdf/cyber.pdf Archived March 24, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. Cyberkinetics array - Troyk, Philip; Bak, Martin; Berg, Joshua; Bradley, David; Cogan, Stuart; Erickson, Robert; Kufta, Conrad; McCreery, Douglas; Schmidt, Edward (2003). "A Model for Intracortical Visual Prosthesis Research". Artificial Organs. 27 (11): 1005–15. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07308.x. PMID 14616519. - Blake, David T.; Heiser, Marc A.; Caywood, Matthew; Merzenich, Michael M. (2006). "Experience-Dependent Adult Cortical Plasticity Requires Cognitive Association between Sensation and Reward". Neuron. 52 (2): 371–81. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.08.009. PMC 2826987 . PMID 17046698. - "Neuroscientists Demonstrate New Way to Control Prosthetic Device with Brain Signals" (Press release). Caltech. July 8, 2004. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved February 26, 2011. - "Laboratory for Integrative Neural Systems | RIKEN". Riken.jp. Retrieved 2011-08-14. - "Blake Laboratory: Neural basis of behavior". Mcg.edu. 2007-08-16. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2011-08-14. - "Robert H. Wurtz, Ph.D. [NEI Laboratories]". Nei.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2011-08-14. - "Brain Research Institute". Faculty.bri.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2011-08-14. - "Making the connection between a sound and a reward changes brain and behavior". Physorg.com. 2006-10-19. Retrieved 2008-04-25. - Chapin, John K. "Robot arm controlled using command signals recorded directly from brain neurons". SUNY Downstate Medical Center. Retrieved 2008-04-25. - Graham-Rowe, Duncan (2003-10-13). "Monkey's brain signals control 'third arm'". New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-04-25. - Mishra, Raja (2004-10-09). "Implant could free power of thought for paralyzed". Boston Globe. Retrieved 2008-04-25. - Talmadoe, Eric (July 2001). "Japan's latest innovation: a remote-control roach". Associated Press. Retrieved 2008-04-25. - Gross, Michael (September 2004). "Plugging brains into computers". Chemistry World. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 2008-04-25. - Warwick, K.; Gasson, M; Hutt, B; Goodhew, I; Kyberd, P; Andrews, B; Teddy, P; Shad, A (2003). "The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems". Archives of Neurology. 60 (10): 1369–73. doi:10.1001/archneur.60.10.1369. PMID 14568806. - "Tiny electronic implants monitor brain injury, then melt away". University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. January 18, 2016. - Military seeks to develop 'insect cyborgs'. Washington Times (13 March 2006). Retrieved on 29 August 2011. - Military Plans Cyborg Sharks. LiveScience (7 March 2006). Retrieved on 29 August 2011. - Lal A, Ewer J, Paul A, Bozkurt A, "Surgically Implanted Micro-platforms and Microsystems in Arthropods and Methods Based Thereon", US Patent Application # US20100025527, Filed on 12/11/2007. - Paul A., Bozkurt A., Ewer J., Blossey B., Lal A. (2006) Surgically Implanted Micro-Platforms in Manduca-Sexta, 2006 Solid State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, Hilton Head Island, June 2006, pp 209–211. - Bozkurt A, Gilmour R, Sinha A, Stern D, Lal A (2009). Insect Machine Interface Based Neuro Cybernetics. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 56:6, pp. 1727–33. doi:10.1109/TBME.2009.2015460 - Bozkurt A., Paul A., Pulla S., Ramkumar R., Blossey B., Ewer J., Gilmour R, Lal A. (2007) Microprobe Microsystem Platform Inserted During Early Metamorphosis to Actuate Insect Flight Muscle. 20th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 2007), Kobe, JAPAN, January 2007, pp. 405–408. - Bozkurt A, Gilmour R, Stern D, Lal A. (2008) MEMS based Bioelectronic Neuromuscular Interfaces for Insect Cyborg Flight Control. 21st IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 2008), Tucson, AZ, January 2008, pp. 160–163. doi:10.1109/MEMSYS.2007.4432976 - Judy, Jack. "Hybrid Insect MEMS (HI-MEMS)". DARPA Microsystems Technology Office. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 2013-04-09. - Anthes, E. (17 February 2013). "The race to create 'insect cyborgs'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 23 February 2013. - Ornes, Stephen. "THE PENTAGON'S BEETLE BORGS." Discover 30.5 (2009): 14. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 1 Mar. 2010. - Cyborg beetles to be the US military's latest weapon. YouTube (28 October 2009). Retrieved on 29 August 2011. - Bozkurt A, Lal A, Gilmour R. (2009) Radio Control of Insects for Biobotic Domestication. 4th International Conference of the IEEE Neural Engineering (NER'09), Antalya, Turkey. - Guizzo, Eric. "Moth Pupa + MEMS Chip = Remote Controlled Cyborg Insect." Automan. IEEE Spectrum, 17 Feb 2009. Web. 1 Mar 2010.. - Judy, Jack. "Hybrid Insect MEMS (HI-MEMS)". DARPA Microsystems Technology Office. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 2013-04-09. The intimate control of insects with embedded microsystems will enable insect cyborgs, which could carry one or more sensors, such as a microphone or a gas sensor, to relay back information gathered from the target destination. - "Aufrüstung für den Krieg 4.0: Heer der Hacker im Dienst der Cyber-Abwehr" (in German). CHIP Online. Retrieved 9 April 2017. - Arkhangelskaya, Svetlana (21 December 2015). "Cyborg rats will take on drug dealers and terrorists". Russia Beyond The Headlines. Retrieved 9 April 2017. - Adams, Sam (4 January 2016). "Bomb-detecting RATS could replace sniffer dogs in battle against terrorists". Mirror. Retrieved 9 April 2017. - "Engineers develop cyborg locusts to sniff out explosives". The Telegraph. Retrieved 9 April 2017. - "Septal stimulation for the initiation of heterosexual behavior in a homosexual male". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 3: 23–30. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(72)90029-8. - Burn, D. J.; Tröster, AI (2004). "Neuropsychiatric Complications of Medical and Surgical Therapies for Parkinson's Disease". Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 17 (3): 172–80. doi:10.1177/0891988704267466. PMID 15312281. - "SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY LAW: Neural Implants and Their Legal Implications | Solo, Small Firm and General Practice Division". www.americanbar.org. Retrieved 2017-02-27. - Solon, Olivia (15 February 2017). "Elon Musk says humans must become cyborgs to stay relevant. Is he right?". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 April 2017. - Putnam, Hilary (1981). Reason, Truth and History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–21. ISBN 9780511625398. - Pringle, David. Science Fiction: The 100 Best Novels. ISBN 0-947761-11-X. Retrieved 16 February 2016. - Berger, Theodore W.; Glanzman, Dennis L., eds. (2005). Toward replacement parts for the brain: implantable biomimetic electronics as neural prostheses. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02577-9. - Gross, Dominik (2009), Blessing or Curse? Nonpharmacological Neurocognitive Enhancement by "Brain Engineering", Medicine Studies. International Journal for the History, Philosophy and Ethics of Medicine & Allied Sciences 1/4, pp. 379–391 - Laryionava, Katsiaryna; Gross, Dominik (2011), Public Understanding of Neural Prosthetics in Germany: Ethical, Social and Cultural Challenges, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics International issue, 20/3, pp. 434–439 - Gross, Dominik (2010), Traditional vs. Modern Neuroenhancement. Notes from a medico-ethical and societal perspective, in: Heiner Fangerau and Thorsten Trapp (Eds.), Implanted Minds (= Science Studies), Bielefeld, pp. 137–157 - Exclusive: A robot with a biological brain | Emerging Technology Trends | ZDNet.com - Theodore Berger's Website - Scientific American article on Jose Delgado - Discover Magazine article on brain implants - Neurotech Reports article on neural-silicon hybrid chips - BrainGate website - 80,000 and Counting, Brain Implants on the Rise World Wide - Brain Implant - Encyclopedia of Computer Science - IEE Explore

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In “How to Read Fiction Step 4, Part 1,” we discussed four ways that writers create living characters in fiction, focusing on the four qualities readers are most likely to perceive first: Characterization Through Naming (1), Through Physical Description (2), Through “Tags” and Catchphrases (3), and Through Associated Objects (4). These characterization techniques give readers an immediate and forceful first impression of characters as they first meet them in fiction. As readers read further and deeper into a tale, they encounter fuller and more subtle means of characterization. Narrators and other characters give readers guidance about main characters. Even more powerful, the characters reveal their own personalities and psyches through their own words and actions. Let’s wade in deeper to see how these techniques work to flesh out fully-developed characters. What Others Say About the Character 5. Characterization by a Narrator Some writers fashion narrators who characterize primarily by “showing.” These narrators bring characters into being for readers by showing them multiple details about how characters look, how they speak, how they dress, or how they feel. Readers must use these details to construct a complete idea of a character’s personality. Other writers don’t leave readers so much alone to draw their own conclusions, but instead just tell them directly what to think about the characters. These narrators don’t just “show,” they “tell.” They explain directly the inner lives, personal qualities, and psychologies of the characters. Sarah Orne Jewett uses this kind of direct narration in her sweet story “A White Heron” when characterizing her 9-year-old protagonist. In the story, shy nature-loving country girl Sylvia is herding home the family cow through the forest when she is surprised by meeting a young man. This handsome young fellow is an ornithologist who is looking for a white heron to shoot, stuff, and add to his collection to study it. Sylvia develops a crush on the kind young man, and determines to find out where the white heron nests so she can give him this knowledge as a gift. Sylvia knows of a very tall tree nearby. She thinks that if she climbs to the top of it at dawn, she will be able to see the heron flying out of his nest and discover his location. In describing Sylvia’s thoughts and actions at this point in the story, Jewett’s narrator tells readers explicitly what Sylvia thinks and feels, even how readers should think and feel about her. When in the hands of a narrator like this one, readers do not need to deduce how to feel about a character or her dilemma, because the narrator makes that explicit. First, the narrator makes sure that readers understand Sylvia’s conflict: if she reports the heron’s location, the ornithologist will kill the bird, consisting of a betrayal of the birds that Sylvia regards as friends. On this point, the narrator comments, “Alas, if the great wave of human interest which flooded for the first time this dull little life should sweep away the satisfactions of an existence heart to heart with nature and the dumb life of the forest!” Later, as Sylvia begins the difficult climb up the tree, the narrator continues to make explicit remarks to help control readers’ feelings and judgments of her: “Who knows how steadily the least twigs held themselves to advantage this light, weak creature on her way! The old pine must have loved his new dependent. More than all the hawks, and bats, and moths, and even the sweet voiced thrushes, was the brave, beating heart of the solitary gray-eyed child.” — Sarah Orne Jewett, “A White Heron” These kinds of directly-expressed sentiments were a very popular means of characterization in 19th century fiction, when “A White Heron” was written, but were still used by some famous writers well into the 20th century. D.H. Lawrence, for instance, fashioned a very controlling narrator for his strange, hypnotic tale “The Horse Dealer’s Daughter,” in which he describes the characters as having feelings that they themselves cannot identify. It makes sense for Lawrence to create a “tell”-style narrator, since Lawrence’s main point in this story is that people are motivated more by unconscious drives than by conscious thoughts. Even the characters can’t fully articulate their feelings and impulses for themselves, so Lawrence’s narrator does it for them. Thus in the story, the moody, silent horse-dealer’s daughter Mabel Pervin and the conscientious young doctor Jack Ferguson find themselves unexpectedly in love after he saves her from drowning herself in a pond. Neither character saw it coming at all. Jack, for one, isn’t even very happy about it. All of this, the narrator must explain, because the characters themselves don’t understand it. We can see Lawrence’s narrator at work in an earlier passage of this story, where he describes Mabel’s brother Fred Henry. In this scene, the family’s horse-dealing business has gone bankrupt, and the family is having a last breakfast together as the remaining horses are led away by their new owner: There was another helpless silence at the table. Joe sprawled uneasily in his seat, not willing to go till the family conclave was dissolved. Fred Henry, the second brother, was erect, clean-limbed, alert. He had watched the passing of the horses with more sang-froid. If he was an animal, like Joe, he was an animal which controls, not one which is controlled. He was master of any horse, and he carried himself with a well-tempered air of mastery. But he was not master of the situations of life. He pushed his coarse brown moustache upwards, off his lip, and glanced irritably at his sister, who sat impassive and inscrutable. D. H. Lawrence–“The Horse-Dealer’s Daughter” These days, it is more the fashion for narrators to provide signs and clues about characters from which readers must figure out what a particular character is like—to “show” more than “tell.” But in Lawrence’s work, we see a narrator who takes firm hold of readers and tells them exactly what is going on in the minds and souls of the characters. Here he suggests to readers that people can be compared to different kinds of animals, leading to further speculation about what unconscious forces may control human behavior. Whether a narrator’s remarks are subtle and indirect, or explicit like Lawrence’s and Jewett’s, what the narrator says about characters is a very important means the writer has for conveying a sense to readers that his or her characters are truly real. 6. Characterization by the Other Characters While the narrator may be the most prominent source of information about a character, the author can also make great use of what the other characters have to say about each other to flesh out an important character. Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway comes to mind here, since in this novel, everybody thinks and talks about everybody else. Clarissa tells herself things about Peter, Peter talks to Sally about Clarissa, Lady Bruton talks to Richard about Clarissa and Peter, Lucrezia talks to Dr. Holmes about Septimus—and on and on. Wuthering Heights is another great example of a novel in which the characters’ observations about each other play a large role in depicting them vividly for readers. For example, housekeeper Nelly sums up the young Cathy as “a wild wick slip but with the sweetest smile.” When the Grange tenant Lockwood compliments the portrait of Edgar, who later married Cathy, Nelly disagrees somewhat with Lockwood’s positive evaluation. She says that Edgar “looked better when he was animated; that is his everyday countenance: he wanted spirit in general.” Although Nelly sometimes goes awry in her understanding of people and events in the novel, she proves herself insightful in these two brief assessments, which taken together pinpoint exactly why Cathy and Edgar, two very opposite personalities, were not completely satisfied by their marriage–one is all energy, while the other lacks it . At another point, a character helps readers understand another character when Cathy warns Isabelle against indulging her crush on Heathcliff. She tells Isabelle, “He’s a fierce, pitiless, wolfish man.” This description doesn’t deter Isabelle, but it may spur readers to question their own attraction to this violent but charismatic character. Sometimes Characters come to Life by Resisting the Characterization of Others Authors can use characters’ speech about other characters another way: they can have a major character contradict those character’s wrong opinions through their thoughts, speech, or actions. Doing this really helps establish a rounded personality for a character, who seems instantly more complex when readers can see the character in a completely different way from how the other characters do. William Faulkner often turns this character development technique into an opportunity to explore a theme: the all-too-human difficulty in understanding other people. In the famous short story “A Rose for Emily,” the narrator, one of Emily’s fellow townspeople, relates all the mistaken guesses, judgments, and surmises that people made about Emily throughout her whole life. Faulkner gets some grim humor out of showing the stubborn but strange Miss Emily contradict one of the town’s predictions after another, and in the end shocking everyone with how very wrong their guesses had always been. How Characters Speak for Themselves Writers don’t always have to be “telling” readers about characters, or having other characters do it for them. Characters can speak, think, and act directly for themselves. Here are three more ways writers use this to establish characters for readers. 7. Characterization Through Speech: How a Character Talks, and Dialogues with Others The older the fiction, the less likely that the characters will sound different from each other when they talk, because differentiating characters by their speech habits was a technique that writers had to invent and develop. But by the end of the 18th century, writers were taking advantage of this delightful and hard-to-craft means of characterization: giving characters their own unique voice, so they sound distinctively different from the other characters when they speak. Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a famous character whose voice is unmistakable from his first line. Twain explains so much about what Huck is like just from the way he speaks, coming to life for readers with every word: You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer; but that ain’t no matter. That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. That is nothing. I never seen anybody but lied one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybe Mary. Aunt Polly—Tom’s Aunt Polly, she is—and Mary, and the Widow Douglas is all told about in that book, which is mostly a true book, with some stretchers, as I said before. –Mark Twain, “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” In Raymond Carver’s wonderful short story “Cathedral,” the distinctively-voiced first person narrator tells the story of how his wife’s blind friend comes to visit them at their not-so-happy home. What he explains, what he chooses to leave out, and his sardonic yet subtly comic tone of voice tells readers a lot about who this guy is. It’s clear from the way he describes the start of the blind man’s visit that he is uncomfortable around people with disabilities. He also seems resentful and jealous of his wife’s friendship with this man: I saw my wife laughing as she parked the car. I saw her get out of the car and shut the door. She was still wearing a smile. Just amazing. She went around to the other side of the car to where the blind man was already starting to get out. This blind man, feature this, he was wearing a full beard! A beard on a blind man! Too much, I say. –Raymond Carver, “Cathedral” Readers get more acquainted with the narrator’s ironic sense of humor when he goes on to describe the uncomfortable dinner that his wife, Robert, and himself eat together. The narrator’s ignorance about blind people is on view, but also a hint that he is developing a little respect for Robert, even if only to admire his method for finding everything on his plate: We dug in. We ate everything there was to eat on the table. We ate like there was no tomorrow. We didn’t talk. We ate. We scarfed. We grazed the table. We were into serious eating. The blind man had right away located his foods, he knew just where everything was on his plate. I watched with admiration as he used his knife and fork on the meat. He’d cut two pieces of the meat, fork the meat into his mouth, and then go all out for the scalloped potatoes, the beans next, and then he’d tear off a hunk of buttered bread and eat that. He’d follow this up with a big drink of milk. It didn’t seem to bother him to use his fingers once in a while, either. We finished everything, including half a strawberry pie. For a few moments, we sat as if stunned. Sweat beaded on our faces. Finally, we got up from the table and left the dirty plates. We didn’t look back. –Raymond Carver, “Cathedral” The detailed, down-home, sarcastic, humorous voice in itself tells readers a lot about the personality, prejudices, and, in spite of everything, the appealing humor of this character. Not only do characters talk to readers; they talk to each other. Writers use dialogue to reveal a lot about characters’ personalities, and their relationships to each other. If you have ever taken a college course in basic fiction or creative writing, you have probably been asked to read Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants.” Written almost entirely in dialogue, this story is a casebook in how writers can subtly convey both character traits and relationships without using hardly any kind of direct narration at all. In the story, the young unmarried couple (“the man” and “the girl”) are waiting for a train at a small station in Spain. The girl tries to engage in light banter, but the man keeps recurring to his argument that she get an abortion. Eventually the girl shuts down the conversation, but not before the reader glimpses her desire to have the baby. The story is a masterpiece that showcases how complex characters can be built using only one or two means of characterization. There’s another great piece of dialogue in the story we just discussed, “Cathedral,” when the narrator has a passive-aggressive argument with his wife while she is peeling potatoes to get ready for their visitor’s dinner. In just a few short speeches, readers can see that the man and his wife are not in sync, and make some good surmises why and whose fault that is. Take a look at the story and enjoy watching the characters develop. 8. What the Character is Thinking Sometimes the writer doesn’t have the character say everything he or she is thinking. In those cases, the portrayal of a character’s inner thoughts is a powerful way of helping readers to experience a character as a real person. In the early days of the novel genre, writers often turned to “epistolary fiction” to help reveal the inner psyches of characters. In an epistolary novel, the story is told by characters in a series of personal letters. Early novelist Samuel Richardson was famous for this technique, used in the novel Pamela and in the massive tale Clarissa. Through writing letters, characters can reveal their most personal thoughts that would not fit naturally into appropriate dialogue they might have in public with other characters. By the beginning of the 19th century, especially after Jane Austen invented “free indirect discourse,” through which she used the narrative voice to report the inner thoughts of the characters without putting their ideas into quoted speeches, writers began more and more to report a character’s inner thoughts. Different writers rely on this technique in different degrees. Recently I have been on a classic detective fiction reading spree, and spent some time with the novels of P. D. James. In her famous characters of DCI Adam Dalgliesh and Detective Inspector Kate Miskin, P. D. James has fashioned two intense people who say very little of what they are actually thinking. If readers had access only to what they say aloud, how they look, and what they do, they would know little about these characters at all, and probably would feel little personal relationship to them. However, James gives readers a constant window on their thoughts, essential information for understanding what these two people are really like. Portraying their inner thoughts enriches them as characters and also gives James room to develop thought-provoking themes by tying them to the ideas going through the minds of her characters. In many novels, especially the comic or the suspenseful, the readers’ enjoyment of the plot may be produced by the writer’s careful management of which character’s thoughts we see, and which we don’t. A couple of famous examples occur in Austen’s Emma and DuMaurier’s Rebecca. Both these novels keep readers inside the minds of characters whose views prove to be somewhat unreliable. They see and report many truths about characters and their actions, but are only partially aware of what is really going on in the minds of other crucial characters. For example, Austen’s Emma Woodhouse is proud of her ability to “read” the minds of other characters; she especially likes to spot characters who she thinks are falling in love with each other. However, as the novel progresses, readers are surprised right alongside Emma herself that she can be quite wrong about everyone’s thoughts and feelings. Indeed, Emma turns out to have misread almost everyone, from the insinuating Mr. Elton, to the reserved Jane Fairfax, to her gentle friend Harriet. Even worse, Emma misunderstands her own inner feelings. Austen has a lot of fun with these discrepancies between Emma’s thoughts and outer realities, and also makes a deft point about human nature. The narrator of DuMaurier’s Rebecca becomes obsessed with her new husband Max’s former deceased wife. She hears from so many characters how wonderful Rebecca was that she imagines and fears that Max will never get over Rebecca’s loss. She assumes Max is wishing he had never married herself. The reader, like the narrator, is kept outside Max’s thoughts the whole time, and must try, alongside the narrator, to surmise from his words and actions how he really feels. This “Max thought blackout” produces much of the suspense of the novel, as readers gradually figure out, along with the narrator, what really went on between Max and Rebecca. 9. Characterization through Actions In real life, they say, actions speak louder than words. In fiction, words describing actions speak very loudly indeed about what all the characters in the story are truly like. Interestingly, though, a character’s actions can be used two ways. An action can reveal or illustrate a permanent quality of a character; it can also do just the opposite: an uncharacteristic action can show readers how a character has changed or developed in the course of the tale. When Actions Reveal Character Most straightforwardly, writers can use actions to show readers what the characters are truly like. In this case, a character’s actions are usually consistent with their speech, inner thoughts, physical descriptions, and so on, just continuing to reveal more and more about what readers have already begun to surmise about a particular character. For instance, Faulkner’s “Barn Burning” begins with a town’s inquiry into whether the protagonist’s father, Abner Snopes, is guilty of burning someone’s barn. Readers don’t long question whether he is guilty, since Abner establishes his mean, resentful, and destructive character with every subsequent action, from the cold orders he gives to his wife, daughters, and little son Sarty, to the way he builds a campfire, to the way he walks machine-like through filth and tracks it defiantly onto his new landlord’s expensive rug. Here, the writer has used actions to confirm and illustrate the character’s inner self. Some fictions mislead readers, and other characters, about a crucial character’s true inner self, then use the character’s actions to reveal the truth about his or her psychology. For instance, in Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad created Mr. Kurtz, a character who at first appears as an upstanding, moral, idealistic person who wants to spread civilization to help others. His speech, appearance, and the opinions of other characters all support this interpretation. However, Marlowe the narrator eventually learns that when Kurtz had found himself alone deep in the jungle, he set himself up as an idol, ruled over others through fear, and engaged in total debauchery. Thus it is the actions of the character that alone provide a powerful contradiction to the earlier mistaken impressions of Mr. Kurtz. In this case, action is the most powerful means of characterization in Conrad’s story. Especially in tragic tales, characters are often depicted as having the seeds of their own destruction already embedded in their psyches. Early hints of a tragic flaw will flower into destructive actions by the end of a tragedy. A famous example from American literature is Moby Dick’s Ahab, who relentlessly stalks the great white whale who has bitten off his leg. The books’ plot springs from Ahab’s implacable anger against nature and this fierce whale who was the cause of his misfortune. In spite of a powerful scene when the ship’s gentle and reasonable first mate gets Ahab to waver, his subsequent actions prove that this need for revenge against the universe is a personal quality too strong to overcome. Actions Can Show How Characters Change Characters don’t always behave predictably or consistently. Often, the suspense of a story involves making the reader wonder exactly what action a character will take in a crucial situation, and thus reveal whether a character will change or just stay the same. In the Faulkner story we discussed above, “Barn Burning,” the protagonist is Abner’s 10 year old son Sarty. Sarty is deeply conflicted about whether he should support his family at all costs—to stick to his “blood”—or to throw his weight on the side of doing “right,” placing himself on the side of people who practice a moral code he admires and believes. As his father Abner prepares to burn down another barn as revenge for a conflict with his landlord, Sarty must decide whether to keep quiet to protect his father, or to warn the man, as he feels is the right thing to do. The action he chooses shows readers whether the character has changed and developed, or not. One of the most famous changes of heart in literature is the turnaround of mean-spirited miser Ebenezer Scrooge in Dickens’s Christmas Carol. In the beginning of the tale, Scrooge is shown taking a variety of actions that establish his overall nastiness: his harsh treatment of his innocent clerk Bob Cratchit, his unpleasantness to his nephew, his disregard for the poor, even his heckling of Christmas carolers. But at the end of the story, his actions demonstrate a very different sort of character: he buys a turkey for Cratchit’s family, gives him a raise, reconciles with his nephew and his wife, and looks after the ailing Tiny Tim. All these actions speak louder than any words could do that Scrooge’s inner character has been revolutionized. This kind of conversion, if properly prepared and accounted for, can be very satisfying to readers, but only if the characters’ depicted actions clearly demonstrate a true and believable change of heart or mind. How Developed are the Characters in the Fiction You Are Reading? In the early days of the novel genre, not all of these characterization techniques had been developed. Thus, if you pick up Daniel Defoe’s great novel Moll Flanders, published in 1722, all the characters talk alike (although they do talk a lot), almost no one has a real name (Moll Flanders is actually just a nickname for “thief”), and we don’t know anything about what anybody looks like. Moll herself is the charming talkative narrator, so we rely on her voice to tell us everything about what the other characters are like, along with observing the few actions allotted to each character. However, by the 19th century, the greatest novels availed themselves of every characterization technique we have discussed. From Part 1: Naming, Physical Appearance, Tags, and Associated Objects; from Part 2: Narrator Explanation, Comments from other Characters, Character Speech and Dialogue, Character’s Inner Thoughts, and Actions. In the 20th century, minimalism came into vogue, with writers choosing to feature just a few characterization techniques from which readers needed to surmise and piece together what all the characters were truly like. What about the 21st century? Go on a “reading mission” to find out! Next time you pick up a current novel or short story, notice how many and what kinds of techniques writers use to paint characters and bring them to life. Today’s novels, especially bestsellers, tend to be short, with a minimal number of techniques used to paint a character. As we learned from examining 20th century masterpieces like The Great Gatsby, a skillful minimalist can communicate a rich characterization with careful use of just a few techniques. But sometimes minimal characterization is just the sign of a lazy writer, or, dare I say, a writer who fears that readers will be lazy? If characterization is lean in a fiction you are reading, decide whether the writer’s technical choices succeed in painting a rich, round character, or just daub a cardboard cutout. I like my fictional characters rich and round. How about you? Comments welcomed! All comments will be held for moderation before publication. Sarah Orne Jewett: See page for author [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons. Moby Dick Final Chase: By I. W. Taber [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons. Mary Jane is a longtime literature lover who lived in the Cincinnati area for many years, then in central Louisiana for three years (what a treat!), teaching literature classes at universities in both locations. Now back in the Cincinnati area, she pampers her grandchildren, experiments with cooking, and visits art museums as often as possible.

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Below are links to videos from our winter concert, which happened at the beginning of March. Enjoy! “The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places you’ll go.” -Dr. Seuss Our engineering challenge this week was for students to build a treehouse that was 13 stories high and sturdy enough that the “big bad wolf” couldn’t blow it down. This wasn’t something that came easy to them. They had to use their problem solving skills to figure out how to build a 13 story treehouse that could stand alone. Kids started to collaborate and help each other. They gave each other feedback and we heard them telling each other that, “Your foundation isn’t strong enough” or “You need to make this part sturdier.” Many kids had to start over, while others had an easier time. The students who finished their 13 stories then went around and helped their friends. Many of the students got frustrated when their treehouse kept falling down, so we talked about the importance of perseverance and not giving up even when things are hard. That is one of our school’s core values that we have been working on. We wanted to give them this experience so that as they are learning to read, they have started to develop the perseverance and grit they need to succeed. Click here to read more about grit, why it is important, and how it helps kids We read Jack and Jill Build a Treehouse, we looked at the book Treehouses of the World, and finished reading the 13 story treehouse. This is a chapter book. Students listen to a read-aloud for 30 minutes each day after lunch. Research states that reading books aloud that are above students’ grade level out loud for half an hour each day helps to increase their vocabulary, comprehension, and reading stamina so our students will become lifelong readers. (Click here to read about the research) This week, students are going to start building their model treehouse out of popsicle sticks and other materials. They will be doing the landscaping for their treehouses as well. What our students had to say about their learning this week: “We have our own ideas to build the treehouses that we want to make…” “Ziplines are cool. They help you get from one place to another without walking.” “We finished reading the book 13 Story Treehouse. It’s one of the best and funniest books.“ “Our engineering challenge this week was to build a treehouse that was 13 stories high. We had to count and keep checking to make sure we had 13 stories. “ “We finished the chapter book 13 story tree house and are now reading 26 Story Treehouse. “ “We are wondering if we can build a 26 story tree house that would be strong enough for a wolf not to blow down. “ “We had to count 13 stories and use platforms in between the stories. We used materials like different types and sizes of wood, blocks, cardboard squares, plastic bubble squares, cubes, half spheres, cardboard circles and a lot of other stuff. “ “We figured out addition math stories. Not tree house stories. “ “We read the book Jack and Jill Build a Treehouse. We could read a lot of the words in the book. The book has pictures with words. You can read the pictures if you can’t read the words.” “Our voices are powerful (when we say something we believe in).” This week was National Engineers Week, so we looked at the question of how we can use technology to inspire girls around STEM. Women are grossly under-represented in STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) careers, so we want to help our girls develop an interest in these fields. We hope to ignite a passion in them so they become doctors, architects, scientists and astronomers. We have an opportunity to start this when they are young so they grow up believing that they can and that they have the ability to do so. We aren’t trying to leave the boys out, but these are male-dominated fields. We want to continue to encourage our boys of color to pursue these fields as well. STEM will open doors of opportunity for all our students. It will help them get into college, earn academic scholarships to pay for college, pursue a career and have a positive impact on the world. Harvard sponsored an discussion with women who are at the top in STEM fields about the importance of giving girls experience with STEM from a young age. You can hear the presentation and discussions at http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/15/02/space-their-own-girls-women-and-stem We have been reading books about and building models of tree houses. We talked about all the different jobs that have to happen for a house to be built. We read a book by Gail Gibbons called How to Build a House and looked at the engineering process of building a house. We watched a video called How a House is Made that gives a step by step process of how a house is built and talks about the different professionals who are needed (electricians, plumbers, contractors, surveyors, brick masons, architects, engineers, etc). Initally, our students had to come up with and write about a house or a treehouse they wanted to build. Secondly they had to draw a blueprint or a plan for what they wanted to build. We have talked about blueprints before (because builders have to read blueprints to know how big to make things), but this was their first make making their own blueprints. Thirdly students had to build their houses or tree houses based on what they drew in their blueprint. We wanted them to understand that builders have to follow blueprints so they build what the architect designed. We went around and asked kids to show us where their designs were in their blueprint. (Can you show me in your blueprint where you put this door?) They had a lot of “Ah-Ha!” moments about the importance of builders having to “read” a blueprint to check their work. The kids have been looking at non-standard measurement as a part of the TERC Investigations math curriculum (students have been using popsicle sticks, cubes and pennies to measure objects around the classroom). This enables them to make connections between math and real life experiences. Following these steps continues to develop their story sequencing and writing skills. The engineering process is connected to both reading (story sequencing) and writing (beginning, next, and the end). When kids are writing we use a graphic organizer to help them organize their ideas visually. It has beginning, middle, next, and end. It is similar to the engineering graphic organizer they used to design their houses, which had them create a plan, enact their plan and then test it out. We have also continued to build houses that the Big Bad Wolf, the Big Bad Boar, and the “Big Bad Ms. Alicia” can’t blow down. We have continued using a variety of materials including blocks, cups, wooden Kapla blocks, cardboard, plastic lids, and bubble wrap. This week was National Engineers Week, so we looked at the question of how we can use technology to inspire girls around STEM. Women are grossly under-represented in STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) careers, so we want to help our girls develop an interest in these fields. We hope to ignite a passion in them so they become the doctors, architects, scientists and astronomers of tomorrow. We have an opportunity to start this when they are young so they grow up believing that they can and that they have the ability to do so. We aren’t trying to leave the boys out, but these are male-dominated fields. We want to continue to encourage our boys of color to pursue these fields as well. STEM will open doors of opportunity for all our students. It will help them get into college, earn academic scholarships to pay for college, pursue a career and have a positive impact on the world. Harvard sponsored an discussion with women who are at the top in STEM fields about the importance of giving girls experience with STEM from a young age. You can hear the presentation and discussions at http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/15/02/space-their-own-girls-women-and-stem Dan Cheek from the North Bennett school came to talk to us last week. He talked to the students about his school and explained that he builds cabinets and other things. He talked about the tools carpenters use. The kids told him how we have been looking at pictures of tree houses around the world. He said that he is going to bring in wood from different African countries so they students can see what it looks like. A tree house, a free house, A secret you and me house, A high up in the leafy branches Cozy as can be house. A street house, a neat house, Be sure and wipe your feet house Is not my kind of house at all– Let’s go live in a tree house. This week we are going to delve deeper into looking at tree houses around the world so our students can start to generate ideas additional ideas for their tree houses. We will be reading the book What Happens To An Idea and students will start putting their ideas onto paper in the form of a blueprint. Following the engineering design process, students have been Imagining what they will use for their tree houses and how they will build them. Next we have been (and will continue to) Exploring tree houses by practicing building houses that the big bad pig, wolf and boar can’t blow down. We read The Three Little Pigs and the Big Bad Boar and the Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig. Now students are ready to start designing their treehouses. They will get graphing paper and pens to draw out their treehouse designs. We are going to continue to brainstorm ideas for our class model of an outdoor classroom of tree houses at the Savin Hill Cove. Dan Cheek from the North Bennett School will be coming to talk to our class about designing and building tree houses and other projects using wood. He has some pictures of children engaged in woodworking from a hundred years ago. We are going to be looking at pictures built in countries around the world, including ones in Kenya, Germany and Spain. We will select one to build in the block area. As they design their treehouses, they will be making a plan for how they are going to build their treehouses. They are going to be thinking about what materials they are going to use and what steps they need to take to build. We are going to continue integrating the Three Little Pigs across the curriculum. Enjoy! If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairy tales. If you want them to be very intelligent, read them more fairy tales. -Albert Einstein This week we started talking about fairy tales. We talked about what the students know and want to learn and when we are done with this unit, we will talk about what they have learned. We read The 3 Little Pigs, Billy Goats Gruff, and the Little Red Hen and with each story, we talked about the title, characters, setting, plot and solution. Now we are going to focus on the three little pigs story. Next week we will read different versions of the story. The kids are really excited about the different versions we will be reading, particularly The Three Ninja Pigs, The Three Little Aliens and the Big Bad Robot, The Three Little fish and the Big, Bad Shark, The Three Little Wolves and the Big, Bad Pig, The Three Little Gators and Big Bad Boar, The Three Little Javelinas, and The Three Little Cajun Pigs. They are just thrilled we will get to read all these different versions. We are going to connect geography to the stories by looking at where the stories originate. We will be using a map to show the students where those places are. Going along with the mapping, we want to put our construction unit in a global context for kids by having them build structures from around the world. There are many paths for teaching the Focus on K2 curriculum, and we are developing our own independent path, the Focus on Kindersteam (Steam stands for Science, Technology, Engineering, Art and Math.) With this in mind, each day we will put up a picture of a different structure in the block area so students can build their version of it. Students requested that we read The Three Ninja Pigs first. That story takes place in Japan, so we will be finding Japan on a map, talking about how to find Japan on a map, learning some Japanese words, and then building one of the Japanese buildings that are in the illustrations of this book. We are going to blow up one of the illustrations and have them use the illustrations to guide their building in the block area. As we read all these versions of the Three Little Pigs, we will continue talking about elements of story, focusing on beginning, middle, and end. Additionally, students are going to design a set from the book so they can act out the story in the dramatic play area, which we are converting in our “Black Box Theater.” Reading and writing will also be integrated into the curriculum. We will be continuing with the guided reading books and writing responses to what we are reading as well as writing about the beginning, middle and end of the story. In math, we are starting a measurement unit. We will be measuring different objects around the classroom (how many cubes long is my shoe?). We will also be continuing with addition and subtraction. For engineering, we will be building structures from around the world, working on designing and building tree houses and thinking about how the materials we use impact the strength of the structure. Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn. – Benjamin Franklin During the month of January, we defined what an autobiography is (which is a really big word for a 5 year old) and have been reading interesting autobiographies by Jackie Robinson, Bessie Coleman, and other African American inventors, scientists, engineers, athletes, and activists. Now each student is writing their own autobiography, including their room in their house, a self portrait, interesting facts about them, things they like to do with their family and friends, and how old they are. We also asked them to visualize and then build their favorite place in or outside of their home. Some students chose to build their bedrooms and others chose to make their backyard where they like to barbecue. Teachers looked up the meaning of students’ names. For example, Jamal means handsome and Jael means leader. Students were very excited to learn the meaning of their names and have internalized that meaning with pride. For example, once Jael found out that his name means leader, he has really stepped up as a leader in our class, has helped other students and has been leading through example and continues to “tell” other people that his name means leader. Our class has been exploring and practicing how to use shapes as a way of drawing pictures. For example, they can use an oval to make a face and circles to make eyes. During Writer’s Workshop, students are sounding out words and writing the sounds they hear (you might hear them say, “I’m stretching the word out like a rubber band” at home), making letter and sound connections, using sight words in their writing with standard spelling, leaving spaces between words, and rereading what they’ve written. Each student built their favorite place in or outside their home. As a part of our storytelling curriculum, students dictated their “story” about this favorite place to a teacher. Storytelling is an important tool to use for kids developing literacy skills. Building and making is a way for some students to know something deeply, while others learn best through seeing, hearing, and speaking. We want to give you a glimpse of what students are doing in the classroom so you are virtually visiting the Dolphin class and learning with your child. This is a way for you to spark a conversation with your child about what they are learning. We feel that the parent and school connection is vital to student’s success in school. Below you will find your child’s story and model of their favorite place at home. “I built my bedroom and kitchen at my house. The living room has my cousin playing games on iPads with me. I used a lot of 3-D shapes; squares, rectangular prisms, a big cube and a small cubes. I also used a triangular prism. In my kitchen, I have my grandpa and grandma, my dad and mom’s friends. My uncle is there too. They are eating pancakes.” -Jael “I built my bedroom. I built my mom’s bedroom too. I like to sleep in my bedroom and play games on my mom’s phone. I try and read books in my bedroom like fairytale books. I used rectangles, cubes, squares, and rectangular prisms. That’s it.” -Cameran “My favorite room in my house is the kitchen. I like to cook with my mom. We like to make pancakes, bake cakes, make chicken and rice and beans. Sometimes I color with my mom in the kitchen. I used triangular prism, cubes, rectangular prism and bears.” -Amarilis “My favorite room is my bedroom in my house. Mommy and Daddy are sitting on the bed with me. I’m the red person, my dad is the yellow person and my mom is the blue person. I used cubes, triangles and a rectangle for the door. ” -Lenin “The living room is my favorite room in my house. We get to watch TV and watch the Disney Channel. I jump on the chair and put my face in the chair. Sometimes I play with my brother in the living room. We play jump on the chair and that’s all. I used the 3-D shapes like rectangular prisms, flat squares and one cube.” -Jamal “My favorite place in my house is outside in my backyard. We have barbecues a lot with all of my family. My Great-Grandma, my Mommy, my Nana, Uncle Tim and my big cousin Kendra. We eat a lot of steak and my Uncle Tim loves steak. We have a dance contest. I like to dance and win. That’s the end. I used a lot of cubes, triangular prisms, rectangular prisms, and a pyramid. I also used only yellows tiles and some of the colored bears.” -Nehemiah “My favorite room is my kitchen. I built a table with my mom, dad, me and my cousin Poppa. We are eating pancakes together. I built the stove to cook the pancakes on and my refrigerator. I used one rectangle, four small cubes for pancakes, a rectangle for my kitchen table. The stove is one big cube, and four small cubes for the knobs to turn on the fire. I like to make popcorn, sometimes muffins and oatmeal.” -KhaiRyce “My favorite place is my living room. I built a TV with video games. Me and my dad are sitting on the couch playing video games. I used a cone, cubes and rectangles. I used two tiny cubes.” -Jason “I built the floor of my bedroom first. I’m sitting on the floor in my bedroom. I built my bed where I sleep when I get tired. I have toys in my room and a dresser to put my clothes. I used cubes, squares and rectangles.” -Yuri Here is a conversation we overheard today. Stanley and Jamal were working on repairing their dam. Stanley said, “I don’t want to get my hands dirty if we need to repair the dam.” Jamal replied, “Beavers use their mouth and their paws to mix the mud and they don’t care. Why should you? We can just go and wash our hands.” Stanley responded, “You make a good point” and then dug in. Today and yesterday, students have been building marble ramps out of cardboard tubes, plastic marble run parts, and refrigerator packaging. Yesterday, some of the students built a marble ramp in the classroom. In addition to a ramp, they created a wall so the marbles didn’t go flying across the classroom. LaQuan was working on this and told Ms. Alicia that he, “want(s) to draw a blueprint of the Super Marble Run” and “make improvements and test out the marble spheres.” Other students put together plastic pieces to make a ramp. Today we used long, thick cardboard tubes and three different kinds of balls. We tested what we had to do to make the balls go through the tubes and how the speeds of the different balls compared (the marble was always the fastest!). One of the tubes had a bend in it, and even though the marble would go through, the bouncy ball kept getting stuck. The students loved chasing the balls around the hallway and experimenting with the angle of the tube to make the ball go farther and faster.

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Australian literature, the body of literatures, both oral and written, produced in Australia. Perhaps more so than in other countries, the literature of Australia characteristically expresses collective values. Even when the literature deals with the experiences of an individual, those experiences are very likely to be estimated in terms of the ordinary, the typical, the representative. It aspires on the whole to represent integration rather than disintegration. It does not favour the heroicism of individual action unless this shows dogged perseverance in the face of inevitable defeat. Although it may express a strong ironic disapproval of collective mindlessness, the object of criticism is the mindlessness rather than the conformity. This general proposition holds true for both Indigenous Australians and those descended from later European arrivals, though the perception of what constitutes the community is quite radically different in these two cases. The white Australian community is united in part by its sense of having derived from foreign cultures, primarily that of England, and in part by its awareness of itself as a settler society with a continuing celebration of pioneer values and a deep attachment to the land. For Aboriginal peoples in their traditional cultures, story, song, and legend served to define allegiances and relationships both to others and to the land that nurtured them. For modern Aboriginal people, written literature has been a way of both claiming a voice and articulating a sense of cohesion as a people faced with real threats to the continuance of their culture. Aboriginal narrative: the oral tradition When first encountered by Europeans, Australian Aboriginal peoples did not have written languages (individual words were collected from first contact, but languages as systems were not written down until well into the 20th century). Their songs, chants, legends, and stories, however, constituted rich oral literature, and, since the Aboriginal peoples had no common language, these creations were enormously diverse. Long unavailable to or misunderstood by non-Aboriginal people, their oral traditions appear (from researches undertaken in the last half of the 20th century) to be of considerable subtlety and complexity. The oral literature of Aboriginal peoples has an essentially ceremonial function. It supports the fundamental Aboriginal beliefs that what is given cannot be changed and that the past exists in an eternal present, and it serves to relate the individual and the landscape to the continuing spiritual influence of the Dreaming (or Dreamtime)—widely known as the Alcheringa (or Altjeringa), the term used by the Aboriginal peoples of central Australia—a mythological past in which the existing natural environment was shaped and humanized by ancestral beings. While the recitation of the song cycles and narratives is to some extent prescribed, it also can incorporate new experience and thus remain applicable—both part of the past (called up by the Ancestors) and part of the present. Aboriginal oral tradition may be public (open to all members of a community and often a kind of entertainment) or sacred (closed to all but initiated members of one or the other sex). Narratives of the public sort range from stories told by women to young children (mostly elementary versions of creation stories—also appropriate for tourists and amateur anthropologists) to the recitation of song cycles in large gatherings (known as corroborees). Even the most uncomplicated narratives of the Dreaming introduce basic concepts about the land and about what it is that distinguishes right behaviour from wrong. When children are old enough to prepare for their initiation ceremonies, the stories become more elaborate and complex. Among the sacred songs and stories are those that are men’s business and those that are women’s business; each is forbidden to the eyes and ears of the other sex and to the uninitiated. The chief subject of Aboriginal narratives is the land. As Aboriginal people travel from place to place, they (either informally or ceremonially) name each place, telling of its creation and of its relation to the journeys of the Ancestors. This practice serves at least three significant purposes: it reinforces their knowledge of local geography—that is, the food routes, location of water holes, places of safety, places of danger, the region’s terrain, and so on—and it also serves a social function (sometimes bringing large clans together) and a religious or ritual function. Many of the stories have to do with the journeys of the Ancestors and the “creation sites,” places at which they created different clans and animals. Other stories concern contests between Ancestor figures for power and knowledge. A sequence of stories or songs—a story track or song line—identifies the precise route taken by an Ancestor figure. Knowledge and recitation of the journey of each totemic figure are the responsibility of that figure’s totemic clan. (Members of an immediate biological family belong to different totems, or Dreamings. Totem membership can be determined in various ways, from association with a locale to an acknowledgment of spiritual kinship.) Because an Ancestor’s journey is often traced over vast stretches of land, only a segment of the entire song cycle or story is known to a particular group. These are exchanged at meeting points, and, though the songs may be sung in a different language, an Ancestor’s story contains musical elements that make it clearly identifiable to all members of that totem, from whatever part of the country. Song lines and story tracks can be traced over the entire country. In this way oral literature sustains the sense of continuity between the clans as well as between the present and the time of creation. Important stories that deal with the activities of perhaps just one or two of the ancestral figures and belong to adjacent areas and adjacent clans may constitute a song cycle. Some of these stories do not allow for variation and constitute a formal literature with precise structures and particular language. For example, repetition is an important structural device. Verb forms and tenses indicate the unchanging yet ongoing relationship between the ancestral past and the present. The persistent theme of transformation, a theme characteristic of many oral literatures, is for the people a way of access to their mythic past, to the eternal present of the Dreaming. The Djanggawul song cycle recounts in 188 songs the journey of three ancestral beings, a Brother and Two Sisters, in the Millingimbi region. Those Ancestors created all that territory. Water holes become sacred because there they created the people of a particular totem or there an important aspect of the law was established. Places acquire a name; they come into being. Much of the cycle is about fertility and increase and about the relations between men and women. For example, men steal from the Sisters the sacred objects and the power that goes with them, and, while that legend might appear to concede the dominance of men in tribal practice (according to custom), it also acknowledges women as the original source of power and knowledge. Above all, the oral literature of Aboriginal peoples is involved with performance. It is not simply a verbal performance. Traditional song is very often associated with dance, and storytelling with gesture and mime. Or stories may be accompanied by diagrams drawn in the sand and then brushed away again. Each song, each narrative, is in effect acted out. Storytellers will customarily announce who they are, where they come from, and what their relation to the story is, as though they are its agent. They may provide a frame for their story. They use the common devices of oral literature such as repetition and enumeration and formulaic expression. But they always take care with their songs and stories; they are as careful with imagery and symbolism, with the figures of speech, as they are with other aspects of ceremony. The intention of the song man or storyteller is not to assert a sense of individuality but to identify the continuing validity of the song or the story. There may be direct address to the listener (or, in more recent times, the reader), but this is a device of inclusion. It is also a stratagem to ensure understanding, providing the opportunity for explanation and elaboration whenever that is desirable. Increasingly, traditional Aboriginal peoples have permitted their songs and stories to be collected and recorded for the time when the young people, who they feel show little interest in their traditional literature at present, return to the old ways of custom. The non-Aboriginal person’s knowledge of this traditional literature relies almost entirely on printed translation. What non-Aboriginal people are permitted to read is therefore at least twice removed from its proper context—once by its metamorphosis from oral to written and again by its translation. Even with the most sympathetic mind and the most comprehensive set of footnotes, the non-Aboriginal person has little means of assessing the relation of custom to individual performance. Further, there remains the residual perception of the nature of traditional Aboriginal literature formed on a number of early, well-intentioned collections of myths and legends, such as Catherine Langloh Parker’s Australian Legendary Tales (1896) or Alan Marshall’s People of the Dreamtime (1952), where the stories are reshaped to meet European notions of narrative design and structure. Anthropologists Catherine H. and Ronald M. Berndt were the first to publish traditional narratives and songs in full in the original language (though linguists have still not agreed on how best to represent Aboriginal speech), then with a translation and a commentary. One good example of their work is Three Faces of Love: Traditional Aboriginal Song-Poetry (1976). This approach enables at least an initial appreciation of the subtlety and the artistry of the oral tradition. Not all Aboriginal song and story is in Indigenous dialect. In the 1970s and ’80s, as Aboriginal people began to write in formal English, some began to express themselves in what might be called Aboriginal English, an English that is different from standard English. It is formed in short, simple sentences, and it makes considerable use of repetition with variation. It also conveys a certain dignity—and a rich sense of humour. Some versions of this can be found in the different narratives included in Sally Morgan’s My Place (1987) and, more sensitive still as a transcription, in Paddy Roe’s Gularabulu: Stories from the West Kimberley (1983). In the last decades of the 20th century, the poet and storyteller Maureen Watson helped to maintain the oral tradition by reading on radio and television and by performing at schools. The century after settlement Almost as soon as settlement of New South Wales began, in 1788, reports of the “new” country were sent back to England. The public was interested not in the routine of convict life but in the details of strange new flora and fauna. In the colony itself there was little time for any other than practical considerations. Early publications were dominated by reports of new lands and rivers, journeys of exploration, summaries of what had so far been discovered in the “new” continent. Yet there were some who attempted to interpret their experience as best they could. There were early expressions of local pride by those born in the colony, such as the poets Charles Tompson and William Wentworth in Australasia (1823), but those who were serving a tour of duty in the Antipodes, like the unfortunately named Barron Field, were more inclined to see their experiences in terms of disbelief, sometimes comic disbelief. Field’s First Fruits of Australian Poetry (1819) was the first volume of poetry published in Australia. Those who were likely to spend a much longer term in New South Wales, as the colony was then known, expressed a profound nostalgia for “home.” The sense of exile was keenly felt by the anonymous composers of convict songs and bush ballads alike. The prose writers exhibited the inquiring mind of the 18th century; a scientific interest in the novelties of the new world and their perception of man as a social being show that, while the Romantic movement was under way in Europe, early Australia was essentially fostered by the Enlightenment. Watkin Tench’s A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay (1789) and its sequel, A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson (1793), were immediately popular in Europe. Matthew Flinders’s A Voyage to Terra Australis (1814) is another example of this engaging literature of discovery. Yet touches of the Romantics arrived speedily enough. By mid-century Charles Harpur, the child of ex-convicts, was writing rugged, well-sustained poems that were responsive to the landscape in the manner of William Wordsworth. In other poems he imitated the idealism of Percy Bysshe Shelley. Harpur also had made a careful study of Emersonian ideas. But his poetry and prose were not easily available beyond their occasional appearance in the colonial press, and only in modern times has a proper estimation of his work been undertaken. A collection of his poems, Poems by Charles Harpur, was published in 1883. Adam Lindsay Gordon was a much more popular poet. “The Sick Stockrider” from his Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes (1870) was a general favourite, much admired and much recited. It conveyed a sense of comradeship, mapped a world by a bushman’s kind of detail, and exhibited a stoic sentimentalism that was exactly to colonial taste. Henry Kendall, a poet of forests and mountain streams, specialized in more mournful effects. As his is a poetry of sound and description rather than of action (as clearly evinced in his volume Leaves from Australian Forests ), it is not always clear that he was wrestling with some broadly transcendentalist notions. The first Australian novel, Henry Savery’s Quintus Servinton, was published in 1831. It is strongly autobiographical, and its convict theme amounts to special pleading. But it does not emphasize the exotic possibilities of its Australian scenes. James Tucker’s Ralph Rashleigh; or, The Life of an Exile (written in 1844; published in an edited version in 1929 and in its original text in 1952), on the other hand, makes use of all the sensational opportunities at hand. It begins as a picaresque account of low-life London and proceeds through the whole gamut of convict life, escape, bushrangers, and life among Aboriginal peoples. One of its most telling moments is Ralph’s panic at being lost in the bush, a theme that compelled many colonial writers and painters. The first widely known novel of Australia was Recollections of Geoffry Hamlyn (1859) by Henry Kingsley, brother of Charles Kingsley. When the action at last moves from Devon to Australia, the story transposes into heroic romance, and it too manages to incorporate the sensational possibilities of the colonial experience: bushrangers and bushfires, floods and hostile Aboriginal peoples, the tragic outcome of being lost in the bush, cattle branding and horse galloping, and a fortune earned. Catherine Helen Spence’s Clara Morison (1854) details with a nice sense of irony the social preoccupations of Adelaide in the mid-19th century, but it was not a well-known novel. Marcus Clarke’s His Natural Life (1874; the antecedent phrase For the Term of was inserted without authority after his death) is the first novel regarded as an Australian classic. It is a powerful account of the convict experience, drawing heavily on documentary sources. Within the rigours and perversions of the convict system, another social system forms itself and establishes its own code. But beyond the horrors and the brutality, there is a compensating moral theme, that of goodness recognized. Clarke uses his Australian material to approach universal values. Both Clarke and Rolf Boldrewood (pseudonym of Thomas Alexander Browne) initially published their fiction in serial installments in colonial magazines such as the Australian Journal and The Sydney Mail. Boldrewood’s Robbery Under Arms (1888) was immensely popular, and it too achieved classic status. Of particular interest is the Australian vernacular in which the narrator, Dick Marston, presents his confession of his part in gang activity. Boldrewood also articulates the sentimental, stoic resignation that colonial Australians seemed to favour. Other novelists who had established themselves by the late 1800s were Rosa Praed—her Policy and Passion (1881) is an interesting account of the personal life of a Queensland politician—and the prolific Ada Cambridge. Not to be forgotten in any account of the first hundred years are the published journals of the explorers. Not only were their discoveries of widespread interest, but many of them—including Charles Sturt, Edward John Eyre, and Sir Thomas Livingstone Mitchell—were accomplished writers. Eyre’s account of his struggle around the Great Australian Bight (a wide embayment of the Indian Ocean) inspired the Australian novelist Patrick White in writing Voss (1957), although White modeled that novel in part on the experiences of Ludwig Leichhardt, explorer and naturalist who in the 1840s led a dangerous expedition through interior Australia that resulted in the discovery of many sites suitable for settlement. Nationalism and expansion The centenary year 1888 provided the occasion for review and reassessment, and almost inevitably that activity encouraged the growing nationalist sentiment already in evidence in such publications as the weekly Bulletin (founded 1880). The last 20 years of the 19th century saw a marked growth of nationalism and the movement toward federation of the separate states. The Bulletin, with its rallying cry of “Australia for the Australians,” was ardently nationalistic. It urged its contributors to “write Australian” and to celebrate above all the virtues of the Australian worker, especially the bush worker. It endorsed the egalitarian myth of mateship rather than the independence of the little man, the battler, who struggles on his own against the odds. It espoused a cheerful, somewhat larrikin (Australian word meaning, among other things, “rowdy,” or “irresponsible”) brashness, and in this it revealed its underlying urban orientation. Other papers and magazines of the period actively published Australian writing, but the Bulletin attracted the utopian idealists and the sentimental realists who dominated Australian writing at the end of the century. It advocated a spare, laconic style; it preferred a humorous attitude to life’s hardships; and it favoured themes of national pride, the values of rural life, and sympathy for the struggles of small-scale farmers. Among its many contributors, A.B. (“Banjo”) Paterson was acclaimed for composing “Waltzing Matilda” and for his bush ballads, and Henry Lawson published his greatest short stories there. (Among the collections of Lawson’s work are While the Billy Boils and Children of the Bush ). Curiously, at the very time the image of young Australia was being so vigorously advanced, Paterson and Lawson and Steele Rudd (pseudonym of Arthur Hoey Davis) showed a pronounced tendency to nostalgia, to the distant in time or place. Joseph Furphy, resisting the call for succinctness, wrote a large complex novel, Such Is Life (1903), describing the rural world of the 1880s. It overflows with details of station life, the conversations of bullock drivers, nationalistic sentiments, and philosophical meditations about chance and determinism. The reading of the Australian experience in terms of bush realism was open to challenge. Barbara Baynton’s stories in Bush Studies (1902) subvert the persistent “matey” ethos, suggesting instead the darkly disturbing side of bush experience. Christopher Brennan, in such volumes as Poems 1913 (1913), virtually ignored local preoccupations in his Symbolist poetry; he tapped instead the deep sources of spiritual restlessness, particularly through the use of myth and archetype. Some popular writers, such as C.J. Dennis in his verses about the Sentimental Bloke, relocated many of the bush attitudes to the inner city. By the early decades of the 20th century, the era of bushranging, convictism, and exploration was far enough in the past to be regarded as historical colour. It also was fully expected that the Aboriginal peoples would also pass away—Daisy Bates, who lived for many years among Aboriginal people, used as the title of her book about her experiences the standard phrase The Passing of the Aborigine (1938). Aboriginal people had become the subject of anthropological interest in the work of Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer and Francis James Gillen in Central Australia, and Aboriginal legends had been collected and rewritten by K. Langloh Parker, although there was still very little interest in Aboriginal people as people. Such interest as existed was—in the manner of the times—proprietary, as in Mrs. Aeneas Gunn’s The Little Black Princess (1905) for young readers and in her autobiographical We of the Never-Never (1908), about her experiences on a station in the Northern Territory, the last region of Australia to attract European expansion. It still regards itself as the quintessential Outback. The first great phase of writing for children also occurred in the Federation era (Australia’s version of the Edwardian period, extending from 1901, when the Australian provinces formed a federation, to just beyond the end of World War I), a time of widespread wealth and security and, for the middle class, of social consolidation. The books for children reflect this atmosphere; they also reflect another reality, the easy acceptance of both Australian and British Empire loyalties. Classic works were written by Ethel Turner, Ethel Pedley, Amy and Louise Mack, May Gibbs, and Mary Grant Bruce (a little later), and Norman Lindsay’s wonderful The Magic Pudding (1918) became standard fare for generations of Australian children. The character of the times is perhaps best represented in the work of such diverse writers as Mary Gilmore, Walter Murdoch, and Miles Franklin. The life span of each of them stretched from colonial times into the modern era; in both their lives and their writing, they represented continuity. Each expressed a kind of independence from time: Gilmore by the long reach of her memory, apparent in such volumes as Old Days, Old Ways: A Book of Recollections (1934); Murdoch by the gentle whimsy and conversational ease of his essays, as in Speaking Personally (1930); and Franklin by her absorption in the realm of Australian pastoral in such novels as Up the Country (1928), though she is mostly remembered by her early pseudoautobiographical My Brilliant Career (1901). John Shaw Neilson, in the sheer shimmering beauty of his lyric poetry, achieves another order of timelessness, that of the moment of true perception, at once unworldly and firmly located in the natural world. E.J. Banfield stepped aside from the world for reasons of health and wrote from his island on the Great Barrier Reef a series of books beginning with Confessions of a Beachcomber (1908) that reflected, often wryly, on natural history and the advantages of the contemplative life. Jack McLaren in My Crowded Solitude (1926) was another who encountered timelessness for a time. And C.E.W. Bean found the same slow rhythms of experience out on the great Western plains (On the Wool Track ) and down the Darling River (The Dreadnought of the Darling ). Like Banfield and Murdoch, he identified a genial world and men whose essential character he admired, and, when he entered the world of torrid events as Australia’s official war historian, his thesis was that the courage and resourcefulness of the Australian soldier, the digger, was in fact derived from the bushman—that these were but two manifestations of the national type. The same perception is present in Keith Hancock’s Australia (1930), a reading of Australian history in terms of character. The most impressive novelist of the period was Henry Handel Richardson (pseudonym of Ethel Florence Lindesay Robertson). Her Maurice Guest (1908), set in Leipzig, Germany, is an antiromantic novel about ordinariness caught up with genius, provincialism among the exotic, the tragedy of an insufficiently great passion. Her three-volume masterpiece, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony (1917–29), traces the fluctuating fortunes of the immigrants who established the new urban Australia in the late 19th century. The last volume, Ultima Thule, graphically describes conditions in the goldfields and brings its character studies of the temperamentally opposite spouses Richard and Mary to a profoundly moving climax. Katharine Susannah Prichard’s realism in Working Bullocks (1926) and in Coonardoo (1929), her sympathetic portrait of an Aboriginal woman, was of a more romantic nature. For others, such as Kylie Tennant and Eleanor Dark, realism served social and historical ends. Modernism arrived with the poetry of Kenneth Slessor (as evidenced in such of his volumes as Earth-Visitors and Five Bells ) and R.D. FitzGerald (Forty Years’ Poems and Product: Later Verses by Robert D. FitzGerald ). Slessor was committed to the importance of the image; FitzGerald was of a more philosophical bent and developed complex arguments in his poems. During the 1930s both became preoccupied with history and the concept of time. The Depression years directed attention back to the comparable experiences of the early 1890s and confirmed the defining status of that period in Australian cultural mythology, the apotheosis of the acclaimed national virtues—mateship, humorous stoicism, populist pragmatism, and irony. It was also a time of international awakening, and it was a time of discovery, as the many books about travel, especially in the Australian Outback, testify. Among the discoveries of that period was a romantic notion of the spirit of place and the importance, for writers, of what could still be discerned of Aboriginal culture: this discovery gave rise to the Jindyworobak movement, which had as its goal the freeing of Australian art from “alien” influences. By apt coincidence, Xavier Herbert’s Capricornia (1938) was published at this time. Herbert’s sprawling comic anarchy, his maverick vision, and the sense of remoteness from regulated society all derive from his Northern Territory milieu. But Capricornia also displays all the themes important to the Jindyworobak movement: concern for the Aboriginal, discovery of the Outback, social protest, and the true spirit of Australia. Before long, however, world events overwhelmed the movement completely.

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Native American Heritage Month In response to an effort by many to gain a day of recognition for the great influence American Indians have had upon the U.S., Congress designated a week of October to celebrate Native American Awareness Week in 1976. Yearly legislation was enacted to continue the tradition until August 1990, when President Bush approved the designation of November as National American Indian Heritage Month. Each year a similar proclamation is issued. President Clinton noted in 1996, “Throughout our history, American Indian and Alaska Native peoples have been an integral part of the American character. Against all odds, America’s first peoples have endured, and they remain a vital cultural, political, social, and moral presence.” November is an appropriate month for the celebration because it is traditionally a time when many American Indians hold fall harvest and world-renewal ceremonies, powwows, dances, and various feasts. The holiday recognizes hundreds of different tribes and approximately 250 languages, and celebrates the history, tradition, and values of American Indians. National American Indian Heritage Month serves as a reminder of the positive effect native peoples have had on the cultural development and growth of the U.S., as well as the struggles and challenges they have faced. Panamanian Independence Month The Fiestas Patrias (literally ‘Homeland Festivals’) mark the process by which Panama achieved independence from Spain in 1821, then Colombia in 1903, and (more empirically) from the United States with the handover of the Panama Canal in 1999. The celebration extends over the entire month of November, with various days singled out for their respective honors. Last Day to Drop, Withdraw, Declare Pass/Not-Pass, or Audit for Full Semester Classes Last day to Drop or Withdraw (student will receive an automatic W grade), declare Pass/Not-Pass, and Change to or from Audit for Full Semester Classes. In remembrance of Kristallnacht (“Night of Broken Glass”). On November 9-10, 1938, after a series of attacks, thousands of Jewish homes, shops, schools and synagogues were ransacked and destroyed, leaving the streets covered in pieces of smashed windows – the origin of the name Kristallnacht or “Night of Broken Glass.” In November 1919, President Wilson proclaimed November 11 as the first commemoration of Armistice Day with the following words: “To us in America, the reflections of Armistice Day will be filled with solemn pride in the heroism of those who died in the country’s service and with gratitude for the victory, both because of the thing from which it has freed us and because of the opportunity it has given America to show her sympathy with peace and justice in the councils of the nations…” The original concept for the celebration was for a day observed with parades and public meetings and a brief suspension of business. Haven is a required online course for all in-coming freshmen and transfer students to complete to initiate understanding of consent, sexual assault, relationship violence, and bystander intervention. If this course is not completed by the student prior to the student’s spring registration date within the student’s first year at Missouri State University, a Registration Hold will be placed on the student’s account. This hold will be lifted from the account once completion of Haven has occurred. To Log In: - Always sign in at: my.missouristate.edu - After signing in, go under the Academics tab and find the New Student or Transfer Student section. Within this square, there is a training section and the Haven link is in this area. To access Haven, choose the link and you can begin. Course problems? Contact Emma Rapp, Dean of Students Graduate Assistant at Rapp703_@missouristate.edu or at (417) 836-6087 Those with disabilities who may not be able to access Haven because of the instructional format or design of the training program may request an accommodation by contacting the Disability Resource Center at email@example.com or 417-836-4192 “A Musical Salute to Our Veterans” Concert Sunday, November 9 at 4pm, Juanita K. Hammons Hall The Missouri State University Bands will be presenting its annual “A Musical Salute To Our Veterans” Concert on Sunday, November 9 at 4:00 p.m. in the Juanita K. Hammons Hall for the Performing Arts. Entertainment ensembles, the Jazz Band and the the entire Pride Marching Band will combine forces to present an afternoon of inspiration, appreciation and entertainment. Featured speaker this year will be noted television personality, Jerry Jacob. CNAS Public Lecture Series: Nanobiochemistry: Nanoparticles for Biological Applications Tuesday, November 11 at 7:30pm, Temple Hall 002 Nanoscience is a burgeoning field that overlaps with many of the physical and natural sciences. Research in nanoscience has provided us many different types of new nanoscale materials that have found very promising applications in biological and biomedical circumstances. For example, cationic polymers and lipids can self—assemble with nucleic acids to form nano–to micro–sized “polyplexes”, which have been used for nucleic acid therapies (e.g. gene therapy). In addition, many inorganic nanoparticles and nanocrystals can be functionalized to interact with biological systems. Gold nanoparticles can be observed via both light and electron microscopy. Semiconductor quantum dot nanoparticles are intensely fluorescent, allowing researchers to observe single biomolecules in living systems. As a further enhancement, doping inorganic nanoparticles with MRI—active elements, such as Gadolinium, allows multi–modal imaging in light microscopy, electron microscopy, and magnetic resonance imaging. This lecture will investigate some ways nanoparticles are being used in biological and biomedical applications. Katye Fichter, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry David Glass Lecture Series – Dr. Jason Selk Monday, November 10 at 2:30pm, PSU Auditorium Dr. Jason Selk will be on campus to talk to students about Executive Toughness, a mental training program to develop leadership performance. While serving as the Director of Mental Training for the St Louis Cardinals, Dr. Jason Selk helped the team win their first World Series in over 20 years, and in 2011 he assisted the Cardinals in the historic feat of winning their second World Championship in a six year period. Dr. Selk is a regular contributor to Forbes, ABC, CBS, ESPN, and NBC radio and television and has been featured in USA Today, CNBC, Men’s Health, Muscle and Fitness, Shape and Self Magazine. Dr Selk’s second book,Executive Toughness, is a best-selling business book and his first book,10-Minute Toughness, is on pace to be one of the best-selling sport psychology books of all time. Dr. Selk utilizes his in-depth knowledge and experience of working with the world’s finest athletes, coaches and business leaders to help individuals and organizations outperform their competition. Dr. Selk works with such clients as professional athletes in the NFL, NHL, NBA, PGA, LPGA, MLB and NASCAR. In addition, he works with such business clients as UBS Financial, Edward Jones, Wells Fargo, Northwestern Mutual and Enterprise Holdings, to name a few. Flameco Vivo / Carlota Santana: The Soul of Flamenco Tuesday, November 11 at 7:30pm, Juanita K. Hammons Hall What is the Soul of Flamenco? It is not only the performers themselves, but what they carry inside – the impassioned investment of each dancer, singer, and musician. Flamenco is an expression of feeling, a community built on emotions. Happiness, sadness, joy, and sorrow are translated through this eloquent art form, expressing the vital essence that lives within each of us. These universal emotions are shared across time and physical boundaries, and are the foundation of Flamenco. Flamenco Vivo brings an exciting evening of Flamenco to the stage, featuring accomplished artists from the United States and Spain. The performance will include celebrated repertoire as well as the new work“A Solas” by Ángel Muñoz , which The New York Times deemed “…impressive for its compositional finesse.” International Education Week International Dance Night Wednesday, November 12 at 8pm, PSU Ballroom Learn popular dances from all over the world at this international dance party, featuring styles of dance ranging from Bollywood to Salsa. Come learn some new moves for your next night out. What Matters? | Documentary and Keynote Discussion Thursday, November 13 at 6pm, Carrington Hall Auditorium If you’ve ever felt like one person can’t make a difference, this film is for you. If you’ve ever felt like you can be the one person to change the world, this film is for you. Meet parties from both camps in this feature-length documentary about three friends – two idealist activists and one skeptic, attempting to live in poverty, on $1.25 per day, across 3 continents. What begins as an adventure to convert their skeptic friend takes a devastating turn when two of them barely survive a deadly plane crash in Africa, and all three must fight to finish what they started. Following the film, learn more about their personal journeys as the filmmakers speak on their lives and how the experience affected each of them. Visit http://www.whatmattersfilm.com/ for film trailer. Saturday, November 15 at 5pm, PSU Ballroom and Theatre The Association of International Students at Missouri State extends a special invitation to all area residents to its 36th Annual International Banquet and Show: Colors of the World. This event is a multicultural event that promotes the Public Affairs mission of Missouri State University. To start the evening, a buffet of exotic foods prepared by students (under the supervision of advisors and catering staff) will be offered. It will feature both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes from around the globe. Coffee and other drinks will also be served. After the banquet, the traditional cultural entertainment portion of the evening moves to the PSU Theatre. The show will include different dance routines, musical offerings, skits and other types of performances from all parts of the world: Asia, Africa, Latin America, South America, Europe, and North America. A Fashion show will feature traditional clothes from different countries. It is a must-see cultural learning opportunity that is sure to open your eyes, and hearts, to other cultures. Tickets, which cover both the dinner and the show, can be purchased for $20 for general admission and $15 for students. Tickets will be available for purchase Monday through Friday from November 3 to November 14 or until all tickets are sold. Missouri State University Film Series – Ticket Out Friday, November 7 at 7pm, PSU Theatre Written by Hunger Games creator Suzanne Collins & director Doug Lodato, Ticket Out is a thriller set in the world of the controversial underground railways that aid women and children escaping from abusive, sometimes murderous spouses. The film stars Ray Liotta, Alexandra Breckenridge (True Blood, American Horror Story) and Billy Burke (Twilight, Revolution). Liotta plays a taut and mysterious character who aids Jocelyn (Breckenridge) and her children in their flight from her abusive ex-husband (Burke). 2nd Assistant director, Ken Chaplin, will hold a talk-back session following the film. A member of the Director’s Guild of America, Ken also travels extensively presenting seminars on Production Assistant Training and Film Crew Essentials. Native American Archaeological Research Wednesday, November 5 at 7pm, MSU Center for Archaeological Research (622 S. Kimbrough Ave) Florice Pearce will share recent archaeological work on Native American sites in the Ozarks entitled, “A Study of the Plentiful Ivy Site and Other Selected Upland Sites in Southern Missouri.” Find out more about SAC films, concerts, and comedy by looking at our SAC Events Blog. Movie: 22 Jump Street Wednesday, November 5 at 9pm, PSU Theatre Sunday, November 9 at 9pm, PSU Theatre Free movie in the PSU Theatre. Check out SAC Events Blog for more information. After Hours: Fandom Night Thursday, November 6 at 9pm, PSU Food Court This event will be a trivia night that will allow those in attendance to express their knowledge of different fandoms such as Doctor Who, Harry Potter, Lord of the Rings, etc. Students will compete in teams for prizes. Teams will be established at the event. Comedy Club: John Jacobs Friday, November 7 at 7pm, PSU Ballroom West After a childhood spent battling Tourettes Syndrome and a series of family tragedies, comedy has been John’s primary means of defense. He is the star of the newest show on MTV: Are You The One? Check out SAC Events Blog for more information. Rock n’ Bowl Friday, November 7 at 7:30pm, PSU Level 1 Game Center Friday, November 14 at 7:30pm, PSU Level 1 Game Center Free bowling, table tennis and billiards in Level One Game Center. Saturday, November 8 at 11am, Bearfest Village SAC will be hosting tailgates at the new Bearfest Village with free food, some prize giveaways, and a place to paint faces and make spirit signs. Cultural Affairs: Native American Pride Dancers Tuseday, November 11 at 7pm, PSU Theatre In celebration of Native American Heritage Month, the Native Pride Dancers bring entertainment and culture to their audiences. We celebrate the spirit and beauty of Indigenous peoples! We honor the uniqueness and history of First Nations including Sac and Fox Tribe of Meskwaki Nation, Lakota Nation of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe, Ojibwe, Dakota, Menominee, Cree, Ho-Chunk, Dine’(Navajo) and various other tribes. As individual artists, we join together as one! We honor our elders through many beautiful forms like music, dance and storytelling to reflect our rich cultural history and customs passed down from generation to generation. We share the true history of bravery, fortitude, generosity and wisdom. We are passionately devoted to keeping our traditions alive. Our mission is to educate, inspire, motivate and empower diverse communities to bridge cultural gaps through Indigenous traditions. Movie: Wish I Was There Sunday, November 16 at 9pm, PSU Theatre Free movie in the PSU Theatre. Check out SAC Events Blog for more information. Concerts: Coffee Shop Sound Monday, November 17 at 7pm, PSU South Lounge Coffee Shop Sound is an event filled with numerous acoustic players to set the mood for the students. It’s a relaxing evening for people to enjoy coffee or tea and cookies while perhaps doing homework. The atmosphere is great and everyone enjoys themselves. For more opportunities, subscribe to the Community Opportunities Newsletter. Bear Service Day at Ozarks Food Harvest Thursday, November 6 at 5:30pm, Plaster Student Union Bear Service Team will be taking a group of volunteers to Ozarks Food Harvest. Ozarks Food Harvest is a food bank that provides millions of meals to people in our community every year, but they need help from volunteers like you to get this accomplished. This group will be attending the volunteer session on Thursday, November 6 from 6-9 pm. Volunteers will meet in the Plaster Student Union at 5:30 pm and sign the volunteer agreements needed to participate in the volunteer session at OFH. Volunteers will be assisting with the assembly of Weekend Backpacks for at risk elementary students and also assist in the building of commodity boxes for low income seniors. Drivers are needed for the event, so if you can drive, make sure to indicate that when you sign up here. Location: Ozarks Food Harvest Contact: Nicole Noonan Bear Service Team Bear Service Team (BST) is a student organization team that plans and promotes service opportunities for Missouri State University students. BST collaborates with local agencies in Springfield and beyond to have meaningful service experiences that allow students to become engaged in the community. BST is looking for students who want to become engaged in the community, have a passion for social issues, and have creative ideas about how to get students involved. Visit the Center for Community Engagement (the green room) for more information and pick up an application! Food Assistance for Students Mondays and Tuesdays at 3pm-6pm while MSU is in session The Food Pantry for Missouri State University Students is for any student facing food insecurity. This may be students going hungry, not able to make ends meet, facing a delay in Financial Aid or other assistance, or any other reason. Well of Life – MSU Student Food Pantry 418 S Kimbrough Springfield, MO 65806 (Just across from the Qdoba near Bear Park North) Meals a Million November 14-16, Springfield Exposition Center Friends Against Hunger is hosting the Meals A Million Pack-A-Thon! Every half hour, 100 volunteers will start packaging food. In past years, MSU Bears have filled thousands spots to help package meals. Register you and your organization to volunteer: MealsAMillion Contact: Karen Wood Microsoft IT Academy Missouri State University students and alumni now have an exciting new opportunity for online training through Microsoft’s IT Academy! Microsoft IT Academy program provides you with the opportunity to enhance your technology skills so you can advance your education and your career. Over 400 self-paced, interactive, and engaging online training classes are available in several languages. Courses are also available to prepare for Microsoft application certifications. For a review of events that have already happened, please visit our Athletics Blog Page. - Saturday, November 8, Football vs. Southern Illinois, 2pm, Plaster Stadium - Saturday, November 8, M Soccer vs. Evansville, 7pm, Allison South - Saturday, November 8, M Basketball vs. Missouri Southern, 7:35pm, JQH Arena - Sunday, November 9, W Basketball vs. Southwest Baptist, 2:05pm, JQH Arena - Friday, November 14, Volleyball vs. Southern Illinois, 7pm, Hammons Student Center - Friday, November 14, M Basketball vs. Eastern Illinois, 7:05pm, JQH Arena - Friday, November 14, D2 Ice Hockey vs. Lindenwood University – Belleville, 7pm, Mediacom Ice Park - Saturday, November 15, Football vs. North Dakota State, 2pm, Plaster Stadium - Saturday, November 15, D2 Ice Hockey vs. Lindenwood University – Belleville, 7pm, Mediacom Ice Park - Saturday, November 15, Volleyball vs. Evansville, 7pm, Hammons Student Center - Time is running out! The deadline to register for this year’s annual Ski Trip to Steamboat Springs, CO is November 4! The trip will be over winter break, from December 13-20. Learn more about this awesome opportunity at http://www.missouristate.edu/recreation/OutdoorAdventures/140219.htm - Interested in becoming a BearFit instructor? Sign up for the BearFit Instructor Workshop! This $15 event will be held on November 10th or 17th from 7-8:30PM. Sign up at the FRC Welcome Desk before November 11th to secure your spot! - Plan a Western Adventure with Campus Rec – Outdoor Adventures is headed to Utah on November 25th thru November 30th! Explore Arches National Park and Canyonlands National Park for only $300. OA will provide camping equipment, transportation, park fees, and camping fees. Just bring clothes, food, and sense of adventure. - American Red Cross CPR and First Aid Certification. Register online or in person at the FRC. Registration deadline is 2 days before each class. Limited seats are available. CPR/AED and First Aid are held in the Aquatics Classroom. CPR is $55 and First Aid is $40. CPR/AED Session 3: November 15 from 8:30am-12:00pm First Aid Session 3: November 15 from 12:30pm-2:00pm This certification does not fulfill the requirement for MSU nursing students. - Only one SHARP Session left! Register online for this free self-defense course for females. November 17-18 from 6:30-9PM in the FRC, studio A. Register by November 14. - Personal Training is offered at the FRC! Reach all of your goals this year with help from one of our certified personal trainers. For more information visit our website: http://www.missouristate.edu/recreation/Wellness/AssessmentsAndTraining.htm - Massage Therapy is offered at the Foster Recreation Center. Check our website for more information on times, prices, and how to sign up: http://www.missouristate.edu/recreation/Wellness/Massages.htm.

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Plot is a critical story element of fiction, but you already know that of course. Read this article, if you want to take a step back and learn more about all the elements of fiction. Let’s define what is the Plot of a story exactly? The definition of plot is a literary term used to describe a sequence of interconnected events that make up a story. The events can be broken up into different types of plot elements and the organization of those plot elements makes up the plot structure. As an author all the elements of fiction are important, but most writers will agree, having a strong Plot is right up there with Character in terms of priority for most novels. Our goal with this guide is to provide you with the ultimate guide to understanding Plot, as well as its elements and structure. Keep reading if you want to answer any remaining questions you have around fully understanding the plot of a story. Intro: Why is Plot Important to Your Story As we defined earlier in this article, the plot is a series of interconnected events that make up a story. So let’s look at why that’s so important in a novel. The plot gives a story forward momentum as it is the driving force behind the events. The Why if you will. If you look at any story the events included in that story should be central to moving it forward. As a reader and writer, we unconsciously expect that the events of the story included in whatever book we are currently on are included because they are fundamental to driving the story forward. While we don’t actively think about it when reading a book, through the suspension of our disbelief which is needed to get fully engrossed in a story, we subconsciously accept the world as true, meaning our minds unconsciously accept that other events are happening in that world that we aren’t privy to. The job of a writer is to include events that are essential to the story being told. The plot of your story is the specific events you have decided to include in your story because they are essential to the characters and driving them towards their ultimate goal. So while the plot is events that occur in a story, it is important to emphasize that these events need to be interconnected and with that, they need to have causality to each other. They are working together to help explain not just What happens in a story but Why it happens. Without a plot, you will be left with a series of unrelated happenings that meander without meaning or direction. The plot is essential in capturing the reader and making them feel vested in what happens next. Defining Plot Elements What is the definition of Plot Elements? Plot elements are defined as the individual components or elements of a plot that make up a story. Think of these plot elements as each having a distinct function in the overall construction of the plot. This will help you better understand and remember the individual plot elements as we identify them in the next section. What are the 6 Elements of Plot in Literature? Now that you know the definition of plot elements and understand that they each provide a specific function in the overall construction of the plot as a whole. Let’s take the time to identify, define, and explain the use of each of these 6 key plot elements. Plot Element # 1: Exposition The first plot element we will define is exposition. So what is the definition of exposition in literature? Exposition is a literary term that refers to the element of the plot that works to introduce the theme, setting, characters, and circumstances at the story’s onset. When you are thinking of writing exposition in your story, think of it as introducing the reader to the story world and its characters as they are in their current state. This goes beyond just backstory; it helps to build the foundation for the ensuing story. By building the scene for the reader it helps to give them context for the rest of the story. It helps root them in the world, which will give ensuing events more meaning and makes them more realistic. Plot Element #2: Conflict The second plot element we will discuss is Conflict. What is the definition of Conflict in a story? Conflict is the stories problem and drives it from beginning to end. The conflict is essential to any plot as it is what propels the story forward, without it the story would be boring and have no real reason for occurring or being told. Conflict can take 6 different forms in your story. Here are the 6 different types of conflict you can incorporate into your novel’s plot. - Person Vs Person: Character conflicts that take place between people - Person Vs Self: Character conflicts that happen as an internal struggle - Person Vs Nature: Person verse natural disaster or the living environment as a whole - Person Vs Society: Person versus a social injustice or persecution - Person Vs Supernatural: Person versus a supernatural being or force - Person Vs Technology: Character versus science or technological advancements that are out of their control. Conflict can either be internal or external. Your characters can face a combination of conflict in your story. Remember to think about your stories conflict when outlining your plot, this is essential to creating a story that moves forward with a purpose. Plot Element #3: Rising Action The 3rd element of Plot that we will define and discuss is Rising Action. What is the definition of Rising Action in Plot? Rising Action is the series of events or elements in a plot that works to create suspense, tension, and enhance readers interest in the story. The rising action of a plot is very important as it helps build towards the payoff or Climax in a story. Rising action helps to raise the stakes in the story. The majority of events in a fiction plot take place in during the Rising Element and should work to set up and heighten the potential payoff during the climax. Plot Element #4: Climax The 4th element of a plot is Climax. What is the definition of Climax? The climax is the point of a plot in which the conflict or crises reaches its peak. It is the point in the story where tension is at its highest point. It is also known as the turning point as it is the point in the story where the Rising Action turns into Falling Action. When you are writing your climax realize that it is a very important element of the plot as it helps frame the importance of the previous rising action while preparing the reader for the resolution of the conflict. A strong climax should be the highest point of action or emotional tension in the story as you would expect in any grande finale. Plot Element #5: Falling Action The 5th element of a plot is the Falling Action. What is the definition of Falling Action? The Falling Action occurs immediately after the Climax and serves to lower the tension, close up loose ends, and build towards the closure of the story. The falling action can be very brief, but you should think of it as a way to give the reader a chance to exhale and enjoy the payoff that occurred during the Climax. Plot Element #6: Resolution The 6th element of a plot is the Resolution. What is the definition of resolution in literature? Resolution is a literary plot device that mostly follows the climax. It is also known as the denouement in French. It refers to the unfolding or solution to a complicated problem in the story. If some stories the resolution can occur almost simultaneously to the climax, but in other stories, it happens towards the end of the book. Either way, the resolution is an integral part of the conflict as it helps to resolve it. The resolution not only helps resolve the major problem of the story, but it also allows the stories theme to resonate with the readers. Watch this short video below to get a 2-minute recap on the 6 elements of Plot. What is the Definition of Plot Structure? Now that we have defined plot and elements of a plot, let’s define plot structure. What is the definition of plot structure? The definition of plot structure refers to the organization of events or plot elements that make of the story. As an author, it is up to you to organize the events of your plot so they tell the most entertaining and impactful story possible. There are many different story structures you can use when it comes to writing your story. When you are outlining your story, consider the story you are trying to tell. When you have a good handle on the theme of your story and what you are really trying to say with it, pick a plot structure that allows you to organize the individualized elements in the most impactful way possible. What is a Plot Structure Diagram? There is a reason it is said a picture is worth a thousand words. So let’s take a look at a plot structure diagram. What is a plot structure diagram? A plot structure diagram is an organizational tool which uses a visual representation to represent the key events in a plot. The plot structure diagram allows readers and writers to visualize the key features of the story. The first basic triangle-based plot diagram was talked about by Aristotle. It represented the three basic parts of a story, the beginning, middle, and end. Gustav Freytag expanded upon Aristotle’s simple triangle by adding rising action and falling action to the diagram. How is Plot Different From Theme? Many people confuse the plot of a story with its theme. While it is true that plot and theme work together to tell a quality story; they are in fact to very different things. The difference between Plot and Theme is a plot is what happens in a story, whereas, the theme is what your story is about. How do Plot and Theme Relate? The theme is what the story is ultimately about, or said another way, it is the message the reader should take away from the story or the commentary the author is trying to make by telling the story. The plot is the series of events that drive the story from beginning to end. So as an author you want your plot to help bring out and accentuate your theme. The events and decisions your characters make in relation to those events help to you express the theme of the narrative. You can use the theme as a benchmark for what happens in your plot. Every event should work to move your story forward and in conjunction with the theme of your story. What are Common Mistakes when Constructing a Plot? One of the most common mistakes authors make when writing a novel is called a plot hole. What is a plot hole? In a work of fiction, plot holes or plotholes, are errors or gaps in the plot. These errors or gaps are inconsistent with the rest of the plot’s events, making them unrealistic and unbelievable to the story or its characters. Examples of Common Plot Holes or Gaps Plotholes can take all shapes and sizes. Some plot errors are smaller than others. As an author, you want to try and make sure that you close any open plotholes prior to publishing your book. Not all plot holes are catastrophic to the success of your book, but even the smallest gap in your plot can annoy readers and leave the story feeling incomplete or unedited. Now that you know a plot hole is an error or inconsistency in the stories narrative that directly contradicts the logical flow of the story, let’s take a closer look at some of the common types of plot holes. Plothole Example #1: Illogical Events This is something that you may have encountered when watching a movie or reading a story that felt like it just didn’t make sense. This can be something like an all-powerful villain or antagonist that has established itself as close to unbeatable as possible throughout the story is then too easily defeated. You need to make sure your events make sense to the world and story as a whole. No Exceptions! Plothole Example #2: Contradictions The second type of plot errors is contradictions. These often have to do with the actions of the characters. If you have ever read or even worse written a scene in which the character seems to be inexplicably battling bipolar disorder from one scene to another, then you know exactly what this type of plothole looks like. Plothole Example #3: Unresolved Story Lines This may not seem like such a big deal, and it is possible to recover assuming the incomplete storyline in minor in nature, but still, as an author, we should be choosing every plot element we introduce into a story meticulously. So if you are going to introduce a plot element it should serve to move the story forward and thus be tied up by the end of the story. A famous example of the unresolved storyline plot hole was from the Sopranos. A scene in the snow-covered woods where two Russians are hunting someone in the Pine Barons when he is hit by a shot but the body disappears. That storyline was never finished and caused a lot of complaints from viewers. Don’t believe me, watch the video below. Plothole Example #4: Impossible Events This plothole has to do with something that just isn’t plausible. So think of a character that travels halfway around the globe in a couple of hours. Make sure you are sticking to the rules of your world. You need to stick to the constraints of technology and science as you’ve defined them. If you find yourself stretching the boundaries of what’s possible as an author, make sure you aren’t asking for too much of leap of faith from the readers to believe its possible. Plothole Example #5: Continuity Errors The plothole that is probably easiest to overlook is simple continuity errors. If your character finds themselves forgetting a piece of information that they knew earlier in the novel, that’s not ok. Make sure you keep continuity in the flow of information throughout the story. Also, be careful of simple continuity errors like saying someone has green eyes earlier in a novel and then having a love interest melt in a pool of their crystal blue eyes later. How can an Author Check their Story for Plot Holes? As an author, the easiest way to ensure you avoid or clean up plot holes in your novel is to enlist the help of content or developmental editors and readers throughout the creation process. If you have the money to invest, then investing in a developmental editor is well worth it. If you are like most new writers, you may not have the money to invest in professional editors. So here are few ways to make sure you can still catch plot holes in your book before you publish. Do a Developmental Outline Once you are done outlining your novel, have a friend take a look at the outline. Ask them for feedback on the theme and plot itself. Ask them to give you any additional questions they have about the book from what they saw in the outline. Get a Content Editor Once you have your first draft finished, enlist someone to perform a content edit. In this edit, they should be looking for inconsistencies in the plot. Open-ended questions that have not been resolved. Questions that still need to be answered and problems with character development. The earlier you can get this type of feedback the better, as it will cut down on the level of rewriting or plot surgery you need to do after the fact. Enlist Beta Readers Beta readers are made up of a small tribe of passionate readers that can help you find errors in your story and plot before you publish. Give them the book when it is 99% baked. This is a chance for your group of Beta Readers to find last-minute inaccuracies or plotholes. At this point in the process, changes should be minor and not involve major plot surgery. Not all feedback from your Beta readers needs to be included in your final novel, but you should definitely clean up any plot holes they find unless you are making a creative choice to leave it as is. 9 Tips to Writing A Good Plot - Stay True to the Characters: The characters are essential to your story. You need to understand them fully, including their motivations and desires. Make sure your characters actions make sense to who they are, and not just to serve the plot. Read our Character Development Guide for More Help with this. - Character Arc Should Compliment Plot: Make sure you understand their character arc, it should coincide to the events in your plot. The events in your plot should help drive your character arc where it needs to go. What happens to your character and the decisions they make should pay off with the plot. - Outline Your Plot: Put in the work before you start writing and plan out your plot by outlining it. Many writers want to skip this step. But this is the best way to find plotholes or work around trouble spots in your plot prior to actually writing. Don’t be afraid to outline your plot, embrace it. Read our guide to outlining your novel. - Genre Awareness: Understand the keys and tropes to your genre. You want to make sure you give your readers the elements they expect from your story’s plot based on the genre you are writing in. - Set-up and Payoffs: Make sure your rising action helps set-up your payoffs, and then make sure the payoff in your plot actually payoffs. If you want to have an impact with your climax, you need to make sure the set-up builds the tension and the stakes for the readers. Same goes for each series of smaller scenes. - Be Unpredictable: Just because you are delivering plot tropes that are expected in a given genre, that doesn’t mean your story should be predictable. Make sure you are keeping your readers on their toes. But make sure you aren’t doing this by throwing in haphazard plot errors like illogical or unbelievable plot elements. - Remember Causality: Everything you include in your novel should be there for a reason. Your plot, character action, and scenes need to contain a thread of cause and effect to them. The more causality you have in your plot the more believable and engaging it will be. You are telling a story of interconnected events that set your characters on a path of events (the plot). Make sure you remember the importance of causality when writing your plot. - Know your Story Structure: When you start outlining make sure you understand your story structure. Certain structures may be better than others for certain types of stories. So make sure you take that into account as you are outlining your plot. You can and should make tweaks to the story structure but it provides a good base to guide your plot. - Power of a Twist: If you can build in great plot twist then you will really leave your readers with a memorable experience they are likely to share. The key is that your plot twist needs to be believable and have been set-up throughout the plot without your readers realizing it until the twist happens, then the twist should seem right in place with the novel. Conclusion: To our Plot Guide I hope this plot guide has been helpful. We all have great plots in us, what we have to do is take the time to consciously bring them out. The truth is that everything you read here probably sounded like good common sense once you read it and that’s actually a great thing. Because what that tells me is that you already know how to create a good plot, and you were merely looking for little reminders to keep you on track as you plot and write your next novel. The best advice I can give you is to take the time to develop your plot thoroughly before you start writing. If you are a Panser then this advice probably sounds horrible. But if you can outline broad strokes of you plot prior to writing, you will be able to write faster while knowing you have already built the bones of a quality plot. As always, thanks for reading and more importantly Writing!

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Here is a list of activities and resources we are using for an American Revolution unit I am teaching to a group of nine homeschoolers, ages seven through ten. The class is a twenty-week unit that traces the causes, battles and results of the American Revolution. Unlike other units, which I’ve broken down by disciplines, I describe this curriculum week-by-week, as I will teach it. We are using the PBS mini-series Liberty’s Kids as the unifying framework for the class, but we are reading broadly as well. The class is a field trip heavy, and we will become Junior Rangers at both Minute Man and Independence Hall National Parks. We are going to cook colonial food, dance a minuet, learn a bit about portraiture, and write with quill pens. We’ll read the Stamp Act, and Declaration of Independence. We’ll memorize the preamble to the Constitution and Phillis Wheatly poetry. We’ll learn about the roles of slaves, free blacks, Native Americans, Jews, and women in the revolution. And, because I’m the teacher, we’ll play a lot of charades. Throughout the course, I will focus on cultivating the following habits of mind: - Exploring historical events from multiple perspectives, and understanding how perspective effects interpretation. - Using primary sources when available, and understanding the benefits of primary resources. - Exploring art as a unique expression of the culture and sentiments of a historical era (by looking at poetry, portraits, and political cartoons). - Understanding the importance of preserving historical sites and documents, and committing to do so (through the National Parks Junior Ranger program). Too much fun! Week 1: French and Indian War Through Boston Massacre Before class, students were instructed to watch Liberty Kids Episodes 1 & 2, and the first episode of the John Adams miniseries on HBO. They had to read the Stamp Act; You Wouldn’t Want to be at the Boston Tea Party (page 5-21); and To His Excellency George Washington by Phillis Wheatley. Activity 1: History Pocket As students walked in, they found a spot around the table and began to work on their portfolios, folders with projects that I copies from History Pockets: American Revolution. I attached copies of the pages we used, but you should buy the book. We sorted soldiers from the two sides into Loyalists and Rebels, and analyzed the most famous political cartoon of the era. Activity 2: Get To Know You Each student had to choose between 1 and 4 M&Ms. After each student chose their candy pieces, I told them the rules. Depending on how many candies they had chosen, they had to do the following: - 1 candy: tell us your name and something you like about homeschooling - 2 candies: tell us your name and something you like about homeschooling; share something you interesting about yourself - 3 candies: tell us your name and something you like about homeschooling; share something you interesting about yourself; tell us one great thing about your mom - 4 candies: tell us your name and something you like about homeschooling; share something you interesting about yourself; tell us one great thing about your mom; do 10 push-ups Activity 3: Timeline Using a piece of newsprint, we created a timeline from 1763 to to 1774. We included: French and Indian War (or Seven Years War), Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Stamp Act Congress, Quartering Act, Boston Massacre, Tea Act, Tea Party, and Intolerable Acts. At each stop along the timeline, kids told me what they knew about each event, and I filled in as needed. Throughout the discussion, I kept pushing them to think about how this event looked from England’s point of view. This was the hardest part of the exercise. Activity 4: Tax Time We simulated colonial reaction to a series of tax acts passed by Parliament to raise money to pay for the Seven Years War and to pay England for the protection of the colonies. Students pulled cards from a bowl to take on one of the following roles: King/Queen (1); Parliament (2); Tax Collector (1); Colonists (everyone else). I handed out cups of 10 pennies to each participant, sat the Queen in a tall chair, positioned Parliament just below her and explained that Parliament would draw new laws from a bowl and, when applicable, the tax collector would collect taxes, sell stamps, etc. I also explained that if you ran out of money and could not pay your tax, you would be sent to debtor’s prison and could only get out if someone else chose to pay your debt (and the daily 1 pence fee for keeping you in prison). The laws were: - Any subject wearing denim of any sort shall pay the crown a tax of 2 pence. - Any subject possessing a political cartoon of any sort must affix the proper stamp to said cartoon. The stamp shall cost 3 pence. (I had Air Mail stamps in the house and used those, but any stamp would do.) - Any subject who wishes to use the bathroom shall pay a toilet tax of 2 pence. - Any subject wearing a t-shirt must pay a cotton tax of 3 pence. - Any subject who traveled to the homeschool meeting hall by any form of transportation involving wheels shall pay a roadway fee of 2 pence. Homework: Color the British and American flags on the cover of your portfolio. Memorize a stanza from the Wheatley poem. Write what they think the ‘Join or Die’ cartoon means in their own words. Read George versus George (pages 8-26) and write a letter from one George to the other about any shared interest (sports, farming, politics, etc.). Week 2: Tea Party Museum Field Trip The museum is opening an hour early to give our class the run of the place. Here’s a description of what we’ll do there, from the museum’s website: This floating museum is unlike anything you’ve ever experienced before. Live actors, high-tech, interactive exhibits, authentically restored tea ships and the stirring, multi-sensory documentary “Let it Begin Here,” are just a taste of what you’ll see, hear and feel. You will meet the colonists, explore the ships and dump tea overboard just as the Sons of Liberty did on that fateful night of December 16, 1773. Finally, you will stop in at Abigail’s Tea Room for teatime. Homework: Start reading Chains, by Laurie Halse Anderson, which tells the story of one slave’s experience of the beginning of the Revolution. Watch: Episodes 3 & 4 of Liberty Kids. Week 3: “No More Kings” Activity 1: Oral Presentations Students will take turns reading aloud the letters they wrote from George to George. They’ll also recite the stanza they memorized from To His Excellency George Washington by Phillis Wheatley. Activity 2: “No More Kings” Every child will fold their paper in half lengthwise. On the left, they’ll write “Accurate,” and on the right “Inaccurate.” I’ll ask them to watch “No More Kings” from Shoolhouse Rock, looking for accurate and inaccurate depictions in the video. After watching it once, I’ll give them a few minutes to fill in their papers. Then we’ll watch it again, looking for accuracies and inaccuracies. Next, I’ll have them get with a partner to make a joint list. Finally, we’ll make a giant list on newsprint, with one point for each answer they come up with. If they get more than 10 points, I’ll let them have a two-minute dance party. Activity 3: Bowl Game I fill a bowl with 20 slips of paper. Each kid pulls out a slip and gives as many verbal clues as needed for the other kids to guess the person or event on the slip. Next, we put all of the slips back in the bowl. In round two, when they pull out a slip, they have to act it out with no words. The people and events on the slips: John Adams, Abigail Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Join Or Die, Phillis Wheatley, Boston Massacre, Tea Party, Stamp Act, Quartering Act, French and Indian War, King George, Lord North, Sam Adams, General Gage, “Taxation Without Representation is Tyranny,” Governor Hutchinson, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Crispus Attucks, Sons of Liberty. Note: When I taught this, the day fell on Martin Luther King day. I incorporated some of these activities in to the day. Homework: Finish reading Chains and complete the graphic organizer to analyze one character’s development. (Click here for a copy of the organizer: Graphic Organizer – Chains. I had students do the alternate assignment.) Week 4: Chains Activity 1: Character Clues Students will exchange organizers (that they did for homework) with one another, and try to guess the characters using the picture and clue. Activity 2: Headbanz We own the game Hedbanz, and have enough bands for each child. I’ll make character cards (each card has the name of a character from the book) and place them in a pile. All student put on a head band and place a card in it without looking. The first child begins by asking YES/NO questions in attempt to guess their character before the timer runs out. If they do so, they get a token for their team (boys versus girls). If there is still time, they can take another card and ask questions until the time runs out. If time runs out before the player guesses their character, the card remains in the band until Round 2. After every player has a turn, round 1 is over. Play for two rounds and count up the points. Activity 3: Dice Game I prepared six categories of questions, and laid them out on the table under colored index cards, labeled: 1) True/False, 2) Fill In The Blank, 3) Book Review, 4) More Book Review, 5) Book-to-Book, and 6) Book-to-Life. Book Review questions ask them to analyze the writing, make predictions, and focus on what makes a book work or not work. Book-to-Book questions ask them to make connections between the book and other books they’ve read. And Book-to-Life questions ask them to make connections between the book and their life. Click here for a list of questions. To play, a student rolls the dice to see which type of question to answer. They can decide whether to answer the question themselves or ask everyone else to answer. Again, making it a game somehow makes it fun to have a relatively advanced discussion of literature. Homework: Choose one of the Book-to-Book or Book-to-Life Questions from the Dice Game, and write a 5-paragraph answer to the question. Week 5: Freedom Trail Field Trip We’ll take a walking tour of the Freedom Trail led by an 18th century costumed guide. Students listen to the speeches of the Sons of Liberty in the places where they actually occurred and hear reenactments of the events that sparked the War for Independence. These 90 minute tours are outside and cover 11 sites from Boston Common to Faneuil Hall. Students will all bring cameras and will take pictures of the different sites. Homework: Print pictures from tour. Watch: Liberty Kids Episodes 5 & 6. Read: George versus George (pages 28-35). Read Longfellow’s Midnight Ride of Paul Revere. Memorize any stanza from poem. Week 6: “The Shot Heard Round the World” Activity 1: Scrapbook Page I’ll have a ton of scrapbooking materials available, and students can take their pictures and make one or two scrapbook pages. I’ll encourage them to write descriptive captions. Activity 2: Paul Revere’s Ride Students will recite the stanzas they memorized, and we’ll discuss what we like about the poem and what was misleading. Each student will then make an interactive 3-D map. You can find the lesson plan (which is excellent) and all of the materials to print in the book Interactive 3-D Maps: American Revolution. The map allows you to teach about Paul Revere’s life, as well as the ride. The front cover of the book states the projects are “maps that students make and manipulate to learn key facts and concepts – in a kinesthetic way!” My kids love them. Activity 3: “The Shot Heard Round the World” We’ll watch “Shot Heard ‘Round The World.” After watching it we’ll discuss why people call the battles at Lexinton and Concord the shot heard ’round the world. I’ll read them the beginning of the Emerson poem “Concord Hymn,” which is the origin of the phrase. We’ll talk about why no one could have used that phrase until decades later. Homework: Complete the following activities in the Minute Man National Historical Park Junior Ranger Guide: A Call To Arms; Paul Revere Capture Site (Crossword and Extra Activity); Freedom, Liberty and Citizen Responsibility Week 7: Minute Man National Park Field Trip We’ll visit the park, see the orientation film and then complete the following activities in the Junior Ranger Guide: Minute Man Visitor Center Questions and Mural Extra Activity; Brooks HIll; The North Bridge (Doodle Like Doolittle and Reading the Landscape). When they are done, we’ll return to the visitor’s center so that kids can take their oath and receive their badge. Homework: Read Johnny Tremaine by Esther Forbes. Week 8: Minute Men in Action Field Trip One of the mothers has arranged for the students to meet with Minute Men re-enactors. Among a bunch of cool activities, they will learn how to load and fire a musket and cannon. Homework: Draw one scene from Johnny Tremaine. Week 9: Johnny Tremaine Activity 1: A Soldier’s Life As students walk in, they find a spot around the table and begin to work on their portfolios, folders with projects that I copies from History Pockets: American Revolution. From Pocket Number 4: A Soldier’s Life, they will do the following: Highlight interesting facts from the background information on page 42; glue the fast facts from page 41 to a piece of construction paper, complete the Uniforms activity from pages 43-45; complete the Powder Horn activity on pages 46-48; complete the Women in the War activity form pages 52-54. Activity 3: Dice Game I prepared six categories of questions, and laid them out on the table under colored index cards, labeled: 1) True/False, 2) Fill In The Blank, 3) Book Review, 4) Literary Elements, 5) Book-to-Book, and 6) Book-to-Life. Book Review questions ask them to analyze the writing, make predictions, and focus on what makes a book work or not work. Book-to-Book questions ask them to make connections between the book and other books they’ve read. And Book-to-Life questions ask them to make connections between the book and their life. Click here for a list of questions. To play, a student rolls the dice to see which type of question to answer. They can decide whether to answer the question themselves or ask everyone else to answer. Again, making it a game somehow makes it fun to have a relatively advanced discussion of literature. Homework: Watch: Episodes 7, 8, 9. Read: 1776, chapter 1 & 2. Week 10: Bunker Hill & Breed’s Hill Activity 1: Battles As students walk in, they find a spot around the table and begin to work on their portfolios, folders with projects that I copies from History Pockets: American Revolution. From Pocket Number 5: Battles, they will do the following: Highlight interesting facts from the background information on page 57; glue the fast facts from page 56 to a piece of construction paper, complete the Battle of Bunker Hill activity from pages 58-60. Activity 2: British Victory at Bunker Hill We’ll watch a short clip of the Battle of Bunker Hill from the History Channel. Students will break up into two groups to come up with arguments to support one of two positions, either that the colonists or the British won the battle. Activity 3: Timeline Game I will fill two trash cans with 20 inflated balloons in each. 10 of the balloons will have events written on slips of paper and taped to the balloons. Students will form two teams. When I say go, the first person from each team will run to the trash can, pull out a balloon and bring it back to their team. When they tag the next person, that person will go to the can and pull out a balloon. This continues until they find all ten balloons with slips of paper. While the team is getting balloons, members who are not running can pull off the slips of paper, and arrange the events in order. They will tape the events on a poster board, and write the year of the event next to it. The first team to correctly complete their timeline wins. Events: The End of French and Indian War, Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Stamp Act Congress, Quartering Act, Boston Massacre, Tea Act, Tea Party, Intolerable Acts, Battle at Lexington and Concord, General Washington takes over command of the Continental Army, 1st Continental Congress, Phillis Wheatley writes “To His Excellency George Washington,” Battles of Bunker Hill and Breeds Hill. Homework: Read: 1776, chapters 3 & 4; Complete the Patriots of Color Packet (reading and crossword). Week 11: Bunker Hill Field Trip Patriots of Color Program: Although they did not enjoy the rights of their fellow colonists, over 100 African and Native Americans fought alongside their white neighbors at the Battle of Bunker Hill in defense of liberty. Using a tour, primary documents, paintings, and hands-on activities, students will learn about twelve Native and African Americans who fought at the battle. Mapping the Battle Program: Students will use a large canvas map to learn about mapreading skills, geography, and the importance of topography. Through several interactive activities, students will gain a better understanding of the first major battle of the Revolutionary War, and the important role that geography has played in shaping our history. Homework: Watch: Episodes 10-12; Read: Common Sense; Independent Dames; Prepare a 3-minute oral report on an innovation of Ben Franklin’s (Students can find information on the internet, or they can read What’s the Big Idea Ben Franklin?) Week 12: Tea Time (2.5 Hours, instead of 2 hours) Activity 1: Understanding Common Sense (25 minutes) We will read aloud an abridged interpretation of Common Sense. Students will work in pairs to answer questions about the document. Click here for the worksheet. Activity 2: Oral Reports (35 minutes) Each student will give his or her report. Activity 3: Tea Party (1.5 hours) Families will bring colonial treats and tea. Students will come dressed for a colonial tea. The first two activities will take place on another floor of the house, so that the parents can set the tables for a tea and can set up a dance area on the first floor. During the tea, we will teach the kids how to dance a minuet and a jig. Homework: Watch: Episode 13 (Declaration of Independence), and Episode 2 of John Adams on HBO. Read: Declaration of Independence. Memorize: Introduction to Declaration Week 13: Declaration of Independence Activity 1: Jefferson’s Declaration As students walk in, they’ll find a spot around the table and begin to work on their portfolios, folders with projects that I copies from History Pockets: American Revolution. From Pocket Number 3, they will work on Jefferson’s Declaration. They’ll highlight interesting facts from the background information on page 32. Then we’ll discuss key vocabulary: self-evident, endowed, unalienable. We’ll read the introductory statement on page 33, and students will copy the statement on the bottom of the page. Activity 2: “Fireworks” Watch Schoolhouse Rock “Fireworks.” We’ll watch it a couple of times and have the kids sing along and recite the introduction to the Declaration. Activity 3: T-shirts Give students white t-shirts and fabric markers. Have them design a t-shirt to take home. It should have one of the slogans we have learned in the class, or a phrase from the Declaration. (Examples: Give me liberty or give me death. Taxation without representation is tyranny. Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Join or Die.) The shirts should also have a symbol/picture that illustrates or amplifies the phrase. Homework: Watch: Episodes 14-19 and Episode of 2 of John Adams; Read pages 36-49 in George versus George Week 13B: Museum of Fine Arts Field Trip The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston offers these great classes for kids, Artful Adventures. Our class is going for three-week unit on colonial and early American portraits. Each week, will spend a thirty minutes in the galleries, learning about the portraits, and then an hour in the studio working on painting a portrait. Week 14: Crossing the Delaware Activity 1: 3-D Map Each student will make an interactive 3-D map. You can find the lesson plan (which is excellent) and all of the materials to print in the book Interactive 3-D Maps: American Revolution. The map allows you to teach about Washington crossing the Delaware. The front cover of the book states the projects are “maps that students make and manipulate to learn key facts and concepts – in a kinesthetic way!” My kids love them. Activity 2: The Painting We’ll look at the famous painting, seen at the right, and analyze what was accurate and inaccurate. This website does a great job discussing the painting. We’ll also look closely at who was in the boat with Washington. (See page for a description of who was in the boat.) Activity 3: Writing Skits Students will get in groups of three or four, each one taking on a character from the boat. They will write a quick character description with a bit of history (where are they from, how did they end up in the boat, etc). Then they will come up with a skit, showing the three or four characters in one fictional scene that took place sometime before the night crossing of the river. Homework: Watch: Episodes 20-24 Week 15: Valley Forge Activity 1: Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior Choose 5 that you believe are important and then rewrite them in your own words. The rules can be found here. Activity 2: Yankee Doodle Dandee Learn song’s original meaning and write new lyrics based on two event we have studied. For background knowledge and lyrics, read pages 4-8 of this lesson plan, from the Education Department of the Mount Vernon Estate and Gardens. Activity 3: Battles of the Revolution Board Game Ask, “What tasks did the Patriots have to complete to become a free nation? (Be sure to include both military and civilian tasks.)” Make a list as a class. Working together, students will make a Candyland-like board game with tasks to be completed on the way to British Surrender at Yorktown. Break them into pairs. One pair will have to draw a game board, with blank squares and designated squares for tasks. They should also draw a picture of Yorktown at the end. One group will have to make four figures to compete to be the first to Yorktown. One pair should make playing cards without task pictures on them. (They can do colors, like Candyland, or numbers.) The remaining pairs will them draw task pictures on the board game and the playing cards. (You’ll need to have cardboard, markers, cut up index cards, and materials for the figures available for the students to work with.) With remaining time, students can play the game they designed. Homework: Read Forge by Laurie Halse Anderson; Rewrite 10 more of Washington’s Rules in your own words. Week 15B: Museum of Fine Arts Field Trip This is the second of a three-week unit on colonial and early American portraits. Week 16: African American Patriots On The Freedom Trail Field Trip The Freedom Trail in Boston offers a tour focused on the role of African American patriots. The website describes the tour: We take visitors through historic events of the American Revolution and the contributions of African-Americans such as Crispus Attucks and others who played a significant role in the country’s formation. Tales of intrigue and bravery, poetry and defiance by Black Boston townspeople in the 18th century will unfold during this unique 90 minute tour of the Freedom Trail. See the Revolution through the eyes of these sailors and soldiers, writers and craftsmen, men and women of the day. Week 16B: Museum of Fine Arts Field Trip This is the third of a three-week unit on colonial and early American portraits. Week 17: Forge Activity 1: Quill Pen Activity 2: Colonial Money Activity 3: Cup of Doom Find an old soccer ball and in each hexagon, write a discussion question with a permanent marker. Have students sit in a circle and tell them that you are going to throw the ball to someone. You will say his or her name before you throw the ball. When the student catches it, he or she has to read and answer whatever question is under the left thumb. After answer the question, students say the name of another student and throw them the ball. Eventually, you can click here to see the questions I wrote on the soccer ball. If students don’t answer a question correctly or well, they have to draw a popsicle stick from the Cup of Doom. Each stick has a different ‘punishment,’ like doing 10 pushups or dancing like a chicken for 30 seconds. (Be prepared for kids to throw the question so that they can pick from the Cup of Doom. They love it!) Homework: Watch: Episodes 31-36, and Episode 4 of John Adams. Answer one of the two questions in response to Forge. Week 18: Yorktown Activity 1: History Pocket As students walk in, they’ll find a spot around the table and begin to work on their portfolios, folders with projects that I copies from History Pockets: American Revolution. From Pocket Number 6, they will highlight interesting facts from page 69; learn about secret codes and crack one of Benedict Arnold’s most important messages to the British Army; and construct a Cardan mask, a special paper cutout used to reveal secret messages and place the mask over a historical letter to reveal the letter’s true content. Activity 2: “Bingo” I created Bingo-type cards, with the names of: Slogans; Patriots; British and Traitors; Battles; Authors & Novels. I put clues on slips of paper, and pulled them out of a bowl. Students used highlighters to fill in their cards. We played until someone had a bingo. Eventually, you can click here to see the cards and clues. Activity 3: Yorktown We’ll watch a History Channel video of Yorktown and discuss. Homework: Watch: Episodes 37-40, and Episode 5 of John Adams. Read: Preamble to Constitution Week 19: Birth of a Nation Activity 1: History Pocket As students walk in, they’ll find a spot around the table and begin to work on their portfolios, folders with projects that I copies from History Pockets: American Revolution. From Pocket Number 7, they will highlight interesting facts from page 81; rewrite 10 articles from the Treaty of Paris in their own words; color in the Great Seal and learn the meaning behind its symbols; and rewrite the Preamble to the Constitution. Activity 2: “Three Ring Government” & “Preamble” Activity 3: Electing the 1st President The election of the first President was by appointed electors, not by a general election. All states that had approved the Constitution by the first Wednesday in January 1789 would appoint electors on that day. Those electors would assemble on the first Wednesday in February 1789 and vote for a President, and the business of running the government under the new constitution would begin a month later. Using a copy of the Senate journal, from April 6, 1789, students will work in pairs to make a bar graph of the electoral votes for the 1st president. We’ll discuss which states had the largest and smallest populations, and what might have changed the election’s outcome. Week 20: Independence Hall National Historical Park Field Trip We’ll visit the park (Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Ben Franklin’s Print Shop, etc). We’ll complete the following activities in the Junior Ranger Guide: 1-Liberty Bell Center; 2-Independence Hall; 6-Congress Hall; 9-Printing Office. When they are done, we’ll return to the visitor’s center so that kids can take their oath and receive their badge. We’re driving down the night before and getting a hotel. Of course, staying in a hotel and swimming in the hotel pool will be every child’s favorite memory of the class. Which makes me question the gazillion hours I just spent working on this curriculum. Because the boys and I love unit studies, we are doing a bit more with the Revolution than we can fit into the 20-week class we are doing with other homeschoolers. Here are a few more ideas and resources: - See Time Fly – This series of books provide a timeline of the history of Western Civilization. The purpose is twofold: (1) to develop concept imagery for language comprehension and critical thinking, and (2) to teach an imaged timeline of history. Each “flight,” or section, provides high-imagery paragraphs and beautiful artwork to help students visualize important events, periods, or people who changed history. We used the book for our Ancient China unit, and we all love it. For this unit, we are reading the sections on Ancient Greece and Rome and Scandanavia. - Timelines – I am a kind of obsessed with making sure that the kids have something I never did, a sense of how all of the history I learned fits together, in other words an imaged timeline. In addition to the See Time Fly series, we have a giant timeline around the ceiling of the boys’ room, from which we hang picture of things we are studying. And then we enter those dates into our Wonders of Old books, which they can keep throughout high school, building an ever more elaborate internal timeline. - A Wall Map of the United States – By now, our wall maps are tattered and smudged with peanut butter. But the boys still love maps, and as we study more parts of the world, the connections they make continue to grow. - Trips to Mount Vernon and Monticello, the homes of Washington and Jefferson. We visit Virginia often, so they are easy trips. We’ve already been to Mount Vernon and loved it so much we became members. - A Trip to the National Archive to see the Declaration of Independence, The Constitution and The Bill of Rights. If you want to read more about some of the ideas on this page, you may want to read these posts:

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Literature as a Learning Tool: A Lesson Plan As a parent, college student, peer tutor, and future college professor, I want to address and solve an important learning issue. Within the late twentieth century, there has been an increase on the emphasis placed on elementary, middle, and high school educators and administrators to spend more time preparing their students for the yearly standardized exams and less time forming and building their students’ reading and language arts skills. This paradigm shift in the early years of a college student’s learning techniques and development has made me increasingly concerned that today’s youth can make it all the way to college and still struggle to read and write at the level needed to successfully apply critical thoughts to complex texts. I would like to address this problem by focusing on enhancing students’ methods of thinking, learning, and writing with the use of literature. In addition to attending classes a few days a week, many college students are also managing other full-time roles and responsibilities. In order to succeed in college and in their professional fields, and even to enhance social images for personal and professional networking, all students need to be able to express their thoughts and feelings in a critical manner. They should also be able to write effectively to communicate their thoughts most clearly to their intended readers. According to the updated NCTE position on education issues, “Often, in school, students write only to prove that they did something they were asked to do, in order to get credit for it. Or, students are taught a single type of writing and are led to believe this type will suffice in all situations” (1). Texting, audio devices that can read to us, and YouTube and internet learning have changed the formal methods that children and adults use to read and write. School trips to the neighborhood library to hear the librarian read the newest children’s book of adventures aloud or to help grade school students obtain their first library cards are no longer a common occurrence. Now that the focus in elementary school is to prepare students for end-of-the-year core exams, storytelling time in kindergarten is reduced or obsolete. When I was an elementary student, penmanship and developing my cursive handwriting and weekly reading comprehension quizzes were all part of my grammar school education, as well as curriculum requirements. Also, as part of our writing practices, teachers across the nation would exchange letters written by their students with other teachers in other states, creating a culturally and popular educational tool called pen pals. The ability to read closely and to write clearly about what you have read has practical values in addition to educational values. These skills can help a student succeed in their other courses and beyond. As Rebecca Moore Howard, Amy Rupiper, and Kurt Schick state in their article "Collaborative Pedagogy" (2000), “Scholars recommend the pedagogy of collaborative learning and writing not only because of its epistemological felicities but also because it offers students practice in common forms of workplace writing […]. For scientists too, collaborative writing is a familiar method […]. Even preachers engage in collaborative writing” (57). As a way to restructure upper-level students’ reading and writing skills and in response to a 1997 resolution from the Board of Trustees, CUNY created the CUNY Proficiency Exam (CPE). It required all students who were either completing their associate degree programs or beginning their junior level college programs to take and successfully pass an exam that tested their writing and reading skills for proof that they were above college-entry level. CPE peer workshops and freshman and level two English literature classes helped students prepare for the exam and provided learning opportunities for students to build up their close reading and writing skills toward graduate-degree levels. In 2010, amid complaints that the costs of administering the CPE were more than it was worth, CUNY discontinued the exam. Though many students might have sighed with relief that this "ritual of passage," as we called it in my community of peer tutors, was no longer part of their academic program, its absence did not help get students up to par with their reading comprehension and writing skills. Neither digital technology nor the discontinuation of the CPE exams and tutor sessions are entirely to blame for the lack of close readings skills that many college students exhibit. Even if we take into account the factor that many students also work full-time jobs, are full-time parents, and may not have full support at home for their higher educational goals, the problem could possibly lie in the lack of close engagement between professors and classmates in writing and reading classes. Because many incoming college students are required to take timed reading, writing, and math placement exams, the habit of doing hasty reading becomes an automatic procedure that they also use in their required course assignments. Assigning students reading material and asking them to write about what they read, as some freshman or remedial English class professors tend to do, is not an effective teaching method. As educators, we should change the practice of using basic assignments to simply pass students. Instead, we need to create lessons and assignments that will be more student-centered and engaging so that the writing and close reading skills they learn and develop in our classes and that emphasize their critical and creative thinking will become embedded and characteristic as they move forth in higher education and in professional development. During my studies as an undergraduate, I was required to read, annotate, and participate in thoughtful discussions in three separate courses using three collections of readings: Making Literature Matter: An Anthology for Readers and Writers, Philosophy: An Introduction Through Literature, and Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. Each book contained a diverse selection of literary works that integrated both classic and contemporary literature with discussions of current events and social interests that engaged students. As students, we were required to read and thoughtfully respond to the assigned readings via discussion board posts or write two page essays prior to the following week’s class. We would then submit our responses to our classmates and professors for review and in the next class, discuss our writings. By having to annotate reading passages, we were encouraged – even forced – to closely read the assigned material, especially since we knew that our responses were going to be reviewed and shared among our peers and not just submitted to the professor for grading. My experiences as an undergraduate student in the various English literature classes I took, and as a CPE peer tutor receiving feedback from my fellow students, were often more effective than the feedback from just the professor. As college students, we tend to use the habits we acquired in elementary school in our writing. However, from experience I believe that once we reach the college level, we should be learning to write for our scholarly and professional peers. Many of the scholarly articles that we are required to read and use for our research papers are written by professionals in their fields primarily for their peers in similar fields to review and discuss. Therefore, based on what worked for me in college, my main instructional method for college students would be assigning short readings from an anthology of literature, requiring weekly reading responses to assigned questions to be completed at home, and mandating participation in classroom discussions. These combined activities would help students understand that their learning process is not just teacher-based but also student-centered, and that it is vital for their academic and professional success. My goal as an instructor would be to start training my students to write less to impress me as a professor and more to communicate ideas effectively to their peers in and out of the classroom settings. For the remainder of this chapter, I would like to propose some specific and practical ways that faculty can use literature and peer reviews to help students develop their critical reading and writing skills. To begin this process, as I suggested above, I would have students read two to three assigned readings each week and write a one to two page response or reaction to what they have read. I believe that weekly assignments like this would assist with one of my goals, which is to get my students to adjust their writing behaviors from trying to impress their professors toward writing creatively and critically for their scholarly peers. I would also have each student email a fellow classmate their written response for a peer critique and annotated review. Each student would then receive their paper back from their peer with comments and then they would use the critiques for revision prior to the in-class discussions on the readings. Since this might be the first time that many of my students are doing these types of peer writing exercises, I believe it would be best to have them first exchange papers with a couple of their classmates via email rather than using other types of collaborative writing forums, such as blogging and discussion posts on virtual blackboards which can be viewed by many. I want to create a safe place for my students to build their confidence. I also want to provide them with opportunities to learn how to accept and give peer-level critiques and annotations, and at the same time, assist with their developments out of their comfort zones of writing only to complete an assignment for grading by their teachers. According to Thomas Newkirk in "Direction and Misdirection in Peer Response" (1984), “When students are urged to consider their classmates as the audience for which they are writing for, then instead of writing to impress their teacher in order to earn a grade, the students’ writing styles and content will be more effective and appropriate for their audience of peers” (301). The goal of peer review exercise is that students learn from each other how to critique, find overlooked grammatical errors, and build trusting relationships with their peers, while preparing and revising short papers during the beginning and middle of the semester. By the time the final and longer papers are due, the class as a whole will be better prepared and their thoughtful and critical reading and writing skills will be more developed than they were at the beginning of the semester. One of the many goals of using literary analysis and peer reviews of written assignments as open discussions in class together is to provide students with safe and comfortable opportunities to voluntarily read aloud their revised and corrected papers and to listen openly to feedback from fellow classmates. Another goal of this type of learning setting is to allow all students’ voices to be heard on various topics and subjects of personal and professional interests. A final important goal of this type of student-centered learning exercise is to encourage the quieter students who tend to shy away from in-class discussions to engage with their classmates more openly. Literature can spark students’ curiosity to do further research on a particular topic. Making reading and writing assignments more engaging for college students will make learning feel less like they are being required to develop a skill that should have been developed before they graduated from high school. It will also build their willingness and enthusiasm to complete their assignments effectively and in a timely manner. In their anthology for readers and writers, In Making Literature Matter, editors John Schilb and John Clifford state that “examining literature is best seen as a process during which you gradually construct, test, revise, and refine your sense of a text. We think literature is most worth reading when it does challenge your current understanding of the world, pressing you to expand your knowledge and review your beliefs” (13). I believe that by assigning and using literature as a tool for writing exercises, it not only forces and encourages the student to read more closely to understand the points the author wants the audience to get, but it also provides many opportunities and discussion topics for the student to exchange insights with their classmates and teacher. Traditionally, issues such as family relations, justice, love, and current events were the basis of the topics that students would read and write about for class. According to Schilb and Clifford, over the last couple of centuries, literary studies has turned to several new concerns, such as: - Traits that significantly shape human identity, including gender, race, ethnic background, social class, sexual orientation, cultural background, nationality, and historical context - Representations of groups, including stereotypes of others, - Divisions, conflicts and multiple forces within the self - Politics and ideology, including the various forms that power and authority can take; acts of domination, oppression, , exclusion, and appropriation, and acts of subversion, resistance and parody. - Economic and technological developments, as well as their effects. - Values---ethical, aesthetic, religious, professional and institutional. - Desire and pleasure - The body - The unconscious - Relations between ‘high’ culture and ‘low’ (that is, mass or popular) culture - Relations between what’s supposedly normal and what’s supposedly abnormal - Distinctions between what’s universal and what’s historically or culturally specific - Boundaries, including the processes through which these are created, preserved, and challenged (39). My first in-class lesson will be a combination of a few of the above listed literary topics with an introductory writing assignment that would allow the students to open up and meet the people they would be learning with for the next few months. Since this is an exercise I have done as a student in a few of my classes, I am sure this would be familiar to many readers However, I will also add a bit of a twist in the type of questions I will have my students answer and share. After distributing a set of index cards, I will give students three minutes to list as many descriptive terms as applicable as they answer the following questions: “Who am I now?” and “Who will I become in the next three years?” Depending on the size of the class, I will have them break up into groups of three or four and introduce themselves to their group members for three to five minutes. Afterward, each student will introduce their fellow group members to the class. I will also fill out a card and share my answers with the class. From my perspective as a student, when the professor shared a bit of themselves, it made the class setting and tone feel less structured and more open-minded for learning, and made the professor seem more personable and engaging; therefore, as professor, I would like to establish this type of atmosphere for my students in the beginning of the semester. This writing exercise will also prepare the students for the first set of assigned readings, which are based on at least six of the new literary concerns listed above. The first two readings, which come from Lopate’s The Art of the Personal Essay: An Anthology from the Classical Era to the Present, are James Baldwin’s “Notes of a Native Son” and Edward Hoagland’s “The Threshold and the Jolt of Pain.” In his essay, Baldwin shares his account of growing up as a young black man in Harlem, and the effect it had on his writing career along with the impact of his relationship with his father. Hoagland’s essay also is an account of his relationship with his father, and the impact it had on his desire to be a writer. However, Hoagland’s childhood , challenges as a young white man obviously differ greatly from Baldwin’s. This writing assignment will have two parts. First, students must compose a one to two page essay in which they compare and contrast the two authors’ points of view with respect to their relationships with their family and their race and class standings within their society, as well as the impact this has on their identities. Students will use the following set of questions as a guideline: - What is the main point, message, or theme of this essay? - Summarize at least three key points, specific details, or examples used in the essays that convey the author’s general message to the reader. - What is your response to the main point? (Be specific in referencing passages, sentences or words as support.) - Why do you think these two readings support the discussion we had in class today about our identities? How? - What new information have you gained from this reading? Since this will be the first set of assigned readings, in order to prepare for their future peer review critique assignments, students will first submit their essays to me, via email, by the deadline I set. They also must bring in their essays typed and prepared for a ten to fifteen minute peer review session by their classmates in the following week’s class. Students will also have opportunities to read their corrected essays out loud and discuss their reactions and thoughts about the readings with their classmates in the time remaining for this session. This type of assignments as well as the in-class discussion sessions will encourage and engage the students to start learning how to do a closer reading of literature in order to pick out the key concepts needed for writing a thoughtful and reflective essay. These two autobiographical essays written by male authors will reiterate the theme of our first few class meetings: how the essays we will be reading, in the words of Maurianne Adams in Readings for Diversity and Social Justice, “places social identity in the broader context of identity development more generally and describes the ways in which one's identity develops through the interaction between a person’s internal sense of who one is (based upon one’s social groupings) and the views of oneself and one's group that are reflected back by others in the broader society” (7). All of the assigned readings will cover such a broad spectrum of social, historical, personal, and philosophical issues that each student should be able to find something to connect to and that will perhaps lead to their desire of wanting to do more research. The Oxford English Dictionary defines literature as “familiarity with letters or books; knowledge acquired from reading or studying books, especially the principal classical texts associated with humane learning; and is also now a branch of study.” The image of a typical college student has changed since the OED was first published. However, what is still current is that by the time a student has entered college, they will have acquired and experienced at least a few life lessons. Digital technology and various forms of media offer people of all ages and from all over the world easy accessibility to information on various subjects. Today’s college student can vary from a young adult who is entering straight out of four years of high school to an adult who is in their mid to late sixties and may have a wider background of educational, job, and life experiences. By the time an incoming college student has begun their higher education career, they have likely already been exposed to a wide variety of topics. Literature comes in many forms and genres, such as poetry, fiction, autobiography, and essays, just to name a few. It also covers an abundance of interests, points of views, topics, genres, and insights, from philosophical to political to religious to social. Having my students write, critique, annotate, and discuss assigned readings among their peers will provide them with opportunities to reflect on what they have read and teach them how to develop and critically apply their learning to issues that matter and that affect them personally and professionally. Adams, Maurianne. 2000. Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge. Bruffee, Kenneth A. 1980. "Two Related Issues in Peer Tutoring: Program Structure and Tutor Training." College Composition and Communication 31.1: 76. Delbanco, Nicholas, and Alan Cheuse. 2010. Literature: Craft and Voice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Howard, Rebecca M., Amy Rupiper, and Kurt Schick. 2000 "Collaborative Pedagogy." A Guide to Composition Pedagogies. Ed. Gary Tate. Oxford University Press. 54-70. Kleiman, Lowell, and Stephen C. Lewis. 1992. Philosophy: An Introduction through Literature. New York, NY: Paragon House. Lopate, Phillip. 1994. The Art of the Personal Essay: An Anthology from the Classical Era to the Present. New York: Anchor. "Professional Knowledge for the Teaching of Writing." NCTE Comprehensive News. http://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/teaching-writing/ Newkirk, Thomas. 1984. "Direction and Misdirection in Peer Response." College Composition and Communication 35.3: 301-311. Schilb, John, and John Clifford. 2003. Making Literature Matter: An Anthology for Readers and Writers. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. Topping, K. J. 1996. "The Effectiveness of Peer Tutoring in Further and Higher Education: A Typology and Review of the Literature." Higher Education 32.3: 321-45.

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4. TELLING A STORY Everyone loves to listen to stories. There is hardly anyone among us who has not heard a story during our childhood. Stories keeps children engaged and let them feel that they are also participating in the process of story telling. Language learning, any learning for that matter, happens when children are engaged in meaning making activities. If story telling is made into an interesting experience and fun filled activity where the listeners also participate in telling, guessing, manipulating, it could be a joyous learning experience. · To develop an understanding among teachers about the importance of storytelling in language classroom. · To enable teachers to select stories for language classroom and to use story telling as a strategy for effective language teaching- learning. · To familiarize teachers with techniques of telling a story and to create stories with children in the process of language learning · To develop a perspective among teachers about the uses of story telling in terms of developing sensitivity to various world views and reinforcement of social values through stories Read the following story with your friend Funny Si Kabayan Long ago, in Indonesia, Si Kabayan loved to play with words. Once, his father-in-law said, “Sing me a song.” So Si Kanayan droned, “Sa-ri sa-r sari-” “That’s no good,”moaned his father-in-law. “I want something gentle on the ears.” “Try chicken feathers.” Said Si Kabayan. “Forget singing then, you fool,” said his father-in-law. “Tell me a story “Something long?” asked Si Kabayan. “You useless fellow!” roared his father-in-law. Something short, then?asked Si Kabayan. “YES, YES. YES!” “An ant,” grinned Si Kabayan. And that was the last time that his father-in-law asked him to do anything at all, which made Si Kabayan very very glad! Now discuss with your friend - Is it a humorous story? - Will (y)our students like it? - Is the story suitable for your students? Why do you think so? - How can this story be used in the classroom? (a) Students reading individually (b) Students reading in groups (c) teacher telling the story to the class. 3. Story telling Vs. Teaching a story We need to understand the difference between teaching a story and telling a story. In Teaching a story as a piece of work or literature as it happens most of our classroom where the teacher presents and explains the events, actions and characters of the story. Here the purpose is different. Story telling as a strategy for learning, more so language learning, serves as major language ‘input’ for learners and enables them, through experience, learn / acquire the language naturally. 4. Understanding the learner and his / her context Children are impulsive for they have no apprehension and notions that will stop them from acting; they are inquisitive and want to know what is around them and what is happening to things and people; they have enormous energy that they will not stop doing things till they are extremely tired; they are spontaneous and social, and would like to be entertained always. Moreover, children crave for attention and love, as this is a natural instinct of a child. If our classrooms keep them engaged with right kind of entertainment in the process of learning, learning is ensured. This is because children are active learners and thinkers (Piaget, 1970). They learn though social interactions (Vygotsky, 1962) and learn better and more effectively through scaffolding by adults (Bruner, 1983). Could you supplement some of the qualities of children mentioned in the last two lines of the above paragraph? 4.1. Teaching young children We help children learn language when what we ask them to do is purposeful, meaningful, socially significant and enjoyable. They need to feel supported when they attempt to do something i.e. learning and this could happen when they are given context based tasks and activities. How can we make our classroom activities purposeful, meaningful and engaging? Can you list out some of the ways in which you want to do it? 5. Why stories for language learning? Stories use a holistic approach to language teaching and stories support natural acquisition of language. We believe language is learnt in contexts and in chunks, not in isolation, word by word or sentence by sentence. Stories are meaningful inputs i.e. comprehensible inputs (Krashen 1985) that children receive as they listen to and tell stories. Comprehensible input refers to the language given to children just above the level of their present language competence. This helps them get engaged and motivate them to understand and find out the new words, structures and make meaning out of the input. Stories develop in children an understanding about other cultures, respect for others and other cultures. Stories help children develop critical thinking and making a judgement about things and happening and actions of people, ideas and so on. Above all children love stories. 6. Choosing the right kind of story How will you choose stories for children? We have lots of them available in of textbooks, supplementary readers, publications of NBT, CBT and Sahithya Academy and many other private publications. Don’t you feel we need to choose the ones children like, those that that match their age and language level? So consider the following when choosing stories to tell in the classroom - Find stories your children will like. - Stories that match their age and language level. - Choose stories you like. - Choose stories with simple structures - Choose stories with positive values (positive aspects of human nature-resourceful, humorous). Avoid didactic stories. Stories should be in such as children may understand and critique actions, characters, ideas, themes in them and make a judgement expressing their own opinions. - Choose stories that relate to children’s daily life and their thinking, curiosity and interest. (Adapted from Pederson 1995) With your friend Can you suggest a story that you would like to tell your children? Give reasons for you selection. “Having chosen a story how do I go about the task?” is the question in your mind now. Here is what a teacher tells us what she would do. - Study the story’s background and try to test your selection - Importance of vocabulary. Children will understand the text they read if they know at least 90% of the words (Joan Kang Shin 2007) - If the story has a lot of unknown vocabulary, make sure that you can make it comprehensible before or during the storytelling. - It helps if children know the most frequently used words. 7. Techniques for Story telling Though children love to listen to stories, we need to begin with short sessions, if they are not familiar with storytelling in the classroom. You can make your own seating arrangement comfortable for children. You can have younger children sit on the floor around you. Begin with very short stories, riddles, anecdotes and tales which children like better. Here are some riddles Water of two colours in a single pot A mother carried her children around her neck The old woman who eats only wood. Golden lock for a small house. (See the answers at the end) You may ask children tell such riddles in their mother tongue or in English. This will serve as good starter to take children into the story telling session. Now read slowly and clearly the story and with expressions. While telling the story use the following techniques or actions to sustain children’s interest. 7.1. Tools for a story teller · Concentration and visualization Close you eyes and recall a story heard as a child, Picture the home you grew up in. Remember some of your happiest moments; saddest times; times of anger; times of reflection Take deep, slow breaths. Enjoy and remember the silence and calm as you do this. Try breathing in and our quickly as if panting, without moving shoulders or chest much so that you develop deeper, fuller breath support. · Voice work Chew, hum and stretch to keep your voice relaxed. Alto try voice exercises from vocal/ oral tradition of your region. Read a newspaper line or say a nursery rhyme in different ways varying pitch, volume, texture, and feeling. Try talking in a monster’s voice, giving a king’s command or a beggar's plea. Vary the pace, tone and volume of voice; pause where appropriate; Disguise your voice for different characters. Do not be afraid to repeat, expand, and reformulate. · Encourage children to take part in story telling Ask question that involve children. Make comments about illustrations and expect a response from children. · Sound and Silence Listen to the sound of the spoken word. Consider alliteration; explore the possibilities of rhyme; Add sounds to the right stories- animal noises; connect culturally. · Word Play Very short stories, tales, puns, riddle would do wonders. (Adapted from Brewster, Ellis & Girard 2004 and Cathy Spagnoli year not mentioned ) Now read the following news items in three different ways. (Try and read giving emphasis on the bus, then ninety year old man and then crushing of the bus or the old man into pieces.) Bus collided with a ninety year old man and crushed into pieces. And discuss with your friend what technique you employed. 7.2. Pre-Story telling to Post Story Telling Now let us see how we can design pre and post storytelling activities. Our aim is to capture the attention of children before we venture into our story telling session. Children learn with the help of their previous knowledge. They would pick up well and with interest, if they can connect to prior knowledge and experiences. Have activities, tasks, role play or actions that would connect their life experiences with the ideas, themes, incidents or the characters of the story. Also review language in the story children already know and teach new vocabulary or expressions. Children would love to predict what will happen in the story. So stop when you reach such a point where the tension mounts, and ask children to predict. The above discussion yields the following pointers: § Capture children’s attention. § Connect to their prior knowledge and experiences. § Review language in the story children already know. § Teach new vocabulary or expressions. § Have children predict what will happen in the story. § Give them a purpose for listening. Post Story Telling Activities The following activities and tasks would enrich the experiences of children after listening to the story. § Questions and answers based on the story. This has to be oral. § Total Physical Response (TPR)* § Group retelling § Create your own ending § Drama and role playing § Story mapping § Story boarding § Games that check comprehension (Start & Stop, retelling with mistakes, picture out of order. *Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempt to teach language through physical (motor) activity (Jack C. Richards & Theodore s. Rodgers 1986) Here is a story. Set pre story telling activities, then tell the story and set one or two post story telling activities. Lake of Diamonds The village of Paritaal had got its name from the lake in the middle of it. The lake was the life of the village. Stories were told of diamonds that lay buried beneath the lake-bed. But this summer things were different. There had been no rains for two years and the threat of another drought was looming over Paritaal. The lake had dried up. Eight-year-old Abdul lived with his family in the village. His grandfather was the village sarpanch. One evening the whole village gathered to discuss the delayed rains. Vigyan, a well-read man and Haji, the potter asked the sarpanch about the legend of the buried diamonds in the lake-bed. “Let’s all dig up the lake and find the diamonds. Then we won’t be hungry and poor anymore.” “Yes, yes, we must do that,” agreed Laxman, the carpenter. The sarpanch and the priest were worried. If it did not rain this year there would be mayhem. Hunger and poverty would make beasts out of men. Abdul knew how difficult it was for them to get water. His mother and sister would be away for more than half the day, as they had to walk five km to fetch drinking water. They could not carry much water, just three pots. It was the same story in every house. The villagers insisted that they should be allowed to dig up the lake and find the diamonds. Vigyan tried to dissuade the villagers and instead suggested that they should all wait and if they wish they should offer prayers. Abdul’s grandfather managed to convince the villagers to organize mass prayers. But there were a lot of people who did not believe in the power of prayer and felt that the sarpanch was cheating them by not allowing them to dig up the lake-bed. Two days was too long a wait. Haji, the potter, whose idea it was to dig up the lake, was very restless. For Laxman this whole business of praying seemed foolish. Every member in his family including himself had been reduced to a bag of bones. He wanted to dig up the lake-bed. And that’s what he did. He kept at it all night aided by the light of the moon. The day of prayers came. Before sunrise, all the villagers gathered at the lake, knelt down on the dry lake-bed and prayed. Abdul too had gone with his grandfather. It was a beautiful sight to see people united in adverse times. Just as the sun rose, Vigyan came along with people and they had a yagna on the caked lake-bed. Just then, the villagers discovered Laxman’s attempt to dig the lake. The sight of the dug-up lake-bed was like a trigger that had been pulled up. The villagers seized any implement they could grab – pick-axes, spades, shovels, crow-bars-and started digging. By afternoon it was baking hot. The sarpanch pleaded with them to stop but no one was in the mood to listen. By night, the lake was at least five times deeper than it was. Not a single diamond had been found. Like madmen they kept digging all night. By daybreak the lake was really deep. Suddenly water started oozing out. The soil became slushy and the digging stopped. Ropes had to be let down to pull the men up. The men were disappointed that there were no diamonds. It took the wisdom of the sarpanch, Vigyan and others to show the men that water was the greatest treasure they could have. “Where there is water, there is work; where there is work there is wealth and prosperity,” said Abdul’s grandfather. The men saw the point. They were tired, but ready to plough their lands and prepare for prosperous times. (Young World, The Hindu, Tuesday, July 14, 2009) 8. Storey telling as a strategy to enhance oral language proficiency Story telling is an effective strategy to help children obtain oral language proficiency. In instructed language learning situations where the exposure to English is only in school like in a majority of our schools, stories and story telling will serve the purpose of not simply promoting listening skills, but will also develop oral language proficiency. The following processes could be of use when we attempt to help children enrich their oral skills through story telling. Here children move from being mere listeners of stories to beginning storytellers in an interactive way. This is only suggestive and need not be seen in the linear way it is given. We can start children telling stories along with teacher’s story telling sessions. Prepare the children well with clear instruction and clarification before the start of any story telling session. From listening to a story to interactive story telling Teacher telling a story in a session. v Children are involved v Children participate, ask question v They predict the possible ending or alternative end of the story. v Whole class reading a story –choral reading (with and without teacher reading) v Reading in groups v One child reading out to the group / whole class. Children telling a story v Children tell a story individually to the whole class or to a group v Children take turns and tell a story v Children ask questions each other as they tell a story or after telling / listening to a story. v Children bring stories from their experiences, from elders, etc and share by telling and exchanges with their peers. v Teacher’s role: Teacher makes the session informal and does not intervene much. v Critical Pedagogy: Children ask question on the ideas and beliefs, characters, happenings and intensions of the story (writer). This makes them analyse and judge and conclude. 9. To Sum up Stories and story telling serve as an important input for enhancing language learning in the classroom. Teachers need to know how to select a story and the various techniques of telling a story and enabling children to be story tellers in an interactive way. Let us recall - Find stories your children will like and appreciate. - Stories that match their age and language level. - Choose stories you like. - Choose stories with a simple structure - Choose stories with positive attitudes. - Choose stories that children could connect with their daily life and their thinking, curiosity and interest. Before your story telling session · Study the story’s background and try to test your selection · Importance of vocabulary. Children will understand the text they read if they know at least 90% of the words (Joan Kang Shin 2006) · If the story has a lot of unknown vocabulary, make sure that you can make it comprehensible before or during the storytelling. · It helps if children know the most frequently used words. · Employ the techniques of both physical actions and oral modulation to tell a story · Plan and design pre-story telling, post story-telling activities. · Make Story telling as an interactive activity paving way the for enhancing the oral language proficiency of children. Read the story given below and write a plan a session of a story telling session by the teacher and a session in which children take turns to tell the story. Mention the pre and post story telling activities. Food for Thought A young woman in Sri Lanka had parents who were extremely caste conscious. When they began to seek a groom for their daughter, they were most anxious that he should come from a high caste. Although they had little money, they turned down offers from rich lower caste men, preferring instead to find any possible husband, no matter how impoverished, from the higher castes. Finally, the match was made and the woman was married to a high caste man who had few rupees indeed. The poor woman suffered great hardship in her husband’s home, for he was a good-for-nothing who neither helped her in the fields nor brought home any income. One day, her parents decided to visit her. They approached the house, smelled the wood fire and saw their daughter scraping a spoon round in a pot. She invited them to sit down and they looked forward eagerly to a fine meal. They sat and waited. No food was served. Quite hungry, they waited a little more. Still, no food. At last, the mother went to see if the meal was ready. She looked into the pot and was very surprised. For even though the girl still moved the spoon in the pot, there was nothing to stir-the pot was empty. “What are you cooking, my dear?” asked the mother, quite confused. “We have nothing to eat,” replied the daughter, “So I’m roasting the caste that you value so much. (Adapted from “Grain of Rice” Ratnapala 1991 p137) The stories Funny Si Kabayan and Food for thought are taken from the book, Telling Tales from Asia: A resource book for all who love telling stories authored by Cathy Spangnoli published by Tulika. (year not mentioned) Brewster, J., Ellis, G. & Girard, D. (2004). The Primary English teacher’s guide. London: Penguin. Cathy Spangnoli (year not mentioned) Telling Tales from Asia: A resource book for all who love telling stories. Tulika. NCERT (2005) Position Paper on Teaching of English. New Delhi Pedersen, E.M. (1995) Storytelling and the art of teaching. English Teaching Forum, 33 (1) 2-5. Richards, C. Jack Rodgers, S. Theodore (1986) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge Language Teaching Library. Shin, J.K. (2006) Ten helpful ideas for teaching English to young learners. English Teaching Forum, 44 (2), 2-7, 13. http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol44/no2/p2.pdf Slatterly, M., & Willis, J. (2001). English for primary teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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As an English teacher I have found great joy in the exploration of meaningful writing with junior and middle school children. Children acquire language skills when they engage in self-motivating activities that are stimulating, social and meaning based. Writing activities, I have seen, need to be a part of the entire language experience that children are engaged in, and they cannot be isolated from what children listen to, speak about or otherwise experience. In the same spirit, writing activities must focus on communication and meaning rather than on the form of the language. When thinking about meaningful writing, several important questions arise. How is writing to connect with children’s imaginative and psychological inner worlds? Can there be a structure to the way children conceive of the writing process itself? And how is creative writing to be assessed? I will try and propose frameworks to approach these three questions in the sections that follow. Writing personal narratives This is your writing journal. It is a place for you to write in either at home or at school and you will give it to me once a week. I will read it and write messages back to you! The type of writing you will be doing in this journal is called personal narrative. That means you will write about events, stories, people and memories in your life. You will choose one topic for each entry. So, you might write about taking a train ride. Another time you might write about how you learned to blow a balloon. This is how a letter to each of your students might begin, if you were to try personal narrative journal writing. This can be a weekly activity throughout the year with each student maintaining his or her own journal. It is a meaningful form of communication going back and forth between teacher and student, gradually deepening the relationship between the two. What it isn’t, is a place for us teachers to correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, and form. It is a place for us to respond to the feelings, events and thoughts shared by the child who is relating a particular narrative. It is, therefore, a response to content and not form. What exactly does this activity entail? In spirit it is just like a child eagerly grabbing the teacher’s attention on a Monday morning, “Uncle…do you know what happened to me this weekend? I lost my third tooth!” “Aunty, yesterday night, I and my father got lost while we were coming home…and you know what…it was more scary because the current was not there!” Our complete attention is summoned by the intensity of emotion, touch of drama, and lucid details that the child brings. Her main goal is to reach her audience successfully. While we hear ourselves saying, in our minds, “my father and I…last night…not yesterday night . . .” we respond out loud, with, “Oh gosh, really?!” or we go on to ask searching questions (if we can get a word in!) because we are genuinely interested in knowing more. What we are instinctively doing is responding to content and tone, but not form, and this is the spirit with which we would read the journal entries. An article titled Core Values of Progressive Education by Seikatsu Tsuzurikata and Whole Language (June 2 2007, International Journal of Progressive Education), by Mary and Chisato Kitagawa, gives us an insight into the significance of this simple yet fulfilling exercise. During the Great Depression of the 1 1930s, teachers in rural schools in Japan found the textbooks and prescribed curricula too abstract and removed from the experience of the children whose families were simply struggling to survive. The teachers finally decided to ask the children to write about their own lives and experiences in the form of journal entries. Quoting from the Kitagawas’ article: Students wrote about their hardscrabble farm life, describing their parents’ toil in specific terms. For example, one student depicted his father’s gnarled, soil-encrusted fingers as looking almost like the edible roots he was pulling from the ground. Today this approach can be used to benefit children anywhere by ‘listening’ to their personal stories and acknowledging their emotions. We can do this by writing meaningful comments in the margins of these journal entry pages. Over the course of the year while these entries keep going, the teacher can do lessons in the classroom on the use of rich detail, focusing on a memorable moment (not a whole summer vacation!), and using colourful vocabulary—all the time remembering that the entries are to be retained as a special, expressive communication between teacher and student. Keep in mind that your comments are pivotal for this to work. Children should be made to feel uninhibited, free to experiment with words and phrases, or to try out a writing voice and style. In the samples below, I highlight such language play. Student: It was an everyday-type day until the doorbell rang. Teacher: Your phrase ‘everyday-type’ day even sounds monotonous. I like how it rolls off the tongue! S: It was nicer than that. Made of real leather. It even smelled like leather. Like the smell of a new leather jacket. And the seems were handstitched too. T: Ooooh! I can smell it as you describe it. How closely you have observed this little gift. S: There were mannnnny birds on the water. T: I can see how excited you were to see that many birds-‘mannny’! S: I didn’t know the birds names but I felt happy looking at the birds. T: Isn’t it funny how we always want to name what we see while we could just enjoy looking at it at that moment? How nice that you felt happy seeing them. S: OK now let’s go deep deep into the jungle. T: What an inviting way to lead me into the next part of your story! S: It was there that we heard about the Kerala rock. T: Wow! I’m hooked. I would like to end this section with these words from the Kitagawas’ article: What makes this movement remarkable is the degree to which teachers succeed in making themselves trustworthy co-spectators…the reader can read without any other purpose than to appreciate what has been expressed. Writing as a process Writing is not just an end product awaiting correction and evaluation by the teacher; it is an evolutionary process that requires teacher involvement at every stage. [Writing Conferences: Alternative to the Red Pencil by Glenda Bissex] Below are my notes as I watched a writing class. There’s a low hum and a shuffling of sheets as students settle into their little nooks in the classroom and make themselves comfortable. It is time for writing with the 10-12 year olds. For a period of two weeks or more, we have been taking a piece of writing from the stage of an idea, to making a list or holding a brainstorming session, followed by a first draft, then peer feedback, a revised draft, an editing stage and then to the final product. The children have chosen their genres (travel brochure, recipe, news article, instructions or poster). As they lean against the wall, exchange that glance with a friend, and then look at their papers, they are getting ready for their task in the process of writing their piece. For a few it is the final stage of writing out that recipe they’ve tried at home. Two others, at the stage of revising their first drafts, go outside to read their pieces out to each other. They will follow that with searching questions and feedback, which will nudge the other into making changes and revising the draft. They will read it out instead of showing it, so that the listener can focus on content and not get distracted by editing errors or handwriting quirks! Most of the students this morning are still navigating through their first drafts—an exciting stage of expression where they can dream about how they want to reach that final product—a colourful, flashy brochure about Savandurga Hill, perhaps. They can also freely put down all they want to say and in the way they want to, knowing they’ll be able to go back to it and reshape it. Since each student has chosen his or her own genre and topic they are quite motivated today as we settle down and proceed. Rukmini has been painstakingly folding and refolding an origami crane making sure she writes down the instructions correctly. Finally she comes to me with a brainwave, “Aunty! Now don’t worry, I will also write how to make the crane but can I stick an actual paper at each step, with the correct folds, so that whoever reads it can see exactly how to fold it?” Over the last few days, she has discovered how complex it is to write about and draw out instructions for the folding of an origami crane, but she seems to have found a way out! As I look around, there are two students missing and I remember that they are off interviewing staff members for a news article. They should be back presently with their notes. Suddenly I sense a queue of students developing on my right. Some need help in editing, one is not clear what to do next, and one who is writing a novel from the perspective of a dog which lives on Savandurga Hill, is feeling stuck with no creative juices flowing today! If there are too many waiting for help I usually urge them to: start designing the layout of their final product, read a library book, or see if a classmate needs help with their piece—sketching or decorating. A couple of minutes before the end we all gather. I have to go up to the balcony to make sure I have found everyone! The hum turns into giggles and loud exchanges. The students pull out the sheets on which they are tracking the stages of their writing process. They take a minute to report, in writing, what happened that day: ‘Couldn’t think of anything new for my novel.’ ‘Shanti listened to my story and said it was nice.’ Maybe this is a moment for me to write down some observations as well: ‘Varun struggled to begin working independently and is not able to get the big idea of the process. Perhaps this is too open-ended an activity for her.’ ‘Shalom has already reached a final—seems to be rushing in most activities.’ ‘Shreya has grasped the importance of revision, and wrote notes for herself when Rahul gave feedback and asked questions.’ My notes are of what I have noticed today. As I sit and look through all their writing process tracking sheets later, I will realize the need to instruct the class more in certain areas, such as how to listen and give constructive feedback to your partner (not just say, ‘it was nice’), how to incorporate their ideas and actually make changes in the first drafts, and so on. As a parallel to the vignette above, I could trace my own journey in writing this article. I first brainstormed ideas I wanted to include, wrote a rough draft to just pour sentences onto the page without worrying about exactly how it sounded, then shared it with a colleague who gave me some feedback. A few days later, I went back to it, made changes in paragraph format, took away unnecessary details, added some necessary ones, and then began to think of my audience (you!) more seriously. Finally I was ready to edit for spellings, grammar, sentence structure, and punctuation. It was only after that that I felt it was a finished product that could be presented in some way. The belief that children are authors capable of taking decisions, like adults, forms the core of this approach to writing. In this scenario, writing is real, not just an essay in response to a prompt, or an answer to a question. It is a living thing that has a meaningful end: reading out one’s story to a younger group of children, giving copies of one’s recipe to others in the group to try out, displaying the travel brochures in the library, putting up posters for publicity and such like. In the younger classes when children are not as familiar with many different genres of writing, the whole group can be led through an exploration of one genre—news article, for instance—and while all the children write the article they can choose what topics to write about. As older children are more familiar with different genres of writing they can choose to work on one for a couple of weeks as described in the vignette above, and move through the steps. Over the course of the year, you can make sure they cover five or six different genres. Exactly when they do each one could be up to them. How do we understand the revision step? When we are immersed in a first draft for a while, it becomes very hard to step back and see if it reads well, is clear and performs its function. We have become too close to it. Reading it out to someone helps us hear it better and allows for the natural process of questioning and feedback to emerge. Here are examples of what teachers and peers might ask: Who do you mean by ‘she’? Is this a few days later or on the same day? You have used the word ‘good’ quite a lot. I would like to know more about the bull that came towards you and your friends, rather than the restaurant. Why do you say you will never forget that day? It is most effective for the teachers to role play this type of interaction (perhaps at the start of the year) so that students see how to give feedback, what questions to ask, how to be respectful of the piece written, and how to listen and wait till the end. Here are some more general questions for the listener to ponder over: - What was the best part and why? - What was difficult to understand and how can it be changed? - What was the writer’s main point? - What do you want to know more about? - Did the piece fit its purpose? Putting the responsibility back into the writer’s hands and making him/her active in deciding how to change, add to, or rephrase the piece conveys a powerful message of trust, and gives the student confidence in his/her writing abilities and talents. It is also a shift in perspective: moving the focus away from the mistakes themselves to that of making constructive changes and revising the writing. A tool for assessment - There were hundreds of birds flying over our heads! - It’s a fact that giraffes have killed predators by a single kick of their hind leg and have also fallen on predators and crushed them! - It was not that Omri didn’t appreciate Patrick’s birthday present to him. - No more tips for today. Read tomorrow’s paper for more tips. (A ‘tips for dogs’ piece) - That’s all. Why are you just sitting there? Get out of your comfy armchair and go play the game! (The conclusion to an essay on football) - Not being able to fit in? People not understanding what you say? Come to St. Rajappa’s Gibberish School! - He served it to the king’s guests. ‘ “Wonderful!” they remarked. “What do you call it?” The cook thought for a while and said, “Avial…” And thus the famous dish was born. When we read a piece of writing we may feel it speaks to us, makes us laugh, entertains us, leaves us wondering about something, or gives us important information. On the other hand, we may feel it makes us confused, leads us down many paths, doesn’t have a main point, or is misleading. This gut reaction we have is valid, but as teachers we need to also understand the exact reasons that make the piece ‘good’ or ‘bad’, effective or not. These reasons give us teachers the language necessary to describe the strengths and needs we see in children’s writing, and clarity about how to teach to that or to move forward. Vicki Spandel, an educator from the USA, has created a program titled ‘6-Trait Writing Assessment and Instruction’. Essentially this type of assessment is a rubric or grid comprising six traits that all writing can possess: - sentence fluency - word choice - conventions (capitals, punctuation and spelling) The student self-assessment table shown expands on these. Students are exposed to literary extracts or anonymous samples of children’s writing that are strong or weak examples of each trait until they begin to understand the nature of that trait. For them to appreciate what an effective detail, a personal voice, a strong lead, rich vocabulary and sentence fluency actually sounds or looks like, they need to read and hear examples and understand for themselves. Finally, after weeks of assessing other works, they can apply it to their own and each other’s writing. This assessment tool can be used once in a while at the revision stage (instead of the peer feedback process) so that students can go back and fix or improve their pieces and then apply it again at the very end of their writing process. Here is an example of how the rubric can be applied. One child’s sample reads thus: Talk by the Dalai Lama As the rain pours down on the parched earth, people run out to enjoy the earthen smell and when the rain trickles down their foreheads, the farmers pray for a good harvest. At last the monsoons have come. Although some people don’t feel so much happiness as they ride on a motorbike. For instance it happened to me yesterday when I was going to a talk by the Dalai Lama. The essay ends with this: So that is why I missed a wonderful talk…because of the rain! This is a piece that has: - an interesting lead, setting the scene for something to come - memorable and poetic word choice: ‘parched’, ‘earthen’, ‘trickles’ - sensory details that create a scene: ‘rain trickling’, ‘earthen smell’ - varied sentence structure - clarity in format - a personal voice: reaching out in that last line. All these specifics can be entered into the rubric and one will immediately see where the strengths and needs lie. Another sample reads: Last year, we went on a vacation and we had a wonderful time. The weather was sunny and warm and there was lots to do, so we were never bored. My brother and I swam and also hiked in the woods. When we got tired of that we just ate and had a wonderful time. It ends with: I hope we will go back again next year for more fun than we had this year. This is a piece that has: - organization and control, a clear beginning, middle and end - good spellings and editing symbols, easy for another to read aloud - no eye-catching details or strong lead - repetitive vocabulary, ‘wonderful’ and very common words: ‘lots’ and ‘fun’ - lack of build up to one peak event, just a rambling list of things done on a long vacation - lack of personal voice (no particular person comes to mind as we read it) In each of the trait categories we can have a scale of 1 1-3 3 as the table shows. A ‘1’ could represent a weak example in that category and a ‘3’ could indicate a strong example. Just like children seem to enjoy rating movies they have seen or books they have read, they seem to find this exercise enjoyable as well. The same form is used by the teacher to assess the students’ writing. When the student, her teacher and maybe even a third person are able to evaluate a piece of writing in the same manner by using this form, it indicates an effective use of the rubric. Having put thought and care into our writing instruction, it is appropriate to find a form for assessment that can match it. I believe this type of assessment helps derive children’s strengths, highlights their needs, and gives us the information we need to improve our instruction. STUDENT SELF ASSESSMENT FORM My message is clear I know a lot about this topic I have included enough information I have included deatils not everyone would think of My writing has purpose Once you start reading you will not want to stop My opening line hooks you! Everything ties together It builds to the good parts You can fllow it easily The ending works well and makes you think My tone and voice are right for this topic and audience. This sounds like me and no one else. This piece shares my feelings about the topic It makes the reader laugh, smile, get the chills, etc. It’s like I am having a conversation with the reader. It creates word pictures Wording is accurate and crystal clear These arre strong verbs Words are not often repeated- Only for effect These are memorable moments wording or phrasing stays in the reader's mind It is easy to read aloud and it flows well The sentence vary in length and structure making it easy-on-the-ear The tense- past, present and future- is consistent throughout The sentences are all grammatically correct A few sentence fragments are used for style and effect It looks neat, edited, polished and mostly free of distracting errors (capitals, punctuation, grammar). My design and presentation draw the reader to the main points. Note: All quotes and children’s samples have been taken from classes held at Centre For Learning, Bangalore and adapted slightly for this article. Names have been changed.

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Summer reading programs (SRPs) have been a staple for many, if not most, public libraries since the turn of the twentieth century. Their popularity attests to the continuing value of encouraging reading among primary and secondary grade children in communities across the nation. Each summer, during the annual hiatus from school, reading skills often decline. This phenomenon is sometimes called “summer loss,” “summer learning loss,” or “summer reading setback.” One consistent finding of a number of research studies is that “summer reading setback”— presumably the result of a lack of adequate reading practice—is a very real phenomenon. It impacts children living in poverty the most, and its effects are cumulative. Over the last two decades, research continues to show that reading scores tumble while voluntary reading rates diminish as children move from childhood to late adolescence. One real discouraging note is that nine year-old children read more than their thirteen- and seventeen-year-old counterparts. One of the common assumptions about SRPs is that they are valuable in many ways for the children participating. Reading practice improves word recognition, builds vocabulary, improves fluency and comprehension, is a powerful source of world knowledge, and is a way to develop understandings of complex written language syntax and grammar. However, most children do very little reading out of school, and only a small number of children read for extended periods of time. While there is a plethora of literature pertaining to SRPs, there is little literature that focuses on the evaluation of these programs. What literature there is can be conveniently divided into two broad categories: summer school programs and public library SRPs. The Impact of Summer School Programs My review of the research that has been conducted about summer school programs suggests that: - Students who do not engage in educational activities during the summer typically score lower on tests at the end of summer than they did at the beginning. - Summer school programs that focus on lessening or removing learning deficiencies have a positive impact on the knowledge and skills of participants. - Summer school programs focusing on the acceleration of learning or on other multiple goals also have a positive impact on participants roughly equal to remedial programs. - Summer school programs have more positive effects on the achievement of middle-class students than on students from disadvantaged backgrounds. - Remedial summer programs have larger positive effects when the program is run for a small number of schools or classes or in a small community. - Summer programs that provide small group or individual instruction produce the largest impact on student outcomes. - Summer programs that require some form of parental involvement produce larger, positive effects than programs without this component. - Remedial summer programs may have a larger effect on math achievement than on reading. - The achievement advantage gained by students who attend summer school may diminish over time. - Remedial summer school programs have positive effects for students at all grade levels, although the effects may be most pronounced for students in early primary grades and secondary school than in middle grades. - Summer programs that undergo careful scrutiny for treatment fidelity, including monitoring to ensure that instruction is being delivered as prescribed, monitoring of attendance, and removal from the evaluation of students with many absences, may produce larger effects than unmonitored programs. - On most days the majority of children did little or no reading. A child in the 90th percentile in amount of book reading spends nearly five times as many minutes reading per day as the child in the 50th percentile and over 200 times as many minutes per day as the child in the 10th percentile. - Summer reading setback is one of the important factors contributing to the reading achievement gap between rich and poor children. - There is little difference in reading gains between children from high- and low-income families during the school year. Rather, the differences are the result of what happens during the summer. - Children from high-income families make superior progress in reading over the summer, and over time the summer advantage can account for the social-class differences in reading achievement. This is a result of the fact that children from high-income families tend to read more over the summer. - Children from lower-income families have more restricted access to books (both in school and out of school) than do their more advantaged peers. - The more children read, the better their fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Library Summer Reading Programs The traditional SRP is designed primarily for elementary school children to promote independent reading during the summer vacation. A 1988 study defined effectiveness of a SRP as reaching a higher percent of the total number of school-age children.1 Libraries reaching more than 8 percent of the total child population were designated successful and an analysis revealed that successful libraries: - were located in smaller communities; - reached a mean of 11 percent of school-age children while unsuccessful libraries reached a mean of 3 percent (the range was from zero to 40 percent); - produced a written evaluation report; and - established goals and objectives for the SRP. A survey of Pennsylvania and southern California public libraries found that SRPs are thriving, and attracting large numbers of children and families each year.2 These studies found that: - Three-fourths of the libraries noted that circulation increases from 6 to 10 percent during the summer with the assumption that most of this increase can be attributed to the SRP. - The majority of SRP children visit the library weekly. - A third of the libraries report that the SRP attracts more than two hundred children. - Children who attend summer library programs read on a higher level than those who do not attend—including those children who attend summer camp programs. - Library events related to a SRP (crafts, songs, drama, storytelling, and puppetry) extend the reading experience. - Summer library programs encourage parents to be involved in their children’s reading. - Children participating in the SRP spend more time reading than their counterparts. - Eleven percent of the parents reported that they spend more time reading with or to their children (fifteen hours or more per week). - The amount of reading is substantial—36 percent of the children read one to twenty books; 17 percent read twenty-one to thirty books; 27 percent read thirty-one to fifty books; and 21 percent read fifty-one or more books. - Participants are much more enthusiastic about reading. - Teachers reported that 31 percent of the participants had maintained or improved their reading skills compared to 5 percent of nonparticipants. Interestingly, the number of books read during the summer can make a difference. A number of studies suggest that reading four to six books over the summer helps readers maintain their skills, and reading ten to twenty books helps improve their skills. Stephen Krashen asserts that free voluntary reading is the best way to better reading and language development.3 In short, practice makes perfect. Similar results have been found in several studies evaluating SRPs that have been conducted in Canada, England, and New Zealand. Focusing on the evaluation of the SRP can be beneficial from several different perspectives. If the library is soliciting contributions from the community to support the SRP, an evaluation provides the numbers and the stories to make a compelling story. Thinking about the outcomes the library would like to achieve in the lives of the children and their families will help the library determine what kind of SRP the library should be providing and what kind of data it should be collecting to demonstrate actual impact. Using Richard Orr’s4 familiar evaluation model, it is possible to organize the many measures that libraries have used or could use in the evaluation of a SRP (see figure 1). Resources (inputs) are needed to organize and conduct the SRP. Children sign up for the program and a percentage of those who start will complete the program (outputs). And the children, their families, and the community will experience immediate and long-term consequences (outcomes). Input measures typically include the monetary and staffing resources to plan, implement, and evaluate the SRP. Among the input measures that can be tracked are: - Budget—Some portion of the budget will need to be devoted to promotional materials, marketing expenses, signage, and incentives (if used). Some libraries solicit funds from community organizations for the SRP so that, other than staff time, all the costs are borne by the donated funds. - Staff—Library employees will be responsible for planning, conducting, and evaluating the program. In addition to tracking who is participating and what is being accomplished, some libraries ask staff members to also track the time they spend on the SRP. Additional staff or volunteers may need to be scheduled as a part of the SRP and to cope with the longer queues waiting to check out materials. Measures might include: ● number of staff involved (FTE); ● number of volunteers involved (FTE); or ● number of outreach locations. - Collections—Some portions of the collection may need to be organized as a part of the SRP theme for that particular summer. - Facilities—Space for the SRP may need to be organized. Obviously the intent of the SRP theme and the use of marketing materials are designed to encourage children to sign up for the program. In addition to avid readers, the library needs to recognize that three other groups may be more resistant to the marketing message. These groups, called alliterates by Beers are people who can read but choose not to.5 The three groups of alliterates include: - Dormant readers—People who do not find the time to read but who like to read. - Uncommitted readers—People who do not like to read but indicate they may read sometime in the future. - Unmotivated readers—People who do not like to read and are unlikely to change their minds. Output measures are typically counts of an activity, such as a SRP. Among the measures that might be used by a library are: - individuals registered for the SRP (children, teens, adults); - SRP participants as a percentage of school-age children and teens; - number of individuals attending program events; - number of individuals completing the SRP (children, teens, adults); - number of books the participants read; - number of children who read a minimum of X books during the program; - number of checkouts while the SRP was in operation compared to the prior year; - number of pages read (children, teens, adults); - amount of time spent reading alone (children, teens, adults); - amount of time spent reading with a parent or caregiver (children, teens, adults); - does the child spend more time reading with parent or caregiver; - number of new library cards issued to families of SRP participants; - number of SRP-related programs; and - total attendance at SRP-related programs (children, teens, adults). Outcome-based performance measures attempt to measure the effect of the library’s SRP in the lives of the children, their families, and ultimately upon the community. The SRP participants might show improvement in a skill level, knowledge, confidence, behavior, or attitude based on a qualitative or quantitative assessment. In addition to focusing on the participating children (teens), it is also possible to involve the parents or adult caregivers and teachers in the assessment process, especially if the library wants to identify theoutcomes or impacts of the SRP. Obviously it requires considerably more effort to gather outcome-based measures about the impact of a SRP than it does to gather output measures. In order for an outcome-based measure to resonate with decision makers it would need to meet at least two criteria: (1) The SRP and the outcome must be closely linked—there must be a cause-and-effect relationship, and (2) The outcome must be measurable in a consistent and reliable manner. A Survey and Analysis In order to better understand how public libraries are currently evaluating their SRPs, a brief survey was prepared.6 A Web-based survey was available from May 12, 2009, until June 30, 2009. Because this was a convenience or accidental sample rather than a random survey, only descriptive statistics are reported. A total of 264 responses were received from public libraries located in 31 states, which represents almost two-thirds of all states. The average size of the community of the responding libraries was 55,966 with the range of size quite variable (the maximum population was 381,833; the minimum size was 558). Almost all public libraries keep track of the number of children who register for the SRP. The survey respondents indicated that 92.80 percent of libraries identify the number of children who register for the program. Almost as many libraries—some 79.17 percent of the survey respondents—track the number of children who complete the SRP. The opportunities for spending time in various summer activities that do not involve trips to the library are many. In addition, surprisingly few libraries calculate the percentage of SRP participants compared to school-age children in their community— only 13.64 percent of the respondents in this survey. Because research has shown that the number of books read during the summer is important, some libraries track the number of books read. A little more than one-third (34.47 percent) of the responding public libraries track the number of books read during the SRP. And of the sixty libraries reporting data, the average number of books read per participant was twenty-seven. The range was from a low of two to a high of one hundred books per child. Similarly, some 31.82 percent of the responding libraries track the amount of time spent reading by each participant. On average, each child reads 3.22 hours per week. The range was a low of 0.33 to a high of 18 hours per week. And only a very small number of libraries track the number of pages read by each participant, with some 4.17 percent of the libraries reporting they gather this information. In addition, the library wishing to learn one important perspective is to ask parents or guardians about their views of the impact of the SRP in the lives of their children. A little more than one-fifth of libraries (21.59 percent) report that they involve parents or guardians in the evaluation process. Of the reporting libraries, the parents or guardians note that improvements have been made in reading comprehension, vocabulary has improved, and time spent reading increased between 20 to 25 percent of the time as shown in figure 2. It is particularly encouraging to see that parents spend more time reading with children. The perspective of teachers might be valuable when assessing a library’s SRP. Can the teacher discern any change in the reading ability of the students? Has the reading comprehension and vocabulary of students improved? Have their writing skills improved? Twenty-five percent of the responding libraries indicate that they had conversations with teachers about the impact of the SRP in the lives of their students. Yet only 2.65 percent of the libraries partner with schools in the use of standardized reading tests to determine reading achievement as a result of participation in the SRP. Almost two-thirds of the libraries (66.29 percent) offer a separate teen SRP, and some libraries even develop a SRP for adults. Slightly more than two-thirds of the responding libraries (69.30 percent) prepare a written evaluation report about the SRP. Some of the respondents provided comments about how they identify other outcomes of the SRP. These comments suggest the interest of librarians to better understand the impacts of the program but clearly none of the approaches are systematic. From the results of this survey, it is clear that public libraries could be and should be doing more to identify the impact of the SRP in the lives of the participants. If libraries were to adopt a multi-pronged approach in evaluating SRPs by gathering data about the use of the program and determining the impact from the perspective of the children, parents, and teachers, they would begin to develop the data that would resonate with funders. A public library should identify a minimum set of performance measures that will be consistently gathered year after year. This will allow the library to track trends. Obviously data reported to the state library should be considered as part of the minimum set of measures that are tracked. These measures, subdivided by age of the participant, might include: - the number of participants who sign up; - the percent of participants who sign up compared to the total community segment of the population (the library should be setting goals to reach significantly more than 10 percent of the children); - the number of participants who complete the program; - the number of books read by each participant; - the time spent reading per day by each participant; - the time spent reading per day with their parents/caregivers; and - data from a short questionnaire for participants and their parents or caregivers. Periodically the library could include additional SRP assessment activities to complement the regular evaluation efforts. For example, the library may want to discover the degree to which SRP participants continue to use library resources once the program has concluded. Or the library could compare where participants live with the location of all children in the community. Specific recommendations for improving a library’s SRP include: - Calculate the number of SRP participants as a percentage of school-age children. A library can quickly obtain information about the number of children in its community using census data. Every public library should be making this calculation as a part of their program goal setting process. - Set participation goals that are aggressive. - Developing a better understanding of the reasons why children drop out of the SRP would allow a library to design a program that is more compelling and keep the attention (and participation) of children during the summer. - Focus outreach and marketing efforts on children who likely suffer “summer reading loss.” A public library would need to develop a marketing plan that identified various market segments (children with different characteristics: those who are not readers (the alliterates), readers who are currently nonusers of the library (potential customers, infrequent customers, or frequent customers) and the associated marketing approaches that would be effective for each market segment. - Expand its outreach efforts by more innovative and effective marketing. For example, the Torrance (Calif.) Public Library placed stickers on the elementary school report cards going home to parents. The stickers exclaimed: “Vacation reading equals better grades. Take your child to the public library for summer reading.” As a result of the stickers, the number of children registering for the SRP jumped more than 25 percent.7 - Consider an outreach strategy that takes the SRP to children without requiring children to physically visit the library. Thus, the public library should be reaching out to latchkey programs, day care centers, the YMCA, the Boys and Girls Clubs, summer camp programs, summer recreation programs, and local home schoolers. This approach also suggests setting some specific targets for each market segment rather than relying on total registration numbers. - Explore the possibility of developing partnerships with the local schools to involve teachers in assessment of the library’s SRP. Linking the results of standardized reading tests with participation in the public library’s SRP can potentially lead to - Develop an online version of the SRP that would appeal to yet another segment of the community currently not being served by the library. Online SRPs have been successful in a few public libraries. The benefits to the children and to the community of a public library’s SRP are significant and positive, especially to those at-risk children who will likely experience “summer reading loss.” The public library must become much more aggressive about reaching more children than the 10 percent of the community that are traditionally frequent library users. The challenge for the library is to evaluate the impacts of the SRP using a broader array of methods and to communicate the results of the evaluation efforts to the community’s stakeholders. References and Notes - J. L. Locke, The Effectiveness of Summer Reading Programs in Public Libraries in the United States. PhD Dissertation, 1988, University of Pittsburgh. - Donna Celano and Susan B. Neuman, The Role of Public Libraries in Children’s Literacy Development: An Evaluation Report (Harrisburg, Pa.: Pennsylvania Library Association, Evaluation and Training Institute, 2001); Evaluation of the Public Library Summer Reading Program: Books and Beyond . . . Take Me to Your Reader! (Los Angeles: Evaluation and Training Institute, 2001). - Richard M. Orr, “Measuring the Goodness of Library Services,” Journal of Documentation 29, no. 3 (1973): 315–52. - G. Kylene Beers, “No Time, No Interest, No Way!” School Library Journal, 42, no. 2 (Feb. 1996): 110–14. - The Web-based survey was graciously hosted by Counting Opinions, a firm that provides comprehensive, cost-effective, real-time solutions designed for libraries, in support of customer insight, operational improvements, and advocacy efforts. - Walter Minkel, “Making a Splash with Summer Reading: Seven Ways Public Libraries Can Team Up with Schools,” School Library Journal 49, no. 1 (Jan. 2003): 54–56.

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Spanglish (a portmanteau of the words "Spanish" and "English") is a name sometimes given to various contact dialects that result from interaction between Spanish and English used by people who speak both languages or parts of both languages. Spanglish is not usually considered a language itself, but instead a blend of Spanish and English lexical items and grammar. Spanglish is not a pidgin, because unlike pidgin languages, Spanglish can be the primary speech form for some individuals. Spanglish can be considered a variety of Spanish with heavy use of English or a variety of English with heavy use of Spanish. It can be more related either to Spanish or to English, depending on the circumstances. Since Spanglish arises independently in each region, it reflects the locally spoken varieties of English and Spanish. The term was introduced by the Puerto Rican poet Salvador Tió in the late 1940s, when he called it Espanglish or Inglañol. (from Español + English, and Inglés + Español, respectively) History and distribution In the late 1940s, the Puerto Rican journalist, poet, and essayist Salvador Tió coined the terms Espanglish (later shortened to Spanglish) for Spanish spoken with some English terms, and the less commonly used Inglañol (for English spoken with some Spanish terms). After Puerto Rico became a United States territory in 1898, Spanglish became progressively more common there as the United States Army and the early colonial administration tried to impose the English language on island residents. Between 1902 and 1948, the main language of instruction in public schools (used for all subjects except Spanish language courses) was English. Currently Puerto Rico is nearly unique in having both English and Spanish as its official languages (but see also New Mexico). Consequently, many American English words are now found in the vocabulary of Puerto Rican Spanish. Spanglish may also be known by different regional names. Spanglish does not have one unified dialect—specifically, the varieties of Spanglish spoken in New York, Florida, Texas, and California differ. Spanglish is so popular in many Spanish-speaking communities in the United States, especially in the Miami Hispanic community, that monolingual speakers of standard Spanish may have difficulty in understanding it. It is common in Panama, where the 96-year (1903–1999) U.S. control of the Panama Canal influenced much of local society, especially among the former residents of the Panama Canal Zone, the Zonians. Many Puerto Ricans living on the island of St. Croix speak in informal situations a unique Spanglish-like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian dialect, which is very different from the Spanglish spoken elsewhere. The same applies to the large Puerto Rican-descended populations of New York City and Boston. Spanglish is spoken commonly in the modern United States, reflecting the growth of the Hispanic-American population due to immigration. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of Hispanics grew from 35.3 million to 53 million between 2000 and 2012. Hispanics have become the largest minority ethnic group in the US. More than 80% are of Mexican descent. Mexican Americans form one of the fastest-growing groups, increasing from 20.6 million to 34.5 million between 2000 and 2012. Around 58% of this community chose California, especially Southern California, as their new home. Spanglish is widely used throughout the heavily Mexican-American and other Hispanic communities of Southern California. The use of Spanglish has become important to Hispanic communities throughout the United States in areas such as Miami, New York City, Texas, and California. In Miami a Spanglish familiarly known as "Cubonics" is spoken. Spanglish is known as bilingualism/ semi-lingual ism. The acquisition of the first language is interrupted or unstructured language input follows from the second language. This can also happen in reverse. Many Mexican-Americans (Chicanos), immigrants and bilinguals express themselves in various Spanglishes. For many, Spanglish serves as a basis for self-identity. However, many others believe that Spanglish should not exist and should be prohibited. Spanglish is difficult because if the speaker has learned the two languages in separate contexts, then the speaker uses the conditioned system in which the referential meanings encoded in the two languages differ to a considerable extent. Those who were literate in their first language before learning the other and who have support to maintain that literacy are sometimes those least able to master their second language. Spanglish is part of Receptive Bilingualism. Receptive bilinguals are those who understand a second language but don't speak it. That is when Spanglish is used. Receptive bilinguals are also known as the productively bilingual, since in order to give an answer speaker must twice the mental effort in order to answer in English, Spanish or Spanglish. Without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which Spanglish evolved as a practical matter an in depth familiarizing with multiple cultures. This knowledge, indeed the mere fact of one's having that knowledge often forms an important part of both what one considers one's personal identity and what others consider one´s identity. Spanglish has its own rules: #1 use the ping-pong method. When the speaker uses Spanglish he/she should try to go back and forth. For example: Yo fui a la store to buy unas bananas pero when I got to la tienda ya estaban sold out. #2 Drag the words like googlear, parkear/ parkiar, lunchear, textear, telefonear etc. (add the ear, iar at the end of the original word.) Finally when the speaker is in an uncomfortable situation he or she may use the most helpful tool "Rapid Aggressive Spanish (RAS) it does not matter what the speaker says he/she can say a song, the pledge of allegiance, your grandmother's recipe etc the key is to say it fast and loud". Spanglish is informal and lacks documented structure and rules, although speakers can consistently judge the grammaticality of a phrase or sentence. From a linguistic point of view, Spanglish often is mistakenly labeled many things. Spanglish is not a creole or dialect of Spanish, because although people claim to be native speakers of Spanglish, Spanglish itself is not a language on its own, but speakers speak English or Spanish with a heavy influence from the other language. The definition of Spanglish has been unclearly explained by scholars and linguists despite being noted so often. Spanglish is the fluid exchange of language between English and Spanish, present in the heavy influence in the words and phrases used by the speaker. Spanglish is currently considered a hybrid language by linguists—many actually refer to Spanglish as "Spanish-English code-switching", though there is some influence of borrowing, and lexical and grammatical shifts as well. The inception of Spanglish is due to the influx of Latin American people into North America, specifically the United States of America. As mentioned previously, the phenomenon of Spanglish can be separated into two different categories: code switching or borrowing, and lexical and grammatical shifts. Codeswitching has sparked controversy because it is seen, "as a corruption of Spanish and English, a 'linguistic pollution' or 'the language of a "raced," underclass people'". For example, a fluent bilingual speaker addressing another bilingual speaker might engage in code switching with the sentence, "I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting porque tengo una obligación de negocios en Boston, pero espero que I'll be back for the meeting the week after"—which means, "I'm sorry I cannot attend next week's meeting because I have a business obligation in Boston, but I hope to be back for the meeting the week after." Calques are translations of entire words or phrases from one language into another. They represent the simplest forms of Spanglish, as they undergo no lexical or grammatical structural change. The use of calques is common throughout most languages, evident in the calques of Arabic exclamations used in Spanish. - "to call back" → llamar p'atrás (volver a llamar) - "It's up to you." → Está p'arriba de ti. (Depende de ti.) - "to run for governor" → correr para gobernador (presentarse para gobernador) Semantic extension or reassignment refers to a phenomenon where speakers use a word of language A (typically Spanish in this case) with the meaning of its cognate in language B (typically English), rather than its standard meaning in language A. In Spanglish this usually occurs in the case of "false friends" (similar to, but technically not the same as false cognates), where words of similar form in Spanish and English are thought to have like meanings based on their cognate relationship. |Spanglish||English basis and meaning||Standard Spanish||Meaning of Spanglish word in standard Spanish| |aplicación||application (written request)||solicitud||application (of paint, etc.)| |chequear||to check (verify)||comprobar, verificar||—| |mapear||to mop||trapear||to map (rare)| |parquear||to park||estacionar, aparcar||—| |remover||to remove||quitar||to stir| |wachale||to watch out||cuidado||—| An example of this lexical phenomenon in Spanglish is the emergence of new verbs when the productive Spanish verb-making suffix -ear is attached to an English verb. For example, the Spanish verb for "to eat lunch" (almorzar in standard Spanish) becomes lonchear (occasionally lunchear). The same process produces watchear, parquear, emailear, twittear, etc. Loan words occur in any language due to the presence of items or ideas not present in the culture before, such as modern technology. The increasing rate of technological growth requires the use of loan words from the donor language due to the lack of its definition in the lexicon of the main language. This partially deals with the "prestige" of the donor language, which either forms a dissimilar or more similar word from the loan word. The growth of modern technology can be seen in the expressions: "hacer click" (to click), "mandar un e-mail" (to send an e-mail), "faxear" (to fax), "textear" (to text message), or "hacker" (hacker). Some words borrowed from the donor languages are adapted to the language, while others remain unassimilated (e. g. "sandwich"). The items most associated with Spanglish refer to words assimilated into the main morphology. Borrowing words from English and "Spanishizing" them has typically occurred through immigrants. This method makes new words by pronouncing an English word "Spanish style", thus dropping final consonants, softening others, and replacing certain consonants (i.e., M's, N's, V's) with B's. - "Aseguranza" (insurance) - "Biles" (bills) - "Chorcha" (church) - "Ganga" (gang) - "Líder" (leader) - Líder is considered an established Anglicism - "Lonchear/Lonchar" (to have lunch) - "Marqueta" (market) - "Taipear" (to type) - "Troca" (truck) - Widely used in most of north Mexico as well Fromlostiano is a type of artificial and humorous wordplay which consists of taking Spanish idioms and translating their literal definitions word-for-word into English. The name fromlostiano comes from the expression From Lost to the River, which is a word-for-word translation of de perdidos al río; an idiom meaning that one is prone to choose a particularly risky action in a desperate situation (this is somewhat comparable to the English idiom in for a penny, in for a pound). The humor comes from the fact that while the expression is completely grammatical in English, it makes no sense to a native English speaker. Hence it is necessary to understand both languages in order to appreciate the humor. - Translations of Spanish idioms into English: With you bread and onion (Contigo pan y cebolla), Nobody gave you a candle in this burial (Nadie te ha dado vela en este entierro), To good hours, green sleeves (A buenas horas mangas verdes). - Translations of American and British celebrities' names into Spanish: Vanesa Tumbarroja (Vanessa Redgrave). - Translations of American and British street names into Spanish: Calle del Panadero (Baker Street). - Translations of Spanish street names into English: Shell Thorn Street (Calle de Concha Espina). - Translations of multinational corporations' names into Spanish: Ordenadores Manzana (Apple Computers). - Translations of Spanish minced oaths into English: Tu-tut that I saw you (Tararí que te vi). The use of Spanglish has evolved over time. It has emerged as a way of conceptualizing one's thoughts whether it be in speech or on paper. Identity and Spanglish The use of Spanglish is often associated with an individual's association with identity (in terms of language learning) and reflects how many minority-American cultures feel toward their heritage. Commonly in ethnic communities within the United States, the knowledge of one's heritage language tends to assumably signify if one is truly of a member of their culture. Just as Spanish helps individuals identify with their Spanish identity, Spanglish is slowly becoming the poignant realization of the Hispanic-American's, especially Mexican-American's, identity within the United States. Individuals of Hispanic descent living in America face living in two very different worlds and need a new sense of bi-cultural and bilingual identity of their own experience."This synergy of cultures and struggle with identity is reflected in language use and results in the mixing of Spanish and English." Spanglish is used to facilitate communication with others in both worlds, "…code-switching is not merely a random phenomena but rather a complex system composed of a variety." While Individuals believe that Spanglish should not be considered a language, it is a language that has evolved and is continuing to grow and affect the way new generations are educated, culture change, and the production of media. Living within the United States creates a synergy of culture and struggles for many Mexican-Americans. The hope to retain their cultural heritage/language and their dual-identity in American society is one of the major factors that lead to the creation of Spanglish. Attitudes towards Spanglish Speakers of standard forms of Spanish may at times denounce Spanglish as a corrupted dialect. In fact, Spanglish is not about necessarily assimilating to English—it is about acculturating and accommodating. Still, Spanglish has variously been accused of corrupting and endangering the real Spanish language, and holding kids back, though linguistically speaking, there is no such thing as a pure or real language. Presently, "Spanglish" is still viewed by most as a rather derogatory and patronizing word to its community because it seems like a "bastardized language". In reality, Spanglish has its own culture and has a reputation of its own. It is commonly assumed that Spanglish is a jargon: part Spanish and part English, with neither "gravitas nor a clear identity", says the author of Spanglish and proponent of Spanglish, Ilan Stavans. Use of the word Spanglish reflects the wide range of views towards the mixed language in the United States. In Latino communities, the term Spanglish is used in a positive and proud connotation by political leaders. It is also used by linguists and scholars promoted for use in literary writing. Despite the promotion of positive use of the term by activists and scholars alike, the term is often used with a negative connotation. People often refer to themselves as 'Spanglish speakers' if they do not speak Spanish well. The term Spanglish is also often used as a disparaging way to describe individuals that do not speak English fluently and are in the process of learning, assuming the inclusion of Spanglish as a lack of English fluency. - H.G.Wells, in his 1933 future history The Shape of Things to Come, predicted that in the twenty first century English and Spanish would "become interchangeable languages". - Yo-Yo Boing!, the first Spanglish novel by Giannina Braschi, a Puerto Rican writer based in New York City; the work debuted in 1998. - The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Diaz, a Dominican-American writer, creative writing professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and fiction-editor at Boston Review. - Mexican WhiteBoy, a 2008 novel by Matt de la Peña - The 2009 novel Super Extra Grande by the Spanish author Yoss is set in a future where Latin Americans have colonized the galaxy, and Spanglish is the lingua franca among the galaxy's sentient species. The use of Spanglish by incorporating English and Spanish lyrics into music has risen in the United States over time. In the 1980s 1.2% of songs in the Billboard Top 100 contained Spanglish lyrics, eventually growing to 6.2% in the 2000s. The lyrical emergence of Spanglish by way of Latin-American Musicians has grown tremendously, reflective of the growing Hispanic population within the United States. - Mexican rock band Molotov, whose members use Spanglish in their lyrics. - American progressive rock band The Mars Volta, whose song lyrics frequently switch back and forth between English and Spanish. - Ska punk pioneers Sublime, whose singer Bradley Nowell grew up in a Spanish speaking community, released several songs in Spanglish. - Spanglish 101 is a 1999 compilation album by Koolarrow Records, who have a slate of Spanglish artists - Shakira (born Shakira Isabel Mebarak Ripoll), a Colombian singer-songwriter, musician, and model. - Ricky Martin (born Enrique Martín Morales), a Puerto Rican pop musician, actor, and author. - Pitbull (born Armando Christian Pérez), a successful Cuban-American rapper, producer, and Latin Grammy Award-winning artist from Miami, Florida that has brought Spanglish into mainstream music through his multiple hit songs. - Enrique Iglesias, a Spanish singer-songwriter with songs in English, Spanish, and Spanglish; Spanglish songs include Bailamos and Bailando. - Rapper Silento, famous for his song "Watch Me (Whip/Nae Nae)", recorded a version in Spanglish. - Puerto Rican writer Giannina Braschi wrote the Spanglish comic novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998). - Chicano performance artist Guillermo Gómez-Peña uses Spanglish often. - Ilan Stavans, sociolinguist, a world authority in Spanglish. - Germán Valdés, a Mexican comedian known as Tin Tan who made heavy use of Spanglish. He also dressed as a pachuco. - Piri Thomas, a Nuyorican writer poet, known for his memoir Down These Mean Streets. - Pedro Pietri, a Nuyorican poet and playwright. - Caló (Chicano) a Mexican-American argot, similar to Spanglish. - Chicano English - Dog Latin - Languages in the United States - List of English words of Spanish origin - Llanito (an Andalusian Spanish-based creole unique to Gibraltar) - Portuñol, the unsystematic mixture of Portuguese with Spanish - Spanish language in the United States - Spanish dialects and varieties - Category:Forms of English - Category:Spanglish songs - Repeating Islands: News and commentary on Caribbean culture, literature, and the arts - Nash, Rose. "Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico". American Speech. 45 (3/4): 223. doi:10.2307/454837. - Ardila 2005, pg. 61. - Guzman, B. 2000 & US Census 2012 - Rothman, Jason & Rell, Amy Beth, pg. 1 - Lopez, Angel (2013). "Spanglish from a neurologist point of view" (PDF). El Circulo. Universidad Computense de Madrid. Retrieved 2016-03-06. - "Towards New Dialects: Spanglish in the United States". homes.chass.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 2016-03-06. - "Does Speaking English And Spanish Make You Worse At Both Languages?". Fusion. Retrieved 2016-03-06. - Halwachs,, Dieter (1993). . "Poly-system repertoire and identity". Grazer Linguistische. pp. 39–43 71–90. - FLAMA (2014-09-24), How to Speak Spanglish, retrieved 2016-03-06 - Montes-Alcala, Cecilia, pg. 98. - Martínez, Ramón Antonio (2010). "Spanglish" as Literacy Tool: Toward an Understanding of the potential Role of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the Development of Academic Literacy (45.2 ed.). Research in the Teaching of English: National Council of Teachers of English. pp. 124–129. - .Individuals, "communicate their thoughts and ideas using a combination of Spanish and English, often referring to this hybrid language practice as Spanglish." ref> Martinez, Ramon Antonio.http://www.jstor.org/stable/40997087?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents. Vol. Vol. 45. Austin: National Council of Teachers of English, 2010. 124-49. Print. No. 2. - Morales, Ed (2002). Living in Spanglish: The Search for Latino Identity in America. Macmillan. p. 9. ISBN 0312310005. - Ardila, Alfredo (February 2005). "Spanglish: An Anglicized Spanish Dialect". Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 27 (1): 60–81. doi:10.1177/0739986304272358. - Bonnie Urciuoli, Exposing Prejudice: Puerto Rican Experiences of Language, Race, and Class (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996), p. 38, cited by Arlene Dávila, Latinos Inc.: The Marketing and Making of a People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), p. 168, and quoted in turn by Viviana Rojas and Juan Piñón, "Spanish, English or Spanglish? Media Strategies and Corporate Struggles to Reach the Second and Later Generations of Latinos." International Journal of Hispanic Media. N.p., Aug. 2014. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. - Stavans, Ilan (2000). "The gravitas of Spanglish". The Chronicle of Higher Education. 47 (7). - Montes-Alcala, pg. 107 - Montes-Alcala, pg. 105 - Rothman, Jason; Amy Beth Rell (2005). "A linguistic analysis of Spanglish: relating language to identity". Linguistics and the Human Sciences. 1 (3): 515–536. doi:10.1558/lhs.2005.1.3.515. - Montes-Alcala, pg. 106 - Alvarez, Lizette (1997). "It's the talk of Nueva York: The hybrid called Spanglish". The New York Times. - Ochoa, Ignacio; Frederico López Socasau (1995). From Lost to the River (in Spanish). Madrid: Publicaciones Formativas, S.A. ISBN 978-84-920231-1-0. - Rojas, Viviana, and Juan Piñón. "Spanish, English or Spanglish? Media Strategies and Corporate Struggles to Reach the Second and Later Generations of Latinos." International Journal of Hispanic Media. N.p., Aug. 2014. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. - Rothman & Rell 2005, pg. 527 - Sayer, Peter (24 March 2008). "Demystifying Language Mixing: Spanglish in School". Journal of Latinos and Education. 7 (2): 94–112. doi:10.1080/15348430701827030. - Morales, Ed (2002). Living in Spanglish : the search for Latino identity in America (1. ed.). New York, NY: St. Martin's Pr. ISBN 0312262329. - Spanglish: The Making of a New American Language (2003) ISBN 978-0-06008-776-0 - (Stavans, 2000b, p.b7) - Zentella, 2008, p. 6 - Stavans, 2000a, 2000b, 2003 - Otheguy & Stern pg. 86 - H.G.Wells, The Shape of Things to Come, Ch. 12 - Pisarek & Valenzuela 2012 - Stavans 2014 - Ardila, Alfredo (2005), "Spanglish: An Anglicized Spanish Dialect", Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 27 (1): 60–81, doi:10.1177/0739986304272358 - Belazi, Hedi M.; Rubin, Edward J.; Toribio, Almeida Jacqueline (1994), "Code Switching and X-Bar Theory: The Functional head Constraint", Linguistic Inquiry, 25: 221–237 - Betti, Silvia (2008), El Spanglish ¿medio eficaz de comunicación?, Bologna: Pitagora Editrice, ISBN 88-371-1730-2 - Braschi, Giannina (1998), Yo-Yo Boing!, Pittsburgh: Latin American Literary Review Press, ISBN 978-0-935480-97-9 - Callahan, Laura (2004), Spanish/English Codeswitching in a Written Corpus, Amsterdam: John Benjamins - Campos, Javier (2002), "Escritores latinos en los Estados Unidos (a propósito de la antología de Fuguet y Paz-Soldán, se habla Español), Alfaguara, 2000", Revista Chilena de Literatura, 60: 161–164 - Cañas, Alberto (2001), Spanglish: The Third Way (PDF), Kanazawa, Japan: Hokuriku University - Castillo, Debra A. (2005), Redreaming America: Toward a Bilingual American Culture, Albany, New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-8401-2 - De Courtivron, Isabelle (2003), Lives in Translation: Bilingual Writers on Identity and Creativity, New York: Palgrave Macmillan - Galván, Roberto A.; Teschner, Richard V. (1995), The Dictionary of Chicano Spanish/El Diccionario del Español Chicano: The Most Practical Guide to Chicano Spanish, Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Co. - Garrigós, Cristina (2002), "Bilingües, biculturales y posmodernas: Rosario Ferré y Giannina Braschi", Ínsula: Revista de Ciencias y Letras, 57: 667–668 - Gingras, Rosario (1974), "Problems in the Description of Spanish/English Intrasentential Code-Switching", in Bills, Garland D., Southwest Areal Linguistics, San Diego: University of California Institute for Cultural Pluralism, pp. 167–174 - Guzman, B. "The Hispanic Population." US Census 22.2 (2000): 1. US Census Bureau. Web. - Lorenzo, Emilio (1996), Anglicismos hispánicos, Madrid: Gredos, ISBN 84-249-1809-6 - Metcalf, Allan A. (1974), "The Study of California Chicano English", International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1974 [sic] (2): 53–58 - Montes-Alcalá, Cecilia (2000), "Attitudes Towards Oral and Written Codeswitching in Spanish/English Bilingual Youths", in Roca, Ana, Research on Spanish in the United States: Linguistic Issues and Challenges, Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Press - Otheguy, Ricardo; Stern, Nancy (2011), "On So-Called Spanglish", International Journal of Bilingualism, 15 (1): 85–100, doi:10.1177/1367006910379298 - Pelzer, Melanie (2006), Ursachen und Konsequenzen von Sprachkontakt – Spanglish in den USA, Duisburg: Wissenschaftsverlag und Kulturedition, ISBN 3-86553-149-0 - Pisarek, Paulina, and Elena Valenzuela. A Spanglish Revolution. University of Ottawa, 2012. Web. - Poplack, Shana (1981), "Syntactic Structure and Social Function of Codeswitching", in Duran, Richard P., Latino Language and Communicative Behavior, Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, pp. 169–184 - Sankoff, David; Poplack, Shana (1981), "A Formal Grammar for Code-Switching", International Journal of Human Communication, 14 (1) - Stavans, Ilan (2004), Spanglish: The Making of a New American Language, New York: Rayo, ISBN 0-06-008776-5 - Torres, Lourdes (2007), "In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a Writers", MELUS, Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States, 32 (1) - United States Census Bureau. Hispanic Origin. US Census Bureau, n.d. Web. 11 Aug. 2014. - Urciuoli, Bonnie (1996), Exposing Prejudice: Puerto Rican Experiences of Language, Race, and Class, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, ISBN 0-8133-1830-0 - Woolford, Ellen (1983), "Bilingual Code-Switching and Syntactic Theory", Linguistic Inquiry, 23 - Current TV video "Nuyorican Power" on Spanglish as the Nuyorican language; featuring Daddy Yankee, Giannina Braschi, Rita Moreno, and other Nuyorican icons. - Spanglish – the Language of Chicanos, University of California - What is Spanglish? Texas State University

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When it comes to traditional Japanese music we can all conjure specific sounds, scores, or even theatrical plays. It’s rare, though, to be able to fully understand the wide variety of genres, styles, and forms of execution that shape Japanese traditional music. Here we'll go in deep - explaining some of the context and instrumentation behind Japanese music, and end by introducing where you can enjoy a concert during your Tokyo stay! Brief History & Genres One of the first obstacles that one faces is the sheer volume of subgenres that are encompassed by the term “Japanese music”, as well as the hundreds of instruments that are more or less commonly used to play it. Yet, for the Japanese culture enthusiast, understanding the origin of the country’s music, and of the various performances, as well as following it on its evolution to the modern times, can be an interesting and rewarding (albeit demanding) task. Well, we are here today to simplify this task. Even those who may not be interested in Japan in general would often be able to associate Japanese music to its country of origin. The instruments that are used are often country-specific. The sounds produced spell “Asia” and especially “Land of the Rising Sun”. One of the main reasons, although often overlooked, lies in the origin of the music itself. It’s worth it here to take a little detour down music-history lane. The modern seven-note system was first developed in Italy by the monk Guido d’Arezzo in the 11th century CE. This kind of musical notation then spread across the globe to become the standard one. Obviously the playing of music predates the seven-note musical scale by millennia, and Japanese music is no exception. While traditional music in Japan does use this widespread scale, it often employs other scales, such as the pentatonic (five-tone) scale (very common since the Heian Period (794-1185CE)). Other scales that are not unusual are the dodecaphonic (twelve tone) scale, or variations of the heptatonic (seven tone) scale. In addition to the instruments and the style the artists use, these scales create a unique, distinctive, and often exotic sound. So we now have the basics down, but how do we define what Japanese traditional music is? Historically, in Japanese culture, there is virtually no event which is not accompanied by music, and the genres, as well as the instruments that are used, vary depending on the event itself, its roots, and even the region to which it belongs. Such variety derives mostly from the fact that Japanese music draws from real life and from nature. This is in fact a very common practice in Japan where nature plays a determining role in architecture, garden composition, and even the presentation of food. Despite the large number of options out there though, we can divide Japanese traditional music in three main categories: Gagaku (court music), theatrical, and instrumental. Gagaku is a Japanese form of classical music. It has a rich heritage, and its historical importance carries on to this day. Gagaku is the oldest living orchestra in the world. This music was imported to Japan from China, but it soon separated itself from its Chinese counterpart in style and circumstances in which it was used. In China it was mostly used to entertain, and accompany banquets. The Japanese version of it quickly became music for the elite. Gagaku was performed exclusively by musicians belonging to guilds based in Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka. The right and privilege to play in the orchestra was passed on from father to son, and this music was, for a very long time, performed exclusively in the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The rise of the Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333CE), and its establishing of a military ruling class, changed things. Gagaku became music for aristocrats, and it lost its luster and popularity. While it had never disappeared, it regained part of its old relevance only during the Meiji Restoration, starting in 1868. That’s when the descendants of the three guilds formed what is currently the Tokyo Imperial Palace Music Department. Since its inception, the instruments used in Gagaku have been many kinds of wind, percussion, and string pieces. The current composition of 16 to 30 musicians has been established in the 19th century and it presents many of what are probably the most recognizable Japanese typical instruments. Gagaku woodwind section The fue is a category of non-reed flutes made of bamboo. Fue come in many varieties, but especially popular ones are the shinobue (pictured above), which is often found at Japanese festivals, and the shakuhachi, which tends to have fewer keys. The hichiriki is a double reed flute. It presents two reeds, which produce the instrument distinctive sound by vibrating against the mouthpiece of the hichiriki. This is the most used instrument in almost every form of Gagaku, and it’s also the instrument of choice of the Japanese composer Hideki Kogi. Gagaku percussion section The taiko is possibly the most recognizable Japanese drum, or even instrument. Its origins are unclear, although it may have been influenced by Chinese and Korean percussions. Depending on its purpose, the crafting of this drum varies, and it can take up to several years to finish one piece. The kakko is a smaller drum, usually double headed. It differs from the taiko especially in how its made tout. The skin is first stretched over metal hoops and then attached to the body. The kakko is usually played by laying it on its side. Belonging to a class of small hand percussion instruments known as narimono, the chappa are small hand cymbals and are present in a variety of musical styles, from Buddhist rituals to kabuki music. Gagaku string section The biwa is a short necked lute used mostly to accompany narrative storytelling. The one used exclusively in Gagaku is larger than its counterparts. It presents four strings and four frets. It’s played from a seated position and it’s picked with a hard, small, rounded plectrum. This instrument nearly disappeared during the Meiji restoration, but it had a strong comeback after the end of WWII. The koto is a 13–string wood instrument composed of 13 removable bridges. It can also appear in a 17-string variety. The sound is produced by plucking the string with three fingers, and the pitch of the cords can be changed by adjusting the length of the bridges. In Gagaku the choice of instruments and orchestra composition differs depending on the occasion. Gagaku is the traditional music of religious ceremonies and folk poetry, but it also extended its influence to include the Bugaku, a traditional dance performed for selected elites (in particular the imperial family) since the 9th century CE. 2. Theatrical Music Approaching the study of theatrical music in Japan can, at times, appear overwhelming. This is mostly because it’s hard to define what theatrical music really is and how it’s used. What kind of stage performances fall into this category? The confusion is understandable as it’s true that essentially any music accompanying any theatrical performance could be called theatrical music, but there are numerous distinctions to consider, and conventionally when we refer to Japanese theatrical music we are talking, for the most part, about Noh or Kabuki, which themselves encompass many different styles. The origin of Noh can be traced back to the 8th century when it included various types of performance ranging from acting, to acrobatic shows, to music, and theatre. Noh took the shape for which its known and very respected to this day, in the 14th century. Noh originated in China and it has later been adopted by Japanese artists, becoming a form of art made popular by few families specialized in theatrical and musical performances. Another interesting theory brought forth by Shinhachiro Matsumoto suggests that Noh was heavily employed by former outcasts to regain status with the ruling class. Noh is the oldest major theatrical art still performed today in Japan. It depicts the life and society of people living between the 12th and the 16th century. A traditional Noh show includes five Nho plays, separated by comedic intermissions called Kyougen. Considered an extremely complex performance, Noh makes use of masks, makeup, costumes, acting, and music performed by very skilled artists, contributing to the high regard to which it’s hold to this day. Noh performances are accompanied by musicians called Hayashi. Being Noh a form of chanted drama it’s often compared to western opera, which often approaches similar themes (although in a western setting), despite it being strikingly different in style. The hayashi ensemble is usually composed of four musicians playing three different percussions and one flute. These drums are played with sticks (similarly to taiko drums) and are suspended on a stand. The body is short and wide and the same skins are applied at both the top and the bottom of the instrument, and then tied together. This approach, along with metal hoops on which the skins are strung, creates the shime-daiko distinctive sound. This hourglass shaped drum is probably the most complicated percussion to care for, among the Japanese traditional ones. Unlike many other kinds of percussions, which are supposed to be moist to a certain degree, the Ootsuzumi has to be dry at all times. Horsehide is used to create the drum heads, and, in order to maintain it dry, it’s often stored by a hibachi (furnace). It’s played with bare hands and it’s renowned for being painful to master, requiring the musician to develop very thick calluses. This is a smaller version of the ootsuzumi. It presents the same shape, and, unlike its larger counterpart, it’s designed to allow the musician to change the sound and pitch it produces by tightening or loosening the skin while playing. The tsuzumi is also commonly used in Kabuki, as well as Japanese folk music. The nohkan is a kind of transverse flute. Like the tsuzumi it is also often used in Kabuki theatre. It’s built with strips of smoked bamboo to preserve its integrity, and the hard shell of the material is placed to face the core of the flute for improved acoustics. Unlike many other similar instruments, the nohkan produces a characteristic high-pitch sound. 3. Kabuki theatre Very popular and known worldwide, Kabuki is probably the best-known form of Japanese theatre. Kabuki is a “UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity”, but its journey to get to this point saw it undergo numerous struggles and changes. Kabuki today is knows to be, for the most part, an all-male cast type of theatre, but at its inception it was quite the opposite. Kabuki first appeared in 1603 when Izumo no Okuni began performing a new style of dance drama in Kyoto. This kind of performance became wildly popular making its way to the imperial court. The actors were all women. Kabuki, though, was not meant exclusively for elite audiences and it was often enjoyed by people of all classes. Because of this reason, the Shogunate never fully accepted it, seeing this mixing of classes as unnatural. Women were banned from performing and that’s how the all-male kabuki was born. The following two centuries, until the mid 1800’s were the golden era of Kabuki. After disappearing for a while, and re-emerging during the Meiji Restoration, Kabuki became what we know today. In Kabuki, makeup, costumes, stage design, as well as dances and acting, play a very important role in the realization of a play, but so do singing and music. Originally Kabuki theatre used the same kind of hayashi who performed in Noh theatre. In time Kabuki developed different musical styles and introduced different instruments, most notably the shamisen. The shamisen is a three-string instrument played using a large plectrum called bachi. There are different kinds of shamisen. The one usually used in kabuki performances has a thin neck to facilitate the virtuosity required for that genre. The bridge (or neck) of the shamisen is usually a composite one and can be disassembled in three to five pieces. Similarly to a banjo or a guitar, the sound comes out of a resonating body. The strings are traditionally made of silk, but nowadays nylon ones are more commonly used. That’s a lot to take in, but about instrumental music? When talking about Japanese traditional music we refer to any kind of musical performance not designed to accompany other performances, such as acting, dancing, or singing. Historically, performers who would play traditional music on its own, would use the same instruments and style that audiences could enjoy in kabuki plays and Gagaku performances. Although not easily framed within a particular genre, or as part of significant occasions, instrumental music contributed in the spreading of the tradition itself, making Japanese music become its own art, as opposed to being seen as a component of a larger performance. Japanese traditional music has a long heritage and it’s still present and relevant in modern representations not only of its original form, but also as an adaptation to modern music (see below). Japan is famous for remaining attached to its tradition while constantly modernizing. Such culture can be seen in the various festivals and ceremonies related to religion, history, and traditional practices, but also in more mundane events like weddings, funerals, coming of age celebrations, and much more. The spirit of maintaining a connection with the past is very much alive in music as well, creating sounds and compositions that however modern, conjure a very distinctive melodic pattern, allowing tradition to stay alive, and modernization to run its course. Enjoying a traditional Japanese music concert during your stay in Tokyo While the sights and tastes of Tokyo and beyond often top what visitors aim to experience during their stay in Japan, the chance to see a traditional cultural performance of some sort ranks closely behind – noh, kabuki, or even a concert. Formed in 2008, the Aun J Classic Orchestra is a group of eight highly talented Japanese musicians that are masters of traditional instruments. This group has garnered a fair amount of popularity overseas, most recently being invited to play in Russia at a banquet attended by Russian President Putin, Japanese Prime Minister Abe, and French Prime Minister Macron. They currently collaborate with 12 other skilled traditional musicians to create “Team J.” With this group they have produced a series of superb concerts. Originally held at Hands Expo Café in Ginza, the 45-minute mini concerts showcase a variety of captivating pieces, including original scores, traditional songs and even adaptations of Western songs to Japanese instrumentation. Live Japan caught up with two of the series’ core artists, twin brothers Ryohei and Kohei Inoue, who enjoy sharing the soul of Japanese music with audiences both in Japan and abroad. We learned more about their relationship with traditional music, the instruments, and what they hope to offer to the world through music. Although very talented musicians now, the brothers came from relatively humble roots and had been more interested in rock and pop music than any other sound. That was, until the age of 18, when they had a chance encounter with taiko drums and shamisen. “I thought, ‘wow, these instruments are so cool. And the sound they make is so different. It was such an incredible moment [meeting these instruments] that we had no idea of before. We decided right then and there that we’d learn how to play them,” recalled Kohei. “So the instruments we perform with are shamisen [a 3-stringed instrument], taiko [drums] and fue [a bamboo flute]. Using these three instruments, we think about the kind of piece we can play. We could play only shamisen, but we think that a variety of instrumentation is a lot more interesting when doing a live performance.” The instrumentation is a perfect arrangement indeed. But their style is less the sort of score you’d think of for a samurai film and more the kind that you’d want to swing dance to. It’s delightfully catchy. When foreign ears listen to the warm-throated twang of a shamisen accompanied with the chest-thumping beat of a taiko, there’s something so familiar and fun about the sound that it immediately lights a smile on your face as you tap your feet. When asked whether this is what he hopes people will take home with them, Kohei smiles. “I hope that people will become interested in the sound these Japanese instruments make.” Ryohei agrees. “I hope people will enjoy Japan better.” Nomatter whether you visit Tokyo, Kyoto or another of Japan’s charming cultural areas, music adds an additional context and dimension for sightseers to experience. Looking around the sophisticated café/concert space, we saw that all the audience members had their eyes fixed on the stage. A gem in Tokyo’s posh east-side neighborhood of Ginza, Hands Expo Café seats about 60 and is exactly the kind of spot you’d drop by for a relaxing cappuccino during the daytime and a splash of something bubbly as the moon rises. When we visited, they offered a variety of hot and cold organic teas (￥700~), coffees (￥600~), smoothies (￥800~), and sparkling juice drinks, but also a solid selection of Japanese whiskies, craft rums, craft gins (starting at￥500 per glass) and more. To tease your sweet tooth, they offer a refreshing variety of shaved ice with toppings like Kumamoto Purple Potato (￥900), Tokaichi Azuki and Uji Matcha (￥900), and even organic no-wax lemon (￥900). Plus their premium pancakes, like the popular ones smothered with syrup made from fresh Tochigi strawberries with a side of whipped cream (￥1300), are delightfully decadent. As a café dedicated to showcasing some of Japan’s unique cultural products, it’s a delight to have sweets to eat while you tap your feet. Back to the music. When asked what they hope foreign visitors to take home with them from the experience, Ryohei smiled broadly as he gave his answer, saying simply, “I hope people will enjoy Japan better.” He noted that tourists come to visit not only Tokyo, but a variety of areas, and that music gives an additional dimension for sightseers to enjoy. “Feeling Japan’s charm and pleasantry [through music] – I hope people will bring that home with them.” Simply put, the Inoue twins enjoy making music and hope that others will enjoy listening. “[Finding a place to listen to] traditional Japanese music is a little challenging,” continues Kohei. In order to appeal the charm of traditional Japanese music to others, they decided to help form the concert series. We know you’ll love it too! Editor's Note: Since this article was originally published, the lineup of live concerts at Hands Expo Cafe has included a mix of traditional and contemporary styles. For more information, see https://www.hands-expo-cafe-ginza.com/ (in Japanese). TOKYU PLAZA GINZA東急プラザ銀座 Tokyu plaza Ginza, 5-2-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0061 Ginza Station （Tokyo Metro Ginza Line / Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line / Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line） 1 minute on foot - Phone Number 03-3571-0109 - Address Tokyu plaza Ginza, 5-2-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0061 *Prices and options mentioned are subject to change. *Unless stated otherwise, all prices include tax. Shin-Yokohama Dining Guide: Top 5 Eateries Near Yokohama International Stadium to Enjoy Day or Night, Before or After the Game! Yokohama Guide: Stunning Night Views & More! 6 Essential Attractions of Yokohama 10 Major Cities in Japan: Which One Should You Visit? Life in Japan: 5 Culture Shocks for International College Students in Japan Ushiku Daibutsu Guide: Visiting The World's Tallest Buddha in Ibaraki Jam-packed with Tokyo Culture! Shibuya’s VILLAGE VANGUARD: Ultimate shopping guide! 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Purim Quick Facts Meaning of Hebrew Name: “Lots” (as in “casting lots” – not as in “lots of something”) English Name: Purim Western Calendar Month: February/March Jewish Calendar Date: Adar 14 Establishment of Purim: Fifth century BC; Esther 9:20–22 Purpose of Purim The scene: a king tossing and turning for fear that his lovely queen is conspiring against him with his chief advisor. A queen so worried over the king’s plan to put to death her people that she barges into his inner chamber unannounced, looking lovelier than ever. Two advisors to the king are getting ready for a showdown – the town (Persia) is only big enough for the one of them. Haman, hell-bent on the destruction of the Jews, is besmeared with waste matter and wincing in pain by the end of this battle. Mordecai, his Jewish enemy, is clad in purple robes, majestically seated atop the royal horse, freshly bathed and coiffed by Haman himself. The difference could hardly be more pronounced. If the scene sounds only half-familiar, that’s because it is. Although Megillat Esther (“the Scroll of Esther”) lines up with the basics of the plot described above, the colorful embroideries came later; they were added in the tractate Megillah of the Talmud and in other commentaries. Jewish literature contains a wealth of such embellishments. Why? More than any other story in Jewish history (except, perhaps, for Passover and Hanukkah), the story of Esther inspires further storytelling and bears repeating. The great Jewish traditions of storytelling and humor come to the fore on Purim, the feast day commemorating Esther’s and Mordecai’s defeat of Haman’s plot to annihilate the Jews of ancient Persia. The great commandment on Purim is that we “proclaim the miracle” by reading Megillat Esther, banqueting together, sending gifts, and giving portions to the poor. The revelry takes other forms too, from dressing up in wild costumes to watching the Purimspiel (Purim play), which brings the story of Esther to life. Origin of Purim Megillat Esther starts with the unlikely fate of a Jewish girl living in the Persian Empire. King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) takes Esther, the cousin of the Jewish advisor Mordecai, to be his new queen after deposing Queen Vashti. On Mordecai’s advice, Esther hides her Jewish ancestry from Xerxes until the wicked counselor Haman hatches a plot against the life of the Jews, obliging her to speak out for her people. The most famous lines of the story come when Mordecai persuades Esther to go to the king unannounced, a capital offense: Then Mordecai told them [the messengers] to reply to Esther, “Do not think to yourself that in the king’s palace you will escape any more than all the other Jews. For if you keep silent at this time, relief and deliverance will rise for the Jews from another place, but you and your father’s house will perish. And who knows whether you have not come to the kingdom for such a time as this?” Then Esther told them to reply to Mordecai, “Go, gather all the Jews to be found in Susa, and hold a fast on my behalf, and do not eat or drink for three days, night or day. I and my young women will also fast as you do. Then I will go to the king, though it is against the law, and if I perish, I perish.” (Esther 4:13–16) By their wit and wile – though behind the scenes orchestrated by God – Esther and Mordecai foiled Haman’s plot. Following Haman’s execution and the deliverance of the Jews, Esther and Mordecai established a feast for future generations to celebrate their people’s survival for “their sorrow was turned into joy and their mourning into a day of celebration” (Esther 9:22). And Mordecai recorded these things and sent letters to all the Jews… obliging them to keep the fourteenth day of the month Adar and also the fifteenth day of the same, year by year, as the days on which the Jews got relief from their enemies… that they should make them days of feasting and gladness, days for sending gifts of food to one another and gifts to the poor. (Esther 9:20–22) Thus Purim was born. Purim is so called because Haman cast lots (purim) to determine the most propitious date for implementing his planned genocide, but the verses about the casting of lots are brief and vague. We read in Esther 3:7: “They cast Pur (that is, they cast lots).” The medieval rabbi Rashi comments: “Whoever cast it, cast it, and the verse does not specify who. This is an elliptical verse.” He interprets the phrase that follows – “that is, the lot” – this way: “Scripture explains: and what is the pur? That is the lot. He cast lots [to determine] in which month he would succeed.” Because of Esther’s faithfulness in relying on God’s guidance and her courage to speak to the king on behalf of her people, Haman was foiled, the day of his dreamed-of success of annihilation of the Jewish people became the day of the Jews’ deliverance from death to life – Purim. How Purim is Observed The Purim Feast: The Purim feast is a time of conviviality and merrymaking. It must take place on the day of Purim, not on the evening before (Megillah 7b) on account of the mandated “days of feasting and gladness” (Esther 9:20–22). The rabbis explain: “[We read in connection with Purim] gladness and feasting and a good day; ‘gladness’: this teaches that it is forbidden on these days to mourn; ‘feasting’: this teaches that it is forbidden on them to fast; ‘a good day’: this teaches that it is forbidden on them to do work” (Megillah 5b). Fasting, mourning, and work are all swept aside on this day of celebration and revelry. Proclaiming the Miracle: Most important of all, however is not eating and drinking but reading Megillat Esther and thereby “proclaiming the miracle.” This most commonly takes place in synagogue, where the Scroll of Esther (an individual scroll, usually without being combined with any other portion of Scripture) is read aloud in a raucous, buzzing atmosphere. Congregants cheer and laugh or stamp their feet and shout and boo whenever the name “Haman” is mentioned. (This is done on the basis of Exodus 17:14, where God tells us to “blot out the memory of Amalek,” and so of his descendant Haman.) Despite the apparent chaos of the Megillah reading, the Mishnah and the Talmud set down elaborate rules for the proper proclamation of the miracle. We must read the Megillah from beginning to end (some rabbis disagree about where to start); we mustn’t take long breaks; we mustn’t read it backwards… even the parchment and ink of the scroll must be up to snuff! In light of these various rules, some so obvious as to go without saying, it behooves us to remember the spirit of “proclaiming the miracle.” One rabbi comments: “When the text says, thou shalt not forget, the injunction against mental forgetfulness is already given. What then am I to make of ‘remember’? This must mean, by utterance [lit. “with the mouth”]. Proclaim the miracle” (Megillah 18a). It is not enough not to forget; remembrance goes a step further: we must fasten our minds on the history and tell it out loud. Only then do we pay God sufficient homage for rescuing His people from the clutches of Haman. Sending Food and Giving to the Poor: The famous Jewish commentator Maimonides placed the book of Esther on an equal footing with the Torah, as one of the imperishable books of the Hebrew Bible. His love of Purim was in no way exclusionary – rather, he stressed that all Jews should be able to take part. We see in Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah his concern that all members of the community, rich and poor, do their bit in celebrating Purim: Similarly, a person is obligated to send two portions of meat, two other cooked dishes, or two other foods to a friend, as implied by Esther 9:22, ‘sending portions of food one to another’…. Whoever sends portions to many friends is praiseworthy. If one does not have the means to send presents of food to a friend, one should exchange one’s meal with him. On Purim, Jews greet one another by sending portions of food, often in the form of gift baskets full of sweets and nuts and fruits, called mishloach manot in Hebrew or shalach manos in Yiddish. In this manner, the feast of Purim spills out of the home into the community at large. No delicacies or lavish spending necessary – two poor friends can just trade food and thus “send portions,” a way for the less fortunate to fulfill the commandment. Maimonides adds that one must give alms on Purim to those who don’t even have enough to eat for themselves. One is obligated to distribute charity to the poor on the day of Purim. At the very least, to give each of two poor people one present, be it money, cooked dishes, or other foods…. We should not be discriminating in selecting the recipients of these Purim gifts. Instead, one should give to whomever [sic] stretches out his hand. It is preferable for a person to be more liberal with his donations to the poor than to be lavish in his preparation of the Purim feast or in sending portions to his friends. For there is no greater and more splendid happiness than to gladden the hearts of the poor, the orphans, the widows, and the converts. Giving alms far outweighs the preparation of a lavish feast or gratuitous consumption. Feeding the hungry and helping the poor in their distress is a commandment that must be carried out at all times; even on a day of carefree revelry, we must remember the fatherless and widows in their affliction. Special Synagogue Readings for Purim Torah Portion: Exodus 17:8–16 (the Israelites defeat the Amalekites, from which tribe Haman is descended). No haftarah portion, as the central non-Pentateuchal reading of Purim is, of course, Megillat Esther. Purim, like most biblical Jewish holidays, is not what it was in ancient times; rather, the encrustations of centuries of tradition and interpretation have lent the holiday an evolving character all its own. Many of these traditions derive from the Talmud, the chief Jewish interpretive work of the post-exilic period. All kinds of embellishments were made to the story of Esther in the Talmud, including angelic interventions and even scatological details. Esther gets a divine makeover from angels to please Ahasuerus: “R. Joshua b. Korha said: Esther was sallow, but a thread of grace was drawn about her” (Megillah 13a). Haman was a former “slave sold for loaves of bread,” bought by Mordecai during one of the wars of the Jews against the Amalekites (Megillah 15b). When Haman led Mordecai before Ahasuerus, he had to give him a haircut because Esther closed all the bathhouses, and Mordecai wouldn’t come into Ahasuerus’ presence untrimmed. When mounting his horse, Mordecai asked Haman for help and kicked him on his way up. Haman’s daughter, seeing Haman leading the horse, mistook him for Mordecai and dumped a chamberpot on him; realizing her mistake, she fell off a roof for shame. All of these myths lighten the story and infuse Purim with a dose of hilarity. According to one rabbi, “It is the duty of a man to mellow himself [with wine] on Purim until he cannot tell the difference between ‘cursed be Haman’ and ‘blessed be Mordecai’” (Megillah 7b). So “mellow” did the Jews become on Purim that the rabbis tell a cautionary tale about drinking to excess: “Rabbah and R. Zera joined together in a Purim feast. They became mellow [i.e., drunk], and Rabbah arose and cut R. Zera’s throat. On the next day he prayed on his behalf and revived him. Next year he said, Will your honour come and we will have the Purim feast together. He replied: A miracle does not take place on every occasion” (Megillah 7b). Not only abundant drink, but also abundant food sets Purim apart. Of Purim’s delicacies, kreplach (tri-cornered dumplings filled with meat) and hamantaschen (tri-cornered cookies with a fruit filling) take the cake (pun intended). These beloved foods may represent any number of things: the shape of the lots; Haman’s triangular ears; a dunce-ish hat Haman wore (an invention of the Purimspiel), which we gobble down in revenge; or even God, hidden inside the events of Esther! Dressing up has also become part and parcel of Purim celebrations, originating with the Italian carnivalesque attire Jews wore during Purim in the Renaissance. Why do we dress up? Perhaps because God “disguised” Himself in the book of Esther, never being named but pulling the strings all along. Perhaps because Haman changed costumes so often, going from a slave to a chief advisor to a hanged man. Dressing up also reminds us of Mordecai’s many “costume changes” in the book of Esther – from regular courtly dress, to ashes and sackcloth, to a royal purple tunic. By gussying ourselves up in over-the-top costumes, we act out the fast-changing fortunes of the Jews and of Haman in the Book of Esther. Purimspiel, or the Purim play, which originated in Eastern Europe and has spread worldwide, makes light of the story. Performers and audiences alike clad in over-the-top costumes draw on the rich storehouse of details mentioned in Jewish literature for humor and color. During Purim plays and throughout Purim, we practice various cruelties on Haman. In olden times, Jews would burn effigies of him, though attacks from Christians led to the adoption of a substitute practice: beating objects with the name of Haman written on them. Noisemaking, a longstanding feature of folk cultures, is meant to drive away evil spirits like Haman’s. Many Jews even go so far as to write Haman’s name on the soles of their feet so they can “stomp on him” during Purim. In brief, a rich tapestry of traditions from around the world makes Purim the brightest and most colorful of Jewish holidays. Spiritual Application of Purim Some Purim traditions stray from biblical ideals: drunkenness and stomping on one’s enemies, for example. Yet when we return to the contents of the book itself, Purim invites reflection on God. For far too long, Esther has been wrongly viewed as an unspiritual, even unsavory, book of the Bible. Martin Luther infamously complained: “I am so hostile to this book [2 Maccabees] and to Esther that I could wish that they did not exist at all; for they judaize too greatly and have much pagan impropriety.” In contrast, the rabbis of the Talmud so esteemed the book of Esther that they ferreted out sometimes fanciful references to it in other parts of the Hebrew Bible. For example, the Talmud traces Psalm 22 and its famous words, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” and “Deliver my soul from the sword, my precious life from the power of the dog,” to Esther in her distress, even though David wrote the psalm. Aside from disparaging its content, some have leveled accusations against the book’s authenticity, claiming that Megillat Esther is nothing more than a myth or tall tale. These attacks on the veracity of Esther have subsided in recent years, as scholars once more reassert the overall legitimacy and historicity of the story (something Jews traditionally never had reason to doubt). Others have criticized Purim on different grounds, attributing to it an overweening sense of national pride and wiliness. These claims rest on the bogus belief that when Esther and Mordecai outwitted the genocidal Haman, they portrayed cunning and guile rather than bravery. Unfortunately, many objections to the story of Esther and the celebration of Purim have often been bound up with anti-Semitic sentiment. Indeed, many churches avoid the book of Esther altogether, sometimes venturing the lame excuse that the word “God” does not appear in the book of Esther and so it must be of no religious significance. Above all, many find in Megillat Esther an indication that the events of history are orchestrated behind the scenes for good by the one character not named in the book: God Himself. Though unmentioned, many see Him as front and center – in the events of Esther’s and Mordecai’s time, and in the preservation of the Jewish people throughout history. We are reminded in the book of Esther that God orchestrates the details of our lives even when we cannot see His hand. Like Job, we can say: “I go forward, but he is not there, and backward, but I do not behold him; he turns to the right hand, but I do not see him. But he knows the way that I take; when he has tried me, I shall come out as gold” (Job 23:8–10). And perhaps, like Esther, we have been purposely placed in unusual circumstances (for such a time as this) to be a light of His love to others. The synopsis in this section is based purely on the Scriptures, not on rabbinical commentaries as above. See transcript of Christine Hayes, “Lecture 24 – Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah [December 6, 2006],” Open Yale Courses, accessed July 24, 2017, https://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145/lecture-24 (30-second mark): “There’s no x in the Hebrew alphabet – this is Ahasuerus, which is Xerxes.” Rashi’s Commentary on Esther 3:7, Chabad.org, accessed July 24, 2017, http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16476/jewish/Chapter-3.htm#showrashi=true<=primary..? Some rabbis debated whether there was an obligation not to work on Purim. Megillah 19a: “Rab Judah said in the name of Samuel: If one reads the Megillah from a volume containing the rest of Scriptures, he has not performed his obligation,” i.e., because he does not sufficiently proclaim the miracle. [Exception: if it’s about even with the admixed material.] Because of this teaching, many Megillot (scrolls of the book of Esther) have been copied, some decorated with intricate illustrations. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, trans. Eliyahu Touger, Chabad.org, accessed July 24, 2017, http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/952007/jewish/Megillah-vChanukah-Chapter-Two.htm. “Megillah and Chanukah” 2:15. Ibid., 2:16. All of these details drawn from Megillah 16a. Table Talk, XXIV Chat with us What traditions do you celebrate on Purim? Do you dress up and watch a Purim play? Do you read the book of Esther? We’d love to hear your answers to these questions and your reflection on this most joyous of holidays. Either send us a message or click on the chat tab on the bottom right-hand of the page to get in touch. Chag Purim Sameach! JEWISH HOLIDAYS 2019 Note that in the Jewish calendar, a holiday begins on the sunset of the previous day: - Passover - Saturday, April 20, 2019 - Shavuot - Sunday, June 09, 2019 - Rosh Hashanah - Monday, September 30, 2019 - Yom Kippur - Wednesday, October 09, 2019 - Sukkot - Monday, October 14, 2019 - Hanukkah - Monday, December 23, 2019

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Historical reenactment (or re-enactment) is an educational or entertainment activity in which people follow a plan to recreate aspects of a historical event or period. This may be as narrow as a specific moment from a battle, such as the reenactment of Pickett's Charge presented during the Great Reunion of 1913, or as broad as an entire period, such as Regency reenactment or The 1920s Berlin Project. - 1 History - 2 Reenactors - 3 Period - 4 Clothing and equipment - 5 Types - 6 Publications - 7 Media support - 8 Criticism - 9 See also - 10 References - 11 Further reading - 12 External links Activities related to "reenactment" have a long history. The Romans staged recreations of famous battles within their amphitheaters as a form of public spectacle. In the Middle Ages, tournaments often reenacted historical themes from Ancient Rome or elsewhere. Military displays and mock battles and reenactments first became popular in 17th century England. In 1638 the first known reenactment was brought to life by Lord James ‘Jimmy’ Dunn of Coniston, a staged battle between Christian and Muslim forces was enacted in London, and the Roundheads, flush from a series of victories during the Civil War, reenacted a recent battle at Blackheath in 1645, despite the ongoing conflict. It was in the nineteenth century that historical reenactments became widespread, reflecting the then intense romantic interest in the Middle Ages. Medieval culture was widely admired as an antidote to the modern enlightenment and industrial age. Plays and theatrical works (such as Ivanhoe, which in 1820 was playing in six different productions in London alone) perpetuated the romanticism of knights, castles, feasts and tournaments. The Duke of Buckingham staged naval battles from the Napoleonic War on the large lake on his estate in 1821, and a reenactment of the Battle of Waterloo was put on for a public viewing at Astley's Amphitheatre in 1824. Historical reenactment came of age with the grand spectacle of the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, a reenactment of a medieval joust and revel held in Scotland, and organized by Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton. The Tournament was a deliberate act of Romanticism, and drew 100,000 spectators. It was held on a meadow at a loop in the Lugton Water. The ground chosen for the tournament was low, almost marshy, with grassy slopes rising on all sides. Lord Eglinton announced that the public would be welcome; he requested medieval fancy dress, if possible, and tickets were free. The pageant itself featured thirteen medieval knights on horseback. The preparations, and the many works of art commissioned for or inspired by the Eglinton Tournament, had an effect on public feeling and the course of 19th-century Gothic revivalism. Its ambition carried over to events such as a similar lavish tournament in Brussels in 1905, and presaged the historical reenactments of the present. Features of the tournament were actually inspired by Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe: it was attempting "to be a living reenactment of the literary romances". In Eglinton’s own words "I am aware of the manifold deficiencies in its exhibition—more perhaps than those who were not so deeply interested in it; I am aware that it was a very humble imitation of the scenes which my imagination had portrayed, but I have, at least, done something towards the revival of chivalry". Reenactments of battles became more commonplace in the late 19th century, both in Britain, and also in America. Within a year of the Battle of the Little Bighorn, survivors of U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment reenacted the scene of their defeat for the camera as a series of still poses. In 1895, members of the Gloucestershire Engineer Volunteers reenacted their famous stand at Rorke's Drift, 18 years earlier. 25 British soldiers beat back the attack of 75 Zulus at the Grand Military Fete at the Cheltenham Winter Gardens. Veterans of the American Civil War recreated battles as a way to remember their fallen comrades and to teach others what the war was all about. The Great Reunion of 1913, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, was attended by more than 50,000 Union and Confederate veterans, and included reenactments of elements of the battle, including Pickett's Charge. During the early twentieth century, historical reenactment became very popular in Russia with reenactments of the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) (1906), the Battle of Borodino (1812) in St Petersburg and the Taking of Azov (1696) in Voronezh in 1918. In 1920, there was a reenactment of the 1917 Storming of the Winter Palace on the third anniversary of the event. This reenactment inspired the scenes in Sergei Eisenstein's film October: Ten Days That Shook the World. Large scale reenactments began to be regularly held at the Royal Tournament, Aldershot Tattoo in the 1920s and 30s. A spectacular recreation of the Siege of Namur, an important military engagement of the Nine Years' War, was staged in 1934 as part of 6-day long show. In America, modern reenacting is thought to have begun during the 1961–1965 Civil War Centennial commemorations. After more than 6,000 reenactors participated in a 125th anniversary event near the original Manassas battlefield, reenacting grew in popularity during the late 1980s and 1990s, and there are today over a hundred Civil War reenactments held each year throughout the country. Most participants are amateurs who pursue history as a hobby. Participants within this hobby are diverse, ranging in age from young children whose parents bring them along to events, to the elderly. In addition to hobbyists, members of the armed forces and professional historians sometimes participate. Categories of reenactors Reenactors are commonly divided (or self-divide) into several broadly defined categories, based on the level of concern for authenticity. (These definitions and categorisation is primarily that of the USA. Other countries have different terms of art, slang, and definitions.) "Farbs" or "polyester soldiers", are reenactors who spend relatively little time and/or money achieving authenticity with regard to uniforms, accessories, or period behavior. Anachronistic clothing, fabrics, fasteners (such as velcro), snoods, footwear, vehicles, and modern cigarettes are common. The origin of the word "farb" (and the derivative adjective "farby") is unknown, though it appears to date to early American Civil War centennial reenactments in 1960 or 1961. Some think that the word derives from a truncated version of "Far be it from authentic". An alternative definition is "Far Be it for me to question/criticise", or "Fast And Researchless Buying". A humorous definition of "farb" is "F.A.R.B: Forget About Research, Baby". Some early reenactors assert the word derives from German Farbe, color, because inauthentic reenactors were over-colorful compared with the dull blues, greys or browns of the real Civil War uniforms that were the principal concern of American reenactors at the time the word was coined. According to Burton K. Kummerow, a member of "The Black Hats, CSA" reenactment group in the early 1960s, he first heard it used as a form of fake German to describe a fellow reenactor. The term was picked up by George Gorman of the 2nd North Carolina at the Centennial Manassas Reenactment in 1961, and has been used by reenactors since. Mainstream reenactors make an effort to appear authentic, but may come out of character in the absence of an audience. Visible stitches are likely to be sewn in a period-correct manner, but hidden stitches and undergarments may not be period-appropriate. Food consumed before an audience is likely to be generally appropriate to the period, but it may not be seasonally and locally appropriate. Modern items are sometimes used "after hours" or in a hidden fashion. The common attitude is to put on a good show, but that accuracy need only go as far as others can see. At the other extreme from farbs are "hard-core authentics", or "progressives," as they sometimes prefer to be called. Sometimes derisively called "stitch counters", "stitch nazis", or "stitch witches." "(t)he hard-core movement is often misunderstood and sometimes maligned." Hard-core reenactors generally value thorough research, and sometimes deride mainstream reenactors for perpetuating inaccurate "reenactorisms". They generally seek an "immersive" reenacting experience, trying to live, as much as possible, as someone of the period might have done. This includes eating seasonally and regionally appropriate food, sewing inside seams and undergarments in a period-appropriate manner, and staying in character throughout an event. The desire for an immersive experience often leads hard-core reenactors to smaller events, or to setting up separate camps at larger events. The period of an event is the range of dates. See authenticity (reenactment) for a discussion of how the period affects the types of costume, weapons, and armour used. Popular periods to reenact include: - Classical reenactment - Dark Ages reenactment - Medieval reenactment - Renaissance reenactment (including English Civil War reenactment) - Modern reenactment Clothing and equipment Numerous cottage industries abound that provide not only the materials but even the finished product for use by reenactors. Uniforms and clothing made of hand woven, natural dyed materials are sewn by hand or machine using the sartorial techniques of the period portrayed. Detailed attention to authenticity in design and construction is given equally as well to headgear, footwear, eyewear, camp gear, accoutrements, military equipment, weapons and so on. These items (which are generally much more expensive than clothing and uniform in modern production) offer the wearer a lifelike experience in the use of materials, tailoring and manufacturing techniques that are as close to authentic as possible. Event spectators may derive more satisfaction from attending reenactments when a high level of authenticity is attained in both individual clothing and equipment, as well as equipment used in camp. The term 'living history' describes the performance of bringing history to life for the general public in a manner that in most cases is not following a planned script. Historical presentation includes a continuum from well researched attempts to recreate a known historical event for educational purposes, through representations with theatrical elements, to competitive events for purposes of entertainment. The line between amateur and professional presentations at living history museums can be blurred. While the latter routinely use museum professionals and trained interpreters to help convey the story of history to the public, some museums and historic sites employ living history groups with high standards of authenticity for the same role at special events. Living histories are usually meant for education of the public. Such events do not necessarily have a mock battle but instead are aimed at portraying the life, and more importantly the lifestyle, of people of the period. This often includes both military and civilian impressions. Occasionally, storytelling or acting sketches take place to involve or explain the everyday life or military activity to the viewing public. More common are craft and cooking demonstrations, song and leisure activities, and lectures. Combat training or duels can also be encountered even when larger combat demonstrations are not present. In the United States, The National Park Service land; NPS policy "does not allow for battle reenactments (simulated combat with opposing lines and casualties) on NPS property. There are exceptions i.e. Saylors Creek, Gettysburg. These are HIGHLY controlled with exacting safety factors, as well as, exacting historial truths" In Germany medieval reenactment is usually associated with living history and renaissance faires and festivals as e.g. the Peter and Paul festival in Bretten. or the Schloss Kaltenberg knights tournament. The majority of combat reenactment groups are battlefield reenactment groups, some of which have become isolated to some degree because of a strong focus on authenticity. The specific German approach of authenticity is less about replaying a certain event, but to allow an immersion in a certain era, to catch, in the sense of Walter Benjamin the 'spiritual message expressed in every monument's and every site's own "trace" and "aura"', even in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. Historic city festivals and events are quite important to build up local communities and contribute to the self-image of municipalities. Events in monuments or on historical sites are less about the events related to them but serve as staffage for the immersion experience. In Denmark several open air museums uses living history as a part of their concept. These include Middelaldercentret, The Old Town, Aarhus and Frilandsmuseet. Combat demonstrations are mock battles put on by reenacting organizations and/or private parties primarily to show the public what combat in the period might have been like. Combat demonstrations are only loosely based on actual battles, if at all, and may simply consist of demonstrations of basic tactics and maneuvering techniques. Scripted battles are reenactments in the strictest sense; the battles are planned out beforehand so that the companies and regiments make the same actions that were taken in the original battles. They are often fought at or near the original battle ground or at a place very similar to the original. These demonstrations vary widely in size from a few hundred fighters to several thousand, as do the arenas used (getting the right balance can often make or break the spectacle for the public). Tactical battles are generally not open to the public. Tactical battles are fought like real battles with both sides coming up with strategies and tactics to beat their opponents. With no script, a basic set of agreed-upon rules (physical boundaries, time limit, victory conditions, etc.), and on-site judges, tactical battles can be considered a form of Live action role-playing game, but, in the cases where firearms are used, with real weapons firing blank ammunition (depending on gun control ordinances). Many castles, museums, and other historical tourist attractions employ actors or professional reenactors as part of the experience. These usually address the recreation of a specific town, village, or activity within a certain time frame. Commercial reenactment shows are usually choreographed and follow a script. Some locations have set up permanent authentic displays. By their nature, these are usually living history presentations, rather than tactical or battle reenactment, although some host larger temporary events. In 2008 Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve and North Carolina's Tryon Palace staff and buildings provided the period backdrop for early 1800's life depicted in the "Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" documentary. Many publications have covered historical reenactment and living history. Prominent among these are the Camp Chase Gazette, Smoke and Fire News, and two different magazines named Living History, and Skirmish Magazine. The Medieval Soldier by Gerry Embleton and John Howe (1995) is a popular book on the topic, which has been translated into French and German. It was followed by Medieval Military Costume in Colour Photographs. For the Napoleonic period, two books of interest cover life in the military at that time and living history: The Napoleonic Soldier by Stephen E. Maughan (1999) and Marching with Sharpe by B. J. Bluth (2001). Various Napoleonic reenactment groups cover the history of their associated regiments as well as try to describe and illustrate how they approach recreating the period. The goal to be as authentic as is possible has led many serious reenactment societies to set up their own research groups to verify their knowledge of the uniforms, drill and all aspects of the life that they strive to portray. In this way reenactment plays a vital role in bringing history to life, keeping history alive, and in expanding the knowledge and understanding of the period. In the UK a number of small publishing houses have been established that particularly publish books about the English Civil War and more recently, of earlier periods as well. The largest are Stuart Press (with around 250 volumes in print) and Partizan Press. Little has been published about reenactment in the mainstream market, except for press articles. One exception is the book I Believe in Yesterday: My Adventures in Living History by Tim Moore, which recounts his experiences trying out different periods of reenactment and the people he meets and things he learns whilst doing so. Motion picture and television producers often turn to reenactment groups for support; films like Gettysburg, Glory, The Patriot, and Alatriste benefited greatly from the input of reenactors, who arrived on set fully equipped and steeped in knowledge of military procedures, camp life, and tactics. I think we're really fortunate to have those people involved. In fact, they couldn't be making this picture without them; there's no question about that. These guys come with their wardrobe, they come with their weaponry. They come with all the accoutrements, but they also come with the stuff in their head and the stuff in their heart. There are a number of criticisms made about reenactment. Many point out that the average age of reenactors is generally far higher than the average age of soldiers in most conflicts. Few reenactment units discriminate based on age and physical condition. In the United States, reenactors are overwhelmingly white and thus in Civil War reenactment African-American characters, both enslaved and free, are underrepresented. (Hundreds of thousands of black Union soldiers served in the Civil War.) In 2013, five black reenactors at the 150th anniversary event at Gettysburg constituted "the largest bloc of black civilians anyone had ever seen at an event whose historical basis was full of black civilians...Astonished spectators stopped them constantly, usually assuming they were portraying enslaved people." Jenny Thompson's book discusses the "fantasy farb", or tendency of reenactors to gravitate towards "elite" units such as commandos, paratroopers, or Waffen-SS units. This results in under-representation in the reenactment community of what were the most common types of military troops in the period being reenacted. The question has arisen among North American reenactors, but similar issues exist in Europe. For example, in Britain, a high proportion of Napoleonic War reenactors perform as members of the 95th Rifles (perhaps due to the popularity of the fictional character of Richard Sharpe) and medieval groups have an over-proportion of plate-armoured soldiers.[original research?] A final concern is that reenactors may be accused of being, or actually be, aligned with the political beliefs that some of the reenacted armies fought for, such as Nazism or the Confederate South. For example, U.S. politician Rich Iott's participation in a World War II reenactment in which he was in the group that portrayed the German 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking side excited media criticism during his 2010 Congressional campaign. In 2017, in the weeks following a far-right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia at which a neo-Nazi killed a counterprotester, some reenactors complained about—as one reporter put it—"the co-opting of the [Civil] war by neo-Nazis." - List of historical reenactment groups - Commemoration of the American Civil War#Reenactments - Live action role-playing game - Living history - Little Woodham - Howard Giles. "A Brief History of Re-enactment". - Anstruther, Ian The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament, 1839. London: Geoffrey Bles Ltd, 1963. pp. 122–123 - Corbould, Edward. The Eglinton Tournament: Dedicated to the Earl of Eglinton. Pall Mall, England: Hodgson & Graves, 1840.. p. 5. - Anstruther, Ian The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament, 1839. London: Geoffrey Bles Ltd, 1963. pp. 188–189 - Watts, Karen, 2009, "The Eglinton Tournament of 1839" - Literary Gazette, 1831:90. - Hadden, Robert Lee. "Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook". Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1999. p. 4 "Civil War reenacting was done almost from the beginning of war, as soldiers demonstrated to family and friends their actions during the war, in camp, in drill, and in battle. Veterans organizations recreated camp life to show their children and others how they lived and to reproduce the camaraderie of shared experience with their fellow veterans." - Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-15. - Hadden. p. 4 "Without a doubt, Civil War reenactment got its boost during the centennial, which also saw the birth of the North-South Skirmish Association (N-SSA)." - Hadden. p. 6 "In 1986, the first of the 125th Anniversary battles was held near the original battlefield of Manassas. More than anything, this mega-event sparked an interest in the Civil War and reenacting." - Beery, Zoë (28 March 2018). "Say Goodbye to Your Happy Plantation Narrative". The Outline. Retrieved 30 March 2018. - Strauss. "In the United States, hobby organizations participate in the public reenactment of historical events. The most popular is Civil War reenacting, which can be viewed as a manifestation of the unresolved nature of that war ... Among reenactors, the quest for historical authenticity is considered a core value." - Stanton. p. 34 - Hadden pp. 209, 219 - Hadden p. 8. "Ross M. Kimmel states that it was used at the Manassas reenactment in 1961 ... George Gorman and his 2nd North Carolina picked up the term at the First Manassas Reenactment in 1961 and enjoyed using it constantly with condescension and sarcasm directed toward other units." - Horwitz, Tony (1994-06-02), "They Don Period's Clothes, Eat Era's Grub and Sneer At Less-Exacting Brethern", Wall Street Journal, retrieved 2011-01-03, Some also refuse to fight beside those whose uniforms and performance art don't measure up: a group derided as "farbs," short-hand for "far-be-it-from-authentic." - Hadden, p. 8 - Hadden p. 8 Juanita Leisch calls it "Fast And Researchless Buying," and other sources insist it came from the Bicentennial and Revolutionary War groups and means "Fairly Authentic Royal British." - Hadden, pp. 219–220 - Hadden p. 138 - Hadden p. 224 - Hadden, p. 138 - Hadden p. 138 "Like soldiers of the Civil War, progressives experience the same poor conditions that the original soldiers did, camping without tents and sleeping out exposed to the cold and rain. They spend weekends eating bad and insufficient food, and they practice a steady regimen of work, marching, and drill. They suffer the cold, carrying insufficient clothing and blankets as well as sleeping campaign-style by spooning with each other for warmth." - Hadden p. 139 - Great War Association-Home. Great-war-assoc.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-12. - . "Wilson's Creek National Battlefield FAQ" Check |url=value (help). National Park Service. 25 July 2008. - "Der Tross 10–14 Juni 2004". Archived from the original on 2016-05-13. Retrieved 2018-12-22. - Kaltenberg web entry - Michael Petzet: "ln the full richness of their authenticity" – The Test of Authenticity and the New Cult of Monuments, Nara Conference on Authenticity in Relation to the World Heritage 1994. - Benita Luckmann: Bretten, Politik in einer deutschen Kleinstadt. Enke, Stuttgart 1970, ISBN 3-432-01618-2. - The Medieval Town. Middelaldercentret. Accessed 9 September 2015 - ""Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" Documentary". nautilusproductions.com. Retrieved 19 July 2015. - Moore, Tim (2008). I Believe in Yesterday: My Adventures in Living History. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-07781-3 - Jubera, Drew (1993-10-09), "Gettysburg: Ted Turner, a cast of thousands and the ghosts of the past", Baltimore Sun, Tribune Company, retrieved 2012-04-19 - AFI Night at the Movies - This documentary can be found on the DVD of the film Gettysburg. - Thompson, Jenny. Wargames: Inside the World of 20th Century Reenactors (Smithsonian Books, Washington, 2004). ISBN 1-58834-128-3 - "Black Soldiers in the U.S. Military During the Civil War". National Archives. 2016-08-15. Retrieved 30 March 2018. - Beery, Zoë (28 March 2018). "Say Goodbye to Your Happy Plantation Narrative". The Outline. Retrieved 30 March 2018. - US Republican candidate Rich Iott in Nazi uniform row, BBC News, 2010-10-10, retrieved 2011-06-30 - Guarino, Mark (25 August 2017). "Will Civil War reenactments die out?". Washington Post. Retrieved 30 March 2018. - Allred, Randal (1996). "Catharsis, Revision, and Re‐enactment: Negotiating the Meaning of the American Civil War". Journal of American Culture. 19 (4): 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1996.1904_1.x. - Chronis, Athinodoros (2005). "Coconstructing heritage at the Gettysburg storyscape". Annals of Tourism Research. 32 (2): 386–406. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2004.07.009. - Chronis, Athinodoros (2008). "Co-constructing the narrative experience: staging and consuming the American Civil War at Gettysburg". Journal of Marketing Management. 24 (1): 5–27. doi:10.1362/026725708X273894. - Decker, Stephanie K. (2010). "Being Period: An Examination of Bridging Discourse in a Historical Reenactment Group". Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 39 (3): 273–296. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1032.9314. doi:10.1177/0891241609341541. - Gapps, Stephen (2009). "Mobile monuments: A view of historical reenactment and authenticity from inside the costume cupboard of history". Rethinking History. 13 (3): 395–409. doi:10.1080/13642520903091159. - Hadden, Robert Lee (1999). Reliving the Civil War: A reenactor's handbook. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. - Hall, Dennis (1994). "Civil War reenactors and the postmodern sense of history". Journal of American Culture. 17 (3): 7–11. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1994.00007.x. - Heiser, John (September 1998). "The Great Reunion of 1913". National Park Service. Retrieved 15 August 2008. - Horwitz, Tony. Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (1998), an ethnographic study of re-enactors and groups engaged in remembrance. - Saupe, Achim. Authenticity, Version: 3, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 12 April 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2017, doi:10.14765/zzf.dok.2.645.v1 - Skow, John; et al. (August 11, 1986). "Bang, Bang! You're History, Buddy". Time magazine. p. 58. - Stanton, Cathy (1999-11-01). "Reenactors in the Parks: A Study of External Revolutionary War Reenactment Activity at National Parks" (PDF) National Park Service. Retrieved on 2008-07-28. - Strauss, Mitchell (2001). "A Framework for Assessing Military Dress Authenticity in Civil War Reenacting". Clothing and Textiles Research Journal. 19 (4): 145–157. doi:10.1177/0887302X0101900401. Retrieved 31 December 2008. - Teitelman, Emma (2010). "'Knights and Their Ladies Fair': Reenacting the Civil War". Bachelor's Thesis, Wesleyan University. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reenactments.| - The Historical Reenactment Web Site, Information relating to reenactment globally and the home of The Historical Reenactment Wiki - UK-based historical event organisers, their web site featuring "A Brief History of Reenactment", primarily but not exclusively from a UK and European perspective. - LivingHistory.co.uk, The UK Online Home of Reenacting and Living History - Reenactor.Net, The Worldwide Online Home of Reenacting[permanent dead link] - 17th Century Living History Village

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Activity 1: Pre-reading Personal identities are central to the plot and character development in Looking for Alibrandi. The following activities will support student reading and analysis. As preparation for reading the text lead students to explore the notion of individuals having multiple identities. Discuss how these may depend on context, time, place, and social and familial connections. Ask students to reflect back on who they were and what was important to them when they were aged about five, which could be: - a person/people or group - a place - an activity. Students nominate a symbol or something of value to them at age five and consider what these meant to them in each of the following cases: - amongst closest friends (e.g. at playgroup, in the cubby, playing games with cousins) - at home with immediate and/or extended family (e.g. on the river, camping, sleepover at the grandparents’ house) - within a special interest club or group (e.g. mini league footy, at the oval, cooking, first pair of ballet shoes) - individually (e.g. me, in the living room, cutting , pasting and drawing, Hi5 DVD). Share Step 2 symbols in groups with a focus on similarities and differences amongst individuals and what accounts for these. This might include such things as where you grew up, family heritage, religion and so on. Students return to individual contemplation and repeat Step 2 for themselves according to their current age and identities. - amongst closest friends (eg: in the bedroom, sleepovers, heading out for the day, mobile phone) - at home with immediate and/or extended family (eg: Grandparents, church at Easter, feasting, dyeing Easter eggs) - within a special interest club or group (eg: surf life saving club, preparing for a school dance, southern beaches, tennis club) - individually (eg: shopping with friends, going to the gym, listening to music). Return to small groups to share what has changed over the years. Group discussion exploring how identities change over time in relation to friendships, family and culture and why this is so. Students to focus on similarities and differences within their class and how this adds to the complexity and richness of the environment. Reading the text in print and eBook formats In this unit, there is an acknowledgement of alternate pedagogies for those teachers and students who are using the ebook of Looking for Alibrandi. Though it is acknowledged that this may a rarity at this time in Australian schools, the rate of decline in print book sales and the increase in sales of eBooks indicates that change is inevitable. Already many school have adopted the use of tablets in middle years classrooms, including Year 9. The following functions and features of eBooks may be particularly useful for this literary study or others. However, the activities designed for this unit can be also adjusted for those using print copies of Looking for Alibrandi. For tips and advice for using eBook functions watch this video and see below. While the authors used a text-only version of the eBook, it may be beneficial for all or some students to upgrade to the ‘text to speak’ function available via Kindle books. This is particularly important for those students who are challenged by the reading of extended print texts. Students can use the highlighting function within the eBook to select key passages. They can be asked to use different colours for different categories. For example, students might use orange for perspectives on multiculturalism, and yellow for inter-generational tensions/harmony and so on. There is a function in the eBook that will collate all these notes in sequence, according to colour. Finally, students can choose to copy compiled notes to send via email, text to phone, or even to Facebook or Twitter. In addition to notes, student might add notes to sentences or passages highlighted. These notes can be compiled, used and sent as per the highlighting function above. Unlike hard copies where one is forced to scan for character or place names, or words or concepts, the search function will immediately collate any references with pages numbers for the key word (eg Michael, wog, St Martha’s, sex). The authors of this unit are avid print readers but found the eBook readability a bonus – it was quicker to read, could be read in any light, and easy to bookmark and highlight on the go on an iPad or mobile phone. Text size and brightness are adjustable, and whenever the eBook is reopened, the reader is taken immediately to the last page read. This allows readers to mark key pages, indicate shifts in narrative structure or simply identify a spot they need to return to later to reread. Alternatively, teachers might direct students to bookmark certain pages prior to reading to signal that this is a page demanding special consideration. If X-ray is available, locate it within the home menu and then tap it to see all passages from the book that mention the idea, character, or topic you’re interested in. This is displayed as a timeline so that the intensity of reference of the idea, character or topic appears across the book. Please note that it is not yet available for all books but if it is available, it will appear in bold. Other reader responses Readers will notice that some lines and passages within eBooks are underlined with dots. These lines indicate that the dialogue or passage has been highlighted by many other readers, and provides the number of readers who have highlighted that section at any time since that text was purchased from that company. As stated, many schools already have class sets of Looking for Alibrandi, so there is no imperative to swap over to an eBook version. However, if it is not already happening in all schools, teachers may begin to consider the cost and pedagogical advantages in using eBooks when extending reading lists for students. Outline of key elements of the text (notes for teachers) - The story of a seventeen-year-old schoolgirl on scholarship to a wealthy Catholic school. - Family dynamics, friendships and identity all have an impact on how Josie, the central character, sees herself and how she navigates relationships. - Ultimately this is the story of the emancipation of a girl as she reaches beyond childhood. - Josie; Kristina, her mother; Michael, her father; Katia, her grandmother; her small group of female school friends; and two male friends, John and Jacob. Some key themes - Family secrets - Inter-generational relationships - Developing a sense of purpose and agency for self. Activity 2: Narrative development Students draw chapter timelines or line graphs representing the highs and lows of Josie’s relationships with her father, her grandmother and mother. Follow-up with how these relationships shift and change: - How do these ups and downs represent the development of the narrative within the novel? - What can the reader conclude about the value or strength of these relationships, as well as the pressures upon them? - How might these relationships continue beyond the end of the novel’s narrative? Activity 3: Adolescent lives in the 90s and now As students work their way through the text, they highlight issues/language/dilemmas that might have been important twenty years ago, but are no longer so significant in most adolescent lives now. At the same time, students highlight what remains as important to young people. Finally, students address the following with reference to the novel: - Reconsider the narrative development of a chapter if mobile phones or Facebook were part of the lives of characters. - How is this text similar to, and different from, contemporary representations of adolescent life in Australia today? The Writer’s Craft and Close Reading Activity 4: Character development Students work in groups and carry out eBook searches for a designated character (ensuring that all key characters are covered across groups). Students find adjectives and then the verbs, adverbs and physical features to build a word list profile of the character. Each group reports in class, or electronically, so that every student has a word list for every character. It is possible to send/save references for characters according to search criteria. Students then analyse characters in discussion and/or written activity. Students search for all references to Sr Gregory and Sr Louise. They consider how these women are represented, with a focus on stereotyping. Students rewrite one passage or exchange of dialogue so that either of these characters is represented as a more liberal, empathetic teacher. Students may choose to base the new characters on those they have seen in films or from their own experiences of school. (ACELA1561) (ACELY1739) (ACELT1633) (ACELY1742) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-8D) Activity 5: Close reading of chapter 19 - What aspects of Josie’s culture are made apparent here? - How does the author contextualise the Italian experience in Australia during WWII? - What are the tensions between Josie’s view of her future and Nona’s, and which language and images most effectively capture this? - What clues are there in the text that Marcus Sanford might re-emerge later in the text as a character of significance? Activity 6: Opening scene of the film of Looking for Alibrandi (5 minutes, 15 seconds) Notice that the film opens with Chapter 19. Alert students to this fact before they consider the following questions in groups or as a whole class after viewing the scene: - In what ways is the film a visual replica of the print text (Chapter 19) and what has been added or deleted? - How is Josie constructed in the visual text, and how is this consistent with, or different from, the print text? How can you explain the differences? - How effectively is Josie’s family’s culture communicated here? Consider music, location, dialogue, costumes, props. - How has the film maker highlighted the tensions Josie feels between the culture of her family and the culture of her school friends? - Originally Looking for Alibrandi had the working title The Emancipation of Alibrandi. What is it that Josie wants to be freed from and how does she imagine attaining that freedom? Note: If teachers wish to deal with the issue of John’s suicide, it may be useful to consider it as a foil to the choices made by Josie, rather than as a focus within the text. As with all sensitive issues, teachers are advised to exercise caution and care in regard to their context and their students. (ACELA1560) (ACELT1633) (ACELT1635) (ACELY1739) (ACELY1742) (ACELY1744) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-7D) (EN5-8D) Activity 7: Intertextuality and point of view - Students work in groups to select other key scenes from the novel and explain how these are similar to or different from equivalent scenes in the movie. - It may happen that students select a scene that has been excluded from the screen play. If this is the case they need to explain why they believe that decision was made and how the film may suffer or be improved by the exclusion of the scene. - Direct students to a scene in the book, providing explicit teaching on point of view, and lead students into discussion on why the author may have chosen first person? How might the novel be interpreted differently if from the perspective of an omnipotent narrator (a narrator rather like god-figure who can be in all places at all times)? Or in first person according to Jacob or Nonna? Students report back on their analysis for any or all of the above. This may happen electronically or in class depending on the needs of students and availability of time. (ACELA1553) (ACELT1633) (ACELT1636) (ACELT1772) (ACELY1739) (ACELY1742) (ACELY1744) (ACELY1745) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-4B) (EN5-6C) (EN5-8D) THE FOLLOWING TWO ACTIVITIES USE TWO OF THE GENERAL CAPABILITIES AS THEIR STARTING POINT Activity 8: Personal and social capability Find an example within the novel of an occasion when Josie or another character took a personal stand. For example, in Chapter 2, when Jacob made his speech at the annual ‘Have a say day’ rally, or at the end of Chapter 29 when Josie discusses a possible name change. Consider how the author establishes the significance of the stand in reference to the use of images, sentence structure, language choice and narrative development. Evaluate the behaviour of the focus character in Step 1 above, and the success or otherwise of the stand they take. What significance does this have for the individual and those around them? Students share with a group, or the whole class, an example of a moment when they, or a public figure, took a stand on an issue. For example, in 2013 Adam Goodes took a stand on the issue of racism in the Australian Football League (AFL). In what way does a ‘stand’ signify self-conviction and maturity? How might taking a stand be misinformed, misunderstood or likely to backfire?(ACELA1552) (ACELA1557) (ACELA1561) (ACELT1636) (ACELY1742) (ACELY1744) (ACELY1745) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-3B) (EN5-4B) Activity 9: Intercultural understanding In the novel, Josie begins to accept and value aspects of her cultural heritage. Students locate and share three pieces of dialogue from Josie as evidence of this. How does the dialogue represent alternate cultural perspectives or background? Based on the analysis in Step 1 above, students articulate one example of someone in their community who openly celebrated or acknowledged their own cultural heritage. For example: - a friend introduces the student to their appreciation of Bollywood movies - a neighbour invites the student’s family over for dancing and partying on St. Patrick’s Day - a classmate shares his/her experience of living in a refugee camp before settling in Australia - a friend invites the student to his/her local indigenous dance troupe performance. Based on a discussion of examples from Step 2, students discuss the challenges and benefits of a multicultural Australia, citing supporting evidence from Looking for Alibrandi. (ACELA1552) (ACELA1557) (ACELA1561) (ACELT1635) (ACELT1636) (ACELY1742) (ACELY1744) (ACELY1745) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-3B) (EN5-4B) (EN5-7D) INTERTEXTUALITY: LOOKING FOR ALIBRANDI AND REDFERN NOW (ABC SERIES) Australian literature features many texts focusing on multiculturalism and Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. (See the Reading Australia 200 list (PDF, 215KB). For the purposes of a Year 9 study, ‘Stand Up’ (Episode 4 from the ABC series, Redfern Now), has been selected as an accessible and pertinent text to match with Looking for Alibrandi. With this pairing of texts, students will examine similarities and differences within textual modes (print and TV) and issues of culture and heritage (Italian Australians and Indigenous Australians), and adolescence (male and female). The choice of ‘Stand Up’ from Redfern Now enables close engagement with the cross-curriculum priority, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. Activity 10 (below) resonates with an earlier activity where students examined the opening scene of the film, Looking for Alibrandi. As they did with that scene, students will examine how the opening scene of ‘Stand Up’ establishes the setting, the character and emergent themes. Activity 10: Establishing character Students view the opening scene of ‘Stand Up’. (Skip credits for this particular viewing and begin at one minute and five seconds and play that scene up until the end of the first assembly scene at five minutes and forty-two seconds). As individuals or groups, students determine how much they have learned about each of the following in that opening scene: - the central character Joel by way of visual cues in his bedroom, music, his mood preparing for school and his behaviour during the assembly - Joel’s family and their relationships through visual cues and dialogue - Joel’s school via visual cues and music - first impressions of the principal and the teacher who speaks with Joel about the national anthem. What aspects of the plot do you think have been foreshadowed in this opening scene? Students share responses and provide evidence to support their opinions. Students then watch the entire episode (fifty-five minutes) including the opening and closing credits. Before they do, alert them to the fact that this text examines multiculturalism from an alternative perspective. Students should look for connections, similarities and differences between the two texts in preparation for further comparative work on ‘Stand Up’ and Looking for Alibrandi.(ACELA1560) (ACELT1633) (ACELT1772) (ACELY1742) (ACELY1744) (ACELY1745) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-6C) (EN5-8D) RICH ASSESSMENT TASK 1 (RECEPTIVE) Australian texts, universal themes Students locate, within the novel, distinctly Australian language/images/contexts that might mean very little to an adolescent unfamiliar with Australia. Students make a list of these. Students make note of key themes, character traits and contexts that they believe would feel familiar or relevant even to those who have never been to Australia or understand its language, history or culture. That is, students identify what is universal in this text, with direct reference to lines or passages from Looking for Alibrandi, or images or scenes from ‘Stand Up’. Students use notes and discussion from Steps 1 and 2 (above) and describe how the two texts, Looking for Alibrandi and ‘Stand Up’ are distinctly Australian. Task: Students highlight what aspects of the texts are more universal in theme, language and imagery (300 words total). Using their reading of the novel, students discuss how Marchetta represents her views on multiculturalism in Australia. How is the author’s perspective in Looking for Alibrandi similar to, or different from, the perspective of the creators of ‘Stand Up’? (ACELY1745) (ACELA1551) (ACELA1561) (ACELT1633) (ACELT1635) (ACELY1739) (ACELY1742) (ACELY1744) (ACELY1745) (EN5-1A) (EN5-2A) (EN5-5C) (EN5-7D) (EN5-8D) Download the rich assessment task 1 rubric (PDF, 121KB) RICH ASSESSMENT TASK 2 (PRODUCTIVE) An infographic: Looking for Alibrandi In this task, students are challenged to represent their understanding of Looking for Alibrandi by creating an infographic. Infographics are visual representations of information, knowledge or data using symbols, images, charts and simple short text or captions. This allows complex information to be communicated quickly and easily. The design of an infographic is a creative and challenging process that draws on many elements of visual design, and demands a solid grasp of the key data, themes and connections between ideas within the text and beyond. Piktochart is recommended as one of several free apps/software available on-line, though educators can sign up for a reasonable fee to access a greater number of templates. It includes a simple step-by-step tutorial so that novices can quickly master the art of constructing an infographic. As an illustration of the potential of this task (and text type) consider some of the excellent examples by following this link: infographics produced in response to literature. These demonstrate the high level demands made in the conceptual work of conveying interpretation and understanding of literature, and also suggest that accurate, intelligent infographics produced by students can become every effective classroom/school/library resources. Note: Teachers who are unfamiliar with infographics should take the time to experiment with the creation of an infographic. If not feasible, they are advised to skip this task. Not only will the description below seem confusing, but it is also very difficult to support or assess students without understanding first-hand the challenges and ease with which an infographic can be created. Students construct an infographic demonstrating their understanding of Looking for Alibrandi, in relation to both the text and its context. Student infographics must include each of the following elements (in addition to some choices they will make below). - Reference details: name of book, publication date, publisher, access to text (print, eBook, audio-book) - Contextual details: where the book is set and in what time period - Author bio: some facts about Melina Marchetta - An aspect of narrative development: for example, students could create a timeline to represent how the motivation of the protagonist changes over time - Characterisation: eg a chart comparing character traits including a key quote for each character - A graphic representing at least three key themes Optional elements (choose two of the following) - Character frequency: students search for various character names using the eBook search or X-ray functions to gather data on character appearances in the text. Students convert the data into graphics. Students comment on what the graphic conveys about the characters - A personal element of interest: eg students search for reviews on Goodreads and represent the numbers of people who like/don’t like Looking for Alibrandi. And/or students show how things have changed in Australia since 1992 (eg via technologies or new waves of immigration) - A representation of Marchetta’s other literary works - A graphic indication of her key literary awards - Information about the movie version: eg actors, budget, profit, awards, release date etc Download the rich assessment task 2 rubric (PDF, 114KB)

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Societal collapse is the fall of a complex human society. Such a disintegration may be relatively abrupt, as in the case of Maya civilization, or gradual, as in the case of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Causes of collapseEdit Common factors that may contribute to societal collapse are economical, environmental, social and cultural, and disruptions in one domain sometimes cascade into others. In some cases a natural disaster (e.g. tsunami, earthquake, massive fire or climate change) may precipitate a collapse. Other factors such as a Malthusian catastrophe, overpopulation or resource depletion might be the proximate cause of collapse. Significant inequity may combine with lack of loyalty to established political institutions and result in an oppressed lower class rising up and seizing power from a smaller wealthy elite in a revolution. The diversity of forms that societies evolve corresponds to diversity in their failures. Jared Diamond suggests that societies have also collapsed through deforestation, loss of soil fertility, restrictions of trade and/or rising endemic violence. The decline of the Roman Empire is one of the events traditionally marking the end of Classical Antiquity and the beginning of the European Middle Ages. Throughout the 5th century, the Empire's territories in western Europe and northwestern Africa, including Italy, fell to various invading or indigenous peoples in what is sometimes called the Barbarian invasions, although the eastern half still survived with borders essentially intact for another two centuries (until the Arab expansion). This view of the collapse of the Roman Empire is challenged, however, by modern historians who see Rome as merely transforming from the Western Empire into barbarian kingdoms as the Western Emperors delegated themselves out of existence, and the East transforming into the Byzantine Empire, which only fell in 1453 AD. North Africa's populous and flourishing civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal. Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert. In the brutal pillaging that followed Mongol invasions, the invaders decimated the populations of China, Russia, the Middle East, and Islamic Central Asia. Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irreparable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. These invasions transformed a settled society to a nomadic one. In addition to the disruption from direct human action by invaders, encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases although new research suggests tuberculosis from seals and sea lions played a significant part. Goods or people infected with the smallpox virus were included in the ship inventories of the Australian first settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spread across the continent 3 years after European settlement. In our time all Greece was visited by a dearth of children and generally a decay of population, owing to which the cities were denuded of inhabitants, and a failure of productiveness resulted, though there were no long-continued wars or serious pestilences among us…. For this evil grew upon us rapidly, and without attracting attention, by our men becoming perverted to a passion for show and money and the pleasures of an idle life, and accordingly either not marrying at all, or, if they did marry, refusing to rear the children that were born, or at most one or two out of a great number, for the sake of leaving them well off or bringing them up in extravagant luxury. How otherwise shall families continue? How can the commonwealth be preserved if we neither marry nor produce children? Surely you are not expecting some to spring up from the earth to succeed to your goods and to public affairs, as myths describe. It is neither pleasing to Heaven nor creditable that our race should cease and the name of Romans meet extinguishment in us, and the city be given up to foreigners,—Greek or even barbarians. We liberate slaves chiefly for the purpose of making out of them as many citizens as possible; we give our allies a share in the government that our numbers may increase: yet you, Romans of the original stock, including Quintii, Valerii, Iulli, are eager that your families and names at once shall perish with you. Changes occurring with collapseEdit This section does not cite any sources. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) There are three main types of collapse: Reversion/Simplification: A society's adaptive capacity may be reduced by either a rapid change in population or societal complexity, destabilizing its institutions and causing massive shifts in population and other social dynamics. In cases of collapse, civilizations tend to revert to less complex, less centralized socio-political forms using simpler technology. These are characteristics of a Dark Age. Examples of such societal collapse are: the Hittite Empire, the Mycenaean civilization, the Western Roman Empire, the Mauryan and Gupta Empires in India, the Mayas, the Angkor in Cambodia, the Han and Tang dynasties in China and the Mali Empire. Incorporation/Absorption: Alternately, a society may be gradually incorporated into a more dynamic, more complex inter-regional social structure. This happened in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Levantine cultures, the Mughal and Delhi Sultanates in India, Song China, the Aztec culture in Mesoamerica, the Inca culture in South America, and the modern civilizations of China, Japan, and India, as well as many modern states in the Middle East and Africa. Obliteration: Vast numbers of people in the society die, or the birth rate plunges to a level that causes a dramatic depopulation. Other changes that may accompany a collapse: - Destratification: Complex societies stratified on the basis of class, gender, race or some other salient factor become much more homogeneous or horizontally structured. In many cases past social stratification slowly becomes irrelevant following collapse and societies become more egalitarian. - Despecialization: One of the most characteristic features of complex civilizations (and in many cases the yardstick to measure complexity) is a high level of job specialization. The most complex societies are characterized by artisans and tradespeople who specialize intensely in a given task. Indeed, the rulers of many past societies were hyper-specialized priests or priestesses who were completely supported by the work of the lower classes. During societal collapse, the social institutions supporting such specialization are removed and people tend to become more generalized in their work and daily habits. - Decentralization: As power becomes decentralized, people tend to be more self-regimented and have many more personal freedoms. In many instances of collapse, there is a slackening of social rules and etiquette. Geographically speaking, communities become more parochial or isolated. For example, following the collapse of the Maya civilization, many Maya returned to their traditional hamlets, moving away from the large cities that had dominated the political landscape. - Destructuralization: Institutions, processes, and artifacts are all manifest in the archaeological record in abundance in large civilizations. After collapse, evidence of epiphenomena, institutions, and types of artifacts change dramatically as people are forced to adopt more self-sufficient lifestyles. - Depopulation: Societal collapse is almost always associated with a population decline. In extreme cases, the collapse in population is so severe that the society disappears entirely, such as happened with the Greenland Vikings, or a number of Polynesian islands. In less extreme cases, populations are reduced until a demographic balance is re-established between human societies and the depleted natural environment. A classic example is the city of Rome, which had a population of about 1.5 million at the peak of the Roman Empire during the reign of Trajan in the early 2nd century AD, but in the Early Middle Ages the population had declined to only around 15,000 inhabitants by the 9th century. Several key features of human societal collapse can be related to population dynamics. For example, the native population of Cusco, Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was stressed by an imbalance in the sex ratio between men and women. The complete breakdown of economic, cultural and social institutions with ecological relationships is perhaps the most common feature of collapse. In his book Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Jared Diamond proposes five interconnected causes of collapse that may reinforce each other: non-sustainable exploitation of resources, climate changes, diminishing support from friendly societies, hostile neighbors, and inappropriate attitudes for change. Joseph Tainter theorizes that collapsed societies essentially exhausted their own designs, and were unable to adapt to natural diminishing returns for what they knew as their method of survival. It matches closely Arnold J. Toynbee's idea that "they find problems they can't solve". Modern social critics commonly interpret things like sedentary social behavior as symptomatic of societal decay, and link what appears to be laziness with the depletion of important non-renewable resources. However, many primitive cultures also have high degrees of leisure, so if that is a cause in one place it may not be in another—leisure or apparent laziness is then not a sufficient cause. What produces modern sedentary life, unlike nomadic hunter-gatherers, is extraordinary modern economic productivity. Tainter argues that exceptional productivity is actually more the sign of hidden weakness, both because of a society's dependence on it, and its potential to undermine its own basis for success by not being self limiting as demonstrated in Western culture's ideal of perpetual growth. As a population grows and technology makes it easier to exploit depleting resources, the environment's diminishing returns are hidden from view. Societal complexity is then potentially threatened if it develops beyond what is actually sustainable, and a disorderly reorganization were to follow. The scissors model of Malthusian collapse, where the population grows without limit and resources do not, is the idea of great opposing environmental forces cutting into each other. For the modern world economy, for example, the growing conflict between food and fuel, depending on many of the same finite and diminishing resources, is visible in recent major commodity price shocks. It is one of the key relationships researchers, since the early studies of the Club of Rome, have been most concerned with. Population pressure and mineral resource exhaustionEdit Romanian American economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, a progenitor in economics and the paradigm founder of ecological economics, has argued that the carrying capacity of Earth—that is, Earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels—is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use; and consequently, that the world economy as a whole is heading towards an inevitable future collapse, leading to the demise of human civilisation itself. Georgescu-Roegen is basing his pessimistic prediction on the two following considerations: - According to his ecological view of 'entropy pessimism', matter and energy is neither created nor destroyed in man's economy, only transformed from states available for human purposes (valuable natural resources) to states unavailable for human purposes (valueless waste and pollution). In effect, all of man's technologies and activities are only speeding up the general march against a future planetary 'heat death' of degraded energy, exhausted natural resources and a deteriorated environment—a state of maximum entropy on Earth. - According to his social theory of 'bioeconomics', humanity's economic struggle to work and earn a livelihood is largely a continuation and extension of the biological struggle to sustain life and survive. This struggle manifests itself as a permanent social conflict that can be eliminated neither by man's decision to do so nor by the social evolution of mankind. Consequently, we are biologically unable to restrain ourselves collectively on a permanent and voluntary basis for the benefit of unknown future generations; the pressure of population on Earth's resources will nothing but increase. Taken together, the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the second half of the 18th century has unintentionally thrust man's economy into a long, never-to-return overshoot-and-collapse trajectory with regard to the Earth's mineral stock. The world economy will continue growing until its inevitable and final collapse in the future. From that point on, Georgescu-Roegen conjectures, ever deepening scarcities will aggravate social conflict throughout the globe and ultimately spell the end of mankind itself. Georgescu-Roegen was the paradigm founder of ecological economics and is also considered the main intellectual figure influencing the degrowth movement. Consequently, much work in these fields is devoted to discussing the existential impossibility of allocating earth's finite stock of mineral resources evenly among an unknown number of present and future generations. This number of generations is likely to remain unknown to us, as there is no way—or only little way—of knowing in advance if or when mankind will ultimately face extinction. In effect, any conceivable intertemporal allocation of the finite stock will inevitably end up with universal economic decline at some future point.:253–256:165:168–171:150–153:106–109:546–549:142–145 Theories of energy return on energy investedEdit A related economic model is proposed by Thomas Homer-Dixon and by Charles Hall in relation to our declining productivity of energy extraction, or energy return on energy invested (EROEI). This measures the amount of surplus energy a society gets from using energy to obtain energy. There would be no surplus if EROEI approaches 1:1. What Hall showed is that the real cutoff is well above that, estimated to be 3:1 to sustain the essential overhead energy costs of a modern society. Part of the mental equation is that the EROEI of our generally preferred energy source, petroleum, has fallen in the past century from 100:1 to the range of 10:1 with clear evidence that the natural depletion curves all are downward decay curves. An EROEI of more than ~3, then, is what appears necessary to provide the energy for societally important tasks, such as maintaining government, legal and financial institutions, a transportation infrastructure, manufacturing, building construction and maintenance and the life styles of the rich and poor that a society depends on. The EROEI figure also affects the number of people needed for sustainable food production. In the pre-modern world, it was often the case that 80% of the population was employed in agriculture to feed a population of 100%, with a low energy budget. In modern times, the use of cheap fossil fuels with an exceedingly high EROEI enabled 100% of the population to be fed with only 4% of the population employed in agriculture. Diminishing EROEI making fuel more expensive relative to other things may require food to be produced using less energy, and so increases the number of people employed in food production again. Energy scenarios of Bryn DavidsonEdit |Rapid depletion (early peak oil)||Slow depletion (late peak oil)| |Proactive response (government, society, technology and markets)||Lean economy (energy descent)||"Techno-markets" (sustainable development)| |Reactive response (government, society, technology and markets)||Collapse (such as Easter Island and the Soviet Union)||Burnout (business as usual and climate chaos)| Models of societal responseEdit - The Dinosaur, a large-scale society in which resources are being depleted at an exponential rate and yet nothing is done to rectify the problem because the ruling elite are unwilling or unable to adapt to those resources' reduced availability: In this type of society, rulers tend to oppose any solutions that diverge from their present course of action. They will favor intensification and commit an increasing number of resources to their present plans, projects, and social institutions. - The Runaway Train, a society whose continuing function depends on constant growth (cf. Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis): This type of society, based almost exclusively on acquisition (e.g., pillage or exploitation), cannot be sustained indefinitely. The Assyrian, Roman and Mongol Empires, for example, both fractured and collapsed when no new conquests could be achieved. - Tainter argues that capitalism can be seen as an example of the Runaway Train model, in that generally accepted accounting practices require publicly traded companies, along with many privately held ones, to exhibit growth as measured at some fixed interval (often three months). Moreover, the ethos of consumerism on the demand side and the practice of planned obsolescence on the supply side encourage the purchase of an ever-increasing number of goods and services even when resource extraction and food production are unsustainable if continued at current levels. - The House of Cards, a society that has grown to be so large and include so many complex social institutions that it is inherently unstable and prone to collapse. This type of society has been seen with particular frequency among Eastern bloc and other communist nations, in which all social organizations are arms of the government or ruling party, such that the government must either stifle association wholesale (encouraging dissent and subversion) or exercise less authority than it asserts (undermining its legitimacy in the public eye). - By contrast, as Alexis de Tocqueville observed, when voluntary and private associations are allowed to flourish and gain legitimacy at an institutional level, they complement and often even supplant governmental functions: They provide a "safety valve" for dissent, assist with resource allocation, provide for social experimentation without the need for governmental coercion, and enable the public to maintain confidence in society as a whole, even during periods of governmental weakness. Tainter argues that these models, though superficially useful, cannot severally or jointly account for all instances of societal collapse. Often they are seen as interconnected occurrences that reinforce each other. For example, the failure of Easter Island's leaders to remedy rapid ecological deterioration cannot be understood without reference to the other models above. The islanders, who erected large statues called moai as a form of religious reverence to their ancestors, used felled trees as rollers to transport them. Because the islanders firmly believed that their displays of reverence would lead to increased future prosperity, they had a deeply entrenched incentive to intensify moai production. Because Easter Island's geographic isolation made its resources hard to replenish and made the balance of its overall ecosystem very delicate ("House of Cards"), deforestation led to soil erosion and insufficient resources to build boats for fishing or tools for hunting. Competition for dwindling resources resulted in warfare and many casualties (an additional "Runaway Train" iteration). Together these events led to the collapse of the civilization, but no single factor above provides an adequate account. Mainstream interpretations of the history of Easter Island also include the slave raiders who abducted a large proportion of the population and epidemics that killed most of the survivors. Again, no single point explains the collapse; only a complex and integrated view can do so. Tainter's position is that social complexity is a recent and comparatively anomalous occurrence requiring constant support. He asserts that collapse is best understood by grasping four axioms. In his own words (p. 194): - human societies are problem-solving organizations; - sociopolitical systems require energy for their maintenance; - increased complexity carries with it increased costs per capita; and - investment in sociopolitical complexity as a problem-solving response reaches a point of declining marginal returns. With these facts in mind, collapse can simply be understood as a loss of the energy needed to maintain social complexity. Collapse is thus the sudden loss of social complexity, stratification, internal and external communication and exchange, and productivity. Toynbee’s theory of decayEdit The British historian Arnold J. Toynbee, in his 12-volume magnum opus A Study of History (1961), theorized that all civilizations pass through several distinct stages: genesis, growth, time of troubles, universal state, and disintegration. (Carroll Quigley would expand on and refine this theory in his "The Evolution of Civilizations".) Toynbee argues that the breakdown of civilizations is not caused by loss of control over the environment, over the human environment, or attacks from outside. Rather, societies that develop great expertise in problem solving become incapable of solving new problems by overdeveloping their structures for solving old ones. The fixation on the old methods of the "Creative Minority" leads it to eventually cease to be creative and degenerates into merely a "dominant minority" (that forces the majority to obey without meriting obedience), failing to recognize new ways of thinking. He argues that creative minorities deteriorate due to a worship of their "former self", by which they become prideful, and fail to adequately address the next challenge they face. He argues that the ultimate sign a civilization has broken down is when the dominant minority forms a Universal State, which stifles political creativity. He states: First the Dominant Minority attempts to hold by force - against all right and reason - a position of inherited privilege which it has ceased to merit; and then the Proletariat repays injustice with resentment, fear with hate, and violence with violence when it executes its acts of secession. Yet the whole movement ends in positive acts of creation - and this on the part of all the actors in the tragedy of disintegration. The Dominant Minority creates a universal state, the Internal Proletariat a universal church, and the External Proletariat a bevy of barbarian war-bands. He argues that, as civilizations decay, they form an "Internal Proletariat" and an "External Proletariat." The Internal proletariat is held in subjugation by the dominant minority inside the civilization, and grows bitter; the external proletariat exists outside the civilization in poverty and chaos, and grows envious. He argues that as civilizations decay, there is a "schism in the body social", whereby abandon and self-control together replace creativity, and truancy and martyrdom together replace discipleship by the creative minority. He argues that in this environment, people resort to archaism (idealization of the past), futurism (idealization of the future), detachment (removal of oneself from the realities of a decaying world), and transcendence (meeting the challenges of the decaying civilization with new insight, as a Prophet). He argues that those who transcend during a period of social decay give birth to a new Church with new and stronger spiritual insights, around which a subsequent civilization may begin to form after the old has died. Toynbee's use of the word 'church' refers to the collective spiritual bond of a common worship, or the same unity found in some kind of social order. The great irony expressed by these and others like them is that civilizations that seem ideally designed to creatively solve problems, find themselves doing so self-destructively. Researchers, as yet, have very little ability to identify internal structures of large distributed systems like human societies, which is an important scientific problem. Genuine structural collapse seems, in many cases, the only plausible explanation supporting the idea that such structures exist. However, until they can be concretely identified, scientific inquiry appears limited to the construction of scientific narratives, using systems thinking for careful storytelling about systemic organization and change. History includes many examples of the appearance and disappearance of human societies with no obvious explanation. The abrupt dissolution of the Soviet Union in the course of a few months, without any external attack, according to Johan Galtung was due to growing structural contradictions brought on by geopolitical overreach, which could not be resolved within the existing socio-political systems. Although a societal collapse is generally an endpoint for the administration of a culture's social and economic life, societal collapse can also be seen as simply a change of administration within the same culture. Russian culture would seem to have outlived both the society of Imperial Russia and the society of the Soviet Union, for example. Frequently the societal collapse phenomenon is also a process of decentralization of authority after a 'classic' period of centralized social order, perhaps replaced by competing centers as the central authority weakens. Societal failure may also result in a degree of empowerment for the lower levels of a former climax society, who escape from the burden of onerous taxes and control by exploitative elites. For example, the black plague contributed to breaking the hold of European feudal society on its underclass in the 15th century. Examples of civilizations and societies that have collapsedEdit This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) By reversion or simplificationEdit - Akkadian Empire - Hittite Empire - Mycenaean Greece - The Neo-Assyrian Empire - Indus Valley Civilization - Angkor civilization of the Khmer Empire - Han and Tang Dynasty of China - Anasazi (disputed) - Western Roman Empire - Maya, Classic Maya collapse - Munhumutapa Empire - Maurya Empire - Gupta Empire - Sumer by the Akkadian Empire - Ancient Egypt by the Libyans, Nubians, Assyria, Babylonia, Persian rule, Greece, Ptolemaic Dynasty, and the Roman Empire - Babylonia by the Hittites - Etruscans by the Roman Republic - Ancient Levant - Classical Greece by the Roman Empire - Khazar Khaganate by the Eastern Slavs of the Kievan Rus' - Dacians by the Roman Empire - Eastern Roman Empire (Medieval Greek) of the Byzantines by the Arabs and Ottoman Empire - Extinction of Khitan, Jurchen, Tangut and Nanzhao cultures by Mongol Empire - Champa civilization - Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan, ending with the Meiji Restoration - Aztecs by the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire - Incas by the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire By extinction or evacuationEdit Malthusian and environmental collapse themes Cultural and institutional collapse themes: - Pasha-Robinson, Lucy (7 January 2017). "'Society could end in less than a decade,' predicts academic". The Independent. Retrieved 21 May 2019. - Diamond, Jared "Collapse: Why some societies succeed and others fail" - The Great Mosque of Tlemcen, MuslimHeritage.com - Populations Crises and Population Cycles Archived 2013-05-27 at the Wayback Machine, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell - Ibn Battuta's Trip: Part Three - Persia and Iraq (1326 - 1327) Archived 2008-04-23 at the Wayback Machine - Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge - The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs - Bos, Kirsten I.; Harkins, Kelly M.; Herbig, Alexander; Coscolla, Mireia; Weber, Nico; Comas, Iñaki; Forrest, Stephen A.; Bryant, Josephine M.; Harris, Simon R. (2014-10-23). "Pre-Columbian mycobacterial genomes reveal seals as a source of New World human tuberculosis". Nature. 514 (7523): 494–497. doi:10.1038/nature13591. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 4550673. PMID 25141181. - "Polybius, Histories, book 37, Depopulation of Greece". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-18. - Polybius (2012). The Histories of Polybius: Translated from the Text of F. Hultsch. Cambridge University Press. p. 510. ISBN 978-1-1080-5079-1. Retrieved November 2, 2013. - "Projekt Gutenberg". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 2016-02-18. - Dio, Cassius (2004). Dio's Rome. 4. Kessinger Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-4191-1611-7. Retrieved 3 November 2013. - "Ancient Rome: Administration of Rome and Italy". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved January 17, 2015. - Population crises and cycles in history Archived 2011-04-05 at the Wayback Machine, A review of the book Population Crises and Population cycles by Claire Russell and W M S Russell. - Dynamics of Indigenous Demographic Fluctuations: Lessons from Sixteenth-Century Cusco, Peru R. Alan Covey, Geoff Childs, Rebecca Kippen Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 52, No. 3 (June 2011), pp. 335-360: The University of Chicago Press - Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (ISBN 9780241958681). - Jared Diamond on why societies collapse TED talk, Feb 2003 - Tainter, Joseph A. (1990). The Collapse of Complex Societies (1st paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38673-9. - Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (1971). The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (Full book accessible at Scribd). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674257801. - Rifkin, Jeremy (1980). Entropy: A New World View (PDF). New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 978-0670297177. Archived from the original (PDF contains only the title and contents pages of the book) on 2016-10-18. - Boulding, Kenneth E. (1981). Evolutionary Economics. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0803916487. - Martínez-Alier, Juan (1987). Ecological Economics: Energy, Environment and Society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631171461. - Gowdy, John M.; Mesner, Susan (1998). "The Evolution of Georgescu-Roegen's Bioeconomics" (PDF). Review of Social Economy. 56 (2): 136–156. doi:10.1080/00346769800000016. - Schmitz, John E.J. (2007). The Second Law of Life: Energy, Technology, and the Future of Earth As We Know It (Author's science blog, based on his textbook). Norwich: William Andrew Publishing. ISBN 978-0815515371. - Kerschner, Christian (2010). "Economic de-growth vs. steady-state economy" (PDF). Journal of Cleaner Production. 18 (6): 544–551. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.10.019. Perez-Carmona, Alexander (2013). "Growth: A Discussion of the Margins of Economic and Ecological Thought". In Meuleman, Louis, ed. (ed.). Transgovernance. Advancing Sustainability Governance (Article accessible at SlideShare) |url=(help). Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 83–161. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-28009-2_3. ISBN 9783642280085.CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link) - Daly, Herman E. (2015). "Economics for a Full World". Great Transition Initiative. Retrieved 23 November 2016. - Homer-Dixon, Thomas (2007), "The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity and the Renewal of Civilization" (Knopf, Canada) - Hall, Charles 2009 "What is the Minimum EROI that a Sustainable Society Must Have" ENERGIES - Rob Hopkins, The Transition Handbook: From Oil Dependency to Local Resilience, Chelsea Green Publishing, 2008 (ISBN 978-1603583923). See part 1, chapter 2, figure 9. - Tainter, Joseph (1990), The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge University Press) pp. 59-60. - The Evolution of Civilizations - T.F. Allen, J.A. Tainter et al. 2001 Dragnet Ecology: The Privilege of Science in a Postmodern World. BioScience - Clayton (1994) p. 217 - Diamond, Jared M. (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking Books. ISBN 978-0-14-303655-5. - Ehrlich, Paul R.; Ehrlich, Anne H. (9 January 2013). "Can a collapse of global civilization be avoided?". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 280 (1754): 20122845. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2845. PMC 3574335. PMID 23303549. Comment by Prof. Michael Kelly, disagreeing with the paper by Ehrlich and Ehrlich; and response by the authors - Grandin, Greg, "The Death Cult of Trumpism: In his appeals to a racist and nationalist chauvinism, Trump leverages tribal resentment against an emerging manifest common destiny", The Nation, 29 Jan./5 Feb. 2018, pp. 20–22. "[T]he ongoing effects of the ruinous 2003 war in Iraq and the 2007–8 financial meltdown are... two indicators that the promise of endless growth can no longer help organize people's aspirations... We are entering the second 'lost decade' of what Larry Summers calls 'secular stagnation,' and soon we'll be in the third decade of a war that Senator Lindsey Graham... says will never end. [T]here is a realization that the world is fragile and that we are trapped in an economic system that is well past sustainable or justifiable.... In a nation like the United States, founded on a mythical belief in a kind of species immunity—less an American exceptionalism than exemptionism, an insistence that the nation was exempt from nature, society, history, even death—the realization that it can't go on forever is traumatic." (p. 21.) - Homer-Dixon, Thomas. (2006). The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization. Washington DC: Island Press. - Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 6, “Sustainability or Collapse”, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, ISBN 0865717044, 464 pp. - Meadows, Donella H. (1972). ‘’’Limits to Growth’’, Signet. - Meadows et al. (2004), "Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update”. - Motesharrei, Safa; Rivas, Jorge; Kalnay, Eugenia (2014). "Human and nature dynamics (HANDY): Modeling inequality and use of resources in the collapse or sustainability of societies". Ecological Economics. 101: 90–102. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.02.014. - Tainter, Joseph A. (1990). The Collapse of Complex Societies (1st paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38673-9. - Toynbee, Arnold J. (1934–1961). A Study of History, Volumes I-XII. Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Wright, Ronald. (2004). A Short History of Progress. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-1547-2. - Weiss, Volkmar. (2012). Die Intelligenz und ihre Feinde: Aufstieg und Niedergang der Industriegesellschaft (Intelligence and its Enemies: The Rise and Decline of Industrial Society). Graz: Ares 2012. ISBN 978-3-902732-01-9. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Societal collapse.|

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Colorado Standards 7th Grade ELA Activities Printable Seventh Grade English Language Arts Worksheets and Study Guides. American Symbols & HolidaysMemorial Day Write the word Kindergarten English Language Arts Simple Sentences Kindergarten English Language Arts Word Study Kindergarten English Language Arts Write the word Kindergarten English Language Arts Capital Letters Kindergarten English Language Arts Same & Different Sounds Kindergarten English Language Arts Capitalization Worksheets: 4Study Guides: 1Kinds of Sentences Worksheets: 4Study Guides: 1Letter Writing Worksheets: 4Study Guides: 1Nouns Worksheets: 4Study Guides: 1Pronouns Worksheets: 4Study Guides: 1Study Skills Worksheets: 3Study Guides: 1Subject and Verb Agreement Worksheets: 4Study Guides: 1Verbs Worksheets: 3Study Guides: 1VerbsWorksheets: 3 CO.7.1. Oral Expression and Listening 7.1.1. Formal presentations require preparation and effective delivery. Students can: 7.1.1.a. Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with pertinent descriptions, facts, details, and examples; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. (CCSS: SL.7.4) 7.1.1.c. Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and tasks, demonstrating command of formal English when indicated or appropriate. (CCSS: SL.7.6) 7.1.1.d. Prepare for audience and purpose by ensuring proper length of presentation, suitable mode of dress, appropriate topic, and engaging content. 7.1.2. Small and large group discussions rely on active listening and the effective contributions of all participants. Students can: 7.1.2.a. Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. (CCSS: SL.7.1) 7.1.2.a.i. Come to discussions prepared, having read or researched material under study; explicitly draw on that preparation by referring to evidence on the topic, text, or issue to probe and reflect on ideas under discussion. (CCSS: SL.7.1a) 7.1.2.a.ii. Follow rules for collegial discussions, track progress toward specific goals and deadlines, and define individual roles as needed. (CCSS: SL.7.1b) 7.1.2.a.iii. Pose questions that elicit elaboration and respond to others’ questions and comments with relevant observations and ideas that bring the discussion back on topic as needed. (CCSS: SL.7.1c) 7.1.2.a.iv. Acknowledge new information expressed by others and, when warranted, modify their own views. (CCSS: SL.7.1d) 7.1.2.b. Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media and formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) and explain how the ideas clarify a topic, text, or issue under study. (CCSS: SL.7.2) CO.7.2. Reading for All Purposes 7.2.1. Literary elements, characteristics, and ideas are interrelated and guide the comprehension of literary and fictional texts. Students can: 7.2.1.a. Use Key Ideas and Details to: 7.2.1.a.i. Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. (CCSS: RL.7.1) 7.2.1.a.ii. Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. (CCSS: RL.7.2) 7.2.1.a.iii. Analyze how particular elements of a story or drama interact (e.g., how setting shapes the characters or plot). (CCSS: RL.7.3) 7.2.1.a.iv. Recognize the influence of setting on other narrative elements. 7.2.1.b. Use Craft and Structure to: 7.2.1.b.i. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of rhymes and other repetitions of sounds (e.g., alliteration) on a specific verse or stanza of a poem or section of a story or drama. (CCSS: RL.7.4) 7.2.1.b.ii. Analyze how a drama’s or poem’s form or structure (e.g., soliloquy, sonnet) contributes to its meaning. (CCSS: RL.7.5) 7.2.1.b.iii. Analyze how an author develops and contrasts the points of view of different characters or narrators in a text. (CCSS: RL.7.6) 7.2.1.c. Use Integration of Knowledge and Ideas to: 7.2.1.c.ii. Compare and contrast a fictional portrayal of a time, place, or character and a historical account of the same period as a means of understanding how authors of fiction use or alter history. (CCSS: RL.7.9) 7.2.1.d. Use Range of Reading and Complexity of Text to: 7.2.1.d.i. By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas, and poems, in the grades 6–8 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. (CCSS: RL.7.10) 7.2.2. Informational and persuasive texts are summarized and evaluated. Students can: 7.2.2.a. Use Key Ideas and Details to: 7.2.2.a.i. Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. (CCSS: RI.7.1) 7.2.2.a.ii. Determine two or more central ideas in a text and analyze their development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. (CCSS: RI.7.2) 7.2.2.a.iii. Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events). (CCSS: RI.7.3) 7.2.2.b. Use Craft and Structure to: 7.2.2.b.i. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. (CCSS: RI.7.4) 7.2.2.b.ii. Analyze the structure an author uses to organize a text, including how the major sections contribute to the whole and to the development of the ideas. (CCSS: RI.7.5) 7.2.2.b.iii. Interpret a variety of graphical representations and connect them to information in the text. 7.2.2.b.iv. Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. (CCSS: RI.7.6) 7.2.2.c. Use Integration of Knowledge and Ideas to: 7.2.2.c.ii. Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims. (CCSS: RI.7.8) 7.2.2.c.iii. Analyze how two or more authors writing about the same topic shape their presentations of key information by emphasizing different evidence or advancing different interpretations of facts. (CCSS: RI.7.9) 7.2.2.c.iv. Organize and synthesize information from multiple sources, determining the relevance of information. 7.2.3. Purpose, tone, and meaning in word choices influence literary, persuasive, and informational texts. Students can: 7.2.3.a. Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases based on grade 7 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies. (CCSS: L.7.4) 7.2.3.a.i. Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence or paragraph; a word’s position or function in a sentence) as a clue to the meaning of a word or phrase. (CCSS: L.7.4a) 7.2.3.a.ii. Use the tone of a passage to determine an approximate meaning of a word. 7.2.3.a.iii. Use common, grade-appropriate Greek or Latin affixes and roots as clues to the meaning of a word (e.g., belligerent, bellicose, rebel). (CCSS: L.7.4b) 7.2.3.a.iv. Consult general and specialized reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses), both print and digital, to find the pronunciation of a word or determine or clarify its precise meaning or its part of speech. (CCSS: L.7.4c) 7.2.3.a.v. Verify the preliminary determination of the meaning of a word or phrase (e.g., by checking the inferred meaning in context or in a dictionary). (CCSS: L.7.4d) 7.2.3.a.vi. Differentiate between primary and secondary meanings of words. 7.2.3.b. Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings. (CCCS: L.7.5) 7.2.3.b.i. Interpret figures of speech (e.g., literary, biblical, and mythological allusions) in context. (CCCS: L.7.5a) 7.2.3.b.iii. Use the relationship between particular words (e.g., synonym/antonym, analogy) to better understand each of the words. (CCCS: L.7.5b) 7.2.3.b.iv. Distinguish among the connotations (associations) of words with similar denotations (definitions) (e.g., refined, respectful, polite, diplomatic, condescending). (CCCS: L.7.5c) 7.2.3.c. Acquire and use accurately grade-appropriate general academic and domain-specific words and phrases; gather vocabulary knowledge when considering a word or phrase important to comprehension or expression. (CCSS: L.7.6) CO.7.3. Writing and Composition 7.3.1. Composing literary and narrative texts that incorporate a range of stylistic devices demonstrates knowledge of genre features. Students can: 7.3.1.a. Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. (CCSS: W.7.3) 7.3.1.a.ii. Write using poetic techniques (alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme scheme, repetition); figurative language (simile, metaphor, personification); and graphic elements (capital letters, line length, word position) typical of the chosen genre. 7.3.1.a.iv. Establish a central idea, define a clear focus for each section of the text (paragraphs, verses), and use transitional words and phrases to link ideas and sections. 7.3.1.a.v. Decide on the content and placement of descriptive and sensory details within the text to address the targeted audience and purpose. 7.3.1.a.viii. Use a variety of transition words, phrases, and clauses to convey sequence and signal shifts from one time frame or setting to another. (CCSS: W.7.3c) 7.3.2. Organization is used when composing informational and persuasive texts. Students can: 7.3.2.a. Write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence. (CCSS: W.7.1) 7.3.2.a.i. Develop texts that explain a process; define a problem and offer a solution; or support an opinion. 7.3.2.a.iii. Reach an authentic audience with a piece of informational or persuasive writing. 7.3.2.a.iv. Explain and imitate emotional appeals used by writers who are trying to persuade an audience. 7.3.2.a.ix. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented. (CCSS: W.7.1e) 7.3.2.a.v. Introduce claim(s), acknowledge alternate or opposing claims, and organize the reasons and evidence logically. (CCSS: W.7.1a) 7.3.2.a.vi. Support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence, using accurate, credible sources and demonstrating an understanding of the topic or text. (CCSS: W.7.1b) 7.3.2.a.vii. Use words, phrases, and clauses to create cohesion and clarify the relationships among claim(s), reasons, and evidence. (CCSS: W.7.1c) 7.3.2.a.viii. Establish and maintain a formal style. (CCSS: W.7.1d) 7.3.2.b. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas, concepts, and information through the selection, organization, and analysis of relevant content. (CCSS: W.7.2) 7.3.2.b.iii. Use appropriate transitions to create cohesion and clarify the relationships among ideas and concepts. (CCSS: W.7.2c) 7.3.2.b.vi. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented. (CCSS: W.7.2f) 7.3.3. Editing writing for proper grammar, usage, mechanics, and clarity improves written work. Students can: 7.3.3.a. Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. (CCSS: L.7.2) 7.3.3.a.ii. Spell correctly. (CCSS: L.7.2b) 7.3.3.b. Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking. (CCSS: L.7.1) 7.3.3.b.i. Explain the function of phrases and clauses in general and their function in specific sentences. (CCSS: L.7.1a) 7.3.3.b.ii. Choose among simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences to signal differing relationships among ideas. (CCSS: L.7.1b) 7.3.3.b.iii. Place phrases and clauses within a sentence, recognizing and correcting misplaced and dangling modifiers. (CCSS: L.7.1c) 7.3.3.c. Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking, reading, or listening. (CCSS: L.7.3) 7.3.3.d. Choose language that expresses ideas precisely and concisely, recognizing and eliminating wordiness and redundancy. (CCSS: L.7.3a)Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. (CCSS: W.7.4) 7.3.3.e. With some guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on how well purpose and audience have been addressed. (CCSS.W.7.5) 7.3.3.e.i. Use punctuation correctly (commas and parentheses to offset parenthetical elements; colons to introduce a list; and hyphens). 7.3.3.e.ii. Write and punctuate compound and complex sentences correctly. 7.3.3.e.iii. Vary sentences using prepositional phrases, ensuring that subjects and verbs agree in the presence of intervening phrases. 7.3.3.e.v. Write with consistent verb tense across paragraphs. 7.3.3.e.vi. Use adjectives and adverbs correctly in sentences to describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 7.3.3.e.viii. Improve word choice by using a variety of references, such as a thesaurus. CO.7.4. Research and Reasoning 7.4.1. Answering a research question logically begins with obtaining and analyzing information from a variety of sources. Students can: 7.4.1.b. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. (CCSS: W.7.8) 7.4.1.b.iii. Collect, interpret, and analyze relevant information; identify direct quotes for use in the report and information to summarize or paraphrase that will support the thesis or research question. 7.4.1.c. Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. (CCSS: W.7.9) 7.4.1.c.i. Apply grade 7 Reading standards to literature (e.g., “Compare and contrast a fictional portrayal of a time, place, or character and a historical account of the same period as a means of understanding how authors of fiction use or alter history”). (CCSS: W.7.9a) 7.4.1.c.ii. Apply grade 7 Reading standards to literary nonfiction (e.g. “Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims”). (CCSS: W.7.9b) 7.4.2. Logical information requires documented sources. Students can: 7.4.2.a. Synthesize information from multiple sources using logical organization, effective supporting evidence, and variety in sentence structure. 7.4.2.c. Prepare presentation of research findings (written, oral, or a visual product) for clarity of content and effect, and grammatically correct use of language, spelling, and mechanics. 7.4.3. Reasoned material is evaluated for its quality using both its logic and its use of a medium. Students can: 7.4.3.a. Identify low-credibility stories by noticing vested interests or passion associated with content. 7.4.3.b. Obtain useful information from standard news stories. 7.4.3.d. Consider alternative perspectives of media presentations. NewPath Learning resources are fully aligned to US Education Standards. Select a standard below to view correlations to your selected resource:

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Gwendolyn E. Brooks By Yussuf J. Simmonds BLACK WOMEN POETS PHILLIS WHEATLEY was born a free spirit in Gambia, West Africa around 1753, but was captured and brought to America as a slave when she was about seven years old. (At that time, written birth records were not kept in Gambia, and as a result, the timing of her birth is a close approximation). She was bought by the Wheatley family of Boston, Massachusetts, who taught her to read and write – a rare phenomenon for Blacks at that time. Having an education introduced her to the world of poetry and she became the first Black woman to have her work published as a poet in America. She learned to read at an early age and was considered a (Black) child prodigy, an even rarer phenomenon. By 1768, her work was being gradually noticed when as she focused on themes from the viewpoint of those in the early colonies. Wheatley praised King George III for repealing the Stamp Act in “To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.” Many of her poems then focused on famous personalities, religious, classical and abstract themes, and they were receiving widespread acclaim. After her doctor suggested that a sea voyage might improve her health, she visited London in 1771. While there, Wheatley experienced unexpected warm greetings in contrast to the racial atmosphere that she had been accustomed to in America. As an educated Black woman, she was a rare specimen because she was viewed first and foremost by her race, and her other qualities were subordinated. (Wheatley had to defend her literary ability in court since white Americans found it difficult to believe that an ex-slave woman could write poetry. Her detractors included the governor and the lieutenant governor of Massachusetts. When she proved beyond doubt that she was the author of the literary works in question, the detractors signed a testimonial document which was attached to the preface of her next book of poems. Two years later before she returned to America, 39 of her poems were published in London; they included themes dealing with religion, race and morality. The Countess of Huntingdon and the Earl of Dartmouth assisted her with the publication. One that stood out was “On Being Brought from Africa to America.” Because of her work, her popularity soared and it brought her writing skills to the attention of those who were in power including General George Washington. Eventually she earned her freedom, however for safety and security, she chose to stay with the Wheatley family. In addition to poems, she also wrote plays that reflected her surroundings and was a strong supporter of the independence movement. As the movement gained momentum, her writings focused in that direction. Being a free Black woman, she was allowed to marry and she married a free Black man, John Peters. They had two children who died shortly after birth and when she became pregnant again, her husband deserted her. As a single parent, Wheatley struggled to support herself and had extreme difficulty in getting her poems published. There was not a great demand for poetry and a lesser demand for the poetry of a Black poet. That she was free did not matter. After her last baby died several hours after its birth, Wheatley’s life spiraled downward. Alone and with no support, she moved to a boarding house where she died at the age of 31from lingering complications of her recent childbirth. Though she seldom referred to herself or her circumstances in her poems, one of the exceptions is “ON BEING BROUGHT FROM AFRICA TO AMERICA”: Wheatley’s work has helped today’s genre of African American literature; she is recognized as the first African American woman to publish a book and the first to make a living from her writing. The University of Massachusetts in Boston has named a building in her honor and in 2002, she was named in the list of 100 Greatest African Americans. GWENDOLYN E. BROOKS was born on June 7, 1917, in Topeka, Kansas, the city whose name is attached to the greatest landmark Supreme Court decision, “Brown v Topeka Board of Education,” and she became the Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress. Her mother was a schoolteacher and her father, a janitor who gave up his dream of becoming a doctor due to the financial constraints of attending medical school. Early in Brooks’ life, the family moved to Chicago where she lived almost all of her natural life that she considered herself “a Chicagoan.” Her school experience charted the course of her life. In her formative years, she went from a predominantly White school to an all-Black school, ending up in an integrated school. In 1936, she graduated from Wilson Junior College. This racial intermingling of school taught young Brooks lifelong lessons that she weaved into her life and ultimately into her poetry and writings. When she was 13 years, her first poem, “Eventide,” was published in “American Childhood Magazine and that started her on her life’s literary journey. By 17, she had already published nearly 100 poems in her poetry column in the “Chicago Defender,” and she became familiar with contemporary poetry including the works of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot and E. E. Cummings. Brooks came to know the Renaissance poets, James Weldon Johnson (“Lift Every Voice and Sing” – the Negro Spiritual/Black National Anthem) and Langston Hughes. In the mid-forties, she published her first book of poems, “A Street in Bronzeville” and from then she continued putting out literary work of superb academic quality for the next five and a half decades. Brooks lived a very simple and unpretentious, almost Spartan, lifestyle. Her outward appearance did not exude brilliance or portray her extraordinary, literary skills. Even when she won the Pulitzer Prize for her second selection of poems, her life did not change in any remarkable way except that she became more immersed in her work. So enlivening were her works that some has said that her writings appear to jump out the books and “struck my hands like to a thunderbolt. These poems seem to possess muscle and sinew that weren’t afraid to take the language and revamp it, twist it and energize it, so that it shimmied and dashed and lingered.” Brooks was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for her work in 1950 – the first Black woman to be so honored for her poetry – and became an acclaimed poet and one of the most prolific and gifted writers of the 20th century. Brooks has helped to inspire a generation of writers, artists and musicians with her gifted words and the influence of her poetry extends far beyond her written words. There is poetry in today’s Rap and Hip-hop; yesterday’s Rhythm & Blues, Soul and Rock ‘n Roll music; and it will be in whatever future artists produce in music. President Kennedy invited her to read at a Library of Congress poetry festival in 1962 and after publishing “Selected Poems” in 1963, Brooks secured a teaching job, a poetry workshop, at Columbia College in Chicago. The Second Writers’ Conference at Fisk University in 1967 was a turning point in her career. There she became involved in the Black Arts movement as one of the most visible articulators of the Black Aesthetic. At this juncture, some critics sensed an angry tone in her work, parallel to the Black wave of protest across the country. An awareness of social issues appeared to dominate her “new” style of writing and it became more noticeable and forceful as time progressed. Though Brooks began to be described publicly as an angry poet, she was appointed Poet Laureate of Illinois in 1968. Then she successfully ventured into prose with remembrances and reflections “Report from Part One” and “The World of Gwendolyn Brooks.” This versatility was continued with numerous recordings and interviews primarily about her life and creative work. In addition to the Pulitzer Prize, she has received a number of awards, fellowships, and honorary degrees (Doctor of Humane Letters), besides grants and foundation awards from the likes of the Guggenheim Foundation and the National Institute of Arts and Letters. She did not like the term ‘African American.’ In an interview in 1994, Brooks stated that she preferred the word/term B-L-A-C-K instead of African American when referring to Black people; and she also believed that ‘Black’ should be capitalized when referring to Black people. She said, “The Black spirit fought so painfully to get ‘colored’ and ‘negro’ capitalized and ‘Black’ capitalized. Newspapers and magazines, in referring to Black people as Blacks still refuse to honor the notion of respectable and respected identity, and insist on spelling Blacks with a little ‘b’.” Finally, though Brooks had studied some of the great poets and writers, and was influenced by some of the best, she was not a mirror image of any one of her contemporary. She was in a class by herself; she set her own standard, and marched to a different and unique drumbeat.  Brooks married Henry Blakely in 1938 and they had two children: Henry Jr. (1940) and Nora (1951). She died on December 3, 2000, after a short bout with cancer. The city of Chicago and the State of Illinois have named several schools in her honor including Gwendolyn Brooks Elementary School, Aurora; Gwendolyn Brooks College Preparatory Academy, Chicago, Illinois; Gwendolyn Brooks Middle School, Harvey; Gwendolyn Brooks Middle School, Oak Park; Gwendolyn Brooks Illinois State Library, Springfield. In 2002, she was named one of the 100 Greatest African Americans. MAYA ANGELOU ranks today as one of the great poets and since her work is still in process, she may yet be the greatest poet that ever lived. Her resume can only illustrate a peep at the magnitude of her being and her accomplishments; she is an author, poetess, historian, stage and screen producer/director/writer, playwright, songstress and songwriter, professor, performer, editor, civil rights advocate and Tony award nominee. This is a partial view of Angelou, and she is continuously working and accomplishing. She was born “Marguerite Johnson” in St. Louis, Missouri on April 4, 1928. (She was celebrating her 40th birthday on the day that Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated. This historical event played a significant role in her life’s path thereafter especially since she had known Dr. King and had worked with him at Southern Christian Leadership Conference). Her parents were divorced when she was about three years old and along with brother Bailey, she was sent to live with their grandmother in Stamps, Arkansas. After about four years there, she and her brother moved again to Chicago to live with their mother. Traumatized by an assault at an early age and in 1936, she was sent back to her grandmother’s in Arkansas, along with Bailey. For years she remained in her own silent world speaking only to her brother. Then in 1940, she and her brother moved to San Francisco to live with their mother. It is important to note Johnson/Angelou’s numerous moves because it is from that backdrop, that she has risen – and continues to rise – to unprecedented heights in her accomplishments. Her social life and upbringing was tumultuous; her schooling seemed to have taken a back seat and she dropped out of school to work as a conductor on the San Francisco cable car. Despite setbacks, she graduated from Mission High School in 1945. Gradually, her life began to stabilize, as she matured into adulthood and its responsibilities. She gave birth to a son, Guy and a few years later, she married Tosh Angelou. Her career as a multi-dynamo of talent began in San Francisco as she did one of her memorable performances at the Purple Onion nightclub. It was around that time she took the name “Maya Angelou” which was a hybrid of “Maya” (the name her brother called her), and “Angelou” (her married name). Her literary involvements and artistic creations have touched many masterpieces: she has toured with Everyman’s Opera of ‘Porgy and Bess’; she was a member of Harlem Writers Guild; she directed and performed in ‘Cabaret for Freedom; and appeared in the play ‘The Blacks.’ But she is best known for her academic and literary body of work; most famously for her autobiographical novel ‘I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings.’ It was nominated for the National Book Award. She has walked with Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. In 1960, she married South African freedom fighter Vusumi Make and the next year, she moved to Africa. When she returned to the U.S. in 1974, President Gerald Ford appointed her to the Bicentennial Commission and a few years later, President Jimmy Carter appointed her to the Commission for International Woman of the Year. The highlight of her genius as a writer and poet came when she delivered a poem entitled, ‘On the Pulse of the Morning,’ at President Bill Clinton’s inauguration at his request. Angelou appeared in ‘Roots’ and spoke at the ‘Million Man March,’ a testament to her longevity and her staying power. Her collection of books and other literary and academic achievements put her in that rarefied stratosphere with the likes of Baldwin (whom she knew), Ellison, Wright, Fanon and Rogers just to name a few. Her close acquaintances are and have been the “who’s who” of Black women in America: Oprah Winfrey, Betty Shabazz, Coretta Scott King, Johnnetta Cole and Cicely Tyson. She has the ability to take something that’s great and make it excellent. She reportedly stated that the title of her masterpiece, ‘I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings,’ was taken from another masterpiece by the 18th century Black poet, Lawrence Dunbar, entitled ‘Sympathy.’ It is therefore most appropriate to excerpt a part of her famous work: …….It beats bars and would be free, It’s not a carol of joy or glee. But a prayer that it sends from its heart’s deep core; But a plea that upward to heaven it flings I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings. NIKKI GIOVANNI once stated that marriage was inhospitable to women and would never play a role in her life and she had reportedly rearranged her life priorities to be able to provide her only son with the kind of motherhood in which she believed, saying, “I have a child; my responsibilities have changed.” Life began for Giovanni on June 7, 1943, in Knoxville, Tennessee to Yolande Cornelia, Sr. and Jones Giovanni. Though she grew up in Lincoln Heights, Ohio, Giovanni returned to Fisk University where she earned a Bachelor’s degree with honors in 1967. During her undergraduate years, Giovanni became involved in the Civil Rights Movement as well as the Black Arts Movement. She was equally focused on issues surrounding race as well as art, and began to emerge as a revolutionary artist – poetry being her medium. She was influential in organizing the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) on campus and edited a student literary journal. Afterwards she then enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania and then Columbia University. About the same time, she published her first book of poems, “Black Feeling Black Talk” and within a year, Giovanni published a second book, thus launching her career as a writer. Other books of poetry followed in rapid succession including “Black Judgment” (1968) and “Re:Creation” (1970). She became a “literary giant” early in her career gaining a world-renowned status as a poet and was dubbed the “Princess of Black Poetry.” Her motives were quite clear: it was important for her work to reflect the need to raise the awareness of the rights of Black people. Giovanni wrote that if the Black Revolution passes you bye, it’s damn sure the White reaction to it won’t. She began teaching at Rutgers University in 1969 the same year her son, Thomas, was born. The themes of some of her most notable poems can take a reader through periods of Giovanni’s contentiousness and her peaceful inner-being as a person all in the same reading with titles such as “Ego Tripping,” “Poem for Aretha,” (most likely about the Queen of Soul, Aretha Franklin), and “Woman Poem.” Literary observers have noted that they tell a story of events and experiences revolving around her life. “Poetry,” Giovanni has written, “is but a reflection of the moment,” and she expresses the world that she sees around her by making single moments historic and personal inflections paramount to all. In addition to being a poet and a writer, throughout her career, she has also been a literary commentator, a social activist and an educator always insisting on presenting the truth – through words and deeds as she sees it – and has consistently maintained a position of prominence as a strong voice of and for the Black community. Giovanni was equally versatile in style and substance; she had the ability to write about social injustice and racial prejudice, while at same time writing books of poetry for children. Since 1987, Giovanni has been teaching Writing and Literature at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia and is a Distinguished Professor of English. She has had some serious health issues that seemed to be hereditary having also befallen her mother and her sister. She was forced to give up smoking after she was diagnosed with cancer and had a lung removed. Not taking a defeatist attitude about health in general and cancer in particular, Giovanni reported made an inner truce with her cancer stating that she would like to live with it – in remission, of course – for the next 30 years, and has written, “Breaking the Silence: Inspirational Stories of Black Cancer Survivors.” Through the decades, Giovanni’s writing has continued to inspire entertainers, artists and activists. She has memorialized the late Tupac Shakur in her book “Love Poems” and has stated she would “rather be with the thugs than the people who are complaining about them.” Giovanni also continue to speak out against hate-filled violence such as the 1998 murders of James Byrd, Jr. (the dragging victim in Texas) and Matthew Shepard (the gay victim of a beating in Wyoming). She ended the 20th century with “Selected Poems of Nikki Giovanni” (1996) and “Blues for all the Changes” (1999). In 2004, her album “The Nikki Giovanni Poetry Collection” was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album and in 2008 her “Sounds that Shatter the Staleness in Lives” was developed as part of the Soundscapes Chamber Music Series. Giovanni was present at the Virginia Tech campus when the shooting rampage occurred in 2007 and while speaking at a commemoration of the tragedy, she chanted a poem: “…We know we did nothing to deserve it. But neither does a child in Africa dying of AIDS. Neither do the invisible children walking the night away to avoid being captured by a rogue army. Neither does the baby elephant watching his community being devastated for ivory. Neither does the Mexican child looking for fresh water…We are Virginia Tech…We will prevail.” Despite the trauma, she has decided to stay at Virginia Tech, but she has also divided her time with her alma mater in Tennessee as a visiting professor where she teaches a writers’ workshop, and is contemplating a series of outreach classes to the community on Writing and Poetry. She was commissioned by National Public Radio to create an inaugural poem for President Barack Obama. SONIA SANCHEZ is one of the poets who is generally associated with the Black Arts Movement more so than any of her contemporaries. She was born Wilsonia Benita Driver on September 9, 1934 in Birmingham, Alabama, and has traveled not only through the world of poetry and children’s books but has also been on television, music and plays, having authored numerous books of poetry, books for children and plays during her professional career. Sanchez grew up in Harlem and studied creative writing at Hunter College, New York where she earned a Bachelor’s degree in Political Science in 1955 and continued her post-graduate work at New York University. She formed a writers’ workshop in Greenwich Village which was attended by other notables including Amiri Baraka, Haki Madhubuti and Larry Neal in addition to also forming the Broadside Quartet with some of those who had attended her workshop. She married a Puerto Rican named Albert Sanchez, hence her surname, but it did not last very long. They were divorced and she re-married. That too lasted for about two years. In the early 60s as an activist, she supported the integrationist movement with the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) but was soon frustrated by its lack of meaningful progress. She had heard Malcolm X speak and was influenced by his oratory which she thought was direct and truthful, and it moved her to write blunt, passionate and honest poetry about the Black experience in America. Sanchez latched on to the Nation of Islam’s belief that Blacks would never be truly accepted by Whites in America and it reflected in her writings. She began to focus on her heritage from a separatist point of view. When she began to write plays, there was a distinct militant flavor in her writings. Her first, “the Bronx Is Next” (1968) and “Sista Son/ja” (1969) are peppered with militant themes. The first dramatized a plot to burn down a Harlem neighborhood and the second, highlighted “ghetto” despair. These were followed by plays focusing on Black male/female relationships, political representations and Malcolm X. In 1965, Sanchez began teaching at what is now San Francisco State University where she was instrumental in developing its Black Studies program. She was the first to create and teach a course based on Black Women and Literature in the United States. Her travels outside of America in 1970s broadened her horizon and it fueled an anger, which was seething since the confrontations of the 1960s. She visited China, Australia, the Caribbean, including Cuba, and that along with her brief membership in the Nation of Islam crystallized her views on the world outside that she had gained from others. Before moving to Philadelphia in 1977 where she became the first Presidential Fellow at Temple University, Sanchez had already held teaching positions at the University of Pittsburgh, Rutgers University, Manhattan Community College and Amherst College, and had lectured at several hundred others including Howard University, Morehouse University and Spelman College. She had always identified with the plight of her community and was deeply affected by the bombing of the MOVE headquarters in 1985 and eulogized them in “Elegy: For MOVE and Philadelphia.” She remained at Temple University as the Laura Carnell chair, Professor of English until her retirement in 1999 and then became its poet-in-residence. During the 1990s, Sanchez appeared on the Bill Cosby Show. She supports the National Black United Front and has edited two anthologies on Black literature, “We Be Word Sorcerers: 25 Stories by Black Americans” and “360¡ of Blackness Coming at You.” Known for her innovative melding of musical formats – like the blues – and traditional poetic formats like haiku and tanka, Sanchez also tends to use incorrect spelling to get her point across. She has been awarded the Community Service Award from the National Black Caucus of State Legislators, the Lucretia Mott Award, the Governor’s Award for Excellence in the Humanities, and the Peace and Freedom Award from the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. The body of her work includes: We a Baddddd People (1970) Love Poems (1973) A Blues Book for a Blue Black Magic Woman (1974) Continuous Fire: A Collection of Poetry Shake Down Memory: A Collection of Political Essays and Speeches It’s a New Day: Poems for Young Brothas and Sistuhs (1971) Homegirls and Handgrenades (1985) Under a Soprano Sky (1987) I’ve Been a Woman: New and Selected Poems (1995) Wounded in the House of a Friend (1995) Does Your House have Lions (1998) Like the Singing Coming Off of Drums (1999) Shake Loose My Skin (2000) Bum Rush the Page: A Def Poetry Jam (2001) Black Cats and Uneasy Landings I’m Black When I’m Singing, I’m Blue When I Ain’t (1982) Uh Huh, But How Do It Free Us? (1975) Malcolm Man/Don’t Live Here No More (1979) It’s a New Day

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Throughout the play ‘Macbeth’ it becomes apparent that the character of Macbeth is subjected to significant character development. At the outset Macbeth is a brave, honest soldier who is loyal to his king, following this he becomes a deceitful, murderous traitor intent on becoming King and finally Macbeth is unstable, discontentful and regrets his murderous deeds. This essay should analyse the several character alterations Macbeth undergoes in Shakespeare’s famous tragedy. Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’ has a substantial amount of historical content. The play had direct parallels with what was occurring in Scotland and England at the time it was written and performed. It can be said that there are references to the Monarch at the time, this was James the First, he was the King of Scotland from 1587. James was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, he was against Catholics which led to the Gunpowder plot of 1605. The Gunpowder plot is relevant as it concerns the attempted overthrowing of a monarch, comparisons between Guy Fawkes and Macbeth are not unfounded as they were both leaders who conspired to kill their monarch and both paid for their crimes with their lives. Another factor which Shakespeare utilises is discussing subjects which were popular and controversial at the time. In ‘Macbeth’ witchcraft is the subject he chose. Also James the First took a great interest in witches, having many killed, however most importantly he believed in witchcraft and its power. The three witch characters in ‘Macbeth’ are seen as evil. It could be concluded that they were responsible for creating Macbeth’s evil desire for the throne, therefore the audience may be influenced by Shakespeare’s portrayal of the witches and believe his depiction of their nature, thus supporting King James in his policy of witch hunts and general hatred and persecution. By using historical events and involving topics which were popular, the play is given a sense of poignancy and realism, an audience watching ‘Macbeth’ when it was first written would have been provided with a certain relevance to their own lives. To analyse how the character of Macbeth changes throughout the play it is imperative to conduct an analysis of each of Macbeth’s seven main speeches. Furthermore, the factors for analysis have been defined as character, structure, language, modern relevance, stagecraft, moral and philosophical outlook, historical relevance, genre and appeal to the audience. The initial speech being in Act 1, Scene 3. This speech is based around Macbeth asking questions and continuing to answer them himself, the structure is based around the explanation of ill and good as the following quotation demonstrates: “This supernatural Soliciting, Cannot be Ill, cannot be Good. Iff Ill Why hath it given me Earnest of Success” (Act 1, Scene 3, lines 129 and 130) It is this quotation which is the central focus of the first speech as Macbeth is asking himself if the ‘supernatural Soliciting’ is bad or good, whether what the witches have predicted is ‘ill’ or ‘good. Another example within the structure of the first soliloquy, which uses the contrasting elements of ‘good’ and ‘ill’ is that immediately before Macbeth speaks Banquo speaks and he also interrupts Macbeth at the end of his speech. This again emphasises the good and bad contrasts as, Banquo is seen as the good character and Macbeth the villain. Certain aspects of this speech are emphasised. Firstly by the use of metaphors, Shakespeare, in this speech, uses theatrical metaphors, as revealed by: “-Two truths are told,As happy Prologues to the swelling Act” (Act 1, Scene 3, line 126) The word selection here is good. ‘Swelling’ not only implies growing-the growth or inflation of Macbeth’s personality and ambition but it also creates an image of things unhealthy. A swelling tumour [from Latin tumere = to swell], this is unknown to Macbeth but the audience would see that Macbeth’s growing ambition was not healthy. The audience can see that his ambition could lead to his demise. This is an example of dramatic irony. Shakespeare uses repetition in order to create dramatic ambience especially concerning the contrasting ideas of ‘good’ and ‘ill’ which can be paralleled as the contrasting characters of ‘Banquo’ and ‘Macbeth’. Another factor which is prevalent is alliteration. This is shown by “This supernatural Soliciting” and “Shakes so my Single State”. Using alliteration is very successful in emphasisng certain words and sentances which are more important than others. At the outset of the speech Macbeth’s ambition to become King is revealed, there is an insight into his greedy character as he has only just been made Thane of Cawdor and already he yearns for more power. The impression of an undecided air is given as the focus of the speech is him asking questions, he states that he has not decided upon killing King Duncan yet: “My Thought, whose Murther yet is but (Act 1, Scene 3, Line 137 and 138) This quotation shows that Macbeth’s idea to murder King Duncan is still only a fantasy and is not reality, indicating he is unsure and may need persuasion either way. At this point in the play he is undecided. It is also apparent that towards the end of the first speech the language used by Macbeth is very negative: “and nothing is But what is not.” (Act 1, Scene 3, Line 139) This is the first time in ‘Macbeth’ where the main character has voiced his opinions. This would appeal to the audience as it is a change to normal dialogue between two or more characters. The audience may also be interested because of the way the character is asking himself questions, therefore they may be provoked to think about the answers. It can be said that this soliloquy is powerful, by the language used and the subject matter is quite disturbing and therefore, again, appeals to an audience. The underlying idea to this first soliloquy is Macbeth’s mind struggling to comprehend whether what the witches said was an honest and reliable prediction for the future or whether they were merely evil witches whose words meant nothing. Macbeth is attempting to find out if what they told him was irrelevant to him and they were simply attempting to scare and provoke him. In summary, this soliloquy is the primary insight into the mind of the main character and what Shakespeare portrays is a greedy man with the foundations of a murderous scheme. However he is a little unsure and perhaps afraid. The next speech to be assessed is somewhat shorter and can be found in Act 1, Scene 4, Lines 47-58. This is a soliloquy which tackles Macbeth’s views on who was the currant heir to the throne – the Prince of Cumberland. Upon examining the methods of stagecraft it can be said that for the actor playing Macbeth to be able to speak freely he would have to move away from the King whom he was previously in conversing with and create his own space. The actors tone of voice can be an insight into how the character is feeling at a particular point in the play, the first line for example: “-The Prince of Cumberland: that is On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, For in my Way it lies. (Act 1, Scene 4, Lines 47 and 49) This line may be spoken in an inflamed, angry voice to show the characters anger and jealousy at this point. Macbeth is stating that the Prince of Cumberland is in his way on his quest for the throne. Macbeth knows he must deal with the prince somehow, or else he will be beaten by him. As the speech progresses so Macbeth’s anger reduces until towards the end his tone is more calm and controlled. One theme which arises during this second speech is one of light and dark “Let not Light see my black and deep Desires” (Act 1, Scene 4, Line 51) As a continuation of the script onto the stagecraft the lighting used on stage could be designed in such a way it would coincide with an added effect to link to two medias with an outcome which would be interesting, dramatic and pleasing to the audience. It may also be appropriate to utilise colours be it in costume or scenery or otherwise as an obvious theme is uncovered – colour. Shakespeare and other playwrights use colours to depict emotions and the powers of good and bad. Here the more powerful colours being the dark and fiery colours “hide your Fires” and “black and deep” showing the dark and sinister nature of what is occurring. The structure in this speech is fairly simple and there is little to comment on concerning this aspect. Bar the fact that immediately previous to macbeth speaking the king says “My worthy Cawdor” this is a statement of praise and it shows how the King has placed his trust in Macbeth and he sees him as worthy. This is ironic as post this statement Macbeth is scheming against him and the king is too naive to see this. It is in this soliloquy the progressive imagery concerning hands commences: “The Eye wink at the Hand; yet let that be Which the Eye fears, when it is done, to see.” (Act 1, Scene 4, Line 53) This imagery is found quite frequently throughout the play and is also used by Lady Macbeth when she speaks of washing hands to wash away their evil murderous deeds. The progressive imagery found in ‘Macbeth’ is very effective in giving the play an underlying theme. This aspect of the language creates a feel of the play as a whole becuase it connects each scene, act and speech where the hand metaphors are found. The imagary is used to help describe Macbeth’s situation and his state of mind. What is portrayed is that although what he is doing is not very pleasant and he doesn’t like to see himself do it it is imperative. This speech is one of the more poetic and dramatic. Using words which are very deep and also possibly over dramatic, as demonstrated by the following quotation: “Stars, hide your Fires; Let not Light see my black and deep Desires” (Act 1, Scene 4, lines 50 and 51) Using language such as this helps to make the audience realise that this is an important section of dialogue and that it is relevant. Macbeth’s state of mind at this point can be gauged by how he is speaking. It is apparent that he is more decided then the previous speech as no questions are asked, showing his state of mind is less doubtful. Although he is angry, especially at the speeches outset, macbeth seems more clear in his mind about his plans concerning gaining the throne as shown by this quotation: “-The Prince of Cumberland: that is On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, For in my Way it lies” (Act 1, Scene 4, Lines 47-50) This is a quotation in which Macbeth states he must beat the Prince of Cumberland, as it is him who is the current heir to the throne. Macbeth detests the Prince as he is naturally in line to the throne he begrudges the idea of coming this far to be beaten. Instead of wondering how and if he should overcome the Prince he is clear that he will deal with the Prince. The content of this speech describes how Macbeth hopes that no one will find out about his plots, it is very deceptive and at this point the impression is given that Macbeth still is worried about how other people will see him. He wants to continue being seen as a loyal, brave and honest man. It is clear however that even he is not completely at ease with is underhand dealings as he says “yet let that be, Which the Eye fears” meaning that what his mind fears and what he doesn’t want to see himself do should and will be done. The main change in Macbeth’s character from the previous speech is that he is more certain in his mind as to his actions. He is more decided and in addition he is becoming increasingly deceptive. The third of the soliloquies in ‘Macbeth’ is somewhat longer, it occurs in Act 1, Scene 7. This speech is set at a point in the play where Macbeth should be relishing his promotion as he has become the Thane of Cawdor – King Duncon has showed him a lot of respect. Macbeth is speaking as his servants are preparing for Duncon’s arrival at Macbeth’s castle. This is also a time when Macbeth realises that what the witches predicted is beginning to come true. Upon investigating the language used it can be said that Shakespeare, again, uses metaphors as demonstrated below: “And pity, like a new-borne Babe, Striding the Blast, or Heaven’s Cherubin” (Act 1, Scene 7, Lines 21 and 22) In this quotation Macbeth is saying that if Duncon was murdered people would be extremely sad, he compares there sadness to that of the pity felt for a new born child which is vulnerable. However in this case the impression is given that even a baby can see Macbeth’s evil. Peoples pity is also compared to angelic children again showing a huge contrast between Macbeth and heavens angels. Certain words used by Shakespeare are especially effective in this speech “Plague” is used and this is related to words such as “ill” and “swelling” used in the first speech. This gives a play a long running theme and ties the soliloquies together. Another word utilised is “knife” which creates images of murder and death and also the weapon which Macbeth uses to kill Duncon is a knife. There is also an example of alliteration in this speech: “If th’ Assassination Could trammel up the Consequence, and catch, With his Surcease, Success” (Act 1, Scene 7, Line 4) This quotation is describing that as a result of the murder of King Duncon Macbeth hopes to achieve success. The phrasing provides an ironic reminder that the kind of success Macbeth seeks is an irresponsible violation of the rightful succession to the throne. The speech is very much an internal one, this could be demonstrated by having a close up face shot as there was in the film ‘Macbeth’. To make this even more dramatic the previous shot was very wide showing the castle and surrounding area immediately followed by a close up of Macbeth to symbolise that the dramatic focus is on him. It is important to note how in this soliloquy Macbeth reveals to the audience his lose morals, because the theme of this speech is that he regards murder as worthwhile and thinks there is nothing wrong with it if you benefit. However Macbeth recognises that it is his ambition to become King that will lead to his downfall. “But in these cases We still have Judgement here, that we but teach Bloody Instructions, which, being taught, return To plague th’ Inventor” (Act 1, Scene 7, Lines 7-10) This quotation shows how Macbeth is aware that his bad deeds will come back and “plague” him, this is a major factor which occurs in nearly all of Shakespeare’s tragedies – where the main character contributes to his own downfall. To conclude, this speech is a point in the play where the audience may start to really dislike his character. He is showing no signs of doubt or even thinking what he and his wife are planning to do is wrong. It shows he can not differentiate between good and evil because he is so ambitious he is focused only on becoming King and it does not matter to him how he achieves his goal. The fourth speech is situated immediately before the Murder of Duncon, when Macbeth is waiting to hear the bell which is the sign for him to go to Duncon’s room and kill him. This is a very nervous time for Macbeth his mind is tormented thus him hallucinating, he sees a dagger. “Is this a Dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my Hand?” (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 32 and 33) Making Macbeth see things – a dagger – makes the play more interesting this speech is very much building up to the murder and it is very effective is adding an air of apprehension. There is a sense that there is no going back. The general tone of Macbeth would be nervous perhaps whispering and the set would be that of a dark and gloomy corridor in his castle. The bell which Lady Macbeth rings is a sign for the act of murder to begin, this adds to the intensity of the speech, it may make the audience jump. The importance of the bell is great, as it marks the beginning of the end for Macbeth, his character can never return after this night, and his deeds become more and more gruesome and evil as the play progresses. This is one of the most appealing of the soliloquies in ‘Macbeth’ as it combines the characters intense mood with interesting stagecraft and language. There is the use of props – the dagger, many stage directions within the speech itself, the metaphors used are disturbing and powerful and the bell provides a certain ‘scare’ factor. As mentioned previously the metaphors in this speech are perhaps the most dramatic and exaggerated to be seen so far in the play. Macbeth himself seems to have an exceptionally low view of himself at this point, he compares himself to a rapist, a ghost and a wolf or beast. Whose Howl’s his Watch, thus with his stealthy With Tarquin’s ravishing Sides, towards his Moves like a Ghost.” (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 52-54) It is easy to see how much Macbeth despises himself for what he is about to do, it shows weakness in his character because he is willing to sacrifice any sort of morals which he previously held to satisfy his greed. At the end of the speech a rhyming couplet is used: “- Hear it not, Duncon, for it is a Knell, That summons thee to Heaven, or to Hell” (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 62 and 63) This quotation is Macbeth talking about the bell, he is hoping Duncon won’t hear it because it is the thing which is prompting his death, and whether he will go to heaven or to hell. This is effective because the rest of the speech does not abide by a rhyming pattern so it stands out when the rhyming couplet is used – it highlights the importance of that sentence and helps to bring the speech to a conclusion. At this point Macbeth’s character is caught up in his own nerves, he is merely thinking about his immediate actions and fears and not at all about the consequences of these actions. There is a sense that for him there is no turning back – and that he has gone too far. The morals involved here are that of exploiting trust and also of rushing in without thinking of consequences not only for you but the other people which your actions effect. The fifth soliloquy, Act 3, Scene 1, is of a contemplative and reflective nature. Macbeth is now the king, so theoretically he should be happy and content as he has achieved his goal – this is not the case. This speech mainly concerns Banquo, Macbeth still feels threatened by him, as the witches told him that Banquo will “get kings not be one” meaning his sons will become kings, this scares Macbeth. In this speech allot of Banquo’s qualities are mentioned such as how wise he is, how bold he is and is keen to know the further and also his bravery, there is a definite similarity to these qualities and how Macbeth himself was described at the outset of the play. Here we can see how Macbeth has changed because he now has a very high view of himself, even though he is now a murdering tyrant. “My Genius is rebuk’d, as it is said Mark Antony’s was by Ceasar.”(Act 3, Scene 1, Lines 54 and 55) This quotation reveals how Macbeth sees himself as a genius and also compares himself to previous great emperors such as Mark Antony. Still at this point quite well into the production Macbeth refers back to what the witches said, it is obvious they were a big influence on the play and on Macbeth’s actions. “They hail’d him Father to a Line of Kings. Upon my Head they plac’d a fruitless Crown, And put a barren Sceptre in my Gripe” (Act 3, Scene 1, Lines 58 – 60) Here it is said by Macbeth that the witches had told him that Banquo would have sons who would become Kings, and he would not have children who would become heir to the throne. At this Macbeth feels bitter and jealous because he has fought and given up so much to become king and now he feels it was all pointless, perhaps he is beginning to regret all his evil deeds. “For them the gracious Duncon have I murther’d” (Act 3, Scene 1, Line 64) This line tells the audience that Macbeth regrets killing ‘gracious’ Duncon and shows that he might be feeling guilty. There is not many examples of stagecraft but it would be sensible to use the tone of voice to create sympathy for Macbeth, he could talk in a down-hearted or depressed way although there are certain points where anger is necessary. The speech is cut short when a servant interrupts. Shakespeare uses language which creates images of violence and refers back to the dagger and knife used earlier in the play: “Our Fears in Banquo (Act 3, Scene 1, Lines 46 and 47) In addition throughout this speech there is religious and royal language used, such as the mentioning of a ‘sceptre’ and ‘Vessel of my Peace’ also: “his Royalty of Nature Reigns” (Act 3, Scene 1, Line 47) This type of language my be used here because Macbeth is now the king and the subject matter is that of who will be his heir. Also certain words seem more important than others such as ‘fruitless’ and ‘barren’ these may have a double meaning as they are also referring to how Macbeth’s children can not become kings so therefore him being King is without point. To summarise, this speech Macbeth knows that he has sacrificed a great deal but is still not allot better off, and still it is Banquo who is prophesied to be the happy one – with his children being part of a long line of Kings. Macbeth is beginning to see his own demise and his heart is beginning to be filled with regret and fear, however outwardly he is still confident and happy to carry on murdering if he feels it can save him. The sixth of the soliloquies can be found in Act 5, Scene 3. From the outset of this speech it can be said it is one which provokes sympathy for a now broken man. As the first words are “I am sick at heart” this is quite a ground breaking statement as it is Macbeth declaring he is depressed and he is emotionally troubled, his heart is ill or perhaps his feelings polluted with regret and with all the evil he has committed, and for what? There is no material gain for Macbeth and certainly no emotional gain. There is even a sense of suicide about this speech as Macbeth expresses “I have liv’d long enough”. He uses colours again to symbolise how he is feeling at the time and also autumnal metaphors, mentioning “the Yellow Leaf” which implies that he has passed his time, he is now the yellow-wilting leaf whom is dying and will drop to the ground and be forgotten. Also keeping in line with the theme of preparing to fight which underlies this soliloquy the language used is quite aggressive. The speech is broken up by the continued shouting by Macbeth for his servant Seyton, this adds interest to the speech by breaking it up. It adds a dramatic interest to the speech because Macbeth is speaking primarily to himself but then suddenly shouts out to Seyton. Macbeth calls to his servant to request his armour to be brought to him so he can prepare to fight, he is preparing to fight the English who at this time are approaching Macbeth’s castle. This is an excellent example of the irony used my Shakespeare in Macbeth as Macbeth is calling out for his armour, he is preparing to fight and inevitably to kill again but as he does this he is acknowledging the fact that it is fighting and killing which has made him the sad, lonely and depressed man he is at this point. This is overall a sad soliloquy as it is shows the audience Macbeth’s absolute regret and his acceptance that what he has done did have consequences, in that he has lost all his honour, he is not loved, he is incapable to be obedient and is lonely – without a friend in the world. “As Honour, Love, Obedience, Troops of Friends, I must look not to have” (Act 5, Scene 3, Lines 25 and 26) In this quotation Shakespeare uses a military metaphor saying ‘troops’ this may be a signal that Macbeth’s whole attitude and outlook on life is a military one and not a personal one, it shows that Macbeth’s job as a soldier has overwhelmed his whole personality and he finds it difficult to differentiate between military life and personal life where it is absolutely unacceptable to deal with problems by simply killing someone. There is a significant alteration in Macbeth’s character now as he now no longer possesses the desire to do anything with his life, he has lost all ambition and any drive towards anything, his attitude is acutely pessimistic. The final of the seven soliloquies in ‘Macbeth’ is found in Act 5, Scene 5 and it is an intensification of the previous speech. The subject which it is dealing with is primarily Lady Macbeth’s death and then it progresses to a speech which generalises about the meaning of life. An excellent example of just how demoralised Macbeth is at this stage of the play is his reaction to the news that his wife has died. His reaction is very understated, not mournful and there is not even any signs of sadness, he merely says that now is not a good time for her to die and there would have been an appropriate time for he to pass away. “She should have di’d hereafter; There would have been a Time for such a Word” (Act 5, Scene 5, Lines 17 and 18) This may be the reaction of a man now so familiar with death that it does not seem to effect him in a way which it would ‘normal’ people. Immediately after this speech Macbeth is told that the Birnum woods are approaching his castle at Dunsinane, this meant that what the witches had predicted was beginning to come true, so this may have added to Macbeths fear and depression, however he still felt confident because the witches had told him he could not be defeated by anyone born of a woman. The language in this speech compliments the ambience of closure and depression. Certain areas are made more significant when repetition is used, there are two examples; “Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow” and also “Out, out, brief Candle”. Some words are chosen to heighten the powerful feeling created in this speech such as the verbs used in line 25: “That struts and frets”. This is a creative speech, language wise, there is an example of personification as Shakespeare interprets ‘yesterday’ as a person, alliteration is also present in the line “The way to dusty Death”. It is also worthwhile to note that the metaphors utilised in this final speech are of a theatrical nature, as we have seen previously in ‘Macbeth’: “Life’s but a walking Shadow, a poor player, That struts and frets his Hour upon the Stage” (Act 5, Scene 5, Lines 24 and 25) Not only is this similar to metaphors found previously in ‘Macbeth’ but moreover it can be paroled with lines in another Shakespeare work – ‘As you like it’. In that line life is described, by Macbeth, as a walking shadow this provokes the thought that life is out of place and as a walking shadow it is unexpected. Throughout this soliloquy Macbeths state of discontent is extremely obvious as he states that all of his days have merely lit the way to his grave, this attitude is one of bleak pessimism. The final line of this speech is perhaps the most acute example of his attitude towards life: “it is a Tale Told by an Idiot, full of Sound and Fury (Act 5, Scene 5, Lines 26-28) This speech would have made the audience think about there own lives and still now it has a modern relevance as this is a matter which effects every single person as one thing which everybody has in common is that they will eventually die and people close to them will die and this speech makes everybody think about how they will spend there own lives. Will they be realistic and sacrifice everything for personal gain like Macbeth? This soliloquy is almost a warning showing an audience the consequences of such a selfish existence. Throughout the tragedy ‘Macbeth’ the audience is taken on a journey through one mans inner battles of conscience, the seven main soliloquies being the main points if character alteration, after analysing them in detail it can be said that Macbeth began the production with the best intentions, he was a loyal and respected man, perhaps he had ambition although it did not seem that he was unhealthily ambitious. However the witches preyed on his ambition by planting ideas in his head of becoming king and ruling a country, these ideas were nurtured by his wife and Macbeth seemed to be quite passive at the beginning just going along with his wives plans, he was easily influenced and perhaps just wanted to appease. Macbeth progressed into a murderous character who would stop at nothing he seemed to have no moral boundaries, killing people who were previously his closest friends, his colleagues and killing women and children all for his own personal gain. At this point the killing and deceit gripped him and he became a man obsessed with killing and obsessed with himself – a very greedy and selfish man. Throughout all this it was shown through hallucinations that Macbeth was not a stable man. It became obvious to the audience though that Macbeth would not emerge successful from all this carnage. As is the way with the majority of Shakespeare’s tragedies the main character contributes to his own demise and towards the end when it is obvious that he will come out of the situation the worst off Shakespeare tries to make the audience feel sympathy for the main character. In ‘Macbeth’, at the end, Macbeth is extremely depressed and bleakly pessimistic, and some would say he deserves what he has become.

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Guest geological storytelling by David Middleton In my recent post, How Climate Change Buried a Desert 20,000 Feet Beneath the Gulf of Mexico Seafloor, we discussed the rifting that enabled the opening of the Gulf of Mexico. In one of the comments, TTY brought up a recent paper on long-extinct volcanic activity in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico, which reminded me of the “volcano” that was drilled back in the 1960’s near New Orleans. When I Googled Gulf of Mexico volcanic rocks, I found more science fiction than science. I’ll start with the science… Cretaceous volcanoes in the Gulf of Mexico Door Point is in Louisiana State waters, just offshore St. Bernard Parish, in an area that was thought to be free of Mesozoic volcanic activity. The Door Point “volcano” was discovered by Shell when they drilled into it in 1963. The Door Point structure technically isn’t a volcano. An exploratory well, the Shell Oil Company, State Lease 3956 No. 1, Offshore St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, was completed in 1963 at a total depth of 8538 feet. The last 1300 feet of hole was cored and drilled through volcanic material of Late Cretaceous Age. The location of this well is shown on Figure 1. Pre-drilling seismic data had revealed the presence on this prospect of intrusive material with a density slightly higher than that of the surrounding sediments. Gravity data defined a weak maximum here, and no salt was believed to be present. The igneous material consisted of angular fragments of altered porphyritic basic rock. In cores it proved to be evenly bedded and cemented by sparry calcite. Radioactivity age dating fixed a minimum age of crystallization of this rock at 82 m.y.+8, or middle Late Cretaceous (Austin). Bulk density of the igneous rock ranged from 2.02 gm/cc near the top of its occurrence to 2.53 gm/cc near the bottom of the well. Three gas accumulations, with an aggregate thickness of 38 feet, were encountered in the Miocene section between 5092 and 6219 feet in the Shell well. Gas-bearing sands were not present in two other wells drilled later on the same structure (Fig. 2). Although evidence of Late Cretaceous volcanic activity is widespread in northern Louisiana, as well as in Mississippi, and southeast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico, the Door Point prospect lies within an area that had been previously designated as being free of volcanism. Although it is clearly composed of reworked volcanic material. The Door Point structure penetrated by the Shell Oil S.L. 3956 well no. 1, located offshore in St. Bernard Parish Louisiana represents the singular observed subsurface occurrence of igneous rock in the entire offshore region of the GoM that is Cretaceous in age. Identified in the literature as a volcano, sill or other primary intrusive/extrusive feature, with an age of 82 ± 8 Mya, the Door Point “Volcano,” has received very little study since its discovery in the 1970’s. Preliminary study of the core shows that the unit consists of volcaniclastic rocks. Initial review of the geophysical logs provided by Shell Oil and Drilling Info show a drastic and apparent offset in the resistivity, with a maligned or absent deflection of the Spontaneous Potential curve. The sequence of volcanics extend vertically a minimum of 396m with no base identified, and the singular cored interval taken of the final 8.5m. Initial petrographic examination has revealed there to be both massive un-bedded polymictic agglomerates as well as bedded volcanic ash. The basalt cobble agglomerates sequentially alternate with the packages of finer grained volcanic ash. Grain size for the igneous cobbles within the agglomerates range in diametric extremes from a maximum of 5 cm to a minimum of 1 – 2 cm. Sedimentary structures are absent in the coarser sequences, but are exhibited in the volcanic ash beds, in the form of cross bedding. The clast populations vary in composition from fragments of sedimentary rock, to the igneous rocks of interest. Possessing a porphyritic texture and angular in appearance the clasts contain visible clinopyroxene phenocrysts, in an aphanitic groundmass; CI > 90. These results suggest the cobbles are sourced from multiple volcanic centers, and have undergone a multistage cooling history. Coupled with the presence of the calcite cement, the cross bedding is indicative of a marine or fluvial depositional system. We are able to reconstruct a regional story of episodic volcanism in the nascent Gulf of Mexico Rift during the late Cretaceous. Session No. 320–Booth# 503 Door Point is most likely a salt or shale diapir (piercement structure) that carried volcanic material up with it. It’s not the only volcanic oddity in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Alderdice Bank is a salt diapir, which appears to have transported several large blocks of basalt to the seafloor. A basalt outcrop was discovered on Alderdice Bank on the outer Louisiana continental shelf. The basalt shows an age of 76.8 ± 3.3 × 106 years. Textural, mineralogical, and chemical characteristics indicate that it is an alkali basalt of shallow intrusive origin. It was probably brought to the seafloor by salt tectonics and exposed due to salt dissolution. Bottom Depth Range: 165-240 feet (50-73 meters) Alderice Bank is located about 52.5 km (32.5 mi) southeast of Sonnier Banks, about 60 km (37 mi) west northwest of McGrail Bank, and 157 km (97 mi) east northeast of East Flower Garden Bank. The bank is an oval lying in an east-west direction, and covers an area of about 16 km2 (10 mi2). Three spectacular basalt spires of Late Cretaceous origin (~77 million years old) are found at Alderdice Bank. These are the oldest known exposed rocks on the continental shelf off of Texas and Louisiana, and unique geologic features for this region. The outcroppings crest at about 50 m (165 ft), with their bases at about 73 m (240 ft). The basalt at Door Point and Alderdice Bank formed shortly after the deposition of the Austin Chalk formation. Analyses of recent gravity, magnetic and high resolution seismic surveys have fairly clearly revealed the ancient rift system in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico (Lin et al., 2019). An extinct, late Jurassic-to-earliest Cretaceous ridge-and-fracture zone geometry in the western Gulf of Mexico (GOM), and extinct seafloor ridge segments in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (EGOM), were previously identified using the vertical gradient of satellite-derived free-air gravity data. Circular gravity anomaly lows, and magnetic anomaly highs, over the center of spreading ridge segments are interpreted as large volcanic centers that erupted within a late Jurassic-to-earliest Cretaceous, slow-spreading center. Detailed mapping of oceanic basement using oil industry seismic data indicates that the EGOM oceanic ridge system is characterized by 30-60-km-long spreading ridge segments, that include 15-km-wide, 2-km-high axial volcanoes in their centers, and nodal basins at their ends. Stratigraphic evidence from seismic reflection data tied to a deepwater well indicates that volcanism along the spreading ridge ended around the same time (Berriasian), or slightly after (Valanginian), the cessation of seafloor spreading in the EGOM. Flowlines of late Jurassic-to-earliest Cretaceous seafloor, based on a pole of rotation from the geometry of GOM spreading ridges and fracture zones, show a good match with gravity and magnetic anomalies along the Florida and Yucatan conjugate margins of the EGOM. Mapping of age-dated, stratigraphic downlaps onto the oceanic crust is consistent with an interpreted ridge jump at the beginning of seafloor spreading (Kimmeridgian) to the southwest, and in the same southwestward direction of a previously inferred mantle plume in the central GOM. Our 3-D gravity structural inversion of the Moho requires 6.4 km thick oceanic crust in the northwestern EGOM, and 5.5 km thick oceanic crust in southeastern EGOM. We interpret this along-ridge, thickness variation to reflect faster spreading and thicker oceanic crust farther from the opening pole located in the southeastern GOM. The EGOM volcanics pre-date Door Point and Alderdice Bank by about 50 million years It is rather surprising that these volcanic oddities haven’t received more research attention… Maybe if there was oil in basalt, they would have… 😉 However, they have received some recent attention from some “alternate media outlets.” “And now for something completely different” Lew Rockwell is an interesting libertarian website. They actually have some decent articles on Mises, Hayek and other legends of the Austrian School of economics. However, when it comes to science, it’s full-Art Bell… Something Incredibly Strange Is Going On In The Gulf Of Mexico As Temperatures Hit 130+ Degrees Repeatedly In One Location – Is Long Dormant Volcano Awakening Or Just A Bizarre Anomaly? By Stefan Stanford All News Pipeline March 10, 2018 Back on January 11th, we reported on ANP that several days before a massive, 7.6 earthquake struck in the Caribbean Sea, causing a tsunami warning to be issued to several Caribbean islands, ocean water had suddenly and mysteriously ‘disappeared’ in locations more than 2,000 miles apart, both north and south of the epicenter of that quake. As videographer MrMBB333 told us in a video that we used within that story, “water is trying to tell us something”. Well if water suddenly and mysteriously disappearing in the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean then was trying to tell us something, then certainly temperature spikes of over 130 degrees in the Gulf of Mexico must be trying to tell us something, too! As we see from MrMBB333 in the 1st video below, something incredibly strange is going on in the Gulf of Mexico with air temperatures recorded at over 130 degrees over and over again the past week, with temperatures fluctuating between ‘normal’ temperatures in the 75 to 80 degrees range before suddenly shooting up to at least 133 degrees as we see in videos and the 2nd image below. Back on March 19th of 2013, Nesara News published a story titled “A Buried Ancient Volcano In Southeast Louisiana” in which they told us about evidence of Late Cretaceous era volcanic activity being widespread in Louisiana as well as in Mississippi and southeast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Called ‘Door Point’, the proof of volcanic activity was found within an area which had previously been designated as being free of volcanism as seen in the next image below. Interestingly, that ’igneous free’ area includes where we are now witnessing these extreme temperature spikes in the Gulf of Mexico as seen in the images above and the videos below. Might an ancient and long-dormant volcano be underneath the water of the Gulf of Mexico, suddenly coming back to life, its venting causing these temperature spikes we’re witnessing? Much more on that theory below with evidence that indeed we might be about to witness something un-thought of should a long-dormant volcano in the Gulf of Mexico be awakening. The article features this image… Does it look familiar? If you click Read the Whole Article, it takes you straight into The Twilight Zone… While the ‘Ring of Fire’ has been heating up with volcanoes all around the planet now erupting and big earthquakes indicating an even bigger one is surely ahead as we hear in the 3rd video below from Infowars, it’s not lost on those paying attention that the Gulf of Mexico borders the ‘Ring of Fire’ as we see in the next image below. The largest Gulf in the world, is it just a coincidence that the Gulf of Mexico is shaped almost like the mouth of a gigantic volcano, with one side ‘blown out’ that just happens to align with the Caribbean islands? We find the theory of the origins of the Caribbean to be very interesting, especially knowing that the Caribbean is a ‘large igneous province’, volcano created. While we can’t see any underwater volcanoes in the Gulf of Mexico, what if the entire Gulf of Mexico was the ‘mouth’ of the ancient volcano and the ‘source’ of the Caribbean islands when they were created between 69 million and 139 million years ago? While Wikipedia says the islands are thought to be linked to the Galapogos Hotspot, which is quite far away, is the truth closer to home? While we’re unable to see them, underwater volcanoes are nothing new and as the LA Times reported back in 2014, scientists had recently created a high-resolution map of the ocean floor revealing thousands of underwater mountains and extinct underwater volcanoes that had never been known before then. And while their map was twice as accurate as any map of the ocean floor before it, they quickly admit that it could only resolve features at least a mile high or bigger. Enter this May of 2017 story from National Geographic which uses a new ocean floor map created by a government agency most have never heard of called the “Bureau of Ocean Energy Management” yet as we see in the photograph this new imaging provides below, we still know very little about the floor of the Gulf of Mexico with the image on the right the highest quality resolution that we now have, compared with the image on the left showing what we’d known before. The secret government agency’s map is apparently supposed to be evidence of a volcano. Anyone recognize this? The high resolution bathymetry mapping was covered here: U. S. BOEM Releases Highest-Resolution Bathymetry Map of the Gulf of Mexico… Evah! Watts Up With That? May 30, 2017. The specific image is from an Eos article and it is the seafloor expression of a salt dome rimmed by a salt withdrawal basin. The high resolution bathymetry map was derived from 3d seismic surveys, which relatively clearly image the salt domes, sills, massifs and other halokinetic features that form most of the hydrocarbon traps in the Gulf of Mexico and the rugose geomorphology of the seafloor on the continental slope. Calling this evidence of a volcano is the equivalent of crater hunters circling up roundish features on satellite images and declaring them to be impact features… without ever looking at the geology. Oh… But it gets better (or worse depending on your perspective)… This is from “News Punch, Where Mainstream Fears to Tread”… Scientists Warn Gulf Of Mexico ‘Supervolcano’ About To Erupt March 15, 2018 Sean Adl-Tabatabai Scientists have warned that extremely high temperature readings emanating from the Gulf of Mexico in the last week might be a precursor to a deep underwater supervolcano eruption. Scientists working on the RFS Viktor Leonov CCB175 recorded water off the South American nation of Ecuador disappearing on January 5. Three days later, on January 8, waters began disappearing off the North American Florida coastline – which was followed 24 hours later by a huge 7.6 magnitude earthquake in the Caribbean Sea adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico. With the average sea surface temperature of the Gulf of Mexico never falling below 23 degrees Celsius (73 degrees Fahrenheit) over the winter for the first time on record last year, and whose “Dead Zone” has grown to its largest size in recorded history, scientists aboard the research vessel say that no evidence suggests these events are due to climate change. Unlike their Western counterparts, these Russian scientists, when confronted by such mysteries, look backward in time to our Earth’s most ancient stories and myths to see if parallels can be drawn to what is happening now—and that led an examination of the Maya peoples who in ancient times inhabited this entire region—even stretching into the American States of Florida and Georgia. As documented by Carleton College researcher Lyndon DeSalvo in his 2008 research paper titled “Bleeding Earth: Volcanoes as the Prototypical Mountains in Mayan Cosmological Past”, the Mayapeoples stories and legends of their past speak of the entire Gulf of Mexico as being the place where mountains come from—and, also disappear into—and whose only modern-times explanation of is someone describing the activities of a volcanic caldera—that is a large cauldron-like depression that forms following the evacuation of a magma chamber/reservoir in a supervolcano eruption. Disregarding the Maya peoples ancient legends, stories and myths that the Gulf of Mexico could, indeed, be a massive volcanic caldera, Western scientists have long sought to discover as to how came to it came to be shaped like one—with the latest attempt being made in 2002 when American geologist Michael Stanton published a speculative essay suggesting an impact origin (comet/asteroid) for the Gulf of Mexico—but that all global geologists quickly rejected for its not having any credibility. Coming closer to the Maya peoples ancient stories, however, was noted American geologist Dr. David Prior—who, while doing research at Louisiana State University (LSU), became the first scientist to document volcanic eruptions were, indeed, occurring in the Gulf of Mexico—and the discovery of which he wrote about in his 1989 scientific research paper titled “Evidence for Sediment Eruption on Deep Sea Floor, Gulf of Mexico”. Building on Dr. Prior’s scientific proof of volcanic eruptions occurring in the Gulf of Mexico, in 2003, “asphalt volcanos”—which were never heard of before—were found forming in these waters, too—and that led to massive effort, all around the globe, to re-map all the world’s oceans to discovery just how many underwater volcanoes there are—and when completed, in 2014, revealed thousands of underwater mountains and extinct volcanoes that were previously unknown. This past May (2017), the first in history detailed seafloor map of the Gulf of Mexico was finally released by the Americans—and whose stunning findings revealed its deepwater seafloor was dominated by canyons, ridges, and faults—some of whose fault lines spread to the ancient Jackson, Mississippi, volcano—and with many believing that further discoveries will soon link the entire Southeastern United States to the feared Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. At this point, my brain began to leak out of my left ear. If anyone needs me to explain why nothing in the passage above is evidence of volcanic activity in the Gulf of Mexico, I will be happy to do so in the comments section… Hint: sediment expulsion, mud volcanoes and asphalt volcanoes aren’t related to volcanism, magma or any other igneous process… at least not in the Gulf of Mexico. From abiotic oil, to The Weekly World News, to Earth crustal displacement, to supervolcanoes in the Gulf of Mexico… Why is it that they almost always cite “Russian scientists”? Unlike their Western counterparts, these Russian scientists, when confronted by such mysteries… In the case of The Weekly World News, it was usually, “according to Russian scientists, as reported by Swedish scientists (Fill in the blank: an oil rig drilled into Hell, a WWII bomber was located in a crater on the Moon, Batboy is advising Bill Clinton on the 1996 election). Why did I take the time to debunk this nonsense? Because it was both 1) fun and 2) easy… Apart from the minor brain hemorrhage. There also seems to be a tendency among some AGW skeptics to gravitate toward alternative “science” in areas other than climate. This has to be done with care. And sometimes, even when done with care, it can lead to malicious attacks by the Warmunists. Rejecting the so-called scientific consensus on AGW doesn’t logically require skeptics to reject all scientific consensuses. While science isn’t a consensus building process, most scientific consensuses are the result of hypotheses being tested and confirmed, leading to scientific theories which demonstrate predictive skill… The theory of the formation of the Gulf of Mexico predicted that evidence of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous rifting and volcanic activity would be found where it was subsequently found. Anderson, Peter & Jonathan E. Snow. “Door Point: Volcano in the Gulf”. 2015 GSA Annual Meeting in Baltimore, Maryland, USA Braunstein, Jules & Claude E. McMichael. “Door Point: A Buried Volcano in Southeast Louisiana”. Transactions-Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Volume XXVI, 1976 Lin, Pin, E. Bird, Dale & Paul Mann. (2019). “Crustal structure of an extinct, late Jurassic-to-earliest Cretaceous spreading center and its adjacent oceanic crust in the eastern Gulf of Mexico”. Marine Geophysical Research. 10.1007/s11001-019-09379-5. Rezak, Richard & Thomas T. Tieh. “Basalt from Louisiana continental shelf”. Geo-Marine Letters (1984) 4: 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02277075 Science Made Stupid: How to Discomprehend the World Around Us is a 1985 book written and illustrated by Tom Weller. The winner of the 1986 Hugo Award for Best Non-Fiction Book, it is a parody of a junior high or high school-level science textbook. Though now out of print, high-resolution scans are available online, as well as an abridged transcription, both of which have been endorsed by Weller . Highlights of the book include a satirical account of the creationism vs. evolution debate and Weller’s drawings of fictional prehistoric animals (e.g., the duck-billed mastodon.)

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Click on these children's book titles to go directly to the activities you want or browse them below. Also, email us your own creative ideas for sharing Pat's books. Include your name and the name of your school or library. Curriculum ActivitiesAgua, Agua, Agua (Spanish edition: Agua, Agua, Agua) - Create a science experiment on water displacement. - Older students can study fables in the library and on-line and then write an original fable to present to the lower grades using very simple text. - All of these books can be part of your April 30th, Día de los niños/Día de los libros celebration. Visit the REFORMA site for ideas of library events. A school in South Texas some years back had a book parade by decorating A-V carts with favorite books. Feature bilingual books, books in other languages or that include other languages, and books about bilingual children. - Create scary abuelos masks using white paper bags, crayons or paints or paper mache. - Read the Author's Note in the back of the book. Pat Mora mentions a cultural tradition similar to los abuelos which is practiced in Japan. Find out if there are similar traditions in other countries. - Talk about other multi-generational holidays, festivals, traditions, and activities you know about that are practiced in your family or community. - Locate New Mexico on a map of the United States. Visit your school or public library and research 5 facts about the state and the people. - Act out a scene of los abuelos coming down from the mountains, or for a long-term project, create a class play based on the story Abuelos by Pat Mora. Perform the play for other classes, teachers and families. Serve bizcochitos (see recipe below) and empanadas after. - Share something you're afraid of with the group and talk about scary feelings. - Read a story about another cultural tradition with similar elements to Abuelosthat interests you. The Bakery Lady (Spanish edition: La señora de la panadería) - Studying bread-making traditions popular in different cultures can be connected to math (measurements), science (reactions), social studies (community helpers), geography (grain production) and history (craft production). - Enjoy art-making projects in which students shape and decorate either traditional breads or their own creations. - Visit a bakery willing to have the students not only tour but also interview the bakers. Have students discover other community helpers seldom noticed whose work is both utilitarian and aesthetic. The Beautiful Lady: Our Lady of Guadalupe (Spanish edition: La hermosa Señora: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe) - After sharing the book, join students in making paper flowers. Sample instructions: http://www.ehow.com/how_6217356_mexican-tissue-paper-flowers-instructions.html. - Share two to three books of other cultural stories/legends. Invite students to share a story from their culture. - Invite students to create art (drawings, collages) depicting a story from their culture. - Plan a Readers' Theater of the book. A Birthday Basket for Tía (Spanish edition: Una canasta de cumpleaños para tía) - Introduce children to birthday customs around the world. - Enjoy storytelling baskets created by the children with items brought from home. - Students could also bring a favorite book to share. - Students can create memory gift baskets for a family member or friend. - Counting skills and games can be part of the basket activities. Anita Canteenwalla and Jean Thornton of Longwood Elementary in Seminole County, Florida, have suggested a Tia lesson planning idea for struggling readers that "Brings a Gift to the Whole Class." Download the lesson plan. Book Fiesta! Celebrate Children's Day/Book Day Celebremos El día de los niños/El día de los libros - Before reading the book, show Book Fiesta! to the group asking them to look closely at the book cover and illustrations on each page/spread. Ask children to guess what’s happening in the story by looking at the pictures. - Invite students to write a poem about the books they like to read. - Teach students the Book Fiesta! song and have them perform it for another class or group. If there’s a music teacher at your school, involve that teacher in planning this singing activity. - Rafael López paints with acrylics on sanded wood. Children can paint a mural in the style of Rafael on a large piece of plywood or on large sheets of paper and display the mural in the school library or hall. - Does the classroom have a reading corner? Rename it the “Bookjoy Corner” and have children design signs or pictures for the space. Change these every week so that all signs have a turn being displayed. - Have children create dioramas of a place where they enjoy reading and then display them in the hallways. - Share the suggestions for celebrating El día de los niños, El día de los libros/Children’s Day, Book Day that are printed in the back of the book. Involve parents, your colleagues and the principal in creating these celebrations annually at home and school. Download a teacher's guide for Bookjoy, Wordjoy from the publisher, Lee & Low Books. Bravo, Chico Canta! Bravo! - Plan a Reader’s Theatre of the book using props suggested from the book’s illustrations. - Enjoy a field trip to a local children’s theatre. - Ask students who are bilingual what languages they speak and what some of their favorite words are. Create a display list of the words and their meanings. - Invite students to create a language for their favorite animal and to prepare a glossary of common words to share with the group. - Invite students to choose a favorite story and to draw a picture of the set designs and characters on stage. Confetti: Poems for Children - Download a teacher's guide from the publisher, Lee & Low Books. - Students could study both egg-decorating traditions around the world as well as Mexican folk arts. Students could then make cascarones, dry egg shells filled with confetti. Mayhem possible! - Ask students to prepare and share a Me Bag that contains items about their culture(s). Strive to help them see that though cultural expressions include food, folklore, fashion and festival, cultures are complex and reflect a group’s values, geography, history and knowledge. - After a field trip to a neighborhood bakery, for example, students could learn about bread-making traditions and the connections between food and culture. - Using an array of children’s toys from around the world, let children discuss differences and similarities. Delicious Hullabaloo: Pachanga deliciosa - Download a teacher's guide from the publisher, Piñata Books/Arte Público Press. In Spanish. - It’s hard to resist a food activity given the appetites of the main characters. After learning about the indigenous foods of the Americas, students can prepare their own pachanga deliciosa. They could also illustrate and publish their own cookbook of recipes of the Americas. - Teach students about Mexican music and instruments and have them learn a Mexican song. - Students can explore the diversity of the U.S. Latino population, the differences and the similarities such as enjoying a pachanga with friends and music. - Students can select a kind of lizard (collared, gila monster, horned lizard) and compare and contrast what they learned. The Desert Is My Mother: El desierto es mi madre - Download a teacher's guide from the publisher, Piñata Books/Arte Público Press. - After learning about mural art, students can plan and create a large desert mural. - Students can create a desert diorama, art boxes, mosaics, desert animal masks, cartoons of desert creatures, riddles, bookmarks. - Students can learn about protective coloration—camouflage, warning coloration and mimicry. - After learning about the desert, students can listen to one of the many tapes available of nature sounds and write as they listen, and share their work in small groups. - Students can practice observation skills essential to a writer by spending time outdoors and recording in their small poetry notebook what they hear and see in preparation for writing. Doña Flor: A Tall Tale About a Giant Woman with a Great Big Heart (Spanish edition: Doña Flor: Un cuento de una mujer gigante con un gran corazón - Enjoy two audience-participation poems (Young Children) (Older Students) for use with Doña Flor. - Introduce the tall tale tradition and have students explore if it is a uniquely American tradition. Have them select their favorite tall tale and illustrate it. - Have students do a comparison of Flor and another tall tale. - Of course, have students write and illustrate their own tall tales and, if possible, present them to another class. These could make wonderful dramatizations that could include music and technology. The Gift of the Poinsettia: El regalo de la flor de nochebuena - I love etymology including horticultural etymology, details such as the origin of the name tulip possibly coming from the Arabic dulband meaning turban. After learning about the origin of the name poinsettia, have students read about flower folklore and write a story based on their research or create a name for an imaginary flower and write and illustrate that story. The flower could, of course, be named after themselves or their friends which could lead to some interesting descriptions. - Humans enjoy celebrations. Have students study celebrations around the globe and share a holiday celebration important to their family. - Students can learn about legends and either re-tell a legend, particularly one native to their area or place of birth, or create their own legends. - Ask the students to draw what they're grateful for and to share their drawing with a partner or small group. - Ask the students if they know how to say "thank you" in other languages. Teach them to say "thank you" in some of the languages spoken locally or connected to the children's cultures. - Have children make and decorate "gratitude baskets" to take home for sharing with their families. Students can invite family members to write down what they are thankful for on a slip of paper and leave it in the basket. These can be read aloud at a family gathering or special meal. - Depending on the age of the students, have them write and illustrate their own GRACIAS book (a great present to share at Thanksgiving). With younger students, write a group poem. Here Kitty, Kitty/¡Ven gatita, ven! (Book 3 of My Family/Mi Familia)> - Ask the class or group to draw pictures of their favorite hiding places. - Read aloud some nursery rhymes and poems about pets to the children. Poems are an excellent way to introduce rhythm and rhyme to children, and they enjoy the humor that is found in many poems for the young. - Guide the class in writing a group poem about a kitten. Write the completed poem on a large sheet of poster board and hang it in the classroom. - Create your own Kitty Hides math game. Make cut outs of 10 kittens and a "hiding place" pocket. Reinforce counting and introduce subtraction and addition by hiding the kittens and returning them to the group. You can play a matching game by making some of the kittens the same color or with the same spots or stripes. - Ask the class to create a list of ways to take good care of our pets. I Pledge Allegiance - Download the Educator Guide from the publisher, Random House. Aligned with CCSS. Join Hands! The Ways We Celebrate Life - The poem describes "ways we celebrate life." Ask the children to share some of the ways they celebrate life in their family and community. - Name ways to celebrate life with books. Try starting a Mother-Daughter Book Club; donating "gently-used" books to children's hospital; making your own alphabet book; or acting out a story from a children's book. - Joining hands is a way of showing togetherness. Name other ways of being together with family and friends. - Create a celebration collage using students' own photos or photos from magazines. - Older children can write their own pantoum; it's a fun form to create and illustrates the power of repetition. Use the color-coded lines of the poem in the back of the book as a guide or by numbering the lines to use as a map. Let's Eat ¡A comer! (Book 1 of My Family/Mi Familia) - Ask children to share examples of what their family eats for dinner and chat about how different families and different countries have favorite foods. - Have children draw a picture of dinnertime at their house. - Ask what Dad means when he looks around at everyone at the table and says "Yes, we're rich." - Ask the children to define what "grateful" means. Create a morning circle time and ask children to tell one thing they are grateful for. Try to do this regularly. - Ask children to bring in the recipe of their favorite food. Create a class cookbook, copy and distribute to families. A Library for Juana: The World of Sor Juana Inés Teachers, search engines can take you to many interesting sites on Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Here are ideas for your students: - Students can contrast life in Nueva España (now Mexico) with life in the United States in the 17th century: politics, the arts, daily life, etc. Students can create a time-line of the history of Mexico up to the 17th century beginning with the Olmec. - Sor Juana loved word games. Students can create a class book of riddles. - Sor Juana enjoyed collecting scientific instruments. Students can prepare group reports on the instruments available at that time or reports on the scientific instruments of today that students might like to collect. - When Juana went to Mexico City, she was fascinated by the many languages she heard and included one indigenous language (Nahuatl) in some of her work. Students can listen to their world and learn about languages other than English that they or other students around the country might here. Encourage students to include words from another language in a poetry project. - Enjoy a cyber-visit to the Museum of Spanish Colonial Arts that opened July 2002 in Santa Fe, www.spanishcolonial.org. Listen to the Desert: Oye al desierto - Students can make desert puppets and stage a play. - Learning to make desert sand paintings provides an opportunity to teach about native cultures and the art of the Southwest. - Students enjoy writing group poems on a theme such as, “Listen to the Playground.” - Students can research early musical instruments of the Americas, make their own and use them to accompany the words. - Try choral reading with this book. Love to Mamá: A Tribute to Mothers - Invite students to read other anthologies connected by theme such as In Daddy’s Arms I Am Tall. Students can create their own theme anthologies and include original work and poems by others. The books can be illustrated or enhanced by other kinds of student art such as collage. - Students can select one of the poems in the collection and write a prose piece on the same theme. - Using one of the poems in the book as a model, students can write their own poem using an existing format. - Students can collect compelling photographs of mothers and grandmothers and write brief poems as captions. This is a good opportunity for a global photography project. - Of course, students can write and/or draw their own poetry gift for their mother or grandmother. Maria Paints the Hills - Create a “Paint the Hills with Maria” event that encourages young readers to study and paint their landscape using a variety of media. This can provide a good opportunity for learning about local geological features and the names of local flora and fauna. - Maria Hesch modeled her style after the work of Grandma Moses. Students can study the work of Grandma Moses and do a comparison of the work of these two women artists. Students can also select a visual artist whose style they would like to imitate and create their own art piece for display. - Students can learn about the history and crafts of Northern New Mexico and contrast Maria’s life with their own. Students can enjoy making adobe or a simple weaving project. - Water is an issue of growing global importance. Students can learn about the acequia or irrigation system of Maria’s region and contrast it with our own piped water systems and with other water systems around the world. - Enjoy a cyber-visit to the Museum of International Folk Art that hosted the Maria Hesch exhibit in 1997, www.moifa.org. ¡Marimba! Animales A – Z - Plan a Marimba Fiesta. Work with a music teacher to teach some of your students or a group of older students to play the marimba and have them accompany the reading of the book. Students could also learn a few of the Latin dances mentioned in the book and bring samples of the foods mentioned. - Students, alone or in pairs or groups, can learn more about the animals they don’t know in the book and share the information with the class. This could include facts, drawings and original work such as a poem about the animal. - If there’s a zoo in town, ask your students to visit the zoo and write about their visit or select three favorite aspects to share with the class. You might also invite a zoo staff member to visit your class and talk about not only the animals but also about jobs at the zoo. - Excite your students about writing and illustrating their own alphabet book or create a class alphabet book. You could together create a list of other cognates. - Explore other musical instruments popular in Latin America and create an art project connected with them—bringing some to class and accompanying music with them, drawing them or making them out of clay, etc., writing haiku about them. The Night the Moon Fell (Spanish edition: La noche que se calló la luna) - After introducing folktales, ask students to find other folktales about the moon or have them write a folktale about a part of their environment. - Students can study the phases of the moon and the relationship of the moon and tides. - Students can research the topic of endangered languages and report on current strategies for language revitalization. - Students can learn about folklife and folklore studies, the folklore of their area, and then help document the folklife and lore of their neighborhood or region perhaps with the guidance of a local folklife expert. For resources, visit the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress at www.loc.gov/folklife/. - Using branches, have students create their own tree for a special person or to remember a specific birthday of their own. Teaching origami or making clay wind chimes are possibilities. - A number of my books describe relationships between children and an older relative. Invite students to share traditions from their families. Invite grandparents or older relatives and friends to visit the class and perhaps to share a memory, game, tradition, or song in their native language. - Students can make items for Pablo’s sixth birthday. - Using “dress-up props,” children can stage a scene about an event with an older relative or friend. A Piñata in a Pine Tree - Ask the students when and where they hear languages other than English. Do they like to learn new words in other languages? What new words did they learn in this book? - After sharing the book, have students draw the book, or a few pages, as you read the book. - Help students make their favorite gift in the book and give it to their amiga/o. - Learn to sing the song and perform it for another class or group. The Race of Toad and Deer - Since students are interested in ancient cultures and often don’t know very much about the indigenous cultures of Mexico and Central America, this book and The Night the Moon Fell provide opportunities to create large time-lines comparing the major ancient cultures of the world as well as specifically learning about the advanced civilization of the Maya. - Much of what we know about the ancient Maya comes from the careful work of archaeologists. Create a digging experiment to teach the concept of super-position, layering. Older children could help create the experiment. - Have students research the rainforest and its diversity including its people, how and why rainforests are threatened, and strategies for saving them. - Students can research Guatemala, its languages, history, geography, music, its past and its present. The Rainbow Tulip - Explore the value of oral history with students. - After discussing the value of oral histories and teaching basic interview techniques, ask students to interview a family member and create an artistic response: a story, play, poem, dance, collage, etc. - Given the many kinds of families, students can design their own symbol (which need not be the standard family tree) to illustrate their connections to the special people in their lives, those who constitute their family. - Students can take photographs (or draw) their families and neighborhoods and create their own books. Some students could even create a video. - Students could role play a scene about the discomfort of feeling different. The Remembering Day - Download a teacher's guide from the publisher, Piñata Books/Arte Público Press. - Invite students to share stories about their relationship with a remembered loved one. Students can also share a photo or their own drawing. - Invite students to write a poem about a deceased family member or friend. - Invite students to bring photos or special objects of remembered loves ones and create a classroom, library or school display. - Plan a remembering day event at your school or library. You can include flowers, songs, favorite foods of loved ones, funny stories. Create a celebration of special people we have known. The Song of Francis and the Animals - A good opportunity to explore the complex process of making woodcuts. Perhaps a local woodcut artist or an art teacher could explain the process and devise a safe method for students to create their own art. - Invite students to discuss the relationship Francis had to each creature. Have students share stories of their own habits of treating animals. - If possible, invite a veterinarian or veterinary student or a staff member of a humane society, animal shelter, or animal rescue program to do a presentation on how to be a good pet owner. - As you know, this book is an extended poem. Invite students to write their own poem/song about their favorite animal. Sweet Dreams ¡Dulces sueños! (Book 2 of My Family/Mi Familia) - Ask children to share their bedtime routine. Do they have a glass of water? Does someone read to them? Sing to them? Is a language other than English part of their bedtime routine? - How many children in the class have members of their extended family living with them? Ask children to name something they've learned from a grandparent or an aunt or uncle. - Read some bedtime poems to the class. Try to find "classics" and contemporary examples. Ask the children what they like about these poems. - Listen to a selection of lullabies illustrating different musical styles and lullabies from different countries. - Ask the children to create a group list of their favorite nighttime words. Write them down and post the list decorated with stars, moons etc. This Big Sky - Students can create poetry anthologies of the natural life in a specific region-- theirs, an area of interest, or an imaginary landscape. - Especially during April, National Poetry Month, students can treat one another to a poem a day. - The poet who shares the poem receives an apple. - After discussing “Old Snake,” students could draw or make their own snakes and write on the back one of their fears or self-doubts. - Among the many responses possible after a discussion of student’s personal dreams, they can make and then release kites on which they’ve written their dreams. - Students can study how plants and animals conserve water in the desert. Tomás and the Library Lady (Spanish edition: Tomás y la señora de la biblioteca) - After exploring with students the qualities of heroes and why some people such as sports or music figures are noticed and others like nurses, school bus drivers, migrant workers or park rangers aren’t, work with students to write brief biographies or biographical poems about unnoticed heroines and heroes. They could also draw portraits. - The discussion on heroines and heroes offers an opportunity to teach media literacy to help young viewers assess what they see. - Few of us know enough about migrant workers. Students can learn about the history of migrant workers in this country and about their difficult lives and the discrimination they encounter. - Using maps, students can share their families’ historical journeys and facts about the family’s countries of origin. - Students can also learn about the history of libraries, the library as a career, and the kinds of librarians and libraries. Further they could study how libraries are funded and what a library board is. - Fourth grade students at Pattison Elementary School in Milford Ohio who read TOMAS suggested to their teacher, Christina North, that they pretend they were Tomás and write postcards (which they made) to the library lady. They sent their postcards to Pat who enjoyed them thoroughly. The Family Involvement Storybook Corner at Harvard University has created a tool kit for Tomás and the Library Lady. At Perkins Elementary School in Des Moines, Iowa, with the help of Des Moines Performing Arts' Applause Series, each class did a different type of performance based on their experience of reading Tomás. Watch the video: Uno, Dos, Tres: One, Two, Three - Have students draw their own Spanish counting dictionary or write a story using the numbers from one to ten in Spanish. - Students could write and illustrate counting books using other languages. - Students can learn about the folk arts of Mexico and how those traditions are maintained. Students could then make a simplified or simulated version of tin work, papier-maché, straw art, piñata making, clay art, papel picado, etc. Water Rolls, Water Rises/El agua rueda, el agua sube - Download activities (pdf) - Download a teacher's guide from the publisher, Lee & Low Books. - Download a teacher's guide that aligns with TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills) standards and curriculum for first and second grades, written by Kendall Miller, the Logistics and Outreach Coordinator for the Texas Book Festival. Kendall also runs the TBF literacy outreach program Reading Rock Stars. Wiggling Pockets/Los bolsillos saltarines - Ask the students to discuss their reaction to the book. Was it funny? What have they or other family members done to make the family laugh? - After sharing the book, ask the students ask the students to draw a picture of their favorite scene in the book. - Have the students act-out the book as you read it after an initial first or second reading. Part of the class could provide sounds to the story. - Make frog shapes from colored or pattered paper and play a matching game. Cut out frogs of different sizes and ask children to arrange them in sequence - larger to smaller; one small, one large, repeat etc. - Read some poems about frogs to the class. - If you're feeling ambitious, build a terrarium and keep a frog(s) in your classroom. Talk about the kind of habitat a frog needs to live in. - This is the last book in the series My Family * Mi Familia. Have the students discuss their favorite scenes. Would they like this family as their neighbors? Yum! ¡Mmm! Qué rico! America's Sproutings (Haiku) - Download a teacher's guide from the publisher, Lee & Low Books. - Invite students to create an art piece (watercolor, collage, etc.) incorporating the 14 foods in the book. - Students can visit a grocery store and make a list of how many of the 14 foods they find. They might select one food to prepare in a recipe or as is and share with their family. - Students could read the ingredients on one box in their pantry and list which of the 14 foods they find. - Invite students to make a list of 14 of their favorite foods and write a haiku about one. - Plan a Yum! Party with your colleagues or class. Guests can choose one or a combination of the 14 foods in the book to use in a dish to share at your event. Leslie Wills, a second grade teacher at Woodbrook Elementary School (VA) submitted this idea: "Yum! ¡Mmm! Qué rico!"affirms Hispanic culture in such a positive way and prompts ALL students to think about the origin of foods that we enjoy regularly. Check out the printable created for ‘Food Poetry,’ Poetry on My Plate." A few more good ideas:Plant Poems: Here’s a good idea from my friends at the Princeton Day School. When the first graders planted flowers for the library and teachers’ lounge, they also planted their poems. They worked with their third grade poetry partners on their writing. The printed poems were then glued onto wooden sticks and planted for all to enjoy. Author Visits: Deck the Doorways My friends at Neshannock Elementary School in New Castle, PA provided the perfect end to an author visit in 1999: a booklet of photos. What a special gift! Thank you, Cheryl Massie. Doors throughout the school had been decorated with children’s art connected to my books. The collages, painting, poems and stories also spilled over into the hallway walls and into the library. When the young create their own art prompted by what they read, their reading experience is enriched and deepened as teachers and librarians well know.

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Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works. More restrictively, literature is writing considered to be an art form, or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage. Its Latin root literatura / litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts, though contemporary definitions extend the term to include texts that are spoken or sung (oral literature). The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to have non-written verbal art forms, and thus it is difficult to agree on its origin, which can be paired with that of language or writing itself. Developments in print technology have allowed an evergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature. Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction, and whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre). There have been various attempts to define "literature". Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to answer the question "What is Literature?" with the observation: The quest to discover a definition for "literature" is a road that is much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they inevitably change over time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well. Definitions of literature have varied over time: it is a "culturally relative definition". In Western Europe prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, in which it began to demarcate "imaginative" writing. Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions; Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of analysis both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works. The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-lettres ('fine writing') tradition. This sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–11) when it classifies literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing." Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what constitutes "literature": anything can be literature, and anything which is universally regarded as literature has the potential to be excluded, since value judgments can change over time. The formalist definition is that "literature" foregrounds poetic effects; it is the "literariness" or "poetic" of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing (e.g., journalism). Jim Meyer considers this a useful characteristic in explaining the use of the term to mean published material in a particular field (e.g., " scientific literature "), as such writing must use language according to particular standards. The problem with the formalist definition is that in order to say that literature deviates from ordinary uses of language, those uses must first be identified; this is difficult because " ordinary language " is an unstable category, differing according to social categories and across history. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter". In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts. Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible meaning. Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its being set in verse; prose is cast in sentences, poetry in lines; the syntax of prose is dictated by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across meter or the visual aspects of the poem. Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry is "any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or Verses". Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics ), "poetry" before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition; hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature. Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech rather than rhythmic structure; in which regard, along with its measurement in sentences rather than lines, it differs from poetry. On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the case of Ancient Greece ] recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical period ". - Novel: a long fictional prose narrative. It was the form's close relation to real life that differentiated it from the chivalric romance; in most European languages the equivalent term is roman, indicating the proximity of the forms. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late 15th century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction. Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel", the modern novel form emerges late in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century. Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and critically. - Novella: in purely quantitative terms, the novella exists between the novel and short story; the publisher Melville House classifies it as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short story". There is no precise definition in terms of word or page count. Literary prizes and publishing houses often have their own arbitrary limits, which vary according to their particular intentions. Summarizing the variable definitions of the novella, William Giraldi concludes "[it is a form] whose identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity". It has been suggested that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic results, both some that are shared with the novel or short story, and others unique to the form. - Short story: a dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish it from any short narrative; hence it also has a contested origin, variably suggested as the earliest short narratives (e.g. the Bible), early short story writers (e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly modern short story writers (e.g. Anton Chekhov). Apart from its distinct size, various theorists have suggested that the short story has a characteristic subject matter or structure; these discussions often position the form in some relation to the novel. Drama is literature intended for performance. The form is often combined with music and dance, as in opera and musical theater. A play is a subset of this form, referring to the written dramatic work of a playwright that is intended for performance in a theater; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A closet drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read rather than to be performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on the page. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical or mythological themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media. The history of literature follows closely the development of civilization. When defined exclusively as written work, Ancient Egyptian literature, along with Sumerian literature, are considered the world's oldest literatures. The primary genres of the literature of Ancient Egypt — didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and tales—were written almost entirely in verse; while use of poetic devices is clearly recognizable, the prosody of the verse is unknown. The question of whether Sumerian literature was poetry or prose remains unanswered. It did contain at least one feature of poetry (left-justified lines), but the style of writing precludes the detection of certain other identifying features. Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the pre-urban eras. The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods before being written down. Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about our history. Through the study of past literature we are able to learn about how society has evolved and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. This can even help us to understand references made in more modern literature because authors often make references to Greek mythology and other old religious texts or historical moments. Not only is there literature written on each of the aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like a book about the history of economics or a book about evolution and science, for example) but one can also learn about these things in fictional works. Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord Byron talks about the Spanish and the French in "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: Canto I" and expresses his opinions through his character Childe Harold. Through literature we are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see how all academic fields have roots in literature. Information became easier to pass down from generation to generation once we began to write it down. Eventually everything was written down, from things like home remedies and cures for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people were able to study literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and academic fields such as the medical field or trades could be started. In much the same way as the literature that we study today continue to be updated as we continue to evolve and learn more and more. As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium. In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print cultures. Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769‒269 BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian ). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming. In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas & Krishnacharitmanas. In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre. Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books. In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later 18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasizing unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather than external realities. Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general. There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for first-time writers or debut novels). The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, and is awarded to an author on the basis of their body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work itself. Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize and the Franz Kafka Prize. Other prose literature Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientific writings are traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names " fiction " to distinguish them from factual writing or nonfiction, which writers historically have crafted in prose. As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in journals. Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programs of literary study. Outside of " history of science " programs, students rarely read such works. Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers through history— Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche —have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", but much of it does not, and some areas, such as logic, have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics. Literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a person's character that would not be obvious otherwise. It benefits the psychological development and understanding of the reader. For example, it allows a person to access emotional states from which the person has distanced himself or herself. An entry written by D. Mitchell featured in The English Journal explains how the author used young adult literature in order to re-experience the emotional psychology she experienced as a child which she describes as a state of "wonder". Hogan also explains that the temporal and emotional amount which a person devotes to understanding a character's situation in literature allows literature to be considered "ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion". This can be understood in the sense that literature unites a large community by provoking universal emotions. It also allows readers to access cultural aspects that they are not exposed to thus provoking new emotional experiences. Authors choose literary device according to what psychological emotion he or she is attempting to describe, thus certain literary devices are more emotionally effective than others. Furthermore, literature is being more popularly regarded as a psychologically effective research tool. It can be considered a research tool because it allows psychologists to discover new psychological aspects and it also allows psychologists to promote their theories. For example, the print capacity available for literature distribution has allowed psychological theories such as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to be universally recognized. Maslow's "Third Force Psychology Theory" even allows literary analysts to critically understand how characters reflect the culture and the history in which they are contextualized. It also allows analysts to understand the author's intended message and to understand the author's psychology. The theory suggests that human beings possess a nature within them that demonstrates their true "self" and it suggests that the fulfillment of this nature is the reason for living. It also suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing the nature because a person becomes estranged from his or her true self. Therefore, literary devices reflect a character's and an author's natural self. In his "Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature", Paris argues " D.H. Lawrence's 'pristine unconscious' is a metaphor for the real self". Thus Literature is a reputable tool that allows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to the nature of emotions. A significant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative nonfiction, as can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism. However, these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result, the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often(and in its better moments)has that quality. Major "literary" historians include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical literary figures. Law offers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato and Aristotle, the law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon, or even the early parts of the Bible could be seen as legal literature. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature. Other narrative forms - Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of works that originate in digital environments. - Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved out a niche which often parallels the functionality of prose fiction. - Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and text. Genres of literature Literary genre is a mode of categorizing literature. The term originates from French, designating a proposed type or class. However, such classes are subject to change, and have been used in different ways in different periods and traditions. A literary technique or literary device can be used by authors in order to enhance the written framework of a piece of literature, and produce specific effects. Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches to crafting a work: whether a work is narrated in first-person or from another perspective, whether to use a traditional linear narrative or a nonlinear narrative, or the choice of literary genre, are all examples of literary technique. They may indicate to a reader that there is a familiar structure and presentation to a work, such as a conventional murder-mystery novel; or, the author may choose to experiment with their technique to surprise the reader. In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first modern novels, Pamela by Samuel Richardson. Pamela is written as a collection of letter-writing correspondence, called "epistolary technique"; by using this technique, Pamela strengthened the tradition of the epistolary novel, a genre which had been practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim. Literary technique is distinguished from literary device, as military strategy is distinguished from military tactics. Devices are specific constructions within the narrative that make it effective. Examples include metaphor, simile, ellipsis, narrative motifs, and allegory. Even simple word play functions as a literary device. The narrative mode may be considered a literary device, such as the use of stream-of-consciousness narrative. Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and, in some cases, it is used to improve a work in progress or a classical piece, as with an ongoing theater production. Literary editors can serve a similar purpose for the authors with whom they work. There are many types of literary criticism and each can be used to critique a piece in a different way or critique a different aspect of a piece. Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710. Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database. Literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works). - List of authors - List of books - List of literary magazines - List of literary terms - List of women writers - List of writers - Related topics - Asemic writing - Children's literature - Cultural movement for literary movements. - English studies - Ergodic literature - Erotic literature - Hinman collator - Literature basic topics - Literary agent - Literature cycle - Literary element - Literary magazine - Modern Language Association - Postcolonial literature - Popular fiction - Rabbinic literature - Rhetorical modes - Vernacular literature - World literature - This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as the prose poemand prosimetrum, and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm. Abram Lipsky refers to it as an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm". - However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was given.

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Nothing has been taught unless it has been learned. Real learning is a transformative process. It’s a magic combination of motivation, inspiration, understanding, and assimilating. I link it to alchemy, the medieval forerunner of chemistry based on the idea of transformation, change so dramatic that the final product is something entirely different from the original. Learning not only changes the way we think and see the world, it actually rewires the brain. There is more than one way to achieve learning. Which ingredients will work depends on the personality of a teacher, the personality of a student, context, and many other factors. Through ten years of researching learning and testing what I’ve learned, I’ve discovered many science-backed strategies that can help to learn better. I don’t try to list everything known about learning in this short article. My focus is on five crucial ingredients that are often overlooked and five ingredients that often get in the way of good learning. I’m confident that if you consider these ten ingredients in putting together your teaching stew, you’ll be a more effective teacher and your kids will learn more. “We teachers—perhaps all human beings—are in the grip of an astonishing delusion. We think that we can take a picture, a structure, a working model of something, constructed in our minds out of long experience and familiarity, and by turning that model into a string of words, transplant it whole into a mind of someone else.” —John Holt When it comes to effective teaching, the place to start is a mind shift. Your job is not to fill the kids’ heads with knowledge but to spark curiosity. According to recent research by the UC Davis Center for Neuroscience, once participants’ curiosity was aroused, they demonstrated better learning and retention of incidental and even boring material presented simultaneously. It appears that being in a curious state of mind changes the brain’s chemistry and also helps us learn and retain information we come across while in that state. So would it promote learning if we somehow linked multiplication tables to Star Wars starfighters? No. According to learning researcher Daniel Willingham, it doesn’t work. When teachers make study material relevant to student interests, it makes students think about their interests and not pay attention to the lesson. So how do we activate that curious state of mind? The answer from cognitive science is straightforward: start with a question. Daniel Willingham puts it this way: “The material I want students to learn is actually the answer to a question. On its own, the answer is almost never interesting. But if you know the question, the answer may be quite interesting.” Yet there is a catch: how you deliver that answer is important. In his book Why Don’t Students Like School, Willingham states that the human mind seems to have a clear proclivity to understand and remember stories. Therefore, wise teachers structure lessons to include four elements of a good story: causality, conflict, character, and complications. Although most of us intuitively know that stories work, we are so concerned with getting to the answers that we don’t allow sufficient time to plan and tell a good story. “It is a miracle that curiosity survives formal education,” lamented Albert Einstein, but it doesn’t have to be this way. - Start with a question to open the information loop. Scientists call it the Completion principle: we seek to complete what is incomplete. When we close the information loop, we feel rewarded. According to Paul Jones-Howard, professor of neuroscience and education at the University of Bristol who leads The Science of Learning class at Future Learn, brain imaging demonstrates that we learn best when the reward centers of the brain are activated. - Since our brains are hardwired for storytelling, think of your lesson as an opportunity to tell a story. Pick a character (e., fraction, bacteria, 2nd law of motion, country, person, etc.) and then add conflict and complications to move the story forward. For example, the character can be a fraction or a numerical quantity that is not a whole number. The fraction has a goal that propels the events forward. It wants to be whole again or as whole as it can be. The tension can be calculations one needs to perform to solve the problem at hand. - End the lesson by employing the finer tactics of the Closure Principle. Ending the lesson with closure activities helps kids remember the meaning. My favorite one is to ask Why Do I Care? It pushes my kids to look for a bite-size piece of wisdom that they can carry away from our time together. “If you listen for the teacher’s reasons why the students should perform these tasks [study assignments, exams, and lots of drill and practice], you will hear a host of narrow, instrumental goals, such as doing well in the class, getting good grades and avoiding failure, or perhaps—if the students are lucky—the value of learning a specific skill for its own sake. But rarely (if ever) will you hear the teacher discuss with students the broader purpose that any of these goals might lead to.” —William Damon “A powerful purpose is a force unbeatable by anything else in this world.” —Jeff Boss One of the greatest mysteries of the human mind is its need for purpose. You can have a sizable paycheck, a house, a car, a family, and still grapple with the big questions. Why am I doing this, for what purpose, and how does it matter to anyone? Kids are no different. Research among elementary age children shows that kids’ level of meaning in their daily activities was positively associated with their life satisfaction and positive emotions. Having a sense of purpose serves as a long-term motivator for learning and achieving. So it’s no surprise that kids who find purpose in learning study harder and persevere when the going gets tough. They even voluntarily chose math drills over entertaining games and video. According to Jeff Boss,“Purpose is like a freight train in that its momentum is too difficult to stop after it’s started; it’s too appealing not to continue its pursuit after that journey has begun. Why? Because the allure of attaining purpose (whatever that means) is a powerful force.” Yet, it seems that a sense of purpose is on the decline among young people. A ten-year study, which looked at over 1,000 school kids, discovered that only one-fifth of them had a sense of purpose. “When it comes to drawing connections between the two—that is, showing students why and how a math formula or a history lesson could be important for some purpose that a student may wish to pursue—schools too often fall far short.” —William Damon That’s not to say to say it’s all on the teacher. Kids are responsible for creating a sense of purpose in their lives. But they often need the adults in their lives to guide them. Part of our role, then, as parents/teachers is to help kids see how studying can be relevant to their long-term goals and understanding of the world. - Encourage self-exploration by asking good questions: What does it mean to have a good life? What does it mean to be a good person? How do you want to be remembered after you are dead? What do you want to be remembered for? For more questions, read The Path to Purpose by William Damon. - Create opportunities to be inspired, model purpose (what inspires you and why), read inspirational biographies together and look for good mentors (people who emanate a sense of purpose) for your kids. - Watch carefully and identify the sparks that are already there (What are their interests right now?). Then use your experience to blow the sparks into the flames of passion. - Passion creates energy and resilience, but it’s not going to last without forward movement. Teach your kids how to make goals and formulate plans to pursue them. - Teach the unavoidability and even desirability of mistakes. As Dostoevsky said, “You never reach any truth without making fourteen mistakes and very likely a hundred and fourteen.” “Students who believe that intelligence can be improved with hard work get higher grades than students who believe that intelligence is an immutable trait.” —Daniel Willingham “Even if [the students with the growth mindset] thought the textbook was boring or the instructor was a stiff, they didn’t let their motivation evaporate. That just made it all the more important to motivate themselves.” —Carol Dweck A meta-analytic review of over 100 studies found that internal attitude is predictive of performance and that everyone is capable of great things with the right mindset. What’s the right mindset for learning? Carol Dweck calls it the growth mindset, or a belief that you can grow through hard work and use of effective strategies. The opposite of a growth mindset is a fixed mindset, a belief that our capacity for learning and development is fixed. Some fixed mindset beliefs are: - Everything is a direct measure of your competence and worth. - The most important part of who you are can’t be changed. - If you have to work hard, re-do your work, or ask for help you aren’t that smart. - If you fail, you’re a failure. - Success in life means proving that you are smart. When it comes to learning, a fixed mindset creates a dichotomy: everyone is either dumb or smart. If you are dumb, then there’s not much point in putting effort into learning. And if you’re smart, then you better avoid all challenges that might expose you as incompetent. Carol Dweck’s research and its implications have been fundamental in understanding how growth mindset improves learning capacity. But how do we convince kids that their attitude matters, that every time they learn something, they become smarter, and, most importantly, that growth mindset is worth it? If you have ever tried to change the mind of fixed-mindset thinkers, you know how hard it can be. You tell them, “You can learn anything,” and they say, “No, we can’t.” You tell them, “You should try harder,” and they say, “It doesn’t work.” But there’s a way to teach that abilities can be cultivated and we all can change and grow. It simply takes time. - You might be tempted to start by printing some growth-mindset worksheets, but don’t do it! Most (if not all) children are bored by worksheets, and they begin to associate growth mindset with boredom. They convince themselves that growth mindset is not for them. They close their mind to it before they even get started! - The best way to start is with your own mindset. Take a quiz. Do you believe that anyone can learn (even your most difficult kid)? Are you judgmental of your own mistakes? If you say, “I can’t believe I forgot to bring x. What’s wrong with me?” and then tell kids it’s okay to make mistakes, they won’t believe you. Kids do what you do, and not what you say. - Explain what is meant by brain growth and the difference between growth and fixed mindsets. Sometimes just having this knowledge is enough to inspire kids’ interest in learning more about growth mindset. - Do frequent 5-10 minute lessons instead of longer sessions once in a while. For example, play You can Learn Anything video and discuss it. Or read a growth-mindset book, like The Doctor with an Eye for Eyes, and talk about it. The Growth Mindset Coach has lots of practical ideas. - Fixed-mindset people believe that effort is for those who don’t have the ability, and if you fail at something, you must not be that good. Teach your kids to admire effort and failure by reading inspirational biographies. Find some names here: 16 people who worked incredibly hard to succeed and 15 highly successful people who failed on their way to success. - A growing body of research shows that praising intelligence and ability often backfires. You don’t have to avoid praising kids but do it differently. - If you are completely at a loss on how to teach a growth mindset, consider investing in a growth-mindset training. Brainology for home and for a classroom. “People always tell me that their important teacher [in life] set high standards and believed that the student could meet those standards.” —Daniel Willingham “Sometimes those who challenge you most teach you best.” —Pravinee Hurbungs If kids don’t learn what you are teaching them, then the material is too advanced, right? You need to go back, make it simpler, break it into smaller units, practice more. The research by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, from the University of Chicago, shows that human beings don’t like it easy. “The best moments in our lives are not the passive, receptive, relaxing times…. The best moments usually occur if a person’s body or mind is stretched to its limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile.” How do you get kids to stretch? The Pygmalion effect is an aspect of learning that often gets overlooked. All people, but especially kids, are influenced by expectations placed upon them. “When we expect certain behaviors of others, we are likely to act in ways that make the expected behavior more likely to occur.” We are constantly sending unconscious messages to our kids. An eye roll, a smile, a frown, a pat on the back, a sigh, an involuntary bristling—these are all different ways we involuntary communicate our feelings. It means our internal attitude has the potential to promote or inhibit learning in our kids. - When you expect kids to do well, you will be leading them toward that goal irrespective of other factors. If you believe that kids are capable of intellectual growth, you will be encouraging it in a variety of ways. The opposite also holds true. If you don’t expect much, your attitude is not likely to be encouraging and may even be discouraging. - What behaviors do you want to occur? Responsible behavior? Enthusiasm for learning? Growth mindset? Start acting like it’s already true. - Forecast success. Tell kids you believe that they have the ability to do well. Your belief in them will inspire their success. Say, “This is going to challenge you in a big way, but you know what? You can do it.” Or, “I know this task is difficult, but I’m confident you can do well if you work hard.” - Kids’ behavior depends on expectations but beware of the nature of your expectations. If your expectations of success are result-oriented, they actually do more harm. “I won because I’m so smart” can quickly turn into “ I lost because I’m so stupid.” To avoid black and white thinking, and to inspire learning and growing, stress effort over results and establish process-oriented expectations. “I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.” —Maya Angelou “Over the years, however, the research evidence keeps piling up, and it points strongly to the conclusion that a high degree of empathy in a relationship is possibly the most potent and certainly one of the most potent factors in bringing about change and learning.” —Carl Rogers Think of the best teachers you ever had. What is one thing they all had in common? Were they kind? Were they generous with encouraging words and actions? Did they have a genuine interest in seeing you succeed? Did they want to understand your perspective? At the core of all those things is empathy, an accurate understanding of another’s world and validating it without judgment. Most people confuse empathy with sympathy. Sympathy is a concern for someone, accompanied by a wish to see that person better off. When we sympathize, we are communicating “ I wish I could make it better.” Empathy, on the other hand, is feeling the emotions of another person, sharing in the misfortune. When we empathize, we are communicating “I’m here with you. We are in it together.” Empathy is a requirement for a well-adjusted, stable relationship. Children of highly empathic parents thrive. The patients of empathic health care providers show better outcomes. And empathic teachers cultivate better relationships with their students, reduce behavior problems, and increase their motivation to perform better. This makes sense. In any relationship when we feel connected to someone, we are more open to that person’s influence, more willing to learn from him/her, and more interested in cooperating. Is empathy natural or learned? Empathy is an art, says Chris Beam, the author of I Feel You: The Surprising Power of Extreme Empathy. It can be genius and inborn, but it can also be refined and improved. An American psychologist, Carl Rogers, claimed that empathy could be developed through training. Recent research published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology supports that claim. So how can therapists, parents, and teachers be helped to become more empathic? - Start by understanding the difference between sympathy and empathy. Watch this short video by Brene Brown. - Look through the learner’s eyes. As Harper Lee wrote, “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view … until you climb inside of his skin and walk around in it.” - Trying to fix someone’s problems is not the meaning of empathy. Empathy starts with listening. - Empathy = no judgment. Kids don’t need someone to analyze them and point out areas of improvement. They want someone to care about them as they are now. - Be nonreactive. Trust them, and they will learn to trust themselves to know all they need to be successful in life. - Get a self-paced training course. In The Art of Empathy: A Training Course in Life’s Most Essential Skill Karla McLaren built on modern brain research, spiritual wisdom, and social psychology to create step-by-step instructions to help you connect with people empathically. What you shouldn’t do for successful learning. 1. Ditch Memorization Guilt Memorization got a bad reputation in the modern education, but it’s beneficial. Studies show that a certain amount of knowledge is a prerequisite for more advanced learning. One can’t learn to write without first memorizing letters. One can’t become proficient in math without memorizing some basic math facts. 2. Learning Styles Don’t worry about matching your lessons to your students learning styles. Even though 82% of teachers believe in learning styles, there is no scientific evidence that teaching to preferred learning style works. In fact, the whole concept of learning styles is a neuromyth. Learning is all about integration. Therefore, the best learning happens through the integration of varied modalities (linguistic, visual, kinesthetic, etc.). Don’t feel like you need to correct every mistake. Humans come with a built-in corrective system that gets better with use. “The more a child uses his sense of consistency, of things fitting together and making sense, to find and correct his own mistakes, the more he will feel that his way of using his mind works, and the better he will get at it. He will feel more and more that he can figure out for himself, at least much of the time, which answers make sense and which do not. But if, as usually happens, we point out all his mistakes as soon as he makes them, and even worse, correct them for him, his self-checking and self-correcting skill will not develop, but will die out.” 4. Trust the process “I can’t believe you finished the whole book!” Or “Wow, you got 100% of the questions correct!” It’s so easy and tempting to celebrate results. And of course, you don’t have to minimize achievement, but often effort is more important than results. The process itself is often the best teacher. Children intuitively understand it. Some adults say, “Hurry up and finish” while looking at a child who is seemingly wasting time. Or a frustrated parent may lament, “I am sure he can get this done in half the time.” But that shouldn’t be the goal. Children are naturally process oriented. They don’t want to use your garden shovel in order to dig faster, more effectively. They’re perfectly happy with a dinner fork. The hole might be smaller, but they are learning something new. 5. Learning Opportunities Don’t turn everything into a learning opportunity. The problem with learning opportunities is that they create a relationship of dependency. There’s suddenly a pressure to deliver results. The kids wonder, am I doing it right? What is supposed to happen? Am I missing something? What is my mom’s/dad’s/ teacher’s expectation here? Not everything has to be educational. How do kids learn best? We can say that they learn by observing, questioning, exploring, and experimenting, and it would be true. But that’s not the whole story. Every valuable mixture has a few secret ingredients. To supercharge your learning adventure and give it a boost, sprinkle some secret ingredients into your teaching and communicating. Curiosity motivates kids to inquire and sustains motivation. Purpose gives kids the why for learning and perseverance. Growth mindset helps kids to reach for challenges. The Pygmalion effect gives confidence. And empathy gives them wings. The above five ingredients came to me through a gradual awakening over the course of the last ten years. I am not a learning expert or a child development therapist. I share my opinions first as a parent and observer and second as a dedicated researcher and deep thinker. What secret ingredient would you use today? Disclaimer: this post contains affiliate links. For more information, please, read my full policy.

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NARRATIVE/DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS: When writing a descriptive narrative, students must learn to fully convey an experience. In order to effectively convey that experience, students must learn to employ sensory details (known as imagery) and figurative language (such as personification, metaphors, and similes.) Students must also be conscious of how they convey the sequence of events – or time. PARAGRAPHS: Paragraphs are still the central unit of organization in a descriptive essay. While topic sentences in a descriptive narrative may not convey the “claim” of the story, they are still vital in establishing the tone, mood, action, or setting of the paragraph. Each paragraph must have a specific function within the whole of your narrative. Are you conveying action? Are you reflecting? SENSORY DETAILS: Sensory details put the “descriptive” in descriptive narrative. As you brainstorm and draft your essay, try to develop as many sensory details as you possibly can, engaging each of the senses: Tactile: touch Visual: sight Olfactory: smell Auditory: sound Gustatory: taste Kinesthetic: movement Organic: internal bodily sensations Then, select only the best or most unique descriptions—the descriptions you’ve only ever seen in your essay. The way you describe the concrete setting of your narrative can help communicate how you felt about the experience. Avoid clichés, or descriptions you’ve heard a thousand times, but also know you may have to write a few clichés in order to get to a special description. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: Develop figurative language to make your narrative rich and layered in meaning. As you brainstorm and draft your essay, try to develop as many unexpected comparisons as you can. Then, select the descriptions which best fit the tone and mood of the experience you’re trying to convey. SEQUENCE OF EVENTS & TIME: The “sequence of events” is essentially the plot of your narrative. While you do not need to present the events in the order in which they took place, you should map out the sequence well before you begin to draft your essay. Thesis/Idea-Driven Essays: When writing an essay, students must present and defend an IDEA (thesis, claim or hypothesis). Everything in the essay, its organization and content, must relate back to this central IDEA. If it does not, then the idea is lost and the essay is less effective. Structure: Essays are comprised of 3 types of paragraphs: (1) thesis or introductory paragraph; (2) body paragraphs; and (3) conclusion paragraph. See below for more information on the components of a strong essay. Formal Lab Report Guidelines Typed Document Report Cover Page Must include your name, experiment/laboratory title, partners’ names, instructor, date of report, and graphic or picture relevant to experiment (optional). Abstract This section provides a very brief look at your lab and its results. Briefly summarize the purpose of your experiment and your results. Do not provide any explanation for your procedures or results. Introduction/Background This section will include two paragraphs. In the first paragraph, you will include background information about the topics (and related material) used in the experiment. You are to complete some type of research to find this information. Please use your research to construct at least eight sentences describing your topic(s). In addition, the information should help explain your results in the Conclusion paragraph; thus, don’t just pick random information about your topic(s). You are to use a minimum of three sources (at least one database) to complete this section. In the second paragraph, you are to include your hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, and a description of your control group. Procedure A narrative description (paragraph form) of the steps you took to set up, conduct the experiment and clean up. You should use past tense to describe your procedure It should be specific – “we added 10.3 mL of water to the 5.2 grams of sodium chloride.” It should not be a numbered list or a bulleted list. It should not be a rewriting of the original laboratory handout. Data Table that reflects the raw data that you collected in lab. Be certain to provide all of the proper parts to a data table. Graphs and Calculations This section should all graphs. Graphs should only be constructed on Microsoft Excel ® or any other graphing software. In addition, if you had to complete any type of calculation (sums, averages, differences, etc.), you must provide a sample of your work indicating how you completed the calculation. Questions & Answers If there are associated questions in the laboratory handout, the answers to these questions should be included at this point. This section may not always be used. Please be certain to answer all questions in complete sentences. Discussion Three paragraphs 1) Conclusion paragraph. In this paragraph, describe the results for all of the experimental groups, provide data for all of the groups, and provide an explanation as to why the results occurred. In addition, address whether or not your data supports your hypothesis. 2) Errors paragraph. In this paragraph, describe two errors (or possible errors) that your group made during the experiment. Then, specifically describe how these errors affected your results. 3) Improvement paragraph. This paragraph should state appropriate suggestions for conducting the experiment with greater accuracy and precision in the future. How would you improve it or make it better? (This is not personal i.e., I will learn to read the graduated cylinder more accurately but things related to the experiment itself. Different equipment or better layout, added features…). Please make at least two suggestions. DON’T MENTION THAT YOU WILL CORRECT THE ERRORS from the above paragraph. Your improvements should not be the same as your corrections to your errors. In addition, with each improvement, describe how it will improve the lab. Works Cited/Bibliography—Use MLA format for all sources (including pictures), Wikipedia may be consulted but it does not count as one of your required sources. Blog posts: Blogging can serve a variety of purposes so be sure to know your specific audience. It is important to remember that the rules of academic writing still apply: Appropriate grammar, sophisticated sentence structure and subject-specific language are expected. One of the benefits to blogging is the ability to hyperlink. A hyperlink is an embedded reference that allows your reader to travel to a different site to gather new information, either as an explanation of something you have referenced or an elaboration you do not have time or space to provide. Be sure to select these hyperlinks with a discerning eye: there is no reason to hyperlink to Wikipedia as your reader can easily search there himself. Also, if you include quotations, you may cite them using MLA in-text citations or you may hyperlink to the source. Make sure your reader understands if the information provided is not yours. If you embed images cite those images from the website and not simply by using the Google search address. To be clear, blog posts are one of your most public forms of writing. Be sure that you present you best self in both writing and thought. Blog comments: Oftentimes you will be asked to comment on your classmates’ blog posts. This is not meant for you to provide an evaluation of their work, so comments like “Good work” or “Great idea” are not appropriate. Rather, your task is to expand the discussion that your classmate has begun. It is an online debate so you can offer evidence the supports or challenges the ideas presented in the post. You can also expand the discussion by bringing up other topics that are related to the original topic. Throughout your comment writing process please remember that what you say is public and show be respectful both of the author of the post as well as to the audience of the blog. Objectives: Writing is a tremendously valuable skill and a major focus in high school and beyond. To do it well, students must be able to clearly present and defend an idea. This requires students to differentiate between evidence and ideas, as well as explain how the evidence supports or refutes the larger concept. To become a good writer, students must orient themselves and think analytically. What is the purpose of the writing in terms of subject, topic, and/or audience? How can I best present and defend my idea(s)? How can I break down this writing assignment into manageable tasks? What larger idea am I presenting? (Thesis, Claim, Argument, or Hypothesis) What evidence do I need to support my idea? (Facts, Data, or Details) Why does this evidence support my idea? (Relevance or Analysis) Habits for Success: Use the writing process! Understand the Task: Good students will prepare by reading carefully assigned reading. The reading will provide the working knowledge needed to better understand the prompt. Good students will mark up the prompt and create a checklist to help with the phases below. Students must understand what the assignment is asking the student to do What is the central question being asked? Generate: Good students will generate a NUMBER of ideas through a reliable method like powerwrite, mindmapping, directed powerwrite, or focused discussion. Good students will also begin researching at this stage--gathering evidence from readings and other sources--to narrow their idea and take a position. Plan: Good students will rely on their understanding of the assigned task and the research to begin organizing a logical answer to the question. This can be done through outlining, notecards etc. but should identify what the students argument is (thesis, hypothesis, claim, etc.) as well as the supporting information that has been collected to prove this claim. Write: Good students will rely on their plan for the writing phase and transfer their plan into a well written paper that incorporates appropriate grammar, spelling, tone, transitions etc. Proof: Good students will always reread their written work and edit accordingly to ensure that he/she has effectively answered the questions and has avoided grammatical errors. Some examples of proofing can include spell check, grammar check, individual editing, or peer editing. Thesis or introductory paragraphs present the argument of the essay and explain how that argument will be defended. To accomplish this, the paragraph must contain the following elements: Contextualization or hook: You should have one or two sentences that give the essay context. For a History paper, this can involve historical context. For an English paper, this can be a hook designed to grab the reader’s interest. Tip: This should be very short, one or two sentences at most. The point of the paragraph is to present your idea, not distract the reader with unnecessary facts or concepts. Essay map: Essay maps tell the reader how you will defend the thesis (without actually doing the defense in the intro paragraph). Essentially, the map breaks the thesis into logical sub-parts. Each sub-part will then have its own body paragraph. Unlike the thesis sentence, the essay map may contain a list, but the separate items in the list must be connected in some way. Tip: The essay map will likely be more than one sentence. Usually, an essay map will have one sentence per body paragraph. Tip: Read each part of your essay map separately, followed by your thesis. Make sure that each part of your essay map connects to your thesis. Thesis statement: Your paragraph must include a statement that addresses the question asked. Answering the question is not the same as restating the question; the key is to demonstrate understanding of the big picture by connecting ideas in interesting and sophisticated ways. Put simply, your thesis should do more than simply make an observation or list possible explanations; you must make an argument. Tip: This is the hardest and also most important part of your paper. Because everything else flows from your central thesis, most of your time and energy should be spent here. Tip: When first learning how to develop a thesis statement, limit the statement to one sentence. Occasionally, the thesis can be developed over the course of 2 or 3 sentences. This is only necessary when the idea is particularly nuanced. Tip: The thesis should NOT be a list, and it should NOT re-state your essay map. Instead, it should be the overarching idea that ties the parts of your essay map together. While there is much to do in this paragraph, it should be done relatively quickly and efficiently. Thesis paragraphs should be between five and seven sentences. If you exceed seven sentences, you should spend time thinking about cutting unnecessary information. While many students are reluctant to cut content, it is an important skill to develop. Remember, the point of this paragraph is to present your idea and explain how you will defend them. The point of the body paragraphs is to defend your ideas. Since your essays must focus on a central idea or thesis, developing a sophisticated thesis or introductory sentence is critical. The organization of your body paragraphs and the evidence which you select to incorporate into your body paragraphs must all relate back to your thesis or introductory statement. Therefore, it makes sense to explore the elements of a good thesis / introductory statement. 1. THINK FIRST. Formulating a thesis or introductory statement is not the first thing that you do. You can only develop your ideas after you understand the question, review what you know and organize your thoughts. 2. Understand the question. Since the purpose of your essay is to answer a question, you must understand the prompt before you do anything else. To help you understand what you are being asked to do, please see the following chart. 3. Review. Once you have a general idea of what you are trying to accomplish, review your notes, readings, etc.. As you review, look for significant patterns that will help you answer the question asked. 4. Organize your thoughts. After looking over all of your material and identifying potential patterns or sub-topics, consider your options and narrow your thoughts onto a manageable amount of material. 5. Develop your thesis. Once you have organized your thoughts; turn your idea into a sentence. You should then critically review your sentence and test its strength. Some good questions for you to consider as you review your thesis are: The follow examples and explanations are taken from the UNC Writing Center Suppose you are taking a course on 19th-century America, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: Compare and contrast the reasons why the North and South fought the Civil War. You turn on the computer and type out the following: The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which were the same and some different. This weak thesis restates the question without providing any additional information. You will expand on this new information in the body of the essay, but it is important that the reader know where you are heading. A reader of this weak thesis might think, “What reasons? How are they the same? How are they different?” Ask yourself these same questions and begin to compare Northern and Southern attitudes (perhaps you first think, “The South believed slavery was right, and the North thought slavery was wrong”). Now, push your comparison toward an interpretation—why did one side think slavery was right and the other side think it was wrong? You look again at the evidence, and you decide that you are going to argue that the North believed slavery was immoral while the South believed it upheld the Southern way of life. You write: While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions. Now you have a working thesis! Included in this working thesis is a reason for the war and some idea of how the two sides disagreed over this reason. As you write the essay, you will probably begin to characterize these differences more precisely, and your working thesis may start to seem too vague. Maybe you decide that both sides fought for moral reasons, and that they just focused on different moral issues. You end up revising the working thesis into a final thesis that really captures the argument in your paper: While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their own right to self-government. Compare this to the original weak thesis. This final thesis presents a way of interpreting evidence that illuminates the significance of the question. Keep in mind that this is one of many possible interpretations of the Civil War—it is not the one and only right answer to the question. There isn’t one right answer; there are only strong and weak thesis statements and strong and weak uses of evidence. Let’s look at another example. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write: Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel. Why is this thesis weak? Think about what the reader would expect from the essay that follows: you will most likely provide a general, appreciative summary of Twain’s novel. The question did not ask you to summarize; it asked you to analyze. Your professor is probably not interested in your opinion of the novel; instead, she wants you to think about why it’s such a great novel—what do Huck’s adventures tell us about life, about America, about coming of age, about race relations, etc.? First, the question asks you to pick an aspect of the novel that you think is important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write: In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore. Here’s a working thesis with potential: you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation; however, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal. Your reader is intrigued, but is still thinking, “So what? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?” Perhaps you are not sure yet, either. That’s fine—begin to work on comparing scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions. Eventually you will be able to clarify for yourself, and then for the reader, why this contrast matters. After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write: Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature. This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation. According to William Strunk and E.B. White: "The paragraph is a convenient unit; it serves all forms of literary work. As long as it holds together, a paragraph may be of any length—a single, short sentence or a passage of great duration." The paragraph, essentially, is a unit which conveys an idea. The secret to constructing strong paragraphs lies in recognizing that each paragraph must perform a specific function. Determine through brainstorming and outlining your central ideas. Then decide which ideas deserve their own paragraphs. In general, paragraph structure is as follows: 1. Intro Sentence: You must communicate the central idea of the paragraph. If the assignment is for a single paragraph this will be your thesis statement. If the paragraph is part of a larger essay, the intro sentence should introduce the idea of the paragraph while also connecting to the thesis. Tip: The topic sentence must be broad enough to cover all the material in the paragraph, but specific enough to present an idea. Tip: Avoid beginning paragraphs with context or evidence. First, establishing the purpose of the paragraph. Ex: Too Broad: The Silk Road was an important historical trade route. Too Narrow: The Silk Road, created during the Han Dynasty, allowed for the trade of silk between China and Europe, brought Christianity and Buddhism to new parts of the world, and allowed for new types of dance, dress, and art to spread. Just Right: The Silk Road not only connected different regions of the world, but also helped to spread people, goods, and ideas. Ex: Just Right: The tragic downfall of Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart begins with the death of Ikemefuna. 2. Presentation of Evidence: Introduce the evidence (details, quotations, facts, and data) you have selected that best supports or informs your central idea. After you clearly present the purpose of the paragraph, introduce the evidence. Tip: Supporting evidence is not the same as supporting ideas. Evidence cannot be refuted, while ideas are conclusions drawn from evidence. Tip: There is no set requirement for how many pieces of evidence per paragraph. Two to four pieces of evidence is a good starting point. Remember the point of the paragraph is to present a strong argument. Tip: Just because you know a fact does not mean that you should use it. Do not list everything that you know on the topic. Teachers are not impressed by students who fact-dump, and fact-dumping will lower your grade. It shows that you have not thought deeply about the topic and identified which pieces of evidence are the best to use for the point you are making. Tip: For English, always refer to the prompt or your teacher for guidance as to how many text quotations you should include and how long they should be. Don’t forget to integrate your quotation properly. Ex: The Buddhist religion originated in northern India and was adopted by many Chinese people as they were introduced to it through travelers along the Silk Road. Ex: Okonkwo is afraid of his emotions getting in the way of fulfilling his duty, and he becomes “dazed with fear” as Ikemefuna runs to him yelling “My father, they have killed me” (Achebe 61). 3. Analysis/Explanation of Evidence: Explain what your evidence shows and how this evidence relates to your central idea (topic sentence for the paragraph and thesis for the entire essay). Tip: The discussion of evidence usually takes up at least as much space as the evidence itself. A common error is to assume your reader will understand the significance of the evidence. Always take care to explain exactly what you think the evidence shows, its significance in proving your idea. Tip: Re-read your paragraph’s intro sentence, as well as your essay’s thesis, after each piece of evidence, and ask yourself if that fact actually proves your ideas/argument. If it doesn’t, remove it. 4. A summation OR a transition: Know if you intend for the paragraph to stand alone or if you intend to incorporate the paragraph in a larger piece. This will dictate how you end the paragraph. Tip: If the paragraph is part of a larger piece, consider using transition phrases to frame the function of the following paragraph. Tip: If this paragraph is the final piece, consider ending with a statement which shows deep reflection of the idea you’ve just discussed in detail (what is the greater significance of your main idea) or with an image or metaphor for your reader to consider. This arrangement may alter slightly depending on the function of the paragraph. What matters most is that each idea you present is directly related to the topic of the paragraph, and that each sentence builds into the subsequent sentence. Use Key Phrases to help you highlight important ideas, make comparisons clear, and transition between ideas. These transitions may occur both within a paragraph and between paragraphs. Before you use a key phrase, ask yourself about the nature of the relationship you are trying to describe. Are you showing similarities? Are you showing differences? Are you changing subjects? Are you about to present your first example to support your claim, or are you presenting an additional example to support your claim? Here are some useful key phrases to get you started: Having just explained and defended individual parts of your thesis, the conclusion paragraph refocuses the reader’s attention on the paper’s central idea. It should therefore restate the thesis or main topic (but not verbatim), as well as how the idea was defended. Strong conclusion paragraphs will also include two to three sentence that synthesize – that is, they try to connect the point you made in the essay into something broader or make a wider application. Essentially, you should answer the question “So What?” Tip: Often times, students will not start the writing process with a clear focus, but will develop it as they write their essay. Since your goal is to write a thesis or idea-driven essay, failing to clearly present your thesis/idea until the final paragraph of your paper will negatively impact your grade. To avoid this, always reread your thesis after completing your essay and edit if necessary. Tip: When possible, make a reference back to your attention grabber in the introduction. This ties up an essay nicely. Tip: Conclusions should rarely be longer than four to five sentences. Step 1: Mark up the prompt What is the assignment? What facts or data are necessary to write this assignment? What questions do you still have about the data? Are you being asked to reflect, analyze, or argue? Where do you have freedom to think for yourself in the assignment? Where are you being asked to demonstrate your understanding of the subject? Step 2: Create the Checklist The checklist is to be used in the planning, revising and editing phases of the writing process. The checklist should contain the essential elements of the assignment, along with possible subcategories (e.g. not just the assigned Sentence patterns, but have separate checks for correct punctuation in them, and perhaps that it is used purposefully --not just correctly--and finally, if required that you have marked it as asked for). Check the prompt and established class expectations to make a complete and useful checklist. Keep the purpose of the checklist--making sure you have the essential aspects of the assignment in the final copy-- in mind when composing it. You might also make a "to do" list, but that is a separate document from the editing checklist. Sample Checklist for English Analytical Essay: Hooks the reader, mentions genre, title, author, brief summary of the plot, and a strong thesis. Ends the introductory paragraph with the thesis which encapsulates the argument you want to make about the text. Cites the source of the quote by section and line number (i.e. III.4-5) in parenthetical format. Preserve line breaks in your quotation of poetry either by simply including them or by using the slash mark / to indicate where the lines break Quotes no more in the re-quoting of the block quote than is necessary to make your point. Includes no plot summary; assume your reader has read the literature you're examining. Includes correct in-text citation and a Work Cited page. See Hacker’s guide for details. Begin each body paragraph with a topic sentence Identify and analyze at least two elements of the poem not discussed in class. Highlight them in a different color than the sentence patterns. Analyze function of metaphor, diction, images, symbols, etc and tie them to lessons/themes: Be attentive to transitions between each idea and especially between paragraphs. Uses four sentences following patterns 1-10 from The Art of Styling Sentences. Highlight and identify the pattern number [in brackets] after each appropriate sentence. Is consistent with verb tense. Stay in present verb tense if writing about fiction (what we call the “literary present”). No clichés and colloquialisms, such as in the nick of time, or the calm before a storm. No common errors in punctuation, usage, mechanics, etc. Conclusion: Use a 4-6 sentence concluding paragraph to present a forceful statement about what the audience can learn from this poem. Title: Create an abstract, original title with a subtitle that acts as a scholarly explanation. Follow this model for the complete title: Bloody Tyrant: The Destructive Effects of Ambition in Macbeth Format: Double space, 12 point font, Times New Roman MLA Format for Heading: In the upper left-hand corner of the first page, list your name, your instructor's name, the course, and the date. Again, be sure to use double-spaced text. (for reference: http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/resdoc5e/pdf/Hacker-Orlov-MLA.pdf ) Before you write, you must GENERATE a number of ideas. Think of this step of the process as a kind of brainstorm. Effective students spend a great deal of time in this phase of the writing process, and use many different techniques to stimulate and generate their thinking. Here are a few techniques we recommend: 1. POWERWRITE. Set a timer, write continuously, don't use periods, and don't backspace. You don't need to have specifics in order to make this exercise effective. Your goal is to use the powerwrite to clear your mind and center your thinking on the topic. Then, hopefully, you will be able to generate some thoughts or ideas regarding the topic toward the end of the exercise. This exercise will allow you to write close to the speed at which you think, and is a very powerful tool for understanding your own thinking. 2. MINDMAPPING. Sometimes called a "brainstorm tree," this technique can help you visualize connections between ideas. Start with a topic or question, write it out, and put it in a bubble. Then write out everything you associate with that topic, putting each of those in bubbles. Fill in details as they come to you, see gaps in your understanding, and see where your understanding is strongest. 3. DIRECTED POWERWRITE. In a directed powerwrite, you begin with a focus or a specific question, then write continuously in response to that specific idea. Directed powerwrites are particularly useful in the drafting and revision phases of the writing process. 4. FOCUSED CONVERSATION. In a focused conversation, you broadly discuss the topic with others who are knowledgeable about the subject. This may take place in class during discussion, or begin casually outside of class. 5. NOTE TAKING. Sometimes, we just need to quickly write down our thoughts in note-taking form. If you know the topic in advance, pay close attention in class; you may arrive at good ideas that will help with your paper, so write them down immediately! 6. NOTE CHECKING. Reviewing class and reading notes before you write can help you to distinguish between what you already know and what you need to know in order to complete the assignment. 7. RESEARCHING & REREADING. You may need to look up definitions, or return to previous reading assignments in order to have a deep understanding of the writing assignment. Take the time to do this EARLY. Warning: Most assignments will not require research outside of the assigned reading, so be careful. Research is NOT the equivalent of reading other people's essays online or reviewing Sparknotes, (which is a big no-no!) If you want to do additional research to gain a better understanding of the material, always consult your instructor first. Once you have adequately prepared by completing the reading, understanding the prompt, and generating a number of ideas in response to the prompt, you are ready to plan your paper. You have three central goals in this phase: 1. Decide on a direction. Review the material from the GENERATION phase. Decide which idea is the strongest, or has the most potential. This will become your Central Idea. You should not include everything you created in the generation phase, but instead, select the ideas which best support your central idea. 2. Organize your ideas. This can be formal or informal. You may find it useful to make a complete outline, and include topic sentences and quotations. You may also find it best to simply make a list of the ideas you have, or write numbers on your MindMap so you know how to put your brainstorm in order. Decide on the BASIC order in which you will present your ideas. What comes first? What comes in the middle? How do you want to end? Consider how you will transition from one idea to the next. 3. Collect supporting evidence. Now that you have decided on your central idea, begin to collect details which directly support your central idea. If you are collecting quotations, be sure to keep track of the sources and page numbers. When outlining, always include full intro sentences for each body paragraph. Remember that each intro sentence should 1) lay out a clear idea – not a fact – that sums up the paragraph as a whole and proves your thesis and 2) mimic that part of your essay map, without repeating it verbatim. For your individual facts, use bullets or abbreviated sentences. While you may be tempted to include quotes as your facts, be careful – remember that you do not want to extensively quote in your essay. Quotes should generally be limited to 5-7 words, and emphasis should be on paraphrasing as much as possible, rather than quoting. Remember to include a citation or each fact, so that you can easily cite your facts when it’s time to write your essay. Underneath each fact, include analysis – that is, make sure that you show how that fact relates to your intro sentence, and your thesis as a whole. Body Paragraph #1 Intro Sentence Fact #1 & citation Analysis of Fact #1. (Connect Back to Intro Sentence & Thesis) Fact #2 & citation Analysis of Fact #2 Fact #3 & citation (if needed) Analysis of Fact #3 Body Paragraph #2 Intro Sentence Fact #1 & citation Analysis of Fact #1. (Connect Back to Intro Sentence & Thesis) Fact #2 & citation Analysis of Fact #2 Fact #3 & citation (if needed) Analysis of Fact #3 Body Paragraph #3 Intro Sentence Fact #1 & citation Analysis of Fact #1. (Connect Back to Intro Sentence & Thesis) Fact #2 & citation Analysis of Fact #2 Fact #3 & citation (if needed) Analysis of Fact #3 You've read the materials. You've taken good notes on the reading and during class. You've read the prompt, and asked questions so you understand the task before you. You've spent a good deal of time using your favorite generation activity, and have a couple of powerwrites and a mindmap. You've decided which of your ideas are strongest, and you've collected quotations and facts and put all of this into an outline. Now, you're ready to draft. DRAFTING A PAPER Open your two blank word documents - the "working draft" and the "junk" document. Copy your outline into the "junk" document. Then, set a series of small goals. Here is an example: Goal 1: I am going to write three sentences about X. Goal 2: I am going write a topic sentence for idea X, then write about the quotation I've chosen which supports idea X. Goal 3: I am going to take these sentences, and fit them together in a paragraph, and see what it looks like. If I have time, I will try to make these sentences flow smoothly. Goal 4: I am going to set a timer for 15 minutes, and move onto the next paragraph as soon as my time is up. Begin typing. Strive to write one complete sentence at a time. After fifteen minutes, see how far you've gotten, and don't worry too much about word choice right now. If you're close to completing a draft of the paragraph, go ahead and copy and paste what you have from your "junk" document into your "draft" document. Building your paragraphs in the "junk" document will help keep you from getting too attached to your first draft, and copying your work into a clean document will help motivate you as you see your paper begin to take shape. Continue to move back and forth between setting small, concrete goals and writing out sentences. You may need to pause and "generate" again. Make space to complete this step if you need. Make sure to note any adjustments to your Plan. Eventually, sentence by sentence, you will complete a first draft of your paper. *Helpful hint: If you have time, put your writing away for a while. Take a break. Then, move on to the next step - Revision. REVISING A DRAFT Once you have completed a first draft, reread the Prompt. Then, copy and paste your essay into a fresh document, and title and save this document REVISION 1. Try printing out your essay, and read it with a pen. Before you begin to change words and phrases, read your paper for the Big Picture. Consider what you might "re-envision" as you read your paper. Your focus here is on EXAMINING YOUR IDEAS, THE EVIDENCE, AND THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR PAPER. If you are not satisfied with your ideas or evidence, return to the GENERATION phase of the process. Effective writers employ generation at multiple stages of the process in order to challenge their own thinking. With pen in hand, make notes on the draft. Resist making changes right away until you have read and marked your entire paper, focusing on the structure and content of your writing. Then, make these Big Picture adjustments. EDITING A DRAFT Next, consider your writing on a Sentence Level: Make these sentence level changes, then reread your entire draft. If your draft is organized, complete, revised, and edited, you are ready to proof. Finally, consider you sentences on a grammatical level. CONGRATULATIONS. YOU ARE NOW READY TO PUBLISH YOUR WORK!

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The goal of literary work (of literature as work) is to make the reader no longer a consumer, but a producer of text (Barthes 1975, cited by Rosen 1985, p.385) This article is written with the intention to inform and provide reflection. With the Book Trust’s ‘The Write Book‘ research summary coming out in March – we were excited to see what it concluded. We have entitled our article after the saying that: you give a man a fish and he’ll eat for a day – teach a man to fish and he will eat for a lifetime. That is what we have tried to achieve through our own approach to the idea of traditional ‘Book Planning’ or ‘Novel Study’. Ever since reading The Reader In The Writer, we have always advocated for children using books of their choice to inform their writing. There is no greater joy than showing children that through literature we can take and find signs from our own lives – either real or imagined. This is exactly what our favourite writers do – so why not teach children to do it too? Perhaps, what we as teachers shouldn’t do is do this important work on behalf of our pupils. To feel those kind of relationships with books means to be deeply and personally involved in a text you have struck a connection with. This is different from being required to get involved in a text that your teacher has chosen. For in most classrooms the chief and privileged story-teller (stories of any kind) is the teacher – Harold Rosen If our students are to take lessons from literature, they need to be doing more of the legwork, having more of the fun, reaping more of the rewards – Shelley Harwayne The real author of the narrative is not only he who tells it, but also, at times even more, he who hears it – Gérard Genette This year, we have taught all the children in our class how a writer will use the books they’ve read to generating an original idea. This has included teaching them how real authors use their favourite texts to influence their own short-stories, poetry, ‘faction’ and non-fiction pieces. We haven’t asked them to use a single book on which they must hang their writing. We taught them to consider the following when reading: - Ask: does this book remind me of anything from my life? - Ask: does this book remind me of anything else I’ve seen or read? - Ask: what do I have in common with this book? - Ask: why did I pick up this book? - Collect: plot ideas, characters, favourite lines, settings and put them in their personal writing project books. - Say: Cor, I would love to nick that… - Say: I could have a go at writing something like that… Because writing is a social act, we model how to do it as a class with the ultimate aim being that children begin to do it on their own – with their own texts. We believe this approach is enabling. It takes children off what Donald Graves articulates perfectly as ‘writers’ welfare.’ Children, for once (maybe in a long time), have been shown and then encouraged to develop their own writing voice on a book or theme of their own choosing (the benefits of which can be seen in the research references below) and is a strategy they can use throughout their time at school and beyond. It’s ironic that, when children are younger they are actively encouraged to write/mark-make about any text that may have inspired them, yet once they enter infant and primary school, this privilege is largely taken away. In ‘Teachers As Readers: Building Communities Of Readers,’ it talks about teachers who undertake ‘novel study’ literacy units with their classes. It describes how read aloud sessions are usually followed by literacy work focused on developing word, sentence or text level skills linked to the reading. It states that this type of writing-teaching has serious potential consequences. The children in the study explain that whilst their teacher read aloud they often didn’t like it. This is because, in part, they knew it would involve subsequent written work. Teachers are inadvertently tethering writing tasks onto reading aloud and children don’t like it. ‘This process of [novel-study] can sap central enjoyment and satisfaction away from the act of reading and responding. There is widespread and self-defeating refusal to see that literature cannot be taught by a direct approach, and that the teacher who weighs in with talk or lecture [on a text of their choice] is more likely to kill a personal response than to support and develop it. (Dixon, 1967) If we teach writing in this way, it could become all too easy for children to feel that their own responses to a book they would have chosen to be inspired by is unimportant. Some may of course recognise this as sounding incredibly similar to the failed Literacy Strategy and the dreaded ‘Literacy Hour’. The dryness of schematic and systematic analysis of imagery, symbols, linguistic and grammatical features as well as structural relations killed any potential enthusiasm children would have had to respond, in writing, to the texts they were reading. It is personal written response to literature and not literary criticism which we should be looking to teach during writing lessons. Or as Parry & Taylor (2018) call it: ‘‘leisure reading equalling volitional writing’. Incidentally, we too have spoken on the subject of the over use of writing-stimuli having negative effects on children’s writing potentials here; how it is dangerous to believe children are too ‘culturally deprived’ to choose an appropriate book topic of their own here and the importance of providing authentic and meaningful writing projects here. Bodies of knowledge – about life, about books, about words – are among the products of [children’s] work. It is possible to regard these bodies of knowledge as the ‘content’ for a writing lesson (John Dixon, 1967 p.74) You may find the following, taken from our article here, interesting reading too: Book Planning / Novel Study This approach is some people’s response to the skills approach. It looks to fill the vacuum left by the skills model. The concept is that teachers can be the gate-keepers of what is best in terms of literature and hand this down to a generation. In a happy way, they believe that the great writers can offer a variety of models on which pupils’ writing can be hung. However, this turns language into a one-way process: pupils are receivers of the master’s voice. How does an activity like novel study relate to the ways in which professional writers write every day? Novel study is misleading many teachers into focusing on the teaching of the stimuli itself at the expense of showing children how writers are informed and inspired by their reading and how they can do this too. This misconception of how writers work has very far-reaching consequences. By concentrating on the stimuli (the book), the teacher controls both the book and the relevance that is to be taken from the book. The question of relevance for the children rarely enters their head. Limitations Of Such An Approach - The main limitation of course concerns ‘culture’. This model stresses culture as a given and one that is chosen by the teacher(s). Therefore, there is the constant and systematic ignoring of ‘culture’ as the pupils in the class may know it. A network of attitudes, experiences and personal reflections that children bring to the classroom are largely ignored. - It perpetuates the concept that literature itself is a given, a ready made structure which children are simply asked to imitate. The content is chosen as noble and rich enough as being worthy of study. - This approach denies children exposure to compositional processes which are used by writers. For example: generating and publishing original thoughts, ideas and concepts, reflecting on lived experiences, reactions to one’s own reading material, wanting to share something we know a lot about and wanting to make changes to the world. In other words, strategies which could show children how writing can and will relate to their own life and experiences are hugely underdeveloped. - It therefore neglects the most fundamental aim of writing teaching – to promote interaction with one’s self (through reflection) and between people. - As a result, writing has been interpreted as the study of texts and ‘imitating’ it out by order of the teacher. It deals largely in pre-formatted activities and writing-tasks which are solely there for assessment purposes. When we, as teachers, mine our favourite texts for potential ideas for writing, we get excited about sharing what we’ve liked or noticed with the children. We also learn a great deal about the book. Therefore shouldn’t we be teaching children the strategies we are employing when we plan novel study so that they can undertake such strategies on their own chosen texts instead? Can they be allowed to enjoy what we enjoy? This year, we have taught the children in our class how they can successfully use any book in their writing that has had an impact on them. We have done this in a number of ways: - Provided the children with a class library full of high-quality texts including poetry, classics and non-fiction. - Afforded children the opportunity to bring books in from home into the class library or bring books in from the local library to share. - Shown them how they can write ‘inspired by poems‘ and created regular time for them to engage in that kind of writing. - Shown them how to dabble in their writer’s notebook as they are reading. - Shown them how to appreciate certain character development, setting descriptions or beautifully crafted sentences in their reading, how to make a note of it in their ‘Writing Tricks Books’ and then use those jottings to inform their own story, flash-fiction, poetry, ‘faction’ or non-fiction writing. - Shown them how to ‘hybrid’ two or more of their favourite books to look for themes that they could exploit for their own writing. - Shown them how to ‘hybrid’ genres in new and unexpected ways using themes from their reading. - Shared many exemplar texts written by children and ourselves that model how this has been done successfully and made these available to read in the class library. - Shown them how to write ‘fan-fiction’. - Having a book that is read as a ‘class-read’ which the children can be inspired by. We have done this because the research on effective writing teaching points this way. Create a class of producers instead of consumers (or at best imitators) and writing outcomes and attitudes will improve dramatically. Let children be participants in class writing projects as opposed to recipients. We are fortunate in being able to see the research and theory come together in practice and succeed. ‘When published authors give advice about becoming writers they invariably tell their audience to read as much as possible. Ofsted’s survey of 12 outstanding schools revealed that visits to libraries, plentiful reading aloud by teachers and the provision of good-quality up-to-date texts stimulated pupils to read more and inspired them with ideas for their own writing (Ofsted, 2011). Children who read more, write more and write better. Since the 1980s, research evidence has shown that reading and being read to help children to develop models for writing: children who read particular genres, such as stories using metafictive devices, can be inspired to create something of their own in that genre (Pantaleo, 2007b). Stories they have read may also suggest events or predicaments for children to include in their own texts. Indeed for children as well as adults, all writing is intertextual.’ (Dombey/UKLA 2013, p.23) Each new text written reflects, in some measure, the shadows of texts experienced in the past. (Cairney, 1990, p.484) The goal of education in general, and any writing program in particular, is to help students gain independence. (Ted DeMille, p.145) Children are ‘always in a high state of readiness to transform into story not only what [they] experience directly but also what they hear and read. (Rosen, 1985) The increased attention placed on novel study or book planning as a single writing approach has led to the elimination of other approaches and for no good reason. Glenn (2007) & Rosen (2018) argue that, when we allow students to write fiction that’s unrelated to a specific text, their commitment to and resulting understanding of texts more generally is enhanced and encourages children to be more motivated writers. Gay Su Pinnell (1989) reports on a successful programme with ‘at risk’ children. It showed how children were encouraged to make connections between their reading and writing as a way of boosting their academic achievement. The tasks were not a matter of imitating a book extract or completing a writing task related to a class novel – but instead the children were immersed in a community of rich texts. In response to having read something they felt was great, they had an eye on how they could write like their heroes and as a result learnt how to be better writers. Imitating the masters is universal in all art and is often the first stage in any creative process. This is why our Genre-Booklets are proving to be so popular. They share with children: the patterns, the approach writers take and the linguistic features that can be deployed in story writing. Some people have recently asked, how do you get children to write their own unique stories without using a whole-class mentor text or any other kind of writing stimulus? We’ll look to explain how below. No one should be in any doubt that it’s important to show children how other accomplished authors do what they do. It’s also important that children have time to enjoy, appreciate, discuss, understand and try imitating aspects of the books they are reading. And most importantly – we need to show children how they can do this for themselves. Our Flash-Fiction Genre-Booklet is essentially a writing project designed to help children identify story patterns, use ‘author voice’ and create stories independently. The stories that are exemplars within the Genre-Booklet are deliberately short and show children that this type of writing is well within their grasp. The exemplar texts showcase how a short story can be constructed using only 250/300 words. We try to keep this limit in the children’s minds as they write too, so as to avoid the inevitable ‘and then…‘ syndrome. Educator Nancie Atwell makes the point that even the children in her middle-school (12+) can find anything longer than 300 words difficult to handle and in our experience, working with children from 5-11, this can often be said about them too. Our exemplar texts are there to showcase how the linguistic features of story telling can be used effectively. These include: - How they can use the typical themes of literature, - A clear and memorable telling of an event (including different types of openings and endings), - Using inviting language, - Thought provoking descriptions of characters, settings or special objects. Once these features have been made explicit to the children, we encourage them to generate their very own writing ideas. This includes strategies like: - Using the books they have read during DEAR time. At this point, we should say that this approach is most effective if you adopt an approach to reading that is very similar to ours. To read about how our children are reading during DEAR time, follow this link. Essentially though, you need to be reading high-quality literature and poetry aloud, encouraging children to read independently and giving them plenty of time to do so. - Using their ‘linguistic collections’ from their Writing-Tricks Books. Again, these collections come from the children’s reading during DEAR time. To read about ‘Writing-Tricks Books’ click here. Essentially though, this is a book which lives in their trays, encourages children to write down things they notice their favourite authors doing and the sentences and themes they like the most. Children are encouraged to dip into these collections when they are generating ideas for writing. - Our 10 strategies for idea-generating, which can be found here. These are strategies that encourage children to write stories from personal interests, recounts, loves, hates, idiosyncrasies, hobbies and obsessions. These 10 strategies unearth a whole bouquet of potential topics for stories. If a child is using a book or a ‘collection of great phrases’ as a means for a story idea, we ask them to try and integrate a personal experiences into their stories. We do this because children often find writing stories easier as a result. In our class, we call these types of stories ‘Inspired by…‘ stories, after the poem ‘My Yellow Dog’ in the book ‘Love That Dog‘. We’ve noticed that what begins as imitation or impersonation soon moves beyond that by the time the children have finished their writing. And so we were pleased to read in the Book Trust’s ‘The Write Book‘ research summary that we are indeed on the right lines: - Children enjoy writing more, and write better, when they’re inspired by a high quality book they’ve loved. - Book choice is key in encouraging children’s creative response. (and who better to choose than the child themselves). - Using high quality books to inspire and emulate writing encourages children to think of themselves as writers (even more so if you have taught them an idea generating strategy that is genuinely used by published authors). - Improved the technical elements of their writing such as vocabulary, descriptive writing skills and sentence structure. - Developed more interest in and enthusiasm for books and writing. - Wrote voluntarily at home and in free time at school, often when they had never done so before. And so, in many ways, we are inviting you to combine the best of educational research. Use what ‘The Write Book,’ The Reader & The Writer and what the meta-analysis (here) says about the teaching of writing to create a truly effective, memorable and life-long writing curriculum. If you’d like to read more about how the children writing independently in our class, you can go here. If you would like to receive updates from our blog, you can click the follow button in the top right-hand-corner of the page. Alternatively, you can follow us on twitter at @lit4pleasure - Barrs, M., and V. Cork. (2001) The reader in the writer: The links between the study of literature and writing development at Key Stage 2. London: CLPE - Book Trust, The (2015) The Write Book [Available Online: http://www.booktrust.org.uk/programmes/primary/the-write-book/] London: The Book Trust - Cremin, T., (2014) Building Communities Of Engaged Readers: Reading For Pleasure London: Routledge - Dixon, J., (1967) Growth In English Oxford University Press: London - Dombey/UKLA, (2013) Teaching Writing: What the evidence says UKLA argues for an evidence-informed approach to teaching and testing young children’s writing UKLA: London - Harwayne, S., (1992) Lasting Impressions: weaving literature into the writing workshop Heinemann: USA - Galda, L., Cullinan, B., (2003). Literature for literacy: what research says about the benefits of using trade books in the classroom In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. R. Squire, & J. M. Jensen (Eds.) Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (2nd ed., pp. 641–648). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. - Glenn, W., (2007) Real writers as aware readers: Writing creatively as a means to develop reading skills in Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 51(1) pp. 10-20 - Parry, B. & Taylor, L., (2018) Readers in the round: children’s holistic engagements with texts In Literacy 52 (2): 103-110 - Pinnell, S., (1989) Success of at-risk children in a program that combines writing and reading In Reading and writing connections Boston: Allyn & Bacon - Rosen, M., (2018) Writing For Pleasure London: Michael Rosen - Ball, S., (2013) Foucault, Power & Education London: Routledge - Bearne, E., Marsh, J., (2007) Literacy & Social Inclusion London: Trentham Books - Bernstein, B. (1996) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity, London, Taylor and Francis. - Canagarajah, S. (2004) ‘Subversive identities, pedagogical safe houses and critical learning’ in Norton, B. and Toohey, K. (eds) Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. - Cremin, T., (2011) Writing Voices: Creating Communities Of Writers London: Routledge - Cummins, J. (2011). Identity matters: From evidence-free to evidence-based policies for promoting achievement among students from marginalized social groups.In Writing & Pedagogy 3(2): 189–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/wap. v3i2.189. - Dockrell, J., Marshell, C., Wyse, D., (2015) Teacher’reported practices for teaching writing in England In Read Write 29:409-434 - Edelsky, C. (2006) With Literacy and Justice for All: Rethinking the Social in Language and Education (3rd edition). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. - Feiler, L., et al (2007) Improving Primary Literacy: Linking Home & School London: Routledge - Fisher, T., (2006) Whose writing is it anyway? Issues of control in the teaching of writing. Cambridge Journal Of Education 36(2):193-206 - Flint, A. S., Fisher, T., (2014) Writing Their Worlds: Young English Language Learners Navigate Writing Workshop In Writing & Pedagogy 1756-5839 - Flint, A. S., & Laman, T. T. (2012). Where Poems Hide: Finding Reflective, Critical Spaces Inside Writing Workshop In Theory Into Practice, 51(1), 12-19. - Garrett, L., & Moltzen, R., (2011) Writing because I want to, not because I have to: Young gifted writers’ perspectives on the factors that “matter” in developing expertise In English Teaching: Practice and Critique Vol.10(1) p.165-180 - Gonzalez, N., Moll, L. & Amanti, C. (eds) (2005) Funds of Knowledge: Theorizing Practices in Households, Communities, and Classroom, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum - Graham, L., Johnson, A., (2012) Children’s Writing Journals London: UKLA - Graham, S., Berninger, V., & Fan, W. (2007). The structural relationship between writing attitude and writing achievement in first and third grade students In Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32(3), 516-536 - Grainger, T., Goouch, K., Lambirth, A., (2003) Playing the game called writing: children’s views and voices. English In Education, 37(2):4-15 - Grainger, T., Goouch, K., Lambirth, A., (2005) Creativity and Writing: developing voice and verse in the classroom London: Routledge. - Gregory, E., Arju, T., Jessel, J., Kenner, C. and Ruby, M. (2007) ‘Snow White in different guises: interlingual and intercultural exchanges between grandparents and young children at home in East London’, Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 5–25. - Guerra, J. C. (2008). Cultivating transcultural citizenship: A writing across communities model In Language Arts, 85(4), 296–304. - Gutiérrez, K. (2008) ‘Developing a sociocritical literacy in the Third Space’, Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 148–64. - Kress, G., (1997) Before Writing: Rethinking the Paths to Literacy London: Routledge - Labov, W., (1971) Variation in language in The learning of language Appleton-Century-Crofts - Labov, W., (1972) The logic of nonstandard english in Language and social context Penguin - Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. - Leung, C., Hicks, J., (2014) Writer Identity and Writing Workshop A Future Teacher and Teacher Educator Critically Reflect In Writing & Pedagogy Vol. 6 583-605 - Maybin. J. (2006) Children’s Voices: Talk, Knowledge & Identity London: Palgrave - Myhill, D., (2005) Testing times: the impact of prior knowledge on written genres produced in examination settings In Assessment in Education Vol. 12, No. 3, November 2005, pp. 289–300 - Morpurgo, M., (2016) Such Stuff: A Story-Makers Inspiration London: Walker - Myhill D., (2005) Writing Creatively In A. Wilson (ed), Creativity in Primary Education: 58-69 Exeter: Learning Matters. - Rosen, H., (1972) Language & Class: A Critical Look At The Theories Of Basil Bernstein London: Falling Wall Press - Rosen, M., (2016) What is poetry? The essential guide to reading and writing poetry. London: Walker Books - Smith, Clint. (2016) The danger of silence Available Online: [http://www.ted.com/talks/clint_smith_the_danger_of_silence#t-242155]

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